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Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 563 570

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES, COASTAL AND OCEAN

ENGINEERING (ICWRCOE 2015)

Automatic Shoreline Detection and Change Detection Analysis of

Netravati-GurpurRivermouth Using Histogram Equalization and
Adaptive Thresholding Techniques
Raju Aedlaa*, Dwarakish G Sb, D Venkat Reddyc
a
b

Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, Mangalore, India
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, Mangalore, India
c
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, Mangalore, India

Abstract
The shoreline change extraction and change detection analysis is an important task that has application in different fields such as
development of setback planning, hazard zoning, erosion-accretion studies, regional sediment budgets and conceptual or
predictive modeling of coastal morphodynamics. Shoreline delineation is difficult, time consuming, and sometimes impossible
for entire coastal system when using traditional ground survey techniques. Recent advances in remote sensing and geographical
information system (GIS) techniques are overcoming the difficulties in extraction of shoreline position and detection of shoreline
changes. In the present paper, an automatic shoreline detection method using histogram equalization and adaptive thresholding
techniques is developed. The shoreline of Netravati-Gurpur rivermouth area along Mangalore coast, West Coast of India have
been extracted from Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS P6) LISS-III (2005, 2007 and 2010) and IRS R2 LISS-III (2013)
satellite images using developed automatic shoreline detection method. The delineated shorelines have been analyzed using
Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS), a GIS Software tool for estimation of shoreline change rates through two statistical
techniques such as, End Point Rate (EPR) and Linear Regression Rate (LRR). The Bengre spit, Northern sector of NetravatiGurpur river mouth is under accretion an average of 2.95 m/yr (EPR) and 3.07 m/yr (LRR) and maximum accretion obtained is
8.51 m/yr (EPR) and 8.69 m/yr (LRR). Southern sector, the Ullal spit is under erosion an average of -0.56 m/yr (EPR) and -0.59
m/yr (LRR).
2015
2015Published
The Authors.
Published
Elsevier
B.V.

by Elsevier
B.V. by
This
is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015
Keywords:Histogram equalization, thresholding, shoreline, remote sensing, digital shoreline analysis system

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rajucits@gmail.com

2214-241X 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015
doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.073

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Raju Aedla et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 563 570

