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Research
Methods in
Biomechanics
Second Edition

D. Gordon E. Robertson
University of Ottawa

Graham E. Caldwell
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Joseph Hamill
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Gary Kamen
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Saunders N. Whittlesey
University of Massachusetts, Amherst

HUMAN KINETICS

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Robertson, D. Gordon E., 1950- author.
Research methods in biomechanics / D. Gordon E. Robertson, Graham E. Caldwell, Joseph Hamill, Gary Kamen, Saunders N.
Whittlesey. -- 2nd edition.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I. Caldwell, Graham E., 1954- author. II. Hamill, Joseph, 1946- author. III. Kamen, Gary, author. IV. Whittlesey, Saunders N.,
author. V. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Biomechanics. 2. Research Design. WE 103]
QP303
612.76072--dc23
2013017879
ISBN-10: 0-7360-9340-0 (print)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-9340-8 (print)
Copyright 2014, 2004 by D. Gordon E. Robertson, Graham E. Caldwell, Joseph Hamill, Gary Kamen, and Saunders N. Whittlesey
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Dedication
To our current and former students.

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Introduction Biomechanics Analysis Techniques: A Primer . . . . . . . . . . . X

Gary Kamen
What Tools Are Needed in Biomechanics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications of the Principles of Biomechanics: An Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical Accuracy and Significant Digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part I Kinematics
Chapter

XX

Planar Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
D. Gordon E. Robertson and Graham E. Caldwell
Description of Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kinematic Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings

Chapter

XX
XX
XX
XX

XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX

Three-Dimensional Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Joseph Hamill, W. Scott Selbie, and Thomas M. Kepple
Collection of Three-Dimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coordinate Systems and Assumption of Rigid Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transformations between Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Defining the Segment LCS for the Lower Extremity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pose Estimation: Tracking the Segment LCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Joint Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Joint Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration of Cardan Joint Angles . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX

vi }Contents

Part II Kinetics
Chapter

XX

Body Segment Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

D. Gordon E. Robertson
Methods for Measuring and Estimating Body Segment Parameters . . . . . . . . . . .
Two-Dimensional (Planar) Computational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Three-Dimensional (Spatial) Computational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

Forces and Their Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Graham E. Caldwell, D. Gordon E. Robertson, and Saunders N. Whittlesey
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Newtons Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Free-Body Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moment of Force, or Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear Impulse and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular Impulse and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measurement of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX

Two-Dimensional Inverse Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX

Saunders N. Whittlesey and D. Gordon E. Robertson
Planar Motion Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Human Joint Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

XX
XX
XX
XX
XX

XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX

Energy, Work, and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

D. Gordon E. Robertson
Energy, Work, and the Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Conservation of Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Ergometry: Direct Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Ergometry: Indirect Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Mechanical Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Contents |vii

Chapter

Three-Dimensional Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

W. Scott Selbie, Joseph Hamill, and Thomas Kepple
Segments and Link Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-D Inverse Dynamics Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Presentation of the Net Moment Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Joint Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interpretation of Net Joint Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of Error in Three-Dimensional Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PartIII Muscles, Models, and Movement

Chapter

XXX

Electromyographic Kinesiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Gary Kamen
Physiology of the Electromyographic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recording and Acquiring the Electromyographic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analyzing and Interpreting the Electromyographic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications for Electromyographic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

Muscle Modeling
Graham E. Caldwell
The Hill Muscle Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Muscle-Specific Hill Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beyond the Hill Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

Simulation of Human Movement . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

10 Computer
Saunders N. Whittlesey and Joseph Hamill
Overview: Modeling As a Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Why Simulate Human Movement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Procedure for Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations of Computer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

viii }Contents

Chapter

Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
11 Musculoskeletal
Brian R. Umberger & Graham E. Caldwell
Musculoskeletal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part IV Further Analytical Procedures

Chapter

XXX

Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
12 Signal
Timothy R. Derrick and D. Gordon E. Robertson
Characteristics of a Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time-Dependent Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ensuring Circular Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Smoothing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

Systems Analysis of Coordination . . . . . . . . . XXX

13 Dynamical
Richard E.A. van Emmerik, Ross H. Miller, and Joseph Hamill
Movement Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foundations for Coordination Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantifying Coordination: Relative Phase Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantifying Coordination: Vector Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview of Coordination Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

of Biomechanical Waveform Data . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

14 Analysis
Kevin J. Deluzio, Andrew J. Harrison, Norma Coffey, and Graham E. Caldwell
Biomechanical Waveform Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principal Component Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Functional Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of PCA and FDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX

