M. Yaqoub M.phil. Mass Comm - 2013 - Bookformat Final

ABSTRACT
The aims of current research is to explore and address the agenda-setting role of national
press on the most vital ten national issues during the phase of Parliamentary General
Elections 2013 in Pakistan. The basic framework of this study is based on the theory of
agenda setting. This theory is employed to investigate the effects of this theory on defining
and selecting news that are related to ten major national issues. The main objectives of the
study are to find out the correlation between media agenda and public (student) agenda and to
examine the influence of national press on public agenda regarding significant national
issues. Media agenda and public agenda have been explored by using triangulation; both
content analysis and survey research methods. To explore the media agenda on national
issues, the coverage of national press about the most important ten issues is examined at the
front and back pages of three leading national popular daily Urdu Newspapers of Pakistan;
Jang, Nawa-i-Waqt and Express. Public's agenda is scrutinized by survey research using
questionnaire survey technique, to explore 'how public perceive about these most important
issues'. The main findings of this study reveal a moderate positive correlation between media
agenda and public agenda over all on ten main national issues'terrorism', 'energy crisis',
'economic crisis', 'corruption', 'Indo-Pak relations', 'US-Drone attacks', 'Pak-Taliban talks',
'education', 'unemployment' and 'health'. But on the other hand, there is found a significant
strong positive correlation only on four out of ten national issues-'terrorism', 'energy crisis',
'US-drone attacks', and 'economic crisis' within media agenda and public agenda. The
findings of Public's opinion towards the issues of this study are also found interconnected
with the slant and framing of these issues in the national press. On the results of present
study, it can be exposed that press not only tells the readers what to think about but also how
to think about these issues. Overall systematic findings of current research reveal that agenda
setting effects of national press on students' perception exist as moderate and not broadly
support the agenda setting theory among the universe of students. Additionally, there is
evidence that effects of news story's placement in newspapers are also recognized. The issue
'terrorism' which has obtained maximum coverage at front page of newspaper also received
the highest rank by the public agenda while the issue'health' which is given less space at
the front and maximum at the back page has received the less score by the public agenda.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CHAPTER 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
14.1
15.
15.1
16.
16.1
17.
18.
19.
CHAPTER 3
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.
2.1
2.2
CHAPTER 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Page
INTRODUCTION
1
Introduction of the Study ----------------------------------------------- 1
Research Framework ---------------------------------------------------- 8
Significance of Study ---------------------------------------------------- 8
Rationale of study ------------------------------------------------------ 11
Research Objectives --------------------------------------------------- 11
LITERATURE REVIEW
13
Development and Research in Agenda setting--------------------- 13
Agenda Setting Studies in 20th Century ---------------------------- 15
Agenda Setting Studies in 21st Century ---------------------------- 24
Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Issues ----------------------------------- 37
Media Distortion ------------------------------------------------------- 38
Information Vacuum--------------------------------------------------- 38
Urdu Dominates -------------------------------------------------------- 38
Diversification ---------------------------------------------------------- 40
Media Education in Pakistan ----------------------------------------- 40
Nature of Newspapers' Readers in Pakistan ------------------------ 41
Best Media -------------------------------------------------------------- 41
Selected Newspapers for Study -------------------------------------- 42
Influences on Editorial Policies -------------------------------------- 42
Daily Jang Newspaper ------------------------------------------------- 43
Daily Jang E-Paper ---------------------------------------------------- 44
Daily Nawa-i-Waqt Newspaper -------------------------------------- 44
Daily Nawa-i-Waqt E-Paper ----------------------------------------- 45
Daily Express Newspaper--------------------------------------------- 45
Daily Express E-Paper ------------------------------------------------ 46
Statement of the Problem --------------------------------------------- 46
Research Questions ---------------------------------------------------- 47
Hypotheses -------------------------------------------------------------- 47
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
49
Theoretical Framework ----------------------------------------------- 49
Agenda Setting Theory ------------------------------------------------ 50
Priming Theory --------------------------------------------------------- 53
Framing Theory -------------------------------------------------------- 55
Variables of the Study ------------------------------------------------- 57
Independent Variable -------------------------------------------------- 57
Dependent Variable ---------------------------------------------------- 58
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
59
Methodology ------------------------------------------------------------ 59
Research Design-------------------------------------------------------- 60
Temporal Frame -------------------------------------------------------- 60
Importance of Issues --------------------------------------------------- 60
Research Setting-------------------------------------------------------- 60
Content Analysis ------------------------------------------------------- 61
ii
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.7.1
6.7.2
6.7.3
6.7.4
6.7.5
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8.
CHAPTER 5
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
1.4.6
1.4.7
1.4.8
1.5
2.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
Unit of Analysis -------------------------------------------------------- 62

Population --------------------------------------------------------------- 63
Sample and Sample Size ---------------------------------------------- 63
Sampling Method ------------------------------------------------------ 63
Coding Unit of Analysis ---------------------------------------------- 64
Contextual Unit of Analysis ------------------------------------------ 64
Variables ---------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Frequency --------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Length ------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Slant ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Frame -------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Placement --------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Survey Research-------------------------------------------------------- 66
Unit of Analysis -------------------------------------------------------- 67
Population --------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Sample and Sample Size ---------------------------------------------- 67
Sampling Dynamics --------------------------------------------------- 68
Sampling Methods ----------------------------------------------------- 68
Instrument of Survey Data Collection ------------------------------ 68
Data Presentation------------------------------------------------------- 69
DATA ANALYSIS
70
Content Analysis ------------------------------------------------------- 70
Frequencies ------------------------------------------------------------- 71
News Items' Length ---------------------------------------------------- 72
Slants--------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
Framing ------------------------------------------------------------------ 75
Framing of 'Terrorism' Issue ----------------------------------------- 76
Framing of 'Energy Crisis' Issue ------------------------------------- 77
Framing of 'Indo-Pak Relations' Issue ------------------------------ 78
Framing of 'Health' Issue---------------------------------------------- 79
Framing of 'Corruption Issue' ---------------------------------------- 80
Framing of 'US-Drone Attacks' Issue ------------------------------- 81
Framing of 'Economic Crisis' Issue --------------------------------- 82
Framing of 'Pak-Taliban Talks' Issue ------------------------------- 83
News Stories Placement----------------------------------------------- 84
Survey Research-------------------------------------------------------- 86
Places of the Readers -------------------------------------------------- 86
Purchase of Newspaper ----------------------------------------------- 87
Language of Newspaper ---------------------------------------------- 87
Spending Time on Newspaper Reading ---------------------------- 88
Level of News ---------------------------------------------------------- 88
Reader's Satisfaction at Coverage of News Contents ------------- 89
The Most Sincere Friend Country of Pakistan --------------------- 89
Readers of Daily Newspapers ---------------------------------------- 90
Readers' Exposure to News Contents ------------------------------- 91
Public's Ranking on National Issues -------------------------------- 92
Information Source ---------------------------------------------------- 93
iii
2.12
Discussion with Colleagues and Friends --------------------------- 94
2.13
Readers' Opinion about the Issues ----------------------------------- 95
2.13.1
'Terrorism' Issue -------------------------------------------------------- 95
2.13.2
'Pak-Taliban Talks' Issue --------------------------------------------- 96
2.13.3
'US-Drone Attacks' Issue --------------------------------------------- 96
2.13.4
'Energy Crisis' Issue --------------------------------------------------- 97
2.13.5
'Indo-Pak Relations' Issue--------------------------------------------- 97
2.13.6
'Health' Issue ------------------------------------------------------------ 98
2.13.7
'Corruption' Issue ------------------------------------------------------- 98
2.13.8
'Economic Crisis' Issue ------------------------------------------------ 99
2.13.9
Public Opinion about the Root Cause of All Problems ----------- 99
2.14
Public's Ranking Order on National Issues (OEQ)--------------- 101
2.15
Comparison between Media Agenda and Public Agenda ------- 103
3.
Statistical Analysis--------------------------------------------------- 105
3.1
Testing of Hypotheses ------------------------------------------------ 105
3.1.1
Correlation between Media and Public Agendas ----------------- 105
3.1.2
Influence of Media Agenda on Public Agenda ------------------- 108
CHAPTER 6
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
112
1.
Findings ---------------------------------------------------------------- 112
2.
Discussion on Results ------------------------------------------------ 119
3.
Similarities in Media Agenda and Public Agenda --------------- 124
4.
Differences in Media Agenda and Public Agenda --------------- 124
5.
Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------- 124
6.
Recommendations and Suggestions -------------------------------- 125
7.
Directions for Future Research -------------------------------------- 126
8.