1. Introduction
Coastal zones are one of the most complicated ecosystems with a large number of living and non-living
resources. Coastal zones are exposed to a series of dynamic natural processes like coastal erosion, accretion,
sediment transport, environmental pollution, and coastal development that usually causes changes in long and short
term spans. Coastal zones are complicated ecosystems with a large number of living and non-living resources by
Constanza et al. (1997). Coastal zones are major socio-economic environment in worldwide and these coastal
changes impacts on loss of life and property, security of harbors, change of the coastal socio-economic environment,
and decrease of coastal land resources. So, coastal zone monitoring is a significant task in national development and
environmental protection, in which, extraction of shoreline is the fundamental study of necessity by Rasuly et al.
(2010). Shoreline is considered as one of the most dynamic processes in coastal area by Bagli and Soile (2003);
Mills et al. (2005) and it is the physical interface of land and water by Dolan et al. (1980). Shoreline is formed by a
number of geological factors such as interaction, sediment deposition of rivers and oceans, various weather and sea
conditions, as well as the frequent human social and economic activities by Boak and Turner (2005). The shoreline
is one of the 27 features recognized by IGDC (International Geographic Data Committee) by Li et al. (2001). The
location of the shoreline provides the data in respect to shoreline reorientation adjacent to structures by Komar
(1998) and beach width and volume by Smith and Jackson (1992), and it is used to quantify historical rates of
change by Dolan et al. (1991); Moore (2000). The extraction of shoreline is useful for several applications like
coastline change detection and coastal zone management, and this task is difficult, time consuming, and sometimes
impossible for entire coastal system when using traditional ground survey techniques by Cracknell (1999).
Due to the preference and large effort involved in manual detection, quite a few automatic shoreline detection
methods have been proposed. Advanced remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) techniques are
overcoming the difficulties in detecting shoreline position and shoreline change analysis. Several techniques have
been developed to extract shoreline and change detection from satellite imagery such as, image enhancement, multitemporal data classification and comparison of two independent land cover classifications, density slice using single
or multiple bands, and multi-spectral classification, both supervised and unsupervised (like ISODATA, Principle
Component Analysis (PCA), Tasseled Cap, NDWI) by Mas (1999); Frazier and Page (2000); Ryu et al. (2002);
Braud and Feng (1998); Kuleli (2010); Kuleli et al. (2011); Zheng et al. (2011); Bouchahma and Yan (2012). Along
with image classification methods, various thresholding based techniques have been proposed by Bayram et al.
(2008); Jishuang and Chao (2002); White and Asmar (1999); Yamayo et al. (2006). In addition, image processing
algorithms such as pre-segmentation, segmentation and post-segmentation have been proposed for automatic
extraction of coastline from remotely sensed images by Liu and Jezek (2004); Mason and Davenport (1996); Di et
al. (2003).
In automatic shoreline extraction task, general-purpose edge detection and image segmentation techniques are
not enough, because of lack of constant, sufficient intensity contrast between land and water regions and resulting
complexity in separating shoreline edges from other object edges by Liu and Jezek (2004). Considerable contrast
exists between land and water masses will generate continuous and clear shoreline. With this knowledge, the present
study proposed a complete automatic shoreline extraction method from satellite imagery by using clipped histogram
equalization based contrast enhancement and thresholding based techniques.
Histogram Equalization (HE) is a well-known indirect contrast enhancement method, where histogram of the
image is modified. Because of stretching the global distribution of the intensity, the information laid on the
histogram or probability distribution function (PDF) of the image will be lost. To overcome the drawbacks of HE
method, several HE-based techniques have been proposed. Based on the modification of input image histogram, the
techniques are categorized into Bi-Histogram Equalization, Multi-Histogram Equalization and Clipping or Plateau
HE methods by Raju et al. (2013a). Bi-HE methods by Kim (1997); Wang et al. (1999); Chen and Ramli (2003a);
Chen and Ramli (2004); Sengee et al. (2010); Zuo et al. (2012) are preserving the brightness and enhance contrasts
of the images up to certain limit and showing over-enhancement with annoying artefacts in the image. Multi-HE
methods by Wongsritong et al. (1998); Chen and Ramli (2003b); Sim et al. (2007); Wadud et al. (2007); Ibrahim
and Pik Kong (2007); Menotti et al. (2007); Kim and Chung (2008); Wadud et al. (2008); Sheet et al. (2010); Khan
et al. (2012) providing well brightness preserving without introducing any undesirable artefacts, but sacrifices the
contrast enhancement in the image.
Clipping histogram equalization methods by Yang et al. (2003); Wang et al. (2006); Nicholas et al. (2009); Kim
and Paik (2008); Ooi et al. (2009); Ooi and Isa (2010); Liang et al. (2012) are superior in controlling the

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enhancement rate, brightness preserving and avoiding over amplification of noise in the image. Contrast
enhancement techniques emphasize the small or suppressed objects and object edges, resulting high positional
accuracy of coastline through automatic detection.
The present study was carried out with a view to develop an automatic shoreline extraction method using
clipped histogram equalization based contrast enhancement for enhancing coastal pixels and thresholding techniques
for segment water and land regions. DSAS software and multi-temporal IRS-P6 and IRS-R2 data has been used for
the analysis of shoreline changes of Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth area, Mangalore Coast, West Coast of India.
The present paper is organized in five sections. Section 1 gives brief introduction of coastal zone, shoreline
changes and existing automatic coastline detection methods. Section 2 explains the selected study area and section 3
describes the data used and methodology developed for automatic shoreline extraction. Section 4 demonstrates the
application of developed method through results and discussion and finally, concluding technical remarks are
presented in section 5.
2. Study Area and Data Products
Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth area, a stretch along Mangalore Coast from Talapady in the South and
Tannirbhavi beach in the North, along the West Coast of India is the study area. The study area lies between
1245'26''1253'25'' North latitude and 7447'00''-7453'00'' East longitude as shown in Figure 1.
Netravati and Gurpur rivers are originate in the Western Ghats, flows westward, takes almost 90 turn near the
cost and then flows parallel to the coast either southward or northward, before joining the Arabian Sea at Mangalore
by Dwarakish (2001). Bengre at North and Ullal at South are two active submerged sand spits attached to mainland
developing infront of the confluence of rivermouth.

