A

PROJECT REPORT
On

FOOTPATH ENERGY GENERATION

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Dr.A.P.J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
LUCKNOW

DEPARTMENT OF
ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL

PROJECT GUIDE:

SUBMITTED BY:

Er. Anshu Saxena

Shubham Mourya
(1247640102)
Shivam Mishra (1247640097)

Saransh Agnihotri (1247640087)

GUIDED BY:

Er. Ashu Saxena

(ASST.PROFESSOR)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FUTURE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

BAREILLY 243503,
UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA.
(AFFLIATED TO A.K.T.U. LUCKNOW)
(2015-16)

FOREWORDING LETTER
Forwarding here with is the Project report entitled
HYDRULLIC

ROBOTIC

ARMFOOTHPATH

ENERGY

GENERATION submitted by DESHDEEPAK MISHRASHUBHAM

MOURYA, VIKAS KUMAR PANDAY,SHIVAM MISHRA, SAURAV
SINGHSARANSH AGNIHOTRI, FIRDOS B I students of this
institution.
The

Project

report

is

in

the

partial

fulfillment

of

requirements towards the award of the degree of Bachelor of

Technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (Dr. A.P.J ABDUL
KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW).
It

has

been

carried

out

under

the

guidance

and

supervision of EMr. Ashu Saxena Sumit Kumar (Asst. Professor)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, F.I.E.T. Bareilly.
Forwarded by: Approved by:EMr. ATIF ALI KHANASHU SAXENA
Mr. K.P.S Chauhan
(Asst. Professor)
(H.O.D)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.

Mechanical Engg
F.I.E.T Bareilly
Bareilly

Dept. of
F.I.E.T

CERTIFICATE
It is certified that DESHDEEPAK MISHRA, VIKAS PANDAY,
SAURAV SINGH, FIRDOUS BI SHUBHAM MOURYA, SHIVAM
MISHRA, SARANSH AGNIHOTRIstudent of B.TECH (final year),
Department of Mechanical Engineering has carried out the
project work, presented in this entitled HYDRULLIC ROBOTIC
ARMFOOTHPATH ENERGY GENERATION foe the award of
partial fulfillment of the requirement toward the Bachelor of
Technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING from Dr.A.P.J
ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNVERSITY, LUCKNOW under
my supervision during academic year 2015-2016.

EMr.Ashu Atif Ali KhanSaxena

Mr.Prashant Pratap Mall
(Project guide)
incharge)
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
Mechanical Engg.

(Project
Dept. of

F.I.E.T. Bareilly
F.I.E.T.Bareilly

DECLARATION
We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of knowledge
and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor
material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any degree or
diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due
acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Signature:
Name

Signature:

: Shubham Mmourya

Name

: Shivam Mmishra

Roll No. : 1247640102

Roll No. : 1247640097

Date

Date

Signature:
Name

: Saransh Agnihotri

Roll No. : 1247640087

Date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our in deep gratitude to our guide Er.Ashu Saxena(Asst.Professor deptt. Of
Mechanical Engineering)F.I.E.T. Bareilly The completion of any task is the reward to not
only persons actively involved in accomplishing it, but also to the people involved in
inspiring, guiding and helping those people. We take the opportunity here to thank all those
who are helping us in this project, without which this indeed, would have been, a mammoth
task. Yet, this project wouldnt have been possible without the unrelenting care and support of
many people. A Project is never the sole product of a person whose name has appeared on the
cover. Even the best effort may not prove successful without guidance.
We owe our deepest gratitude to the Head of the Department of mechanical engineering.

Thanking you,
Shubham Mourya
Shivam Mishra
Saransh Agnihotri

Shubham Mourya (1247640102)

Shivam Mishra (1247640097)
Saransh Agnihotri (1247640087)

ABSTRACT
In this project we are generating electrical power as non-conventional method by simply
running on the train in the foot step. Non-conventional energy system is very essential at this
time to our nation. Non-conventional energy using foot stepneeds no fuel input power to
generate the output of the electrical power. This project using simple drive mechanism such
as rock and pinion assemble and chain drive mechanism.

For this project the conversion of the force energy in to electrical energy.The control
mechanism carries the rack & pinion, D.C generator, battery and inverter control. We have
discussed the various applications and further extension also. So this project is implemented
to all foot step, the power generation is very high. The initial cost of this

arrangement is high .We plan to capture energy from the everyday motion of people traveling
up and down a staircase. We can modify a normal stair tread to move a small distance and the
vibrational energy will be converted to electrical energy using Piezo-electric Generator. From

there, the energy will be stored in a battery for future use. Our main goal is to harvest as
much energy as possible, without compromising the reliability and safety of tradition stairs.

INTRODUCTION
Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for his sustenance and well being ever
since he came on the earth a few million years ago. Primitive man required energy primarily
in the form of food. He derived this by eating plants or animals, which he hunted.
Subsequently he discovered fire and his energy needs increased as he started to make use of
wood and other bio mass to supply the energy needs for cooking as well as for keeping
himself warm.

With the passage of time, man started to cultivate land for agriculture. He added a new
dimension to the use of energy by domesticating and training animals to work for him. With
further demand for energy, man began to use the wind for sailing ships and for driving
windmills, and the force of falling water to turn water for sailing ships and for driving
windmills, and the force of falling water to turn water wheels. Till this time, it would not be
wrong to say that the sun was supplying all the energy needs of man either directly or
indirectly and that man was using only renewable sources of energy.
Due to soaring energy prices and an increased environmental awareness there is a need
for sustainable designs. The world around us has embraced this concept by incorporating
solar panels, wind turbines, and promoting shared transportation via zip cars. Instead of
looking for new ways to generate energy, we will be focusing on harvesting energy from

everyday activities that would otherwise be

Fig.1 Specially designed road forpower harvesting

lost . a person exerts lots of force when they walk down the stairs. The staircase power
harvesting system intends to turn this energy into electrical power using a piezo-electric
generator.

In this study, which is a first in the literature, we propose an alternative solution to the
dynamo and an improvement for the battery lifetime. We are proposing the use
ofpiezoelectric generator, which is a clean and durable solution. Piezoelectric generators
employ active materials that generate a charge when mechanically activated.

Today we see more and more applications using piezoelectric transducers. Their use
as a source of electrical energy presents increasing interest for embarked electronic devices,
low power consumption (less than 1 Watt) such as lamps based LED (Light- Emitting Diode),
displays or sensors [1,2]. Noticing that the stairs vibrate when someone steps on it, and that
these vibrations are vectors of mechanical energy, we can recover and convert the mechanical
energy contained in these vibrations into electrical energy by using electromechanical
transducers [1,2,3], such as piezoelectric materials. The electrical energy thus produced can
be used to power the lightings available for the stairs.