Delimitations of Study ----------------------------------------------- 126
Appendixes --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
Appendix-A--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
Appendix-B --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 134
Appendix-C--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 136
Appendix-D--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 142
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1:
Top 10 countries with highest newspapers circulation ---------- 40
Table 4.1:
Sampling Dynamics -------------------------------------------------- 68
Table 5.1:
Overall slanting of news items -------------------------------------- 75
Table 5.2:
News Stories Placement in Newspapers --------------------------- 84
Table 5.3:
Place where readers often prefer to read newspaper ------------- 86
Table 5.4:
Readers buy own newspaper regularly ----------------------------- 87
Table 5.5:
Readers' preferred language ----------------------------------------- 87
Table 5.6:
Average time per day reading newspapers ------------------------ 88
Table 5.7:
Reader's preferred level of news ------------------------------------ 88
Table 5.8:
Satisfaction with the coverage of newspapers -------------------- 89
Table 5.9:
Most sincere friend country of Pakistan --------------------------- 90
Table 5.10:
Expose the newspapers for information --------------------------- 90
Table 5.11:
Exposure of news contents------------------------------------------- 92
Table 5.12:
Public's ranking order on national issues -------------------------- 93
Table 5.13:
Reliable and authentic source of information --------------------- 94
iv
Table 5.14:
Table 5.15.1:
Table 5.15.2:
Table 5.15.3:
Table 5.15.4:
Table 5.15.5:
Table 5.15.6:
Table 5.15.7:
Table 5.15.8:
Table 5.15.9:
Table 5.16:
Table 5.17:
Figure 1.1:
Figure 2.1:
Figure 5.1:
Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.3.1:
Figure 5.3.2:
Figure 5.3.3:
Figure 5.3.4:
Figure 5.3.5:
Figure 5.3.6:
Figure 5.3.7:
Figure 5.3.8:
Figure 5.4:
Figure 5.5:
Figure 5.6:
Discuss the issues with friends -------------------------------------- 95

Public opinion about 'Terrorism' Issue ----------------------------- 95
Public opinion about 'Pak-Taliban Talks' Issue ------------------- 96
Public opinion about 'US-Drone Attacks' Issue------------------- 96
Public opinion about 'Energy Crisis' Issue ------------------------ 97
Public opinion about 'Indo-Pak Relations' Issue ------------------ 98
Public opinion about 'Health' Issue --------------------------------- 98
Public opinion about 'Corruption' Issue ---------------------------- 99
Public opinion about 'Economic Crisis' Issue --------------------- 99
Root cause of all kinds of problems in Pakistan ----------------- 100
Public's Ranking Order on Issues (OEQ) ------------------------- 102
Statistical Sig. of Hypotheses -------------------------------------- 111
LIST OF FIGURES
Research Process -------------------------------------------------------- 8
McCombs & Shaw's Agenda setting model (1976) -------------- 16
Frequencies of news items in dailies newspapers ---------------- 72
Length of the news stories published in dailies------------------- 73
Framing of 'Terrorism' Issue ---------------------------------------- 76
Framing of 'Energy Crisis' Issue ------------------------------------ 77
Framing of 'Indo-Pak Relations' Issue ----------------------------- 78
Framing of 'Health' Issue -------------------------------------------- 79
Framing of 'Corruption' Issue --------------------------------------- 80
Framing of 'US-Drone Attacks' Issue ------------------------------ 81
Framing of 'Economic Crisis' Issue -------------------------------- 82
Framing of 'Pak-Taliban Talks' Issue ------------------------------ 83
News Stories Placement in Newspapers --------------------------- 85
Expose the Newspapers ---------------------------------------------- 91
Comparison between Media Agenda and public Agenda ------ 104
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction of the Study

Over the last four decades, communication scholars, researchers and theorists interest in and
research on the correlation between media agenda and public agenda have flourished in all
over the world1. National press occupies an increasingly important place in Pakistani society.
Pakistan is a country, where the strong agenda setting role of national press has been
examined2. An agenda is a set of issues disseminated in a hierarchy of significance at any
point in time and the public (society) had their agenda set by the media. The basic claim of
agenda setting notion is that agenda setting is the capability of mass media to bring issues or
topics to publics attentions and if media take up and give more coverage to an issue or topicsuch as 'terrorism', or 'energy crisis'-they make public to think about it then public perceive
that issue as important as compared to the other issues. The concept of agenda setting
progresses comprehensively and very well in all over the world. The term itself not often
necessitate alteration and has been used in numerous studies in at least many countries around
the world. The agenda setting theory has become a 'paradigm' that offered a marketplace of
notions for media impact research3. At the present time in electronic age, it has become very
difficult for us to remain constantly without bulk of news about economic and political
changes, war on terror, inflations, terrorist attacks, terrorists suicide attacks, drone attacks,
environment, health, education, showbiz, sports, disasters, accidents, relations with foreign
countries that happen inside and outside of our country and so many others news about
different issues. Relying on the news of mass media outlets e.g., newspapers, radios,
televisions, internet; people make their attitudes, behaviors and perceptions and build the
opinions about the world and issues of the world.
1
Wanta, W., Golan, G., & Lee, C. (2004). Agenda setting and international news: Media influence on public
perceptions of foreign nations. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(2), 364-377.
2
Ashraf, A. (2012). Relationship between Media Agenda and Audience Agenda on War on Terror. Saarbrucken,
Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing; Riaz, S. (2008). Agenda Setting Role of Mass Media. Global Media
Journal, 1(2), ISSN 2070-2469.
3
McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1993). The Evolution of Agenda-Setting Research: Twenty-Five Years in
the Marketplace of Ideas. Journal of Communication, 43(2), 58-67.
The term 'agenda setting' in mass media actually was taken from famous
American columnist W. Lippmann1, who laid groundwork for the theory in the book "Public
Opinion" which was published in 1922. The first chapter of his book is 'The World Outside
and the Pictures in Our Heads' since days of penny press, in the seminal work, he argues that
real world is too big and complex for people to understand in whole. He states that media is
responsible for "pictures inside our heads". According to Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, most of
people even rely on domestic news media to get a picture of the world. Media has the ability
to manipulate issues or disseminate limited information to the public2. Lippmann was one of
the first scholars who talked about role and impacts of media in our lives which was actually
refer to the modern term 'agenda setting'. In a related stratum, forty one years later on, Cohen
advances Lippmann's idea in the book "The Press and Foreign Policy" more expresses the
idea of agenda setting, when he argues that press most of the time is successful in convincing
its audience 'what to think about'3. In simple, he states that the media affects what audiences
think about, not what they think. It remains maybe utmost straightforward and accepted
definition of agenda setting up to now-a-days.
Approximately four and half decades ago, a piece of writing strongly created,
how scholars and public came to understand journalists' reporting of presidential elections
campaigns and influence on public perception. It was an article based on twelve pages that
explained functions of media in agenda setting. This piece of writing was appeared in
academic journal Public Opinion Quarterly in 19724.
Agenda setting is an extremely interesting and charming notion, and has
attracted a great amount of research consideration. The agenda setting study was first
empirically tested in the early 1970s which is also known as "Chapel Hill" study. According
to one fairly guess more than 400 empirical and theoretical studies all over the world
examined different aspects of agenda setting theory of mass media5.After so many researches
on agenda setting role of media, the agenda setting theory proved to have a heuristic value
1
Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co.
BallRokeach, S. J., & DeFleur, M. L. (1976). A Dependency Model of MassMedia Effect. Communication
Research 3(1): 321.
3
Cohen, B. (1963). The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
4
McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion
Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.
5
McCombs, M. (2004). Setting the agenda: Mass media and public opinion. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
2
and an explanatory power in journalism, mass communication, political communication and

political science.
Starting from the original study1, most of the studies in agenda setting claim
major role of the news media is to tell the audience and readers about issues important for the
world. The amount of information about a subject indicates what media and subsequently the
public find important.
The studies on the correlation between agendas of media and public have
enjoyed a long and fruitful past. Different studies in all over the world show that when the
media publish or broadcast a subject as significant, the public follow suit2. Basically, Agenda
setting is a popular notion in media that there is an association between stress media puts on
the issues via placement or volume of coverage or in the form of time and the public's
consequent assessment of the same issue importance.
During the last one and half decade, Mass Media has come into existence as a
massive source of information in Pakistan. All the broadcasting networks and the print media
organizations have gone through extraordinary innovative changes. The media organizations
whether they belong to electronic media or print media are also have to increase their size in
terms of outreach, news coverage, staff and so many others aspects. The structure of media in
Pakistan is of two types; one is public sector and other is private controlled. The private
media is more significant among the public in Pakistan as compared state control media3.
Daily newspapers have become part of lives in literary communities.
Newspapers shape our thinking about important events. We start our days with daily morning
newspapers. It has become the habit of majority people that they get up early in the morning
and try to get the news from newspapers but some people prefer to read the newspapers in
their offices, likewise some students prefer to read the newspapers in library during the
leisure time and some like to read at home or hostel. When we read newspapers, we learn and
come to know about current events in detail. Newspapers tell us what is happening around us
1
Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.
2
3
Mahsud, M. N. (2006). Mass Communication: An Introduction to Information Revolution, Theories, Skill and
Practices. Islamabad: Higher Education Commission.
in the world. They also keep us in touch with news in our own neighborhood. Obviously, not
everything is reported. The editors of newspaper give the coverage of those news stories
which they think people are interested in and wanted to read. Newspapers are more up-todate than books, magazines and journals. They have more variety than magazine, and provide
more details than television and radio. So, newspapers are still useful part of the research
study1.
"Acta Diurna" which means daily activities is considered the ancient daily
newspaper. It was started by Julius Caesar in 69 B.C. The contents of this newspaper were
consisted on government order, news laws, important events and entrainment. The major
feature of mass media is considered as to inform its audience. Media plays a vital role in
making the public opinion about different issues/subjects in the world2.
Print media especially daily newspapers are still important sources of
information in all over the world even in the developed courtiers. Newspaper provides the
detailed information to its readers. Newspapers cover the variety of aspects for different
consumers. According to Berelson3, different people read the newspapers in five ways; for
recreation, public affairs, for information, entrainment, and for socialization. The integrity of
the reporters increases the credibility of a newspaper, which is measured as a very important
asset of any news media organization4.
Even in present modern world, some people are still unaware about the
impacts of mass media on their lives. Most of the time, we don't care about media
involvement in our lives. Usually, we start our morning with watching the news bulletin on
TV or reading the newspapers with a cup of coffee or breakfast. Street reveals that news
media not only report the events and figures, they also restrain and revive them into
description with actors and plots5. From morning to evening and going to bed, frequently
1
Hamilton, J. (2005). Newspapers: A look at the history of newspapers, famous news agencies and people, parts
typical newspapers, how newspapers are made and how they can be used to research a report. United States.
ABDO Publishing Company.
Retrieved on January 17, 2013 from http://www.books.google.com.pk/books?isbn=1591975476
2
Kumar, K. J. (2003). Mass Media for India. Delhi: Jaico Publishing House.
