In my view this is no bad thing: the reality is that Learning & Development is a pragmatic

discipline, tasked with facilitating individuals in their endeavors to learn, educators would be
poorly served if the theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical epistemologies of the
domain did not at least tacitly acknowledge the practical challenges associated with
implementing learning programs.
Barbara Seels and Zita Glasgows Model (see Figure 1) reflect this assertion; they situate
their understanding of ISD and their model on the thesis that design occurs in the context of
project management (p. 177).

Figure 1. The Seels and Glasgow Model

[Click to enlarge]
Their model is distributed across the three phases of project management:
1. Needs Analysis Management
2. Instructional Design Management
3. Implementation Management
This distribution allows a learning program (or project) to be planned, resourced, and
managed much as any other project in an organization is arranged.
In this model, the first phase (Needs Analysis) includes the establishment of the instructional
goals, requirements, and context for the courseware. Next, the Instructional Design phase
begins when Needs Analysis is completed: this second phase consists of six activities:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

task analysis
instructional analysis
objectives and tests
formative evaluation
materials development
instructional strategy and delivery systems

all of which are linked via feedback and interaction communications channels. In Phase
Three of the model (Implementation and Evaluation) the development and production of
materials, training delivery, and summative evaluation are undertaken.

As is usual in a systems-based approach to ID, the phases in this model can are typically
applied in a linear fashion, but they are often applied iteratively. As Gustafson and Branch
highlight, the steps in the instructional design phase are interdependent and concurrent, and
multiple iterations of this process may occur during this part of the development lifecycle
(2001, p.43).
In this sense and reflecting on my ADDIE/PM remarks, we can say that this is a productoriented approach to content development. According to Chen
Developing an instructional project involves skill sets ranging from project management and
interface design to sound preparation and programmingDesign teams represent various
fields of expertise (producers, instructors, editors, etc.).
(2007 pp.2-3)
Managing potentially large teams and and hundreds (if not thousands) of media assets needs
substantial resources and commitment, and requires strong project management to stay on
time and budget at the appropriate quality of outputs. To support this objective, Seels and
Glasgow focus on the importance of well-designed materials, the need to identify and
understand communication patterns within organizations, develop strategies for diffusion of
innovations, and the importance of supporting learners.
Interestingly, Seels and Glasgow also include the concept of diffusion of innovations in their
model:
The strategies that lead to diffusion are most effective if used during all the phases of a
project.
(1998, p. 178)
They consider that when their model is applied ,the phases are generally linear in nature but
it is not necessary to complete a step before proceeding, and the order can be changed so
that steps can be performed concurrently.
(1998, p 179)
We can say that this model successfully aligns to the systems philosophy epitomized in ADDIE
quite will, while acknowledging the needs and limitations of the practical application of
instructional design. Much like 3PD, formative evaluation via a feedback mechanism (multiple
iterations rather than recursion) is a distinguishing (but not unique) characteristic of Seels
and Glasgows approach.
Next time: Something completely different
___________
References:
Chen, I. (2007) Instructional Design Methodologies. In: Kidd, T. & Song, H. (Eds.). Handbook
of Research on Instructional Systems and Technology. IGI Global

Seels, B. & Glasgow, Z. (1990). Exercises in instructional Technology. Columbus OH: Merrill
Publishing Co.
Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making Instructional Design Decisions. (2nd ed.) Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

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Domain of Instructional Design

Utilizing systematic processes derived from well established theories and models is
fundamental to the field of instructional technology, especially within the domain of
design. The beginning of the design process involves a thorough analysis of a
variety of information and is often referred to as a Front-End Analysis (FEA). This
initial phase is absolutely essential for an effective design process, because it is
where the problem is identified and also provides the basis on which the instructional
designer will make their decisions regarding the instructional strategies and media
selection (Seels & Glasgow, 1998).
When conducting a FEA, several pieces of information may need to be obtained,
depending on the context of the situation and the scope of the project. This can be
accomplished by conducting a series of analyses including: needs analysis,
performance analysis, task analysis, learner and context analysis. These analyses
will provide information pertaining to the:
1. current and optimal system or process,
2. available resources and constraints,
3. target learner characteristics,
4. tasks that are going to be taught and/or tasks that involve non-training related
performance problems, and the
5. environment or context where learners are performing tasks and where they
will be taught (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005).
If the project involves designing strategies and products for a large system like the
military, then it is considered to be at the macro level, and may require more
comprehensive analyses. On the other hand, if the project entails designing a unit of
instruction or lesson plan, then it is at the micro level, and a less comprehensive
analysis may need to be conducted (Seels & Glasgow, 1998).
Within the Domain of Instructional Design, there are four major theoretical and
practical sub-domains, which encompass everything that an Instructional
Technologist needs to design effective instructional materials. These sub-domains
include: Instructional Systems Design, Message Design, Instructional
Strategies and Learner Characteristics.
Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
Since the late 1960's, ISD has been the most widely used methodology for
developing instruction. The popularity of this approach is due to its systematic
process which incorporates learners needs, design and development of instructional
materials and evaluation of the overall effectiveness of the program. There are many
different ISD models, but most of them based upon the generic model known by the
acronym ADDIE, which stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation,
and Evaluation. As illustrated in figure 1, each step produces an outcome that