NEED FOR NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

Fuel deposit in the will soon deplete by the end of 2020Fuel scarcity will
be maximum. Country like India may not have the chance to use petroleum
products. Keeping this dangerous situation in mind we tried to make use of nonpollutant
natural resource of petrol energy.The creation of new source of perennial environmentally
acceptable, low cost electrical energy as a replacement for energy from rapidly depleting
resources of fossil fuels is the fundamental need for the survival of mankind. We have only
about 25 years of oil reserves and 75 100 years of coal reserves.

Resort to measure beginning of coal in thermal electric stations to serve the

population would result in global elementic change inleading to worldwide
drought and decertification.The buzzards of nuclear electric-stations are only to will. Now
electricpower beamed directly by micro-wave for orbiting satellite. Solar power
stations(s.p.s) provide a cost-effective solution even though work on solar photo voltaic and
solar thermo electric energy sources has been extensively pursued by many countries. Earth
based solar stations suffer certain basic limitations.
It is not possible to consider such systems and meeting continuous
uninterrupted concentrated base load electric power requirements.Energy plays an
important role in the material, social and cultural life of man kind. The energy
needs are increasing day by day. This is the result of population growth and
increase in the standard of living which is directly proportional to energy
consumption.As we know that mankind will be never lacking in energy.

Today, it isliquid fluid, tomorrow it may be uranium with an element of risk. Risk exists
where ever there is human activity and production of energy. Just as the supply of fossil fuel
is finite thus there will be the supply of uranium. Perhaps, uranium would be exhausted
quickly if it is used on a large scale.It is therefore, harnessing the gigantic inexhaustible solar

energy sourcereduces the dependence on fossil fuels. For the environmental concerned, the
solar energy harnessing system offers advantages in that, it emits no pollutants in to the
atmosphere as they are with the combustion of fossil fuels. Thus, as a long term option solar
energy system can be considered as an alternate to all the finite fuel system. Therefore, there
is no energy shortage today nor will there be in the near future.
The lifting of water for drinking or irrigation purposes is of great importance in widely
distributed villages with little or no rural electrification and where underground water is
available. Solar energy is converted to mechanical energy to drive small water pumps it
would be of great help to the rural inhibitions In our project we use solar photo voltaic cells
for pumping water. The photo voltaic modules convert sunlight direct to electricity which is
used to run a dc motor pump for bailing of water. It consists of solar photo voltaic modules,
power conditioner to protect storage batteries from over charging during non-sun shine and a
dc water pump.

Design Objectives
Moving Stair Tread:
This is the physical staircase that users will step on. There will be a moving stair
tread which rebounds to its raised position via several springs under the moving tread
plate.The tread plate will be hinged in the back to restrict the tread to one degree of
motion.The tread will be limited in its vertical travel to about a half inch. We will be able to
adjust the vertical travel of the stair via screw with an adjustable wing nut.
FOOT STEP ARRANGEMENT
This is made up of mild steel. The complete set up is fixed in this model FOOTSTEP. The
two L-shapes frame is fixed in the above two ends of the track. Bellow this lshapes window,
the actual power generation arrangement is constructed. This L-shapes window pushes the
rack when the time of train wheelmoving on these arrangement.
Piezo-Electric Material:

The Piezo-electric material palced in the gap between the tread plate and the base is used to
convert the mechanical energy (Vibrations) into electrical energy with the Piezo-electric
generator.

LED or other Lightings:

The Electrical energy thus produced is used to power the LEDs in the stairs or the
other lightings for the surroundings depending upon the amount of power produced.

STAIR CASE POWER GENERATION

The stair thread can be easily modeled with minimum labour. But care must be taken to
look into the characteristics of the piezo-electric material used. The conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical one is generally achieved by converters alternator type or commonly
known dynamo.

The piezoelectric effect exists in two domains; the first is the direct piezoelectric effect that
describes the materials ability to transform mechanical strain into electrical charge, the
second form is the converse effect, which is the ability to convert an applied electrical
potential into mechanical strain energy . The direct piezoelectric effect is responsible for the
materials ability to function as a sensor and the converse piezoelectric effect is accountable
for its ability to function as an actuator. A material is deemed piezoelectric when it has this
ability to transform electrical energy into mechanical strain energy, and the likewise
transform mechanical strain energy into electrical charge.

The piezoelectric materials that exist naturally as quartz were not interesting properties for
the production of electricity, however artificial piezoelectric materials such as PZT (Lead
Zirconate Titanate) present advantageous characteristics. Piezoelectric materials belong to a
larger class of materials called ferroelectrics. One of the defining traits of a ferroelectric

material is that the molecular structure is oriented such that the material exhibits a local
charge separation, known as an electric dipole. Throughout the artificial piezoelectric
material composition the electric dipoles are orientated randomly, but when a very strong
electric field is applied, the electric dipoles reorient themselves relative to the electric field;
this process is termed poling. Once the electric field is extinguished, the dipoles maintain
their orientation and the material is then said to be poled. After the poling process is
completed, the material will exhibit the piezoelectric effect.

APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY HARVESTING

VIA PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIAL
A Flooring Tiles
The flooring tiles are made up of rubber which can absorb the vibration and under
these the piezoelectric materials are placed so as when the movement is felt by the material
they can generate the electricity. When these kind of tiles are installed in locations where
large crowd movements are expected such as in Railway station ,Bus stations, Airports,
Malls, footpaths etc, and when a person steps on them, then by piezoelectric effect small
charge is built up. So the energy generated by one human would be too less but if number of
steps on these kind of tiles increase then energy produced by it would increase too.

When a person steps on such tiles piezoelectric crystal under the tiles would experience
some mechanical stress which makes electric charge to built up on crystals surface which
can be collected by use of electrodes. This kind of energy can be stored in capacitors and
power can be transfer to energy deficient regions. Japan has already started experimenting
use of piezoelectric effect for energy generation by installing special flooring tiles at its
capitals two busiest stations. Tiles are installed in front of ticket turnstiles. Thus every time
a passenger steps on mats, they trigger a small vibration that can be stored as energy .

Road side to Power street lights

The present invention relates generally to methods of electrical power generation and
more particularly is a method and device to generate electricity by using traffic on existing
roadways to drive an electrical generator[6]. The idea of constructing the special types of
roads which generate the electricity is a unique application in power harvesting
methodology. This system works by embedding tiny piezoelectric crystals into the road.