3
Berelson, B. (1949). What missing newspaper means? In P. Lazarsfeld and F. Stanton, eds. Communication
Research 1948-1949. New York: Harper and Row.
4
Bradlee, B. C. (1981). Quoted in "Post Reporter's Pulitzer Prize Is Withdrawn," by David A. Maraniss.
Washington Post, 1.
5
Street, J. (2001). Mass Media, Politics and Democracy. New York: Palgrave.
reported events might raise the media inference among general public, that media illation has
a dangerous way of reaching and influencing public's perception and lives style.
According to Babalola1, newspapers in the print media are most available and
have the great access to a considerable number of people likewise teachers, students,
businessmen, servants, young, old, rich, poor, politician and voters. He also says these
newspapers are used as vehicles to empower the literacy because people collect the
information from newspapers on daily basis to discuss that certainly increase the ability of
problem solving, critical thinking, enquiring about sources of information, preservation of
information and draw a conclusion.
Mills argues that newspapers are the important sources of information
regarding the political, cultural, economic, social development issues in any nation, and these
newspapers are also vital resources for a researcher in social and natural sciences2.
Newspapers are recognized as to broaden the sphere of the public events, issues and topics
which audience already knows about3.
The function of mass media particularly print media is acknowledged all over
world. Now-a-days every person in modern and other like traditional societies has to depend
on news media. They read newspapers for knowledge, awareness and to analyze daily
incidents. When media portray the image about world events, audience makes that specific
picture in their minds4. Newspaper is considered a significant medium because of its role as a
portrayal of the society as well as a disseminator of news and information about national and
international issues.
The news media provides vital linkage between the public and the issues in a
society. The continuously increasing flow of press news set the national agenda on different
issues i.e. social, political and economic or any other in so many other issues. Print media and
electronic media are used for getting information in Pakistan and have audience members in
1
Babalola, E. A. (2002). Newspapers as instruments for building literate communities: The Nigerian experience.
Nordic Journal of African Studies, 11(3), 403-410.
2
Mills, T. F. (1981). Preserving yesterday's news for today's Historian: A brief history of newspaper
preservation, bibliography, and indexing. Austin, Texas, USA: University of Texas Press.
3
Schoenbach, K. (2005). Newspapers and their Impact on the extent of the perceived public agenda. European
Journal of Communication, 20(2), 245-258.
4
Riaz, S. (2008). Agenda Setting Role of Mass Media. Global Media Journal, 1(2), ISSN 2070-2469.
millions. Television and radio have considerable influence on audience members but still the
most reliable source of information among the masses is the national press. Press in Pakistan
is operating under private sector so it is enjoying freedom as compared in electronic media
PTV and Radio Pakistan (Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation) which are state controlled. But
now the situation is changed, a number of television and FM radio stations are in the hand of
private organizations. Now, the dependency of the people of Pakistan is continuously
increasing on private television news channels along with social media.
The print media is the oldest media in the Subcontinent. Pakistan being a part
of subcontinent is also having a primitive historical background of print media. Dating back
before independence and even till now, newspapers are the privately owned news media that
criticize state authorities. After the creation of Pakistan, it was considered as an opposition in
the early decades. The editorial, feature, article and column of newspapers always remain
important and they play a significant role in the formation of public opinion. In the last one
and half decade, print media has to undergone major changes i.e. contents, page layout,
makeup, headings, resources or correspondents of news and so many others changes. These
changes were essential to compete with the emerging electronic media. In the print media,
Urdu newspapers are dominant media equally in rural and urban areas and influential among
the general public.
Every day a great number of daily morning newspapers are published from
different parts of country. It is considered that press playing an important role in agenda
setting in Pakistani societies because it is sill most reliable source of information. Valenzuela
& McCombs express that most of the earlier researches are lying on the effects of news
media on voting behavior1. On other hand, the focus of current study is on the media type
press (newspapers)along with how press affects the students' perception about the specific
national burning issues during the research period.
The current research is intended to examine and find out the correlation
between the agendas of print media and public on national's issues. News media inform the
people of modern societies about important issues and events while on the other side
1
Valenzuela, S., & McCombs, M. (2007). Agenda-setting effects on vote choice: Evidence from the 2006
Mexican election. In annual conference of the International Communication Association. San Francisco, CA.
Retrieved on June 12, 2012 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p519584_index.html
audience makes their thinking as these issues are projected by media1. Regarding the function
of media as agenda setting and to measure this role of media on Pakistani society, the
researcher selected the vital issues of 'terrorism', 'energy crisis', 'economic crisis', 'corruption',
'Indo-Pak relations', 'US-drone attacks', 'Pak-Taliban talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and
'health' issues are selected. The fundamental goal of current research is to examine and
explore correlations within the press (newspapers) agenda and student's (public) agenda in the
region of Pakistan. In simple words, in the current research; the researcher wants to examine
whether and to what extent national press execute a function to influence public's agenda on
important ten issues among the universe of students in Pakistani society. Being performed in
a developing state of subcontinent in South Asia, the findings of current research reveal some
latest dimensions in agenda setting study during the General Elections 2013 in Pakistan.
This study assesses the agenda setting influence of print media on the students'
perceptions regarding the above mentioned ten national issues in Pakistan. The present study
aims to devote in research on national issues coverage in the newspapers and public opinion
about issues. In the Pakistani context, research on the agenda setting role of media on
student's perception regarding the salience of a particular issue has been largely neglected. In
this dissertation, researcher focuses on the association between the media and student
agendas in Pakistan and also studies the newspapers impacts on burning issues participant in
general and particular.
In this study, findings of content analysis of national press is matched with the
results of survey research on major national issues in Pakistan to study the association
between newspapers agenda and public agenda to identify whether and to what extent
national press agenda setting affects audience (students) agenda. This study examines the link
public salience of selected issues and the frequency and coverage in which those issues are
mentioned in national press. The findings of current study reveal the correlations between
media agenda and public agenda on national issues in Pakistan.
Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing.
2. Research Framework
The present research is based on content analyses of ten vital issues in three well-known
Pakistani Urdu newspapers and survey research on the same ten issues processing by students
in Punjab, Pakistan to analyze the correlation between the public and media agendas. A
literature on agenda setting is reviewed for understanding both media and public agendas.
This research is apart into six chapters. The first chapter contains introduction, significance,
rationale and objectives of study. The second chapter is devoted for review of literature,
research questions, problem statement and hypotheses of the study. Theoretical framework is
integrated in third section of current study. And fourth chapter of study is containing
methodology of research; both content analysis and survey research. The fifth chapter is
included to evaluate and examine collected data and to employ statistical analysis. And the
final sixth chapter contains the results, findings, conclusion and managerial implication,
summery and discussion, directions for future research and delimitations. The figure 1.1
depicts the research process and an overview of current study.
Figure 1.1: Research Process

3. Significance of Study
The central purpose of the current research is to explore and analyze correlation among
agendas of media and public on national issues coverage: Exploring agenda setting of national
press. Mass media especially print media is commonly regarded as the "fourth estate" and is
considered the watchdogs of the public interest. Free flow of information has emerged to be
the dominant characteristic of democratic societies. It has been recognized that the mass
media is key instruments for economic and educational development, political uplift and
social change. Mass media in democratic societies serve as a vehicle for engaging their people
in development process. Print media is still one of the most vital parts of mass media. It has
generally been perceived as powerful medium for social and cultural change. It is considered
as an effective instrument for socio-economic development and political socialization. It has a
significant role in influencing society as well as individuals. Newspaper, a powerful
communication arm of print media, has become ubiquitous across the length and breadth of
the world. Newspaper reading has become an integral part of modern life in literate societies.
News media has become crucial part of the modern societies because of its
unique improvement in the field of science & technology. Now-a-days, news media for every
person in modern and other societies has become almost as necessary as basic human needs. It
is reality that media is a reflection of that society in which it belongs. Media function is to
surveillance, inform, educate and entertain the public and so many other functions also
performed. Media assists the audience to know what is happening all over the world. These
are the journalists who put themselves at risk during terrorists' attacks, bomb blast, and natural
disasters, just to update the people about situation. Media is playing important role in
spreading the awareness in society. News media also create the picture in our heads and shape
our lives. Our lives may be incomplete without the media in the contemporary societies. Mass
media can play an effective role in our society and can be a great force in building our nation
but now, media has become commercialized area and only look at news with the aim of hot
and sells.
Today, instead of giving educative and informative contents, the main purpose
of the newspapers is to enhance their circulation. Once an incidence occurred then near about
cumulatively all morning newspapers give it specific place according to their policy for one or
two days, when over the heat, then other heated events take the place in newspapers. In the
modern society, we can't know about the world not including media. News media has great
impact on the opinion of people. From various kinds of media, much information comes to us;
we may agree or not agree with them. Some newspapers have the belonging with politicians
and disseminate their point of view. Individual can examine by reading varied newspapers for
same news and then makes a conclusion. When someone brings news to you-you should
investigate its credibility first (Quran).
News media is an essential split of our lives in a present society, but it has too
much interference in our lives. In the competition of media markets, some issues are given so
much importance in the newspapers just to make the money, and due to some less important
news, factual news can't publish. Sometimes, a number of newspapers also disseminate the
news in a way that the actual facts are missing from our heads. Sometimes, news media
broadcast or publish some offensive news and unnecessary activities as very essential, and
repeat them. The importance of media cannot be ignored even though have some demerits or
being thrilling and biased contents especially in an age where technological advancement,
fashion, globalization, transaction society, modernization, liberalization, and flow of
information have become order of the day. It is an era of communication and dependency of
people is increased on the mass media. In such situations, a lot of jobs by the mass media still
are needed to be done, especially the role of press for the betterment of society, being a united
nation, improvement of relations and better co-ordination among the people of Pakistan.
