A DDIS A BABA UNIVERSITY

Mathematical Fallacies and Paradoxes

Miliyon T.
March 10, 2015

Abstract: Mathematical fallacies are errors, typically committed with an intent to deceive, that occur in a mathematical proof or argument. A fallacy in
an argument doesnt necessarily mean that the conclusion is necessarily incorrect, only that the argument itself is wrong. However, fallacious arguments can
have surprising conclusions. Apart from a mathematical fallacy a paradox is a
statement that goes against our intuition but may be true, or a statement that is
or appears to be self-contradictory. Mathematical paradoxes result from either
counter-intuitive properties of infinity, or self-reference.

F IRST FALLACY
A fallacy due to John Bernoulli, may be stated as follows. We have (1)2 = 1 . Take logarithms,
2 log(1) = log 1 = 0 .
log(1) = 0
1 = e 0
1 = 1
The same argument may be expressed thus. Let x be a quantity which satisfies the equation e x = 1
Square both sides
e 2x = 1
2x = 0
x =0
ex = e0
But e x = 1 and e 0 = 1,
1 = 1

S ECOND FALLACY
Suppose that a = b, then
ab = a 2
ab b 2 = a 2 b 2
b(a b) = (a + b)(a b)
b = a +b
b = 2b
1=2

T HIRD FALLACY
Let a and b be two unequal numbers, and let c be their arithmetic mean, hence
a + b = 2c
(a + b)(a b) = 2c(a b)
a 2 2ac = b 2 2bc
a 2 2ac + c 2 = b 2 2bc + c 2
(a c)2 = (b c)2
a =b

F OURTH FALLACY
From Taylors expansion, we know that
log(1 + x) = x 12 x 2 + 31 x 3 .
If x = 1, the resulting series is convergent; hence we have
log 2 = 1 12 + 13 14 + 51 16 + 71 18 + 19 .
2 log 2 = 2 1 + 23 21 + 25 31 + 72 14 + 92 .
Taking those terms together which have a common denominator, we obtain
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
3 2 5 7 4 9
1 1 1 1
= 1 + +
2 3 4 5
= log 2

2 log 2 = 1 +

2=1

F IFTH FALLACY
This fallacy is very similar to that last given. We have
log 2 = 1 21 + 13 14 + 15 16 +

= 1 + 13 + 15 + 21 + 14 + 61 +

= 1 + 13 + 51 + + 12 + 41 + 16 + 2 12 + 14 + 61 +

= 1 + 12 + 13 + 1 + 12 + 13 +
=0
The error in each of the foregoing examples is obvious, but the fallacies in the next examples are concealed somewhat better.

S IXTH FALLACY
p
p
We can write the identity 1 = 1 in the form
r

r
1
1
=
p1
p1
1
1
p =p
1
1
p
p 2
2
( 1) = ( 1)
1 = 1

S EVENTH FALLACY
Again, we have
p
p
a b = ab
p
p
p
1 1 = (1)(1)
p
p
( 1)2 = 1
p

1 = 1

E IGHTH FALLACY
The following demonstration depends on the fact that an algebraical identity is true whatever be the symbols used in it, and it will appeal only to those who are familiar with this
fact.
We have, as an identity,
p

xy =i

y x

(1)

p
p
where i stands either for + 1 or for 1. Now an identity in x and y is necessarily true
whatever numbers x and y may represent. First put x = a and y = b,
p
p
a b = i b a
(2)

Next put x = b and y = a,

p
p
b a = i a b

(3)

Also since (1) is an

pidentity,pit follows that in (2) and (3) the symbol i must be the same, that
is, it represents + 1 or 1 in both cases. Hence, from (2) and (3), we have
p
p
p
p
a b b a = i2 b a a b ,
1 = i2,
1 = 1 .

N INTH FALLACY
This paradox is due to my teacher Elias1
Consider the following limit
Case I
lim

1+2++n
1
2
n
= lim 2 + lim 2 + + lim 2
2
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
2
1
1
= lim 2 + lim 2 + + lim
n n
n n
n n
= 0+0++0
=0

Case II
1+2++n
n(n + 1)
= lim
(G auss Sum)
2
n
n
n
2n 2
h n2
n i
n2 + n
=
lim
+
= lim
n 2n 2
n 2n 2
2n 2
2
n
n
= lim
+
lim
n 2n 2
n 2n 2
1
= +0
2
1
=
2
lim

Hence from Case I and Case II we can conclude that

0=

1
2

Elias Bogale is one of a few teacher which I have been taught by.

R EFERENCES
[1] [Clifford A. Pickover] A Passion for Mathematics, 2005.
[2] [E. A. Maxwell] Fallacies in mathematics, 1963.
[3] [Bryan Bunch] Mathematical fallacies and paradoxes, 1982.
[4] [Wiki] Mathematical fallacy.