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area

Total 16 km length of coastline including rivermouth and 5 km width (1 km offshore and 4 km onshore from
shoreline) covering an area of 80 km2 is considered as a study area to predict shoreline changes in and around the
rivermouth. The rivermouth is unstable because of the large carrying capacity of Netravatiriver compared to that of
Gurpur river discharges lot of sediments into Arabian Sea. The climate is tropical and the mean daily temperature
recorded so far is 37C. The average annual rainfall is 3954 mm of which 87% is received during the southwest
monsoon (June to September) by Murthy et al. (1988).Geometrically corrected and orthorectified IRS P6 LISSIII
2005, 2007, 2010 and IRS R2 LISSIII 2013 pre-monsoon (January to May) remotely sensed satellite data set have
been used for shoreline change studies of Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth, West Coast of India. The specifications of
satellite data used in the study are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Specifications of satellite data used in the study
Sl No.

Satellite & Sensor

Acquired Date

Path/Row

Resolution (m)

01

IRS-P6 LISS-III

2005-01-05

97/64

23.5

02

IRS-P6 LISS-III

2007-12-21

97/64

23.5

03

IRS-P6 LISS-III

2010-01-03

97/64

23.5

04

IRS-R2 LISS-III

2013-01-23

97/64

23.5

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3. Methodology
The proposed automated shoreline extraction method has been developed using ERDAS Imagine 9.2 from
geometrically rectified single band (near-infrared) grey-scale 8-bit (intensity value range between 0 and 255)
satellite images. At near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths, water appears dark in the image because of its strong
absorbance and mainly vegetation or exposed soil areas appear brighter because of their strong reflectance. The
complete methodology of the present study is shown as flow chart in Figure 2. The present study adopted Modified
Self-Adaptive Plateau Histogram Equalization with Method threshold (Modified SAPHE-M), a clipped histogram
equalization based contrast enhancement method to enhance coastal features.

Fig.2. Flow chart of automated shoreline extraction algorithm from

satellite image

Fig.3. Flow chart of Contrast Enhancement method based on

Clipped Histogram Equalization

3.1. Modified SelfAdaptive Plateau Histogram Equalization with Mean Threshold (Modified SAPHE-M)
Modified SAPHE-M, is a modified method of Self-Adaptive Plateau Histogram Equalization (SAPHE)
proposed by Wang et al., 2006, to enhance the main objects and supress the background for infrared images.
Modified SAPHE-M, which consists of five steps (Raju et al., 2013b);
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Smoothen the input image histogram with 3-neighbour Median filter

Fond the local maximum and global maximum values
Selected the optimal mean plateau value
Modified the histogram according to mean plateau value and equalize the histogram
Normalized the image brightness

In Modified SAPHE-M, the original histogram h(x) was obtained from the input image, for 0 x L-1.
Histogram h(x), was filtered by using a median filter of 3-neighbour (i.e. a median filter of size 17 pixels), to
reduce the fluctuation and also to remove some empty bins inside the histogram. A new congregation histogram
{h(x) |0 x J} was formed based on non-empty bins in the filtered histogram. Where, J was the number of nonzero
units in filtered histogram.
Local maximum values and global maximum value of h(x) were found by applying differential operation to
h(x) as shown in Eq. (1);
h'(x)=h(x)h(x-1),

for 1xJ

(1)