This research intended to explore whether and to what extent national press
execute their functions to affect readers concerning considerable issues of Pakistan and how
agenda of media turns into public agenda. There are many researchers who had executed to
examine the media role as agenda setting in the developed countries mostly in U.S. and
European countries and once in a blue moon in the developing countries. The core of present
dissertation is on agenda setting role of national press in Pakistani environment. In the area of
agenda setting, it is executed to explore some new dimensions. The researcher points out that
news media and policy maker can take steps to maximize the positive effects and minimize
the negative effects of print media regarding the agenda setting role of media. This study will
be also helpful to the government of Pakistan regarding their policies and acts on different
subjects. This research also examines and explores the most important issues of
students/youth which should be taken by the government.
The author is seeking to inform government, policymakers, educators, students and others
who work with public agenda and media agenda particularly newspaper and what society can
do to maximize the profit and minimize the costs. The findings and recommendations of this
10
document can be successful for the Pakistani government, Indian government, China
government,
US
government,
different
national
political
parties,
academicians,
communication scholars, theorists and researchers, judiciary, NGOs, Media owners especially
newspapers owners, administration, management, legislators, students of the universities and
general public.
4. Rationale of Study
This study is aimed at finding out the relationship between media and public/students agendas
on nationwide ten burning issues 'terrorism', 'energy crisis', 'economic crisis', 'corruption',
'Indo-Pak relations', 'US-drone attacks', 'Pak-Taliban talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and
'health' of Pakistan exploring agenda setting role of national press in Pakistan. Therefore, the
researcher found these issues suitable in determining agenda setting effects of the press in
Pakistani society. This study was important as a general concern for Pakistani readerships
especially the students readership of national press because they are well educated and have
how know about the subjects of the study. Keeping in mind the agenda setting function of
print media, only those students of different colleges and universities were selected that read
the sample newspapers.
5. Research Objectives
The main objective of present thesis is to identify agenda setting role of media and effects of
print media on the universe of students from university and college, Pakistan. The study has
the following specific objectives;
To investigate the correlation between media agenda and public agenda.
Whether news media agenda affects the public agenda on the national issues in
Pakistan.
To explore agenda setting role of national press on national issues in Pakistan.
To explore the tone of newspapers about the important national phenomena.
To examine and measure to what extent students are satisfied with the coverage of
newspapers on different national issues.
To find out how much newspapers effect the perception of students on national issues.
To determine what extent Urdu newspapers are popular among the students.
11
This study also investigates how students perceive the national issues.
To find out which medium is popular among the students.
To find out how much students are affected by the print media on national issues.
To explore the perception of readers regarding America, India and China.
To determine the needs and preferences of Pakistani youth students regarding

information.
To provide helpful data to the government in order to organize their policies on

different issues, for instance 'terrorism', Drone attacks etc.
To identify the reasons of reading newspaper.
To explore the perception of students/youth regarding political leadership.
To find out the root cause of all problems in Pakistan.
12
Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1.
Development and Research in Agenda Setting
The notion of an 'agenda' is the most important component of agenda setting theory. Agenda
setting theory deals with the effects that which issues and topics gain the attentions and
importance and which issues are expelled from the public discussion. Cohen is considered
one of the earliest agenda setting scholars; he gives the beautiful statement regarding the
media role in agenda setting that is measured as the basis for agenda setting function of
media. "The press may not be successful much of the time in telling its readers what to think,
but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about"1. He advocates that
news media formulates the specific topics, which people make attitude looking as significant.
This makes clear why specific subjects got a significant attention than others issues, due to
the reporting of these issues in mass media2. Some other popular definitions of agenda setting
are in the following lines;
Brosius & Kepplinger conducted a study on agenda setting role of mass media in Germany
and defined agenda setting as "agenda setting is the process in which changes in media
coverage lead to or cause subsequent changes in problem awareness of issues"3.
Dearing and Rogers themselves define agendas in a communication context as "a set of issues
that are communicated in a hierarchy of importance at a point in time"4.
Another place Rogers & Dearing define the media agenda as "The set of topics addressed by
all members of the news media is referred to as the media agenda"5.
Cohen, B. (1963). The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
3
Brosius, H. B., & Kepplinger, H. M. (1990). The agenda-setting function of television news: Static and
dynamic views. Communication Research, 17(2), 183211.
4
Dearing, J. W., & Rogers, E. M. (1996). Agenda-Setting. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications.
5
Rogers, E. M., & Dearing, J. W. (1988). Agenda setting research: Where has it been, where is it going? In J.
Anderson (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 11 (pp. 555-594). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2
13
Review of Literature is thought-out a significant step of research process

because it enables learning from previous literature and also saves time, efforts and money. A
rational and systematic review of literature makes a researcher to complete his study in a
proper way using proper methodology, procedures, techniques and statistical analysis.
The available literature on media function as setting the agenda is quite ample,
especially in America and others western developed countries. Early research on news
media's function in setting the agenda was conducted in 1968 that provided ground work for
further studies. This chapter reviews some of the existing literature of studies conducted on
agenda setting role of media and some theoretical considerations. This is a very critical and
important aspect of this research. Over the subsequent years, agenda setting as a theoretical
notion would be examined by a great number of communication scholars, sociologists and
political scholars on the globe.
The literature on agenda setting theory shows the effects of significant media
concentration laying on mass which audience gives to specific subjects. Basically, Agenda
setting illustrates the procedure through which media depicts the audience what is significant
via giving extra salience to specific objects than others. Agenda setting theory of mass media
demonstrates that audience picks out topics and considers them important which issues obtain
the most coverage in media1.
McCombs & Shaw state that Agenda-setting studies offer significant support
to claim that mass media have the power to tell us "what to think about" and in recent times
growing evidence is supporting the notion that media can also inform us "how to think about
it"2.
Researches of news media in Agenda setting are enormous in literature. In a
review of literature3, there were found 223 studies which overtly or covertly belong to agenda
setting; for the duration of last four and half decades a notion which is called agenda setting
Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.; Baumgartner, F., & Jones, B. (1995). Agendas and Instability in American Politics.
Chicago. IL: University of Chicago Press.
2
3
Rogers, E. M., Dearing, J. W., & Bregman, D. (1993). The Anatomy of Agenda-Setting Research. Journal of
Communication, 43(2), 68-84.
14
has become popular to document whether media reporting and treatment is a major forecaster
of changes in audience perception. During the examination of studies they noted that of 59 %
studies deal with the correlation between agenda of news media related with public agenda.
In the phase of 1996 two researchers Dearing and Rogers examined that over 350
publications on agenda-setting appeared between 1972 and 19941. Later on McCombs
conferred more than 400 empirical and theoretical studies that worldwide explored different
aspects of agenda setting2. The main focus of majority of over 400 agenda setting studies
since the 1970s has been on an agenda of public issues. The core finding of these studies is
the extent of prominence positioned in the objects that news affects the way the pubic value
those issues. In short, media agenda defines the public agenda. Though studies on agenda
setting of mass media carries on to develop in wideness and strength, mostly of these studies
still deal the same as initial study focused; the correlation between media coverage and
audience estimation about the issues. This part of the study shows an assessment of the
results of related dissertations conducted in different countries all over the world. This thesis
heavily relies on the mass communication theory of agenda setting and the following studies
on agenda setting role of media which provide a help in this researcher study.
2.
Agenda Setting Studies in 20th Century
The initial publication in agenda setting contended with the correlation between news media
and public agendas. Two well known American scholars M. McCombs and D. Shaw in
Chapel Hill, North Carolina issued their initial research paper exploring conventional agendasetting in 1972. Agenda setting theory emerged at the time when most of the accepted mass
communication theories usually stated that mass media has little or no effects. Agenda setting
theory proceeds the way, scholars consider about mass media those days. Agenda Setting
theory explores the media and tries to conclude whether the events conveyed influenced, how
people think about certain topics, agenda setting looks to see if the media presents issues, the
public find most important3.
The "Chapel Hill" study during the U.S. presidential elections 1968 examined
undecided voters. The two researchers (McCombs and Shaw) selected unclear voters with the
1
Dearing, J. W., & Rogers, E. M. (1996). Agenda-Setting. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications.
3
Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.
2
15
purpose of make the most of the change of finding effect. In this study, the methodology
involved both content analysis and surveys.
In their results they suggests that function of media in agenda setting describes
the link among the weight of exposure news media provides a news item (i.e., given spaces in
print media and time in the broadcast media) and the public's assessment of that story. This
study finds magnificent effects high positive correlation +.97. This study does show a high
positive relationship between agenda of news media and audience agenda during elections on
five issues, 'civil rights', 'law & order', 'for6 ign policy', 'public welfare', and 'fiscal policy'
(Figure 2.1). Findings of this research reveal that news media sets agendas for people.
"Chapel Hill" study was quickly followed by a collection of experimental publications
searching for evidence of agenda setting influences.
Figure 2.1: McCombs & Shaws Agenda setting model (1976)
Further, Funkhouser conducted a national survey comparing what people

recognized as significant issues facing the United States of America between 1964 and 1970
and what news magazines portrayed as the most important topics of that time. He examined
association between media depicts and audience perception, and connection between media
presentation and actuality. The findings of this research expose a strong high relationship
16
(+.78) among the agendas of media and public on topics of the study. He propound that
people consider those issues more important which news media gives more coverage1.
Shaw & McCombs conducted the next most important study in Charlotte,
North Carolina. They wanted to find out more important empirical support for role of media
as agenda setting developed on the findings in 'Charlotte Voters Study'. To find agenda
setting role of news media was set a panel study. As well to repeating the basic agendasetting role, the findings of this study reveals that if the news media increases the coverage of
political campaign then the interests of voters also more increase in politics. This study shows
that the media's agenda serves as a predictor of the public's agenda. The findings of this study
also explores that the effects on audience is according to their exposure to news media. The
major discovery is that those who utilize the news media more frequently than those who not
rank issue salience comparable with how they are presented the media. Another McCombs
and Shaw's seminal research observed effects of agenda setting in diverse sizes of societies
during the presidential elections in 1976. After analyzing the contents of nationwide news
channels and local press, the findings of this study also exposes the significant influence of
mass media on audience of three different communities, and make sure the generalization of
agenda setting theory on geographical locations2.