Fig.3
When automobiles or vehicles drive over through this road then the piezoelectric crystals
sense the force and pressure which generates the small electrical charge. Though small
charge is generated by single car but 1 km stretch of such road could generate around
400kW-enough to run eight small cars. Such experimenting have already started in Israel .

Dance Floors

Apart from roads and railway stations, piezoelectric effect is also being in use in the dance
floors. In Europe, certain nightclubs have already begun to power their

night clubs, strobes and stereos by use of piezoelectric crystals .

These floors are using the piezoelectric effect. As the floor is compressed by the dancers feet
the piezoelectric material makes contact and generate the electricity around 2-20 watts. It
depends on the impact of the feet. The constant compression of piezoelectric crystals causes a
huge amount of energy to be generated, which can comfortably drive the remotely placed low
power consuming devices .

Inside the Footwear heel

Apart from tiles, roads, dance floors, attempts are made to harvest energy from our daily
movements by installing piezoelectric crystals in the shoes also. These shoes would have
piezoelectric crystals at the rear end or near heel. Thus with each step piezoelectric crystal
would go through pressure and force which in turn can generate enough energy to power
cell phones, mp3 players etc. If these such shoes undergo through movements daily then
these will be able to generate electricity enough to charge up the small electronic devices or
gadgets. Often we can do that with a piezoelectric transducer, a transducer is simply a
device that converts small

amount of energy from one kind to another for instance

converting light, sound or mechanical pressure into electrical signals .

Roads and highways

The traffic is more in day than the night and sometimes traffic run 24hrsand the traffic varies
throughout the day. The total force exerted by moving automobiles on the road surface can
be calculated by considering the average number of vehicles passing through certain point,
for a certain time period. In a survey Israel is putting PEG 6cm under the road level and at a
distance of 30cm apart. From this trial, it has been seen that a vehicle weighing at around 5
tons can generate 2000V, and a 1Km cluster of such generator can generate 400Kwh energy.

If 600 vehicles are allowed to go through this road for an hour, it can power up to 600-800
homes [ Power Generating from Footpaths

Footpath is most common place on where we embed the piezoelectric tiles to produce the
small amount of energy by utilizing the human footstep over it. The produced charge is
stored in battery and then that stored charge can be use for charging low power electronic
devices.

A. Power Generating Railway Tracks

The railway tracks are the important place which is responsible for generation of large
energy as the huge amount of pressure is exerted by trains on the railway tracks.

The embedded piezoelectric crystals at the railway tracks where wheels make contact with
the tracks and these materials get excessive pressure and force, because of this greater
amount of energy is stored.

B. Power Generating Airport Runway

In large amount of pressure is exerted on runways, when the aircraft takes off or lands. If we
place the piezoelectric clusters here then we can convert this mechanical energy. The
efficiency of system can be improved by placing the stacked structure which is consist of
several layers of piezoelectric clusters and have the capacity to handle the huge amount of
pressure.. The maximum takeoff weight for the airbus aircraft (A380) is 560 tones, which
can produce 224 KV, so if one considers the total number of landing in the runway a large

amount of energy could be produced. Nearly 8138 kWh energy could be produced which
can power up to 12207-16276 homes .

C. Schools, Colleges, Shopping Malls and Gyms

Having the flooring of piezoelectric material will cause to produce the more energy in the
malls and schools. We can embed the piezoelectric tiles at the entrance of the malls and
schools. The idea of utilizing the vibrations caused by the machines in the gym and at
workplaces also while sitting on the chair, this energy can be stored in the batteries by
putting the piezoelectric crystals in the chair.

This statement of Albert Einstein is true ENERGY CAN NEITHER BE CREATED

NOR BE DESTROYED IT CAN BE TRANSFERRED FROM ONE FORM TO
ANOTHER. This method of generating electricity by the use of piezoelectric
material has already being started in many countries viz Japan, Israel, Netherlands.
Use of piezo-electric material is eco-friendly causes no pollution. It is an inexpensive
way of generating electricity and is easy to install. In future this method will be a
promising method for generating eco-friendly electricity. We also contribute this
method at common places like home entrance gates, parking area, bus stands etc. This
method will exploits different areas of electricity generation.

Detailed Description

Architecture

When the material is deformed or stressed an electric voltage can be recovered along
any surface of the material (via electrodes). Therefore, the piezoelectric properties must
contain a sign convention to facilitate this ability to recover electric potential in three
directions.

The coefficients d33 of a piezoelectric bar, (C / N) shown in Table I, link the

amount of electrical charge (Coulomb), appearing on an electrode perpendicular to the axis 3,
to the strain (Newton) applied on both ends.

Table I: Typical piezoelectric materials coefficients

For the PZT, d33 = 560 (10-12 C / N) means that 1 N applied strain produces 560 X 10-12 C
electrical charge.

Piezoelectric Generator Principle

The vibrations energy harvesting principle using piezoelectric materials [4] is

illustrated. The conversion chain starts with a mechanical energy source: Staircase.
Movement on the stairs produces vibrations and they are converted into electicity via
piezoelectric element. The

electricity produced is thereafter formated by a static converter

before supplying a storage system or the load (electrical device).

In this study, before developing staircase piezoelectric generator, it was essential to begin
with mechanical vibrations sources identification that means carrying out
Diagram of Piezoelectric Effect

v
Piezoelectric material

Fig.5
vibrations accelerations and frequencies measurement and analysis. So we have carried out
measurement on an experimental Staircase to identify the situation where harvesting more
energy is possible. We could then develope a piezoelectric generator adapted to the identified
natural mode of vibration of the stair thread.
Staircase Power Generation Using Piezo-Electric Transducers

Proposed
Electrical

Design

The actual circuitry of our device is quite simple. We will rectify the output of the Piezo
Electric generator and then send it to a small battery for storage. From here, the energy can be
used in any the user desires.It would be ideal to power LED lights which consume small
amounts of power.
For the battery we have chosen to use AAA sized NiMH batteries. They are safe and
relatively easy to work with. These batteries will be able to hold a significant amount of
energy.
The batteries can be charged quickly or slowly depending upon the current that is provided
to them.

Advantages
Harvest small, but still significant amounts of energy.
An innovative approach to a device that people use every day.
No compromise to safety or reliability.
Marketing and appearance could encourage people to take the stairs instead of energy
intensive alternatives such as an elevator or escalator.

Product Features
Electricity is generated through stepping on stair tread.

 Stairs tread returns to up position via springs.

Power can
be
stored for a

future use.