A sub-congregation {h(xi)} or histogram local maximum values h(xi), were found by using the Eq. (2) and Eq.(3);
|h'(x)|<min{|h'(x-1)|,|h'(x+1)|}

(2)

h'(x-1)>0, h'(x+1)<0

(3)

Where, 0 x J, 1 i Nmax and Nmax was the number of local maximum values. The global maximum value
h(xk) was found out from h(xi).Meannhk, was derived from sub-congregation {h(xi)| k i Nmax }. Then, the
evaluated hk, was the plateau threshold value (i.e. T). The modified histogram hmod(x) with the threshold value could
be generated by Eq. (4);
 
hmod(x) =


(4)

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Raju Aedla et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 563 570

Probability Density Function (PDF) was found from hmod(x) and then cumulative density function (CDF), c(x),
was determined from the PDF. The transformation function, f(x) was obtains the final output image from the Eq. (5)
and then normalizes the image for brightness preserving. The developed contrast enhancement method for satellite
images is illustrated in Figure 3.

f(x)=

(5)

3.2. Thresholding
Mean () and Standard Deviation () from local maximum and local minimum values of contrast enhanced
satellite image histogram were calculated using from Eq. 8 to Eq. 11. +2 and -2 were treated as maximum
threshold value (TMAX) and minimum threshold value (TMIN) respectively. If f(i,j) was the intensity value of the image
pixel at (i,j), and TMAX and TMIN were locally adaptive maximum and minimum threshold values, the output image
g(i,j) after thresholding operation (6) is;
  
   
  

(6)

The pixels with intensity value higher than maximum threshold were coded as 0 (land pixels), pixels intensity
between minimum and maximum threshold were coded as 255 (sand pixels) and the pixels with intensity value
lower than minimum threshold were coded as 0 (water pixels).Region grouping and labeling was performed using a
grass fire concept, where the image was scanned in a row-wise manner, and a fire was set at the first pixel of an
image object. The water pixels were coded as 0s in g(i,j) and grouped and labeled as individual image objects. In
next step, the land pixels were grouped and labeled into individual objects and coded as 255s. After these two
stages, only two large continuous land and ocean objects were appeared in the image. The small image objects,
which were not belongs to shoreline were dissolved into the land and ocean areas were removed by Region of
Interest (ROI) method by Parker (1997). Single or multiple regions or objects were detached from the image using
ROI method. The morphological image operations, image dilation and erosion were used to generalize the jagged
boundaries of image objects and making the coastline morphologically smoother by Parker (1997). The smoothed
shoreline was highlighted with Roberts edge operator by Thieler et al. (2005) and outlined shorelines were
converted to vector maps. The vector maps of IRS P6 LISS-III (2005, 2007 and 2010) and IRS R2 LISS-III (2013)
were carried into DSAS to calculate the rate of shoreline movement and changes.
DSAS casts a number of transects perpendicular from a baseline and records the intersection position between
transect and each shoreline. DSAS automatically generated several statistical methods, such as Shoreline Change
Envelope (SCE), Net Shoreline Movement (NSM), End Point Rate (EPR), Linear Regression Rate (LRR), Weighted
Linear Regression (WLR) and Least Median of Squares (LMS). In the present study, shoreline changes were
estimated using two statistical approaches such as End Point Rate (EPR) and Linear Regression Rate (LRR). The
EPR was calculated by dividing the distance of shoreline movement by the time elapsed between the earliest and
latest measurements at each transect. LRR was used to express the long-term rates of shoreline change.
4. Results And Discussion
DSAS generated 800 transect that were oriented perpendiculars to the baseline at 30 m spacing along 16 km
length of Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth.Shoreline change rates have been calculated using DSAS software with two
different statistical techniques such as EPR and LRR. Baseline is constructed 300 m distance from latest 2013
shoreline and total 533 transects are generated with 20 m spacing along 16 km stretch of study area. Most substantial
changes have been observed at Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth. Bengre spit, northern sector of NetravaiGurpurrivermouth is under accretion and Ullal spit, southern segment is under erosion. For complete analysis, the
study area is divided into 5 regions. Region A, Thannirbhavi Beach, northern part of rivermouth covers transects
from 1 to 130 and transects from 131 to 156 in Bengre Sand Spit, termed as Region B. Region C, Ullal Sand Spit
southern part of rivermouth covered by transects from 177 to 230. Ullal Beach from transects 231 to 421 is labeled
as Region D and finally, transects from 422 to 523 in Someshwara Beach is considered as Region E. The resulted