Palmgreen & Clark also organized and carried out a study to analyze agenda
setting role of mass media at national and local issues. The agenda of media was studied via
content analysis of media and important question was asked to examine the public agenda.
Both researchers have shown that the agenda-setting effect on local issues may be more likely
with content from newspapers than with local television news, whereas on national issues
network television may be more effective than a local newspaper in setting the national
agenda. They conducted content analysis of the print media and electronic media and
associated their results to a random survey of public. The findings of their study expose that
impact of agenda setting function of news media is weakened at local level than national
level. They also recommend that some contingent factors i.e. interpersonal communications
Funkhouser, G. R. (1973). The Issues of the Sixties: An Exploratory Study in the Dynamics of Public Opinion.
The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(1), 62-75.
2
Shaw, D. L., & McCombs, M. (1977). The emergence of American political issues: The agenda setting
function of the press. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company.
17
and individuals' assessment might possible be weaken the agenda setting ability of media at
local level1.
Agenda-setting theory of mass media also functions over long periods of time.
Winter & Eyal conducted a study on "civil rights issue", investigating the issue of civil rights
in U.S.A. over 20 years from the 1950s to the 1970s. To investigate the impacts of media,
both content analysis and survey research were used. They conducted 27 Gallup polls, having
a questionnaire on the significance of civil rights topic. The finding of Gallup polls was
matched with content analyses results (front page news coverage) of The New York Times.
They find strong positive relationship +0.71 between the amount of newspapers coverage and
the level of people related to civil rights2.
Weaver et al. conducted a study regarding the role of media agenda in
Presidential Elections. It was expanded for one year long, panel study for the duration of
USA Presidential Elections 1976. The researchers examined relatively longer periods of time.
This Study also reveals related proof of high agenda setting influence amongst the people3.
Iyengar et al. executed an Experimental Study in 1982. The laboratory like
situation was created to determine the causal relation between media and public agenda. The
respondents of the study were divided into two groups; the first one control group was
exposed to the actual newscasts (news bulletin) and the second experimental group was
exposed especially produced news bulletin that depicted weak nature of U.S. military
defense. An alternative approach that also introduces dynamic considerations is used in this
study. The researchers conducted several experiments; they systematically manipulated the
news media agenda in order to see whether it was a driver of public attention. They find the
media as performing the agenda setting role to inform what to think about although it does
not necessary inform audience what to think that is basic notion of the agenda setting theory.
Palmgreen, P., & Clarke, P. (1977). Agenda setting with local and national issues. Communication Research,
4. (pp. 435-452) In McCombs, Maxwell & Bell, Tamara. (1996) "The Agenda Setting Role of Mass
Communication" article published in "An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
2
Winter, J. P., & Eyal, C. H. (1981). Agenda-setting for the civil rights issue. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45(3),
376383.
3
Weaver, D., Graber, D., McCombs, M., & Eyal, C. (1981). Media Agenda Setting in a Presidential Election:
Issues, Images and Interest. In Maxwell McCombs, The Agenda-Setting Role of the Mass Media in the Shaping
of Public Opinion.(pp.3) Retrieved on January 1, 2013 from http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/extra/McCombs.pdf
18
Further, they also find strong proof sustaining the view that news media is very effective at
telling people what to think and care about1.
Other study conducted on television news and changes in the public agenda by
Behr & Iyengar. They explored the audience's concern for inflation, unemployment, and
energy by drawing viewers' apprehension to the coverage of news in television and existing
situations. They find that public concern over energy and inflation were related to news
coverage rather than that of economic conditions2.
Furthermore to field studies, strong proofs are also drawn through laboratory
situations where causal declaration of agenda setting theory can be systematically tested.
Iyengar & Kinder conducted a study on Television and American Opinion. In a series of
experiment, they conclude that the salience of a variety of topics significantly enhance as a
results of accessing to news that are edited to stress those specific topics3.
Another research study in the field of mass media was conducted by Smith to
explore correlation between the newspaper's coverage and reader's perception about topics.
Kim Smith speculated that the press coverage and readers perception influence each others.
She analyzed the previous gathered survey based data which was collected by University of
Louisville through twenty two surveys from 1974 to 1981. Also, the contents of The
Louisville Times were analyzed in the same period from 1974 until 1981. She examined and
collected the data for contents analysis from 236 at random selected editions of newspapers.
Agenda setting impacts of media are found on local issues. She finds positive correlations
within both agenda of media and public agenda (+.65, p < .05). The findings of the study
raise such questions about contingent factors, which play a significant role in agenda setting4.
Evidence for agenda setting significantly grew up into the next years; Rogers
& Dearing conducted a study to analyze the media agenda as well as the policy and public
agendas. They propose that agenda setting is executed in three levels of agenda building:
1
Iyengar, S., Peters, M., & Kinder, D. (1982). Experimental Demonstrations of the "Not-So- Minimal"
Consequences of Television News Programs. American Political Science Review, 76(4), 848-858.
2
Behr, R., & Iyengar, S. (1985). Television news, real-world cues, and changes in the public agenda. Public
Opinion Quarterly, 49(1), 38-57.
3
Iyengar, S. & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, IL.
4
Smith, K. A. (1987). Effects of newspaper coverage on community issue concerns and local government
evaluation. Communication Research, 14(4), 379-395.
19
Agenda setting by the media, the policymakers and the public. Overall, they come to three
conclusions regarding the agenda-building process. First, after the public agenda has been set
or reflected by the media agenda, the policy agenda is influenced by agenda of public. Next,
the agenda of news media sometimes strongly and directly influences policy agenda, even
resulting in policy change or implementation. Finally, the policy agenda can greatly impact
the media agenda; hence, affecting the public agenda. In short, all three agendas (policy,
public and media) influence each other1.
The basic agenda-setting hypothesis was also replicated by Salwen, with a
particular focus on how much time required for the media agenda to have the significant
effect on the public agenda. The findings of the study executed that 5 to 7 weeks are
significant for influence of news media agenda on audience perception to specific issues. But,
for the significant influence on public agenda come into sight after 8 to 10 weeks of news
coverage in media2.
Another research on agenda setting, Eaton analyzed the association within
news media reporting and audience perception on 11 most important issues from 1983 to
1986. He used content analysis to examine news coverage in television. He revealed the
similar pattern more than the period of forty one months for every one of eleven different
issues. He finds the amount of media content similar with what the public believes on
important issues but that agreement is dependent on the individual issue. He proposes that
diverse matters create different results of agenda setting. The varied matters concerning the
researcher study in Pakistan is that the public believe private media (TV channels &
Newspapers) are better than PTV channels and Radio Pakistan Broadcasting regarding the
news because PTV and Radio Pakistan are state controlled and follow the government policy.
On the other hand, private media organizations have their own independent policies and
openly discuss the issues of public concerned and government policies3.
Rogers, E. M., & Dearing, J. W. (1988). Agenda setting research: Where has it been, where is it going? In J.
Anderson (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 11 (pp. 555-594). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2
Salwen, M. B. (1988). Effect of accumulation of coverage on issue salience in agenda setting. Journalism
Quarterly, 65(1), 100-130.
3
Eaton, H. (1989). Agenda setting with bi-weekly data on content of three national media. Journalism
Quarterly, 66, 942948.
20
Brosius & Kepplinger conducted a study on agenda setting function of

television news in German. In this study, they analyzed main news programs of televisions
for a whole year by the weekly viewers perception survey on issues assumed prominent by
the viewers. Both researchers reveal positive correlation between media and public agendas
only on 5 issues not others1.
Iyengar & Simon conducted a study in U.S.A. to discover agenda setting
impacts about the media treatment of Gulf crisis during1990. At that time, it was given
largely space and time in mass media. They intended at analyzing framing, priming and
agenda setting effects on public perception regarding the crisis. They wanted to have a public
response to resolve the crisis either by military means or diplomatic. The findings of this
study find the significant influence of agenda setting effects. The results of the study reveal
the significant correlation2.
In U.S.A. during 1970 to 1990, Ader conducted a study on agenda setting to
explore an association between the media coverage on the issues of pollution and audience
anxiety with pollution issues. She used both content analysis and survey methods to evaluate
media and public agendas. The researcher measured the contents of New York Times for
media agenda. To measure public's agenda, she used Gallop Poll. It was hypothesized that
media agenda on the issue of pollution would be completely correlated with public agenda.
Another hypothesis was that association between public agenda on pollution issue and real
world situations is not significant. The findings of the study support her hypotheses.
Regarding the correlation, the findings of the research also reveal that some sub issues of
pollution are not statistically significant3.
To study candidate image salience transfer in the 1994 Taipei, Taiwan,
Mayoral elections, King conducted a content analysis of articles from three different
newspapers which he scanned for personal attributes of candidates, party affiliation, and
policy stances. The researcher combined the content analysis with a telephone survey
Brosius, H. B., & Kepplinger, H. M. (1990). The agenda-setting function of television news: Static and
dynamic views. Communication Research, 17(2), 183211.
2
Iyengar, S. & Simon, A. (1993). News Coverage of the Gulf Crisis and Public Opinion. Communication
Research, 20(3), 365-383.
3
Ader, C. R. (1995). A longitudinal study of agenda setting for the issue of environmental pollution. Journalism
and Mass Communication Quarterly, 72(2), 300-311.
21
conducted by an outside source to evaluate the candidates' image in the publics' mind. King's
findings show that media has significant role in creation the pictures of candidates in the
voters' minds1.