Design will be

expandable to several steps and

several Piezo-generators per
step.
Cost will be minimal to promote adoption

FOOT STEP
ARRANGEMENT

This is made up of mild steel. The complete set up is fixed in this model FOOT
STEP. The two L-shapes frame is fixed in the above two ends of the track. Bellow this
lshapes window, the actual power generation arrangement is constructed. This L-shapes
window pushes the rack when the time of train wheelmoving on these arrangement.

DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

3.1 DESIGN OF PINION

From PSG design data book (page no.7.18)

dmin> (0.59/ cmax) [[Mt]/((1/E1)+(1/E2)) 2](1/3

Where,
cmax = maximum contact compressive stress N/m2
E1, E2 = Youngs modulus N/m2
Mt = Torque N-m
E1 = E2 = 1.1106 N/m2

(1)

Calculation of cmax
cmax= HB CB Kcl
Where,
HB = Brinell hardness number
CB = coefficient depends on hardness
Kcl = life factor
Kcl = {[1 x 107]/N} 1/6
(3)
N = 60 x n x T
Where
n = rpm
N = life in no. Of cycles
T = life in hours.
= 8000 hours.
From P.S.G design data book (page no.2.4),
CB = 20
HB = 200
Substituting the values of N, n, T in the equation [3],
The value of kcl is obtained as 1.139.
Kcl = 1.139.
= 1.4 x Substituting the values in equation [2]
cmax = 20 x 200 x 1.1309
= 4520 x105N/m2
Calculation of Mt

(2)

Mt = 97420 x (Kw/n)

(4)

For power calculation

Centrifugal force, fc= m 2 r
M = 7kg
W=mxg
= 2n/60
R = 1m
Substituting the values of m, , r in equation [4]
fc = 7.56 N.
Downward force, fd = m x g
= 7 x 9.81
= 68.6N.
Centrifugal force, f = fc + fd
= 68.6 + 7.56
= 76.17N
Torque = f x r
= 76.17 x 1
= 76.2Nm.
Power = Torque x angular velocity.
= 76.2 x 1.05
= 79.7

(5)

Substituting the value of kw and n in equation in [3],

Mt = 776.7
[Mt] = 1.4 x Mt
776.7
= 1087.1 N-m
Substituting the values of cmax, [Mt], E1,E2 in equation [1],
The minimum diameter of the pinion is calculated to be 78.7mm.
We have taken the standard diameter of pinion as 75mm.

SPECIFICATION OF PINION

Material :

cast-iron

Outside diameter :

75mm

Circular pitch :

4.7mm

Tooth depth :

3.375mm

Module :

1.5mm

Pressure angle :

21

Pitch circle diameter :

72mm

Addendum :

1.5mm

Dedendum :

1.875mm

Circular tooth Thickness : 2.355mm

Fillet radius :

0.45mm

Clearance :

0.375mm

DESIGN OF RACK
Pitch circle diameter of the gear is = 72mm
Circumference of the gear is = pitch circle diameter
= 72
= 226mm
The dimension is for 360 rotations
For 180rotations the rack length is 113 mm

SPECIFICATION OF RACK

Material :

cast iron

Module :

1.5mm

Cross-section :7525mm
Teeth on the rack is adjusted for 113mm

OUTPUT POWER CALCULATION

OUTPUT POWER CALCULATION

Let us consider,
The mass of a body

= 60 Kg (Approximately)

Height of speed brake = 10 cm

Work done = Force x Distance
Here,
Force = Weight of the Body
= 60 Kg x 9.81

= 588.6 N
Distance traveled by the body = Height of the speed brake
= 10 cm
= 0.10 m
Output power = Work done/Sec
= (588.6 x 0.10)/60
= 0.98 Watts
(For One pushing force)
However, this much power produced, it cannot be tapped fully. From the above
purpose we have select to generate electricity by permanent magnet type D.C generator
and store it by 12V lead-acid battery cell.

EQUIPMENTS USED

RETURN SPRING

RACK

PINION

BEARING

SPRACKET

CHAIN DRIVE

GEAR WHEEL

BATTERY

FLY WHEEL

PMDC GENERATOR

SHAFT

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The complete diagram of the power generation using FOOT STEP is given
below. L-shapes window is inclined in certain small angle which is used to generate the
power. The pushing power is converted into electrical energy by proper driving arrangement.

The rack & pinion, spring arrangement is fixed at the FOOT STEP which is
mounded bellow the L-shapes window. The spring is used to return the inclined Lshapes
window in same position by releasing the load. The pinion shaft is connected to the supporter
by end bearings as shown in fig. The larger sprocket also coupled with the pinion shaft, so
that it is running the same speed of pinion. The larger sprocket is coupled to the small cycle
sprocket with the help of chain (cycle).

This larger sprocket is used to transfer the rotation force to the smaller sprocket. The
smaller sprocket is running same direction for the forward and reverse direction of rotational
movement of the larger sprocket. This action locks like a cycle pedaling action. The fly wheel
and gear wheel is also coupled to the smaller sprocket shaft. The flywheel is used to increase
the rpm of the smaller sprocket shaft. The gear wheel is coupled to the generator shaft with

the help of another gear wheel. The generator is used here, is permanent magnet D.C
generator. The generated voltage is 12Volt D.C. This D.C voltage is stored to the Lead-acid
12 Volt battery.

The battery is connected to the inverter. This inverter is used to convert the 12 Volt D.C
to the 230 Volt A.C. This working principle is already explained the above chapter. This 230
Volt A.C voltage is used to activate the light, fan and etc. By increasing the capacity of
battery and inverter circuit, the power rating is increased. This arrangement is fitted in FOOT
STEPs; the complete arrangement is kept inside the floor level except the pushing
arrangement.

BASIC COMPONENT USE

The Adapting 3-Terminal Voltage Regulators For Constant High Voltage Power Supplies

One can get a constant high-voltage power supply using inexpensive 3-terminal
voltage regulators through some simple techniques described below. Depending upon the
current requirement, a reasonable load regulation can be achieved. Line regulation in all cases
is equal to that of the voltage regulator used.

Though high voltage can be obtained with suitable voltage boost circuitry using ICs
like LM 723, some advantages of the circuits presented below are: simplicity, low cost, and
practically reasonable regulation characteristics. For currents of the order of 1A or less, only
one zener and some resistors and capacitors are needed. For higher currents, one pass
transistor such as ECP055 is needed.