provides the foundation for the proceeding step, except for evaluation which is
involved throughout the process.
Seels and Glasgow (1998) expanded on the ADDIE model's five basic steps by
developing an ISD model geared toward novice instructional designers. As
illustrated in figure 2, their model provides an easier way of breaking down the
processes because it has more specific steps than the ADDIE model, which can be
followed by simply asking the right questions.
Another ISD model that is commonly used is the Dick and Carey Systems Approach
Model for Designing Instruction (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005). Like the Seels and
Glasgow model, the steps are broken down with explanations of how to proceed.
The level of user-friendliness in Dick and Carey's model is what makes it a good
model for beginning instructional designers who are trying to learn the ISD process.
As illustrated in figure 3, one of the most important characteristics of these models,
which is central to the effectiveness of the instructional product, is the allowance of
revisions (formative evaluation) throughout each step.
When working through the design phases, instructional designers use various
principles and models to guide in their decision-making process. In addition to the
previously mentioned prescriptive ISD models, designers must also consider
psychological models such
as Behaviorism and Cognitivism and constructivist models such as Howard
Gardner's Multiple Approaches to Understanding (Gardner, 1999) or
Mayer's Designing Instruction for Constructivist Learning (Mayer, 1999). These
models are needed to provide guidance within the design process pertaining to
methodologies associated with specific learning outcomes.
Message Design
This sub-domain is primarily concerned with manipulating the physical form of the
content in ways that are most appropriate for a specific learner or group of learners.
Again, the instructional designer relies on many theories and principles of learning,
communication and multimedia design. One example is Mayer's (1999) Selection,
Organization, Integration (SOI) model of learning which provides an outline for the
designer to create the foundation for effective communication between message and
learners. Sweller & Chandler (1994) also provide important insight for designers in
regards to cognitive load theory and the importance of analyzing intrinsic and
extraneous elements of instructional design to support higher learning efficacy.
Designing the message also depends on the medium and specific learning tasks
(Seels & Richey, 1994). With advancing technologies there are many media options
from which an Instructional Designer can choose including virtual mediums
(computer-based instruction, web sites); paper products (work books, text books);
and video/audio (movies, film, voice recording).
Selecting the instructional message delivery system usually occurs during the
process of conducting a Front End Analysis, when decisions about instructional
strategies are being made. This step is a very important part of the process because
choosing inappropriate media could make the instruction less effective or ineffective
for the learner. (Seels and Glasgow, 1998).

Instructional Strategies
Seels and Richey (1994) define instructional strategies as "specifications for
selecting and sequencing events and activities within a lesson" (p. 31). Instructional
strategies are determined prior to the actual development of the materials, and are
designed to ensure that a learner will be able to achieve the identified instructional
goals. These strategy decisions are based on the results of the FEA, specifically, the
learning objectives, learner characteristics and the environment/contextual analysis
results.
Another important consideration, which is fundamental when making decisions
regarding which instructional design model to use, is learning theory. For example,
an instructional designer should refer to a learning taxonomy such as Gagne and
Brigg's (1974) which outlines five categories of learning outcomes (intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitude and motor skills). Each category
represents a type of learning and is broken down into more specific learning
outcomes which form the foundation for making decisions about the instructional
strategy. Once the type of learning outcome is defined, the instructional designer
adopts an instructional design model which informs his/her decision about
instructional strategies.
Again, one very popular instructional design model is Richard Mayer's Designing
Instruction for Constructivist Learning in which the primary goal is to foster
knowledge construction (understanding) through direct instruction (Mayer, 1999, p.
142). Specifically, Mayers SOI model (2001) helps a learner select, organize and
integrate information. Some of his methods include: highlighting the most important
information that is being presented to a learner, which will enable them to select the
relevant information with less effort; providing various ways of structuring text, so
that the learner can organize the information; and using multimedia tools like
illustrations with captions, animation with narration and elaborative questioning. All of
these methods can be used as a way to help the learner integrate the information
into previously learned material.
Learner Characteristics
There are many aspects of an individual's personality, physical and emotional being,
and background that can effect their experience of learning. This is the reason why it
is so important to gather as much pertinent information about the individual learners
as possible when conducting the FEA. Assessing the learners' cognitive and
learning styles is one of the key elements that should be considered by the
designer. The information obtained about the individuals, as well as the entire group,
will lead to more effective learning materials. Using a variety of techniques and
methods such as questionnaires, interviews and extant data analysis, the
instructional designer must ascertain the learners' current knowledge, attitude, skills,
motivation and learning styles. Specific characteristics that can alter the
effectiveness of instruction include verbal ability, relevant experiences, age, sex,
education level, achievement level, socio-economic background, ethnic and cultural
background, attitudes, and role perceptions (Seels & Glasgow, 1998).

Figure 1. The ADDIE Model

Figure 2. Seels & Glasgow ISD Model 1: For Novices (Figure adopted from Seels, B.
& Glasgow, Z. (1998).Making Instructional Design Decisions 2nd Edition. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall).

Figure 3. The 2005 Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model for Designing
Instruction (Graphic adopted fromhttp://purplerhinodesign.com/d/pridm.html on April
26, 2008).
Printable Version

(PDF)

http://arcmit01.uncw.edu/ennism/DesignDomain.html