Wanta & Hu also investigated a time-order sequence for specific types of
media. They conducted a national survey to measure the significant issues confronting the
nation and found a significant correlation with specific media types (national, regional, and
local newspapers, national and local television broadcasts, and a national news magazine)2.
In Japan, Mikami et al. conducted a study on the environmental issues
coverage in media and public understanding, to explore attribute agenda setting for public
issues in newspapers and what are the perceptions of the readers about them. They find that
82 percent to 94 present of news coverage during the 1993 Japanese general elections focus
on political reforms. These scholars find a correlation between the salience of political reform
and attention to political news of and +0.24 for television and +.27 for newspapers. They find
that ethics-related perspectives on political reform had almost no correlation with special
treatment to news (+.05 for television and +.09 for newspapers). On the other hand, systemrelated aspects of political reform are positively correlated with attention to the news (+.20
for television and +.26 for newspapers). The researchers also find a high positive correlation
(+.78) among the coverage of newspapers and people awareness on global environmental
problems3.
Canel et al. conducted a study in Pamplona and Spain and found similar
effects. They find significant association among agendas of media and public on local issues.
The results of the study reveal that public agenda is strongly correlated with agenda of local
level newspapers +0.81. On the other hand, public agenda is also positively correlated with
the television agenda +0.664.
King, P. (1994). Issue agendas in the 1992 Taiwan legislative election, Doctoral Dissertation, University of
Texas at Austin.
2
Wanta, W., & Hu, Y. W. (1994). The effects of credibility, reliance, and exposure on media agenda-setting: A
path analysis model. Journalism Quarterly, 71(1), 90-98.
3
Mikami, S., Takeshita, T., Nakada, M., & Kawabata, M. (1995). The Media Coverage and Public Awareness
of Environmental Issues in Japan. Gazette, 54(3), 209-226.
4
Canel, M. J., Llamas, J. P., & Rey, F. (1996). El primer niveldelefecto agenda setting en la informacion local:
Los 'problemas mas importantes' de la ciudad de Pamplona. (The first level agenda setting effect on local
information: The 'most important problems' of the city of Pamplona). Communicacion y Sociedad, 9, 1738.
22
Dalton et al. conducted a study to examine newspaper content and public

interests during 1992 presidential elections. The study produces very high correlation of +.88
between public's agenda and news media agenda. During the period of presidential elections,
such high levels of correlation give the impression to obtain from significant perception of
the people to the news of political issues1.
Yoon conducted a study to test World Wide Web agenda setting. He examined
the influences of newspapers sites on the users regarding the significant economic issues.
Study findings explored that economic topic which was important on Web also significantly
ranked high on the public agenda (correlation was +0.83)2.
Bums conducted a study on "The Agenda Setting Process in Music Radio" that
incorporated the agenda setting theory into a different field of mass communications popular music. The findings of research advocate that influences of agenda setting theory
exist even on other than topic salience and into other areas of mass communication. Bums
study used the replica of agenda setting theory and examined capability of radio to make an
impact on assumed song reputation on its audience via frequent broadcast time of song. He
made parallels with other agenda setting research by expressed that the more an issue is
emphasized by media, the stronger that issue likelihood is considered as significant. He
unified this train of thought by comparing the amount of broadcast a song gets on a particular
station to the amount a news story gets on a particular news medium. Bums felt that the
people who had called in and won the contest were an active audience because they had been
paying attention by listening to the radio station in order to communicate with the DJ through
telephone. The respondents were inquired to name five country music (this was the format of
the station) songs. According to researcher, these songs were considered most favorite during
the survey. The most popular songs that respondents pointed out were not their personal
favorites, only those that they perceived as being the most popular. The survey produced 101
complete questionnaires. The study found that the level of popularity a song received from
the respondents associated with the stress it received on the playlist. The study also found that
the salience effects may be somewhat shorter than expected because the playlist that was
1
Dalton, R. J., Beck, P. A., Huckfeldt, R., & Koetzle, W. (1998). A test of media centered agenda setting:
Newspaper content and public interests in a presidential election. Political Communication, 15, 463-481.
2
Yoon, M. (1998). Testing the agendasetting function of World Wide Web newspapers. Unpublished master's
thesis, The University of Texas, Austin.
23
played a week before the survey had more perceived popularity than the playlist that aired a
month before the survey. Bums argued that influence of agenda setting appeared in perceived
popularity of songs but that it is relatively short lived1
McCombs et al. conducted empirical study to examine the attribute agenda
setting on Spanish general elections in 1996. The researchers hypothesized that attribute
agenda of media significantly influences attribute agenda of audience. They completed
research to explore images of presidential candidates in Navarra general elections. The
findings of the study discover highly correlated (median correlation=+.72) between media
attribute agenda and public attribute agenda for every one of three candidates. Further, the
researchers scrutinize and compare candidates' presentation in media before elections with
public's descriptions about them. Again, the findings of the study also support second level
agenda setting2.
Wang conducted an experimental study on agenda setting to investigate
impacts of hyperlinks in online newspapers. He used experimental research designed. The
issues that were exposed by online newspapers became more salient than those issues are not
reported. The results of the study find a significant relationship between media and public
agendas on exposed issues3.
3.
Agenda Setting Studies in 21st Century
Harris et al. conducted a study on agenda setting over a period of time during Greek
European Elections in 1999. Researchers concluded that news media have important impacts
in the selection and awareness of topics in political campaigns during the elections. The
findings of this research produce some different results. The researchers used the method of
content analyses to examine issues in 6 newspapers. The findings of contents analyses were
compared with public agenda (survey research). They find the differences among agenda
groups. The results put forward that it is not necessary public take action to media agenda. On
Bums, J. E. (1998). The Agenda Setting Process in Music Radio: A Purposive Sample of Listeners. Paper
presented at Broadcast Education Association annual convention. Las Vegas, NV.
2
McCombs, M., Lopez-Escobar, E., & Llamas, J. P. (2000). Setting the Agenda of Attributes in the 1996
Spanish General Election. Journal of Communication, 50, 77-92.
3
Wang, T. L. (2000). Agenda-setting online: An experiment testing the effects of hyperlinks in online
newspapers. Southwestern Mass Communication Journal, 15(2), 5970.
24
the other hand, there was a similarity between both agendas of media and public on
international issues & foreign policy. It shows that media agenda effects to some extent1.
In agenda setting domain, Roberts et al. conducted a new study to examine
agenda setting process on issue salience online. The findings of the study reveal that there is a
significant link between media exposure and the rankings of significance by the people. The
result guided to conclude that salience of issue is significantly influenced by media2.
Althaus & Tewksbury also conducted an agenda setting study on 'New' News.
The researchers observed whether readers of printed newspaper and online editions of a
newspaper obtain dissimilar opinions of the significance of political topics. As expected,
following the exposure, the findings of this study confirm that the readers of print media
change their agenda in different way as compared to online readers. The study findings
support that the readers of print version of the New York Times expose to wider range of
issues than online edition of newspaper3.
Yang conducted a study on framing the issue of NATO air strikes on Kosovo.
The researcher examines and compares the framing of that issue coverage in Chinese
newspapers and USA Newspapers in 1999. The researcher uses the content analysis to
evaluate the framing of issue in newspapers. The Chinese press framed the NATO air strikes
as interference in the area and sovereignty of Yugoslavia country and on the other hand the
US newspapers frame as a humanistic aid. The findings of content research reveal that there
is difference in the frames of Chinese newspapers and U.S. newspapers on the issue of
military action4.
Many studies verified the theory of agenda setting in the frame of international
news exposure. In the US and the U.K., Soroka analyzed agenda-setting assumption within
the framework of international news coverage from 1981 to 2000. This research carried in
two stages. Firstly, the researcher observes strong correlation between the coverage of foreign
1
Harris, P., Kolovos, I., & Lock, A. (2001).Who sets the agenda? An analysis of agenda setting and press
coverage in the 1999 Greek European elections. European Journal of Marketing, 35(9/10), 1117-1135.
2
Roberts, M., Wanta, W., & Dzwo, T. H. D. (2002). Agenda Setting and Issue Salience Online. Communication
Research, 29(4), 452-465.
3
Althaus, S. L., & Tewksbury, D. (2002). Agenda Setting and the "New" News. Communication Research,
29(2), 180-207.
4
Yang, J. (2003). Framing the NATO air strikes on Kosovo across countries: Comparison of Chinese and U.S.
newspaper coverage. The International Journal for Communication Studies, 65(3), 231249.
25
affairs and their transfer of salience to the people. Secondly, he examines two possible
impacts of changeable topic salience on foreign policymaking1.
Ryan conducted a study, "Framing the war against terrorism" by examining
American newspapers editorials regarding military action in Afghanistan and to explore the
framing function of print media. The researcher portrayed the military action in Afghanistan
as a new 'kind of war' in the world. In the research of 10 largest newspaper editorials during
the period of September 11, 2001 to October 8, 2001, he finds that all the editorials of the
newspapers under this study supports military action2.
Wanta et al. conducted a study on agenda setting and international news in the
USA, to analyze the views of foreign nations by citizens in the US. They used the attribute
agenda setting hypothesis in international communication field. They examined four news
channels to check the agenda of the media and to analyze the audience agenda evaluated
Gallup polls. Researchers coded attributes (positive, negative, or neutral) for selected object
(country). The research hypothesis of their study was that people got negative news about an
issue were more likely to perceive negatively about that issue. They concluded that major
national newscasts discovered more the media covered a foreign nation, the more the public
believed that state was essential to U.S. interests and found the relationship between coverage
of media about objects(countries) and public opinions toward objects (countries)3.
Ray conducted a study on the frames in U.S. media Coverage to examine
framing of Kashmir conflict during 1989 to 2003. The researcher used the content analysis
technique to examine the coverage of three mainstream US newspapers; Los Angeles Times,
New York Time and Washington Post from 1989 till 2003. The study was divided in four
phases 2002-2003, 1999-2001, 1991-1998, and1989-1990. The main focus of researcher was
on the media exposure of seven issues. In the first two phases, Kashmir dispute was depicted
as violence based separatist's movement, a frame showed clash between India and Pakistan.