Before developing the final circuits, let us first understand the 3-terminal type
constant voltage regulators. Let us see the schematic in Fig. where 78XX is a 3-terminal
voltage regulator.
Schematic for obtaining low-voltage regulated output using 3-terminal voltage regulators.
Rectified and filtered unregulated voltage is applied at VIN and a constant voltage
appears between pins 2 and 2 of the voltage regulator. *The distribution of two currents in the
circuit (IBIAS and ILOAD) is as shown.

It is highly recommended to use the two capacitors as shown. Electrically regulator

will be at a distance from the rectifier supply. Thus, a tantalum grade capacitor of 5mf and
rated voltage is good. Electrolytic capacitor is not suitable for it is poor in response to load
transients, which have high frequency components. At the output side a 0.22mf disc ceramic

capacitor is useful to eliminate spurious oscillations, which the regulator might break into
because of its internal high gain circuitry.

These voltage regulators have a typical bias current of 5 mA, which is reasonably
constant. By inserting a small resistor Rx between pin 2 and ground, the output voltage in
many cases. By this method voltage increment of 5 to 10 per cent is practically feasible.
However, if a high-value resistance is used to obtain a higher output voltage, a slight
variation in bias current will result in wide variation of the output voltage.

Now let us see that what can be done to get a higher but constant output voltage. If to
the circuit of Fig. resistor RY and zener Vz are added as shown in Fig., the output voltage is
now given by

VOUT=VR+VZ + IBIAS RX

A constant current flows through RY** because VOUT is constant, and small
variations in IBIAS do not change practically the operating point of Vz. This situation is like
constant current biasing of zener, which results in a very accurate setting of the zener voltage.

**

As long a sVIN>VOUT+2 volts, VOZ is constant from the reasoning

of Fig, and

thus current through RY is constant.

VOZ=VR + IBIAS Rx

Here the pin 2 of the regulator is raised above ground by Vz + IBIAS Rx. Thus, any
combination of zener with a proper selection of RY can be used.

For example, Let VR=+15 V for 7815

IBIAS=5mA

VZ=39V (standard from ECIL)

For a standard 400mW zener of ECIL make, IZ MAX=10 mA. Thus, if we let pass
5mA through RY to make a 55-volt supply

55 - 39

RY = ---------------=3.2k3.3k
5 x 10-3

55 - 39 - 15

RX = ---------------------= ---------- = 200 ohm

IBIAS

5 x 10-3

Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies

It should be noted here that the maximum input voltage allowed for 78XX regulators
is 35V between pins 1 and 2. We see that the actual voltage betweens pin 1 and 2 of the
regulator in this circuit is

VIN - VZ - IBIAS RX

It is therefore necessary that VIN be so chosen that voltage between pins 1 and 2 of
the IC does not exceed the maximum rating. Also, a high input-output differential voltage
VIN-VOUT means more power dissipation in the series-pass element, the regulator. Thus,
with proper selection of the input transformer voltage and capacitor, this should be
minimized.

For example, if 7805 is used, VR equals + 5V and VZ is 40V, so VOUT=45 volts. For
7805, the maximum input voltage is 35 V and the minimum 7V. Therefore,
VIN MAX = 45 + 35 - 5 = 75 VOLTS

VIN MIN

= 45 + 7 - 5 = 47 VOLTS

Thus, from no-load to full-load condition, the unregulated input voltage-including

peak ripple-should be within these limits. This gives a margin of 75-47, i.e. 28 volt. Hence,
the designer can work out the maximum transformer voltage from the no-load input voltage
chosen on the upper side.

The capacitor's value can be determined from the full load unregulated voltage
chosen. Roughly, per 100mA current, 100mf capacitor gives 1-volt peak-to-peak ripple.
Hence, capacitor's value can be determined for the desired current.

This circuit will have an excellent load and line regulation. For shot-circuit protection,
it is recommended to use a fast-blow fuse of suitable value. Although the regulator has
inherent short-circuit protection, the maximum current differs from device to device.
Adequate heat sink should be used with the regulator.

Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies providing currents in excess of one
ampere

Now if currents in excess of 1A are needed, the circuit shown in fig. is useful. This
circuit is similar to that in Fig. except that a pass transistor ECP055 is added besides a 0.5ohm or more resistor. This transistor bypasses the excessive current. By selecting proper Rz
the ratio of two currents passing through the regulator and transistor can be altered.

This circuit will show load and live regulation within 1% and will function properly
for VIN-VOUT as low as 4 volt. For short-circuit protection, a fast blow fuse is
recommended as this circuit does not have inherent short-circuit protection. Adequate heat

sink is to be used for the pass transistors.

For

negative

voltages,

use

79XX

series

regulators and ECN055 as the pass transistor. Some advantages of the circuits described
above are: the lowest cost among comparable performance circuits, ability to work at low
input-output differential, and flexibility in design for various applications.

So audio enthusiasts, if you are troubled by hum emanating from your power
amplifier, try this inexpensive alternative for power supply.

TRANSISTOR
The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state
Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of
material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and
under other conditions its a conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and
allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor device used
in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one is the collector, one is the
base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected in the circuit correctly and only
then the transistor will function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on
another terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a
number marked on its body. Every number has its own specifications.
There are mainly two types of transistor :

NPN
PNP

NPN Transistors:

When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to conduct by allowing
current to flow through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively small current flowing
through the base circuit causes a much greater current to pass through the emitter / collector
circuit. The phenomenon is called current gain and it is measure in beta.

PNP Transistor:
It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative voltage on its collector
and a positive voltage on its emitter.

Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a controlled current

flow. Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor elements used for making it. There
are two types of transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS.
Point contact construction is defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in
many respects analogous to triode electron tube.

A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a triode tube, but
has the additional advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and absence of cathode
heating power.
Junction transistors are of two types which can be obtained while manufacturing.
The two types are: -

1)

PNP TYPE:

N-P Junction

This is formed by joining a layer of P type of

germanium to an

2)

NPN TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of N

type

germanium to a P-N Junction.

Both types are shown in figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre
section is called the base, one of the outside sections-the emitter and the other outside
section-the collector. The direction of the arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional
current with the forward bias on the emitter. The conventional flow is opposite in direction to
the electron flow.

OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:-

A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN germanium or silicon diodes,

placed back to back. The centre of N-type portion is extremely thin in comparison to P
region. The P region of the left is connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the
negative terminal i.e. PN is biased in the forward direction while P region of right is biased
negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P region in the forward biased
circuit is called the emitter and P region on the right, biased negatively is called collector. The
centre is called base.