Contents |ix

Appendix A: International System of Units (System International, SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Appendix B: Selected Factors for Converting Between Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix C: Basic Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix D: Vectors and Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix E: Matrices and Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix F: Numerical Integration of Double Pendulum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix G: Derivation of Double Pendulum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix H: Discrete Fourier Transform Subroutine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Appendix I: Shannons Reconstruction Subroutine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Example Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX

Preface

iomechanics is a highly technical field, and its

research methods change as rapidly as does
technology. Research techniques are regularly
replaced with new techniques because of the availability of faster and more sophisticated software and
hardware. For example, 25 years ago many researchers
used cinematography to record human motion; 10 years
later cinematography was almost obsolete, having been
replaced by VHS videography; and now, digital and
infrared videography have become the preferred motion
capture technologies. Faster computers with essentially
unlimited memory can process data using more complex
analyses and more sophisticated statistical methods.
Given these realities, this edition has added up-to-date
research methods to existing chapters and includes several new chapters that outline advanced analytical tools
for investigating human movement.
This text is organized into four parts. Parts I and II
retain their structure from the first edition, with part I
exploring planar and three-dimensional kinematics in
research and part II examining issues of body segment
parameters, forces, and energy, work, and power as they
relate to two- and three-dimensional inverse dynamics
analysis. Within the first two parts, chapters 2 and 7
have been extensively revised to reflect current research
practices in biomechanics. Chapter 7 now reflects how
inverse dynamics analyses are carried out by the
software Visual3D, which is an example of software
that provides inverse dynamics analysis. A Visual3D
Educational Edition is provided with this book purchase, so that the reader can experience the process
of kinematic and kinetic analysis of human motion
using Visual3D.
Part III of the text deals with the study of muscle
activity and the mathematical modeling of human
movement. Chapter 9, Muscle Modeling, has been
updated and is bolstered by the addition of chapter
11, Musculoskeletal Modeling. Chapter 9 retains its
emphasis on the Hill model and now includes more
information on how to obtain parameters to allow
the Hill model to represent individual muscles in
a subject-specific manner. We have removed some
of the musculoskeletal model material from the
original chapter and include it in the new chapter
11, which is coauthored by Brian R. Umberger and
Graham E. Caldwell. Chapter 11 explores the use
of musculoskeletal models in analyzing human

movement, an area of growing interest that permits

the study of muscle forces beyond that allowed by
inverse dynamics. Other chapters in part III address
electromyographic (EMG) kinesiology and computer
simulation of movement. EMG permits the monitoring
and analysis of the active contractile characteristics of
muscles, whereas computer simulations permit the study
of motions without requiring that a subject perform the
motion, which allows researchers, physicians, therapists,
or coaches to test novel motions without placing people
at risk of injury.
Part IV explores further analytical procedures that
can be applied to biomechanical data, beginning with
signal processing techniques and then moving on to
two chapters new to the second edition. Chapter 13,
Dynamical Systems Methods for the Analysis of Movement Coordination, coauthored by Richard E.A. van
Emmerik, Ross H. Miller, and Joseph Hamill, outlines
the theories and analytic methods used to investigate
movement in complex systems with many degrees of
freedom. This chapter focuses on how we assess and
measure coordination and stability in changing movement patterns, and it examines the role of movement
variability in health and disease. Chapter 14, Analysis
of Biomechanical Waveform Data, coauthored by Kevin
J. Deluzio, Andrew J. Harrison, Norma Coffey, and

Visual3D Educational Edition

New to this edition is the access to the Visual3D Educational Edition software, created by C-Motion. The
Visual3D Educational Edition can be used to display
C3D and CMO data sets, but also provides the ability to
manipulate sample data sets to help readers understand
kinetic and kinematic calculations and to provide experience with professional biomechanical research software.
To download the Visual3D Educational Edition, visit http://
textbooks.c-motion.com and enter this user name and
password:
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xi

xii }Preface

Graham E. Caldwell, outlines statistical tools to identify

the essential characteristics of any human movement.
Biomechanists are faced with the sometimes daunting
task of determining which variable or variables from
thousands of possibilities (linear and angular kinematics,
linear and angular kinetics) best characterize a particular
motion. Techniques in this chapter can be used to select
the best combination of these factors. Human gait is
used as one example of motion, but the techniques can
be applied to any motion.

Each chapter includes an overview, a summary, and a

list of suggested readings for those interested in learning
more. In select chapters, sample problems are provided
to serve as learning aids, and answers are provided in
the back of the text. Sections titled From the Scientific
Literature highlight the ways in which biomechanical
research techniques have been used in both classic and
cutting-edge studies in the field. The appendixes provide
helpful mathematical and technical references, and a
glossary provides a reference for terminology.