In all seven phases, the people of Kashmir who were fighting labeled as a militant having
1
Soroka, S. N. (2003). Media, public opinion, and foreign policy. The Harvard International Journal of
Press/Politics, 8(1), 27-48.
2
Ryan, M. (2004). Framing the War Against Terrorism: US Newspaper Editorials and Military Action in
Afghanistan. Sage, 66(5), 363382.
3
Wanta, W., Golan, G., & Lee, C. (2004). Agenda setting and international news: Media influence on public
perceptions of foreign nations. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(2), 364-377.
26
weapons and fighting for their freedom. India was labeled as suppressor of the mutiny.
Pakistan was constantly presented as a supporter of militant with weapons and trainings. The
study also explored religious framing with Indian as Hindu and Pakistani and Kashmiri as
Muslim1.
McCombs evaluated the series of studies on agenda setting theory from 1970s
till 2000s. He made clear that there are three levels (attention, prominence and valence)
which explain why the news media is so powerful in determining public agenda. Attention
refers to the amount of time given to the issues. Prominence is the placement of the issue
within the newscast or within the paper. Valence is defined as the tone or slant of the story,
whether it be positive or negative or neutral2.
Tremayne & Schmitz conducted a study on issue salience and web page
design. To decide which format of headline is more influential in agenda setting, this study
compared the two different patterns of headline on the website of the Washington Post. One
of the headline formats contained title and brief detail of news story, and the other headline
format only contained heading. On the whole, there was no difference found between patterns
of headline3.
Mitrook et al. conducted a study on the agenda of first and second levels
building and setting. Researchers explored the contents of two popular news channels (Fox
News and CNN). They analyzed 1456 news items; 836 from the news channel CNN and 620
news stories from Fox News and also one hundred eighty one presidential communiqu
attempts for instance texts of radio addresses, speech, and press conferences in the time frame
of study. In the current study, both the first and second levels of agenda setting and building
along with agenda setting effects are significantly supported by the findings of current study4.
Ray, D. (2004). Frames in the U.S. Print Media Coverage of the Kashmir Conflict, (Masters Dissertation,
University of South Florida, 2001). Retrieved on June 25, 2012 from
http://kong.lib.usf.edu:1801/view/action/singleViewer.do?dvs=1250104925764~776&locale=ur&search_terms=
000014618&application=DIGITOOL-3&frameId=1&usePid1=true&usePid2=truen
2
McCombs, M. (2005). A Look at Agenda-setting: past, present and future. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 543-557.
3
Tremayne, M., & Schmitz, W. A. (2005). Issue Salience and Web Page Design: An Agenda Setting
Experiment. International Communication Association, 121.
4
Mitrook, M. A., Seltzer, T. C., Kiousis, S. K., Popescu, C. and Shields, A. (2006). First- and Second-Level
Agenda Building and Agenda Setting: Terrorism, the President, and the Media. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden,
Germany. Retrieved on December 25, 2012 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p93168_index.html
27
The link between media and public agendas was calculated to determine
power of agenda setting influence. In a widespread meta-analysis of ninety studies regarding
agenda setting, Wanta & Ghanem found an overall positive mean correlation (+0.53) between
media and public agendas.
In simple language, mass media is successful in salience
transferring of topics from agenda of the news media to the audience agenda1.
Valenzuela & McCombs conducted a study on effects of agenda setting on
vote choice during the Mexican elections 2006. The researchers looked at the influences on
the vote choice of political candidates' news coverage. Both researchers used content analysis
to examine the coverage of campaign and survey to evaluate the public opinion. Then using
the agenda-setting as hypothetical frame work, the findings of the content analysis were
related to public opinion poll. The findings of the study reveal that both televisions give
considerably more coverage to winning candidate as compared to the others. Particularly, the
results also conclude that the candidate who given more coverage and favorably presented in
news media, he also gained the more support from the public. The important effects are noted
over longer periods of time, not at once. The findings of the study supported earlier studies
and also expanded influence of agenda setting to behavioral and attitudinal disciplines2.
Coleman & McCombs observed agenda setting differentiation among people
whose ages was between 18-34 years and two of older generations. The researchers employed
two polls to check public agenda and content analysis to examine the media agenda. The
findings of the research explore that the media agenda on important issues was correlated
with agenda of young adults at +.80 and +.90. The agenda of the heaviest internet users was
also significantly interrelated with the agenda of media at +.703.
Campo & Mastin compared news stories on obesity in general audience and
Black women's magazines for a 10-year period to determine if the obesity prevention
strategies included components of social cognitive theory (behavior, person, or environment),
1
Wanta, W., & Ghanem, S. I. (2007). Effects of agenda-setting. In R. W. Preiss, B. M. Gayle, N. Burrell, M.
Allen & J. Bryant (Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis, 37-51. Mahwah, N.J.:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
2
Valenzuela, S., & McCombs, M. (2007). Agenda-setting effects on vote choice: Evidence from the 2006
Mexican election. In annual conference of the International Communication Association. San Francisco, CA.
Retrieved on June 12, 2012 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p519584_index.html
3
Coleman, R., & McCombs, M. (2007). The young and agenda-less? Exploring age-related differences in
agenda setting on the youngest generation, baby boomers, and the civic generation. Journalism & Mass
Communication Quarterly, 84(3), 495-508.
28
and whether these strategies differed by magazine type. They found that mainstream
magazines mostly offer diet-related solutions whereas African American magazines
emphasized spirituality or fad diets to fight obesity1.
Fortunato applied the original agenda setting hypothesis of M. McCombs and
D. Shaw in his study NFL programming schedule. He found that the NFL worked with their
television sponsors to determine which teams are most likely to draw viewers and what are
the most advantageous times that teams should play to maximize exposure among their
intended audiences. Fortunato also found that second-level or attribute agenda-setting is a
factor in determining which games should be televised. He argues that players and coaches
are attributes of the object (professional football) which the media can focus on. Fortunato
find that agenda setting via coverage and selection of attributes provided the best opportunity
to club and network to transfer of NFL to the audience2.
Besova & Cooley conducted a study on foreign news and public opinion in the
United States in 2008 and also found agenda setting functions. The findings of the study
suggested that the positive correlation among agendas of news media and public.
Specifically, dissertation concluded that agenda setting effects on negative coverage have
inclined to more as compared to the positive and neutral coverage3.
Lee et al. conducted a study on Age and public opinion to examine the effects
on agenda setting. They tested particular age impacts on the process of agenda setting both by
longitudinal and cross sectional methods. The findings of the study suggested that life-cycle
and generational effects did not more influence the process of agenda setting. The results
indicated that public agenda was not changed by across generations and age cohorts4.
Campo, S., & Mastin, T. (2007). Placing the burden on the individual: Overweight and obesity in African
American and mainstream women's magazines. Health Communication, 22(3), 229-240.
2
Fortunato, J. A. (2008). NFL Agenda-setting: The NFL Programming Schedule; A Study of Agenda-setting.
Journal of Sports Media, 3(1), 27-48.
3
Besova, A., & Cooley, S. (2008). Foreign News and Public Opinion: Attribute Agenda-Setting Theory
Revisited. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication, Marriott Downtown, Chicago, IL. Online Retrieved on June 22, 2012 from
http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p271270_index.html
4
Lee, J., Coleman, R., & McCombs, M. (2008). Age and public opinion: Testing generational and life cycle
effects on agenda setting. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism
and Mass Communication, Marriott Downtown, Chicago, IL Online. Retrieved on December 3, 2012 from
29
Brubaker conducted a study on the freedom to choose a personal agenda. The

findings of the research concluded that coverage of news media determined the salience of
issues for its audience. Overall, the findings of the study not significantly support that media
have powerful effects in public agenda setting1.
Tran conducted a study on attribute agenda setting of Hillary Clinton. The
results yielded from analyses of media content and aggregate PEW survey data regarding
Hillary Clinton suggest that the public was more likely to learn from cognitive attribute
salience but was not influenced by affective attribute salience. In addition, cognitive attribute
agenda of major newspapers, but not that of TV networks, was influential in shaping opinions
about Clinton2.
Heim conducted a study on blogs and the Iraq war to analyze the intermedia
agenda setting and building. The researcher investigated the intermedia agenda building and
setting using coverage of news and blogs arguments about Iraq war from the middle of 2006
to late 2007. The sum of televisions and newspapers reporting was significantly correlated to
the amount of posts on the political and personal blogs3.
A communication scholar Riaz from Pakistan conducted an academic study on
public and print media agendas association. Researcher used the techniques of content
analysis and survey research. The findings of survey after that are judged against the findings
of content analyses of both newspapers Daily Jang and Daily Dawn. The findings of both
tools revealed positive relationship among media agenda and public agenda on four from six
topics. Research reveals that media agenda followed by public agenda. According to the
investigator, two issues which obtained more significant in public perception as contrast to
media's agenda belong to the personal needs and requirements of respondents. It shows that
issues which belong to personal experience of readers not depended on the agenda of media.
1
Brubaker, J. (2008). The freedom to choose a personal agenda: Removing our reliance on the media agenda.
American Communication Journal, 10(3), 1-1.
2
Tran, H. (2008). Attribute Agenda Setting and Images of Hillary Clinton, a Retrospective Case Study. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication,
Marriott Downtown, Chicago, IL. Retrieved on June 22, 2012 from
3
Heim, K. (2008). Blogs and the Iraq War: A Time-Series Analysis of Intermedia Agenda Setting and Agenda
Building" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication, Marriott Downtown, Chicago, IL Online. Retrieved on June 22, 2012 from
30
It was significant that news media might not change public perceptions on the matter of
individual's suffers1.