The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as emitter) move to N region as they
are repelled by the positive terminal of battery while the electrons of N region are attracted by
the positive terminal. The holes overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction into N
region. As the width of base region is extremely thin, two to five percent of holes recombine
with the free electrons of N-region which result in a small base current while the remaining
holes (95% to 98%) reach the collector junction. The collector is biased negatively and the
negative collector voltage aids in sweeping the hole into collector region.

As the P region at the right is biased negatively, a very small current should flow but
the following facts are observed:-

1)

A substantial current flows through it when the emitter junction is biased in a forward

direction.

2)

The current flowing across the collector is slightly less than that of the emitter, and

3)

The collector current is a function of emitter current i.e. with

increase in the emitter current a corresponding

observed.

The facts can be explained as follows:-

the

decrease or

change in the collector current is

1.

As already discussed that 2 to 5% of the holes are lost in recombination with the

electron n base region, which result in a

small base current and hence the collector

current is slightly less than the emitter current.

2.

The collector current increases as the holes reaching the collector junction are

attracted by negative potential applied to the collector.

3.

When the emitter current increases, most holes are injected into

the base region,

which is attracted by the negative potential of the collector and hence results in increasing the
collector current. In this way emitter is analogous to the control of plate current by
small grid voltage in a vacuum triode.

Hence we can say that when the emitter is forward biased and collector is negatively
biased, a substantial current flows in both the circuits. Since a small emitter voltage of about
0.1 to 0.5 volts permits the flow of an appreciable emitter current the input power is very
small. The collector voltage can be as high as 45 volts.

CAPACITORS

It is an electronic component whose function is to accumulate charges and then

release it.

To understand the concept of capacitance, consider a pair of metal plates which all are placed
near to each other without touching. If a battery is connected to these plates the positive pole
to one and the negative pole to the other, electrons from the battery will be attracted from the
plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one
plate will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a shortage, and a potential or
voltage difference will exists between them. These plates will be acting as capacitors.
Capacitors are of two types: - (1) fixed type like ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitorsthese names refer to the material they are made of aluminum foil. (2) Variable type like gang
condenser in radio or trimmer. In fixed type capacitors, it has two leads and its value is
written over its body and variable type has three leads. Unit of measurement of a capacitor is
farad denoted by the symbol F. It is a very big unit of capacitance. Small unit capacitor are
pico-farad denoted by pf (Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above all, in case of electrolytic
capacitors, it's two terminal are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using capacitors in the
circuit in right direction. Mistake can destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operational.

RESISTANCE
Resistance is the opposition of a material to the current. It is measured in Ohms (). All
conductors represent a certain amount of resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To
control the electron flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors. Electronic

circuits use calibrated lumped resistance to control the flow of current. Broadly speaking,
resistor can be divided into two groups viz. fixed & adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed
resistors, the value is fixed & cannot be varied. In variable resistors, the resistance value can
be varied by an adjuster knob. It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b) Wire wound
(c) Special type. The most common type of resistors used in our projects is carbon type. The
resistance value is normally indicated by color bands. Each resistance has four colors, one of
the band on either

side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and indicates the tolerance, others three
band will give the value of resistance (see table). For example if a resistor has the following
marking on it say red, violet, gold. Comparing these colored rings with the color code, its
value is 27000 ohms or 27 kilo ohms and its tolerance is 5%. Resistor comes in various
sizes (Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating of 1/4 watts. The four color
rings on its body tells us the value of resistor value as given below.
COLOUR
BLACK

CODE
0

BROWN

RED

ORANGE

YELLOW

GREEN

BLUE

VIOLET

GREY

WHITE

Fig.7
The first rings give the first digit. The second ring gives the second digit. The third ring
indicates the number of zeroes to be placed after the digits. The fourth ring gives tolerance
(gold 5%, silver 10%, No colour 20%).
In variable resistors, we have the dial type of resistance boxes. There is a knob with a
metal pointer. This presses over brass pieces placed along a circle with some space b/w each
of them.
Resistance coils of different values are connected b/w the gaps. When the knob is
rotated, the pointer also moves over the brass pieces. If a gap is skipped over, its resistance is
included in the circuit. If two gaps are skipped over, the resistances of both together are
included in the circuit and so on.
A dial type of resistance box contains many dials depending upon the range, which it
has to cover. If a resistance box has to read upto 10,000, it will have three dials each
having ten gaps i.e. ten resistance coils each of resistance 10. The third dial will have ten
resistances each of 100.
The dial type of resistance boxes is better because the contact resistance in this case is
small & constant.

DIODE
The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of P-type
semiconducting material, with contacts provided to connect the p-and n-type layers to an
external circuit. This is a junction Diode. If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the p-type material (cathode) and the negative terminal to the N-type material (Anode), a
large current will flow. This is called forward current or forward biased.

Fig.8

If the connections are reversed, a very little current will flow. This is because under this
condition, the p-type material will accept the electrons from the negative terminal of the
battery and the N-type material will give up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the
state of electrical equilibrium since the N-type material has no more electrons. Thus there will
be a small current to flow and the diode is called Reverse biased.

Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction while blocking it in the
other direction. Power diodes are used in concerting AC into DC. In this, current will flow
freely during the first half cycle (forward biased) and practically not at all during the other
half cycle (reverse biased). This makes the diode an effective rectifier, which convert ac into

pulsating dc. Signal diodes are used in radio circuits for detection. Zener diodes are used in
the circuit to control the voltage.

Some common diodes are:1. Zener diode.

2. Photo diode.
3. Light Emitting diode.

1.

ZENER DIODE:A zener diode is specially designed junction diode, which can operate continuously

without being damaged in the region of reverse break down voltage. One of the most
important applications of zener diode is the design of constant voltage power supply. The
zener diode is joined in reverse bias to d.c. through a resistance R of suitable value.

2.

PHOTO DIODE:A photo diode is a junction diode made from photo- sensitive semiconductor or

material. In such a diode, there is a provision to allow the light of suitable frequency to fall on
the p-n junction. It is reverse biased, but the voltage applied is less than the break down
voltage. As the intensity of incident light is increased, current goes on increasing till it
becomes maximum. The maximum current is called saturation current.

3.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):When a junction diode is forward biased, energy is released at the junction diode is

forward biased, energy is released at the junction due to recombination of electrons and holes.
In case of silicon and germanium diodes, the energy released is in infrared region. In the
junction diode made of gallium arsenate or indium phosphide, the energy is released in
visible region. Such a junction diode is called a light emitting diode or LED.

WHAT ARE CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS?