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Raju Aedla et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 563 570

shoreline change rate assessed at each region with respect to transect was plotted for the study area is shown in
Figure 4. The detailed transect and shoreline change trends in all the five regions of the study area are given in Table
2.

Rate of Change
(m/yr)

A - Thannirbhavi Beach
B - Bengre Sand Spit
C - Ullal Sand Spit

50

100

150

A
B

Rivermouth

10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 0
-4
-6
-8

200

250

300

Transect

350

400

450

500

550

EPR

LRR

Fig.4. The resulted shoreline change rates (erosion/accretion) using EPR and LRR

From Figure 4, Region A, Tannirbhavi Beach, from transects 1 to 130 do not show much change in shoreline and
average shoreline change rate is 1.5 m/yr (EPR) and 1.41 m/yr (LRR) from 2005 to 2013. In Tannirbhavi Beach, at
transect 40 and 59 maximum shoreline accretion of 3.27 m/yr (EPR) and 3.04 m/yr (LRR) and average erosion rate
is -0.96 m/yr (EPR) and -0.89 m/yr (LRR). Region B, Bengre Sand Spit, northern part of rivermouth from transects
131 to 156 is under accretion and average accretion rate is 2.96 m/ye (EPR) and 3.07 m/yr (LRR). The maximum
accretion rate is 8.51 m/yr (EPR) and 8.69 m/yr (LRR) at transect 144. The sediments discharges from Netravati and
Gurpur rivers are moving towards North due to wave action in Southwest direction and currents from South to
North. Due to circulation of water, calm area is created on the Northern sector of rivermouth (Bengre Sand Spit) and
more sand is deposited from transects 140 to 145 as shown in Figure 4. The average shoreline accretion rate in this
area is 7.26 m/yr (EPR) and 7.41 m/yr (LRR).
Table 2.Shoreline change trends in study area
A
Region
Tannirbhavi Beach
transect
1-130
Number of transect
130
Transect length (m)
700
Baseline distance from
300
coastline (m)
Average Accretion
1.50 (EPR)
(m/yr)
1.41 (LRR)
-1.00 (EPR)
Average Erosion (m/yr)
-0.83 (LRR)
3.27 (EPR)
Max. accretion (m/yr)
3.04 (LRR)
(transect)
(40 and 59)
-2.74 (EPR)
Max. erosion (m/yr)
-2.38 (LRR)
(transect)
(68)

B
Bengre Sand Spit
131-156
26
700

C
Ullal Sand Spit
177-230
54
700

D
Ullal Beach
231-421
191
700

E
Someshwara Beach
422-523
102
700

300

300

300

300

2.95 (EPR)
3.07 (LRR)
------8.51 (EPR)
8.69 (LRR)
(144)

-------0.56 (EPR)
-0.59 (LRR)

1.53 (EPR)
1.58 (LRR)
-2.41 (EPR)
-2.35 (LRR)
3.77 (EPR)
3.90 (LRR)
(272)
-5.66 (EPR)
-5.74 (LRR)
(419)

1.62 (EPR)
1.56 (LRR)
-1.25 (EPR)
-1.18 (LRR)
2.75 (EPR)
2.67 (LRR)
(450)
-4.29 (EPR)
-4.35 (LRR)
(422)