Kiousis et al. conducted a study on "Agenda Setting, Priming, and Issue
Ownership: Exploring Linkages and Impact on Vote Choice". This study was conducted
during the Swedish National Elections 2006. They utilized a model to examine the influence
of news and vote decision. The findings of the study suggests that combination of points of
view offer an important frame work for knowing critical mechanism forecasting vote choice2.
Tan & Weaver conducted a study on local media, public opinion, and state
legislative policies. The researchers analyzed news articles from the most popular newspaper
in eighteen states and compared those issues to that of subsequent bills introduced in state
legislatures. Seventeen out of eighteen states showed a strong to reasonable relationship
among the issues that news media slanted as important and the issues that received attention
in the legislature3.
Another study was conducted by Qian to assess setting of intermedia agendas
relationships among Chinese press and blogs with the New York Times. The researcher
conducted the Content analysis research to conclude the categories of news and blog articles
during the period of time. The content analysis results indicate that the Beijing News had the
largest exposure among three Chinese newspapers. The results also indicate that Chinese
newspapers set the issue agenda for Chinese blogs for both time lags; the New York Times
setting agendas for Chinese newspapers for both time lags, however it has no influence on
Chinese blogs for the short term time lag, and the results were mixed for the long term time
lag. So far, there is no agreement on the optimum time lag for inter-media agenda-setting
research of the Internet. Besides examining blogs' agenda-setting effects, this study also
Kiousis, S., Stromback, J., & McDevitt, M. (2009). "Agenda Setting, Issue Ownership, and Priming: Exploring
Linkages and Impact on Vote Choice" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in
Journalism and Mass Communication, Sheraton Boston, Boston, MA Online. Retrieved on June 20, 2012 from
3
Tan, Y., & Weaver, D. (2009). Local media, public opinion, and state legislative policies: agenda setting at the
state level. International Journal of Press and Politics. 14(4), 454-476.
2
31
provided useful tested about the optimum time lag for blogs and two types of newspapers,
regionally and internationally1.
Cuestas et al. conducted a study on the agendas of media and public during
period from 2003 to 2008 in Argentina. In this paper researchers examined the presence of
agenda-setting effects by the print media in Argentina from June 2003 to December 2008.
Using previously available monthly data on newspapers mentions the researcher test two
hypotheses about the relationship between the different agendas. The researcher finds the
support for the hypothesis that there were media effects during the period of analysis. More
specifically, the researcher found that the total number of newspapers mentioned the
President positively influenced public confidence in the government. Finally, there is also
proof of a high and stable correlation between total number of economic news and leading
economic indicators2.
Lafferty conducted a study on the role of New York Times as agenda to give
coverage on domestic violence. The findings of the study support the maximum hypotheses
but not all regarding the agenda setting role of media. The results of the current dissertation
authenticated the majority of the previous studies in agenda setting3.
Chernov conducted another study on agenda setting and attitudinal effects. He
executed an experimental study to test whether individual knowledge and level of messages
particularly guided to attitudinal and impacts of agenda setting. Findings confirm that on the
whole assumed significance of topics and attitudinal favor improves subsequent to
respondents read news items about special issues. Additionally, the findings also reveal that
Qian, X. (2009). Inter-media agenda-setting effects among Chinese newspapers, Chinese blogs and the New
York Times during coverage of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Paper
11083. Retrieved on April 30, 2012 from
http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/11083
2
Cuestas, J. C., Freille, S., & O'Gorman, P. (2009). The Media and Public Agendas Testing for Media Effects in
Argentina during 2003-2008. Revista de Economa y Estadstica, 47(1), 97- 124.
3
Lafferty, E. (2010). Agenda-setting and the New York Times Coverage of domestic violence: A content
analysis of domestic violence reported by the New York Times before, during, and after the OJ Simpson Trial
(Doctoral dissertation, University of Delaware). Retrieved on December 14, 2012 from
http://dspace.udel.edu:8080/dspace/handle/19716/5709
32
the readers of newspapers who has personally know-how with a subject depicts in a news
item by common attribute demonstrated considerable attitudinal transformation1.
O'Connor et al. conducted a time-series analysis to political public opinion
polls and Twitter messages that mentioned President Barrack Obama. Using software that
measured for the sentiment in Twitter messages, they compared the public sentiment of
Obama to traditionally collected public opinion polls. A high correlation between the two
collection methods is found2.
Shehata conducted a study, unemployment on the agenda during 2006
Swedish national elections campaigns. During the elections campaign, prevailing news
coverage in mass media was given to the unemployment and job issues. At the same time, the
number of the unemployment people was increased to 17 percent. The researcher conducted
panel survey of 1007 respondents to find causal association among agendas of media and
public. In general, the outcomes of the study showed that influence of agenda setting was
certainly present. In addition, these effects did not depend on possible contingent factors such
as education and the degree of political involvement among the respondents3.
Du conducted another study on intermedia agenda setting among eleven
countries international. Researcher of the study associated the media agenda with public
agenda to examine the influence of agenda setting. Following the general pattern of agenda
setting, the findings of this study find an association among media agendas and public
agendas across the 11 countries worldwide4.
Schmidt et al. conducted a study on agenda setting in abolishing the death
penalty in New Jersey. The researchers took the decades of research that how mass media
influences the public perception. The current study was a content analysis study to observe
1
Chernov, G. (2010). A Simultaneous Testing of the Role of Media Message Attributes and Personal
Experience in Agenda-Setting and Attitudinal Effects. Canadian Journal of Media Studies, 6(1), 72-94.
2
O'Connor, B., Balasubramanyan, R., Routledge, B., & Smith, N. (2010). From Tweets to Polls: Linking Text
Sentiment to Public Opinion Time Series. Proc. of International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social
Media, George Washington University, Washington, DC. 122-29.
3
Shehata, A. (2010). Unemployment on the Agenda: A Panel Study of AgendaSetting Effects during the 2006
Swedish National Election Campaign. Journal of Communication, 60(1), 182-203.
4
Du, Y. (2010). Intermedia Agenda-Setting in the Age of Globalization: A Multinational Agenda-Setting Test"
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Suntec Singapore
International Convention & Exhibition Centre, Suntec City, Singapore. Retrieved on December 4, 2012 from
33
how the setting of media agenda might affect public agenda and make possible to policy
change. Particularly, the research discussed how newspapers gave coverage the issue of death
penalty prior its abolition. Through agenda setting, the findings of the study conclude that
print media coverage showed the way to people to think about the issue of death penalty.
Consequently, it influences the policy makers to check and modify in legislations regarding
abolition1.
Sayre et al. conducted the beginning study on agenda setting and YouTube.
They looked at one specific issue: California's Proposition 8, a controversial ballot
proposition that would redefine the laws of marriage. The study took every day frequency
calculation for story in cable news programs, national papers and YouTube video uploads.
YouTube was found to both follow and lead. Prior to the day during which the public voted
on Proposition 8, YouTube public salience followed mainstream media salience. However,
following the elections, YouTube public salience was found to lead the way. Speculation
aside, the change seen immediately following the vote could not be empirically explained2.
Weeks et al. conducted a study to look at mainstream media and a new
measurement, Google Trends, for a possible correlation. That study explored a potential
relationship between prevailing media coverage and its public salience of a particular
political report concerning Barrack Obama being a Muslim. The results showed that coverage
of mainstream media, particularly television coverage, influenced Google Trends' public
salience of the political rumor. This study supports and reinforces the original definition of
agenda setting. It suggestes that mainstream media still have the power to influence public
salience. The study also discovers that the results of agenda setting are most greatly seen the
same day3.
Lee & Len-Rios conducted a study on second level agenda setting. Keeping in
view the second level framework, the researchers observed the presentation of obesity in the
newspapers of Black and general audience. They used the content analysis (n=391) of a
1
Schmidt, T., Date, T. S., Curtis, A., Peters, J., Dean, E. G., & Bonds-Raacke, J. (2010). Agenda Setting: The
Media's Role in Abolishing the Death Penalty in New Jersey. University of North Carolina at Pembroke.
2
Sayre, B., Bode, L., Shah, D., Wilcox, D., & Shah, C. (2010). Agenda Setting in a Digital Age: Tracking
attention to California proposition 8 in social media, online news and conventional news. Policy & Internet,
2(2).
3
Weeks, B., & Southwell, B. (2010). The Symbiosis of News Coverage and Aggregate Online Search Behavior:
Obama, Rumors, and Presidential Politics. Mass Communication and Society 13(4), 341-360.
34
national sample of both newspapers. The findings showed that both newspapers commonly
attributed personal reasons for obesity. It was more likely that Black newspapers suggested
both personal and social solution techniques to overcome obesity than general audience
newspapers1.
Vargo conducted a study on twitter as public salience. In this study the
researcher concluded that Twitter provided a chance as a source of people perception. Hence,
the study contended Twitter (an easy answer) as a secondary measurement of public salience.
The findings of the study revealed that mass media sets people perception on Twitter. A high
correlation is found on same day when the story delivered. Over all, a moderate correlation
was shown connecting media saliency and audience's salience2.
Kim conducted a study on "Global Health Agenda Setting: Factors Affecting
the U.S. Media Agenda on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic". This study focused on the
global health agenda setting on HIV/AIDS. This study found that the global media agenda
interplayed more sensitively with the real-world indicator than other types of agendas-setting
variables3.
Brown & Deegan conducted a study on public disclosure of environmental
performance information in Australia. To develop the two hypotheses, the paper based on
earlier studies in legitimacy and media agenda setting theories. The researchers reviewed the
9 industries during the time of study from 1981 to 1994. The findings of the study showed so
as to most of the industries observed, higher levels of media consideration were considerably
linked with higher levels of yearly report4.
Lee, H., & Len-Rios, M. (2010). Defining obesity: Second-level Agenda Setting in Black Newspapers and
General