Crystal oscillators are oscillators where the primary frequency determining element is a
quartz crystal. Because of the inherent characteristics of the quartz crystal the crystal
oscillator may be held to extreme accuracy of frequency stability. Temperature compensation
may be applied to crystal oscillators to improve thermal stability of the crystal oscillator.
Crystal oscillators are usually, fixed frequency oscillators where stability and accuracy are the
primary considerations. For example it is almost impossible to design a stable and accurate
LC oscillator for the upper HF and higher frequencies without resorting to some sort of
crystal control. Hence the reason for crystal oscillators.
The frequency of older FT-243 crystals can be moved upward by crystal grinding.
I won't be discussing frequency synthesizers and direct digital synthesis (DDS) here. They are
particularly interesting topics to be covered later.
A practical example of a Crystal Oscillator

This is a typical example of the type of crystal oscillators which may be used for say
converters. Some points of interest on crystal oscillators in relation to figure 1.

Figure 1 - schematic of a crystal oscillator

The transistor could be a general purpose type with a Ft of at least 150 Mhz for HF use. A
typical example would be a 2N2222A.
The turns ratio on the tuned circuit depicts an anticipated nominal load of 50 ohms. This
allows theoretical 2K5 ohms on the collector. If it is followed by a buffer amplifier (highly
recommended) I would simply maintain the typical 7:1 turns ratio. I have included a formula
for determining L and C in the tuned circuits of crystal oscillators in case you have forgotten
earlier tutorials. Personally I would make L a reactance of around 250 ohms. In this case I'd
make C a smaller trimmer in parallel with a standard fixed value.

MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)

INTRODUCTION:

Making a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards building electronic equipment by any
electronic industry. A number of methods are available for making P.C.B., the simplest
method is of drawing pattern on a copper clad board with acid resistant (etchants) ink or paint
or simple nail polish on a copper clad board and do the etching process for dissolving the rest
of copper pattern in acid liquid.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is:

Copper Clad Sheet

Nail Polish or Paint
Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl)
Plastic Tray
Tap Water etc.

PROCEDURE:

The first and foremost in the process is to clean all dirt from copper sheet with say spirit or
trichloro ethylene to remove traces grease or oil etc. and then wash the board under running
tap water. Dry the surface with forced warm air or just leave the board to dry naturally for
some time.

Making of the P.C.B. drawing involves some preliminary consideration such as thickness of
lines/ holes according to the components. Now draw the sketch of P.C.B. design (tracks,

rows, square) as per circuit diagram with the help of nail polish or enamel paint or any other
acid resistant liquid. Dry the point surface in open air, when it is completely dried, the
marked holes in P.C.B. may be drilled using 1Mm drill bits. In case there is any shorting of
lines due to spilling of paint, these may be removed by scraping with a blade or a knife, after
the paint has dried.

After drying, 22-30 grams of ferric chloride in 75 ml of water may be heated to about 60
degree and poured over the P.C.B. , placed with its copper side upwards in a plastic tray of
about 15*20 cm. Stirring the solution helps speedy etching. The dissolution of unwanted
copper would take about 45 minutes. If etching takes longer, the solution may be heated again
and the process repeated. The paint on the pattern can be removed P.C.B. may then be washed
and dried. Put a coat of varnish to retain the shine. Your P.C.B. is ready.

POWER SUPPLY

In alternating current the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron flow increases to
maximum in one direction, decreases back to zero. It then increases in the other direction and
then decreases to zero again. Direct current flows in one direction only. Rectifier converts
alternating current to flow in one direction only. When the anode of the diode is positive with
respect to its cathode, it is forward biased, allowing current to flow. But when its anode is
negative with respect to the cathode, it is reverse biased and does not allow current to flow.
This unidirectional property of the diode is useful for rectification. A single diode arranged
back-to-back might allow the electrons to flow during positive half cycles only and suppress
the negative half cycles. Double diodes arranged back-to-back might act as full wave
rectifiers as they may allow the electron flow during both positive and negative half cycles.
Four diodes can be arranged to make a full wave bridge rectifier. Different types of filter
circuits are used to smooth out the pulsations in amplitude of the output voltage from a
rectifier. The property of capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied across them
by storing energy in the electric field of the capacitor and of inductors to oppose any change
in the current flowing through them by storing energy in the magnetic field of coil may be
utilized. To remove pulsation of the direct current obtained from the rectifier, different types
of combination of capacitor, inductors and resistors may be also be used to increase to action
of filtering.

NEED OF POWER SUPPLY

Perhaps all of you are aware that a power supply is a primary requirement for the
Test Bench of a home experimenters mini lab. A battery eliminator can eliminate or replace
the batteries of solid-state electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be operated by
230v A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells. Nowadays, the use of commercial
battery eliminator or power supply unit has become increasingly popular as power source for
household appliances like transreceivers, record player, cassette players, digital clock etc.

THEORY

USE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS:

Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India, in the form of alternating
voltage. The supply has a voltage of 220V (rms) at a frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is
110V at 60 Hz. For the operation of most of the devices in electronic equipment, a dc voltage
is needed. For instance, a transistor radio requires a dc supply for its operation. Usually, this
supply is provided by dry cells. But sometime we use a battery eliminator in place of dry
cells. The battery eliminator converts the ac voltage into dc voltage and thus eliminates the
need for dry cells. Nowadays, almost all-electronic equipment includes a circuit that converts
ac voltage of mains supply into dc voltage. This part of the equipment is called Power
Supply. In general, at the input of the power supply, there is a power transformer. It is
followed by a diode circuit called Rectifier. The output of the rectifier goes to a smoothing
filter, and then to a voltage regulator circuit. The rectifier circuit is the heart of a power
supply.

Rectification

Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current or voltage into a

unidirectional one. The component used for rectification is called Rectifier. A rectifier
permits current to flow only during the positive half cycles of the applied AC voltage by
eliminating the negative half cycles or alternations of the applied AC voltage. Thus pulsating
DC is obtained. To obtain smooth DC power, additional filter circuits are required.

A diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of diodes. But, semiconductor
diodes are very popularly used as rectifiers. A semiconductor diode is a solid-state device
consisting of two elements is being an electron emitter or cathode, the other an electron
collector or anode. Since electrons in a semiconductor diode can flow in one direction onlyfrom emitter to collector- the diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary for
rectification. Out of the semiconductor diodes, copper oxide and selenium rectifier are also
commonly used.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage by using two diodes in
the circuit arrangement. Assume 6.3 V rms (18 V p-p) is applied to the circuit. Assume
further that two equal-valued series-connected resistors R are placed in parallel with the ac
source. The 18 V p-p appears across the two resistors connected between points AC and CB,
and point C is the electrical midpoint between A and B. Hence 9 V p-p appears across each
resistor. At any moment during a cycle of vin, if point A is positive relative to C, point B is
negative relative to C. When A is negative to C, point B is positive relative to C. The effective
voltage in proper time phase which each diode "sees" is in Fig. The voltage applied to the
anode of each diode is equal but opposite in polarity at any given instant.