-------

-------4.31 (EPR)
-4.25 (LRR)
(188)

Region C, Ullal Sand Spit, the southern sector of Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth is undergoing erosion and
average shoreline erosion rate is -0.56 m/yr (EPR) and -0. 59 m/yr (LRR) from transects 177 to 230. Due to high
concentration of wave energy on the Ullal side, indicating the predominant movement of sediments from NetravatiGurpur rivers towards North and more deposition in Bengre Spit.
Region D, from transects 231 to 421 covers Ullal Beach and shows less accretion and erosion rates because of
sea wall constructed along the coastline. The average shoreline change rate from 2005 to 2013 in Ullal Beach is 0.49 m/yr (EPR) and -0.44 m/yr (LRR). From transects 292 to 297 and 327 to 421 observed shoreline erosion and
the shoreline change rate is -2.34 m/yr (EPR) and -2.27 m/yr (LRR). From transects from 231 to 291 and 298 to 421,
shoreline accretion is perceived and the average shoreline accretion rate is 1.57 m/yr (EPR) and 1.63 m/yr (LRR).
Someshwara Beach, region E from transects 422 to 523 shows less regular changes in accretion and erosion
rates because of low energy concentrated wave actions. The average shoreline change rate in region E is 0.48 m/yr
and 0.44 m/yr. From transects 422 to 434 and 456 to 489, shoreline erosion is observed and average shoreline

Raju Aedla et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 563 570

change rate is -1.30 m/yr (EPR) and -1.26 m/yr (LRR). The shoreline accretion is perceived from transects 435 to
455 and mean shoreline accretion rate is 1.6 m/yr (EPR) and 1.42 m/yr (LRR). The average accretion rate from
transects 490 to 519 is 2.36 m/yr (EPR) and 2.32 m/yr (LRR). From transects 524 to 543, in Someshwara Beach
shows shoreline accretion and mean shoreline change rate is 0.85 m/yr (EPR) and 0.79 m/yr (LRR).
5. Conclusions
The present study provides the automated shoreline extraction method from satellite images using contrast
enhancement and thresholding based techniques. The developed contrast enhancement method based on Modified
Self-Adaptive Plateau-Histogram Equalization with Mean Threshold (Modified SAPHE-M) improved significant
contrast enrichment of coastal edges and coastal objects for clear recognition and delineation. The thresholding
operation, in combination of mean () and standard deviation () has efficiently segmented the land and water
regions. Region of interest method is perfectly removed unwanted objects from ocean and land regions and
morphological image operations are fine smoothed the shoreline by adding and removing pixels. End Point Rate
(EPR) and Linear Regression Rate (LRR) statistical methods are shown more substantial shoreline changes at
Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth.
Bengre Sand Spit (region B), northern sector of rivermouth is under sediment deposition and maximum
shoreline accretion rate is 8.51 m/yr from EPR and 8.69 m/yr from LRR at transect 144. The Tannirbhavi Beach
(region A), has shown not much change in shoreline and average shoreline change rate is 1.5 m/yr (EPR) and 1.41
m/yr (LRR). The southern segment of Netravati-Gurpurrivermouth, Ullal Sand Spit is undergoing erosion due to
high concentration of wave energy on Ullal side and average shoreline erosion rate is -0.56 m/yr (EPR) and -0.59
m/yr (LRR). Maximum shoreline erosion rate in region C is -4.31 m/yr (EPR) and -4.25 m/yr (LRR) at transect 188.
Ullal Beach, due to construction of sea wall, not much change in shoreline and average accretion rate is 1.53
m/yr (EPR) and 1.58 m/yr (LRR). The average erosion rate in Ullal Beach is -2.41 m/yr (EPR) and -2.35 m/yr
(LRR). The average accretion rate in Someshwara Beach is 1.62 m/yr (EPR) and 1.56 m/yr (LRR) and average
erosion rate is -1.25 m/yr (EPR) and -1.18 m/yr (LRR).
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