When A is positive relative to C, the anode of D1 is positive with respect to its

cathode. Hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not. During the second alternation, B is positive

relative to C. The anode of D2 is therefore positive with respect to its cathode, and D2
conducts while D1 is cut off.

There is conduction then by either D1 or D2 during the entire input-voltage cycle.

Since the two diodes have a common-cathode load resistor RL, the output voltage
across RL will result from the alternate conduction of D1 and D2. The output waveform vout
across RL, therefore has no gaps as in the case of the half-wave rectifier.

The output of a full-wave rectifier is also pulsating direct current. In the diagram, the
two equal resistors R across the input voltage are necessary to provide a voltage midpoint C
for circuit connection and zero reference. Note that the load resistor RL is connected from the
cathodes to this center reference point C.

An interesting fact about the output waveform vout is that its peak amplitude is not 9
V as in the case of the half-wave rectifier using the same power source, but is less than 4 V.
The reason, of course, is that the peak positive voltage of A relative to C is 4 V, not 9 V, and
part of the 4 V is lost across R.

Though the full wave rectifier fills in the conduction gaps, it delivers less than half the
peak output voltage that results from half-wave rectification.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A more widely used full-wave rectifier circuit is the bridge rectifier. It requires four
diodes instead of two, but avoids the need for a centre-tapped transformer. During the
positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes D2 and D4 are conducting and diodes D1
and D3 are non-conducting. Therefore, current flows through the secondary winding, diode
D2, load resistor RL and diode D4. During negative half-cycles of the secondary voltage,
diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and the diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current therefore
flows through the secondary winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D3. In both cases,
the current passes through the load resistor in the same direction. Therefore, a fluctuating,
unidirectional voltage is developed across the load.
Filtration:

The rectifier circuits we have discussed above deliver an output voltage that always
has the same polarity: but however, this output is not suitable as DC power supply for solidstate circuits. This is due to the pulsation or ripples of the output voltage. This should be
removed out before the output voltage can be supplied to any circuit. This smoothing is done
by incorporating filter networks. The filter network consists of inductors and capacitors. The
inductors or choke coils are generally connected in series with the rectifier output and the
load. The inductors oppose any change in the magnitude of a current flowing through them
by storing up energy in a magnetic field. An inductor offers very low resistance for DC
whereas; it offers very high resistance to AC. Thus, a series connected choke coil in a rectifier
circuit helps to reduce the pulsations or ripples to a great extent in the output voltage. The
fitter capacitors are usually connected in parallel with the rectifier output and the load. As,
AC can pass through a capacitor but DC cannot, the ripples are thus limited and the output
becomes smoothed. When the voltage across its plates tends to rise, it stores up energy back
into voltage and current. Thus, the fluctuations in the output voltage are reduced
considerable. Filter network circuits may be of two types in general:

CHOKE INPUT FILTER

If a choke coil or an inductor is used as the first- components in the filter network,
the filter is called choke input filter. The D.C. along with AC pulsation from the rectifier
circuit at first passes through the choke (L). It opposes the AC pulsations but allows the DC
to pass through it freely. Thus AC pulsations are largely reduced. The further ripples are by
passed through the parallel capacitor C. But, however, a little nipple remains unaffected,
which are considered negligible. This little ripple may be reduced by incorporating a series a
choke input filters.

CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER

If a capacitor is placed before the inductors of a choke-input filter network, the filter
is called capacitor input filter. The D.C. along with AC ripples from the rectifier circuit starts
charging the capacitor C. to about peak value. The AC ripples are then diminished slightly.
Now the capacitor C, discharges through the inductor or choke coil, which opposes the AC
ripples, except the DC. The second capacitor C by passes the further AC ripples. A small
ripple is still present in the output of DC, which may be reduced by adding additional filter
network in series.

CONCLUSION
In concluding the words of our project, since the power generation using foot
step get its energy requirements from the Non-renewable source of energy. There is no need
of power from the mains and there is less pollution in this source of energy. It is very useful
to the places all roads and as well as all kind of foot step which is used to generate the non
conventional energy like electricity.
It is able to extend this project by using same arrangement and construct in the
foot steps/speed breaker so that increase the power production rate by fixing school and
colleges, highways etc.

Description about the project

A couple of years ago, we ran a story about Laurence Kembell-Cook's brilliant Pavegen floor
tiles, which capture kinetic energy from footsteps and convert it to electricity. Now after two
years of product testing and picking up a slew of awards across the U.K., Pavegen has
received its first commercial order -- to light up the new Westfield Stratford City Shopping
Centre!
With nearly 30 million shoppers a year, the Westfield Stratford City Shopping Centre has
plenty of foot traffic. The mall plans to install a grid of Pavegens in a main crossing outdoors
between the shopping centre and the London Main Stadium, which is known as the heaviest
trafficked area. Depending on the walkways use, the grid will work its way up to powering
the entire malls lighting system.

The Pavegen floor tiles flex a slight 5 millimeters when stepped on, capturing kinetic energy
which is either stored in lithium polymer batteries beneath its surface or converted into 2.1
watt-hours of electricity and distributed throughout surrounding lights. The center of the tile
illuminates when stepped upon, not only informing the passerby of their contribution to the
environment but also encouraging the continuation of sustainable awareness and decisions.
The first designs were aimed at illuminating small spaces like bus stops, ticket machines,
refrigerators, and shop signs, but with a large number of Pavegens, the possibilities are nearly
limitless.
.The Pavegen tiles themselves are completely eco-friendly. The entire casing is made of
marine grade stainless steel and recycled polymer with low carbon concrete. The top surface
is built entirely of old truck tires that are not only a great use of recycled material, but also
make the tiles incredibly durable throughout years of weather and wear. Even the

manufacturing of the Pavegens is kept within 200 miles of the companys main office,
reducing energy wasted through transportation and assembly
.After winning the Big Idea category of the U.K.s Observer Ethical Awards earlier this year,
Kembell-Cook is now in the running to win the Shell LiveWIRE Young Entrepreneur of 2011
Award which would give him 10,000 to use towards his invention. Lets hope this will bring
Pavegen tiles to the U.S and around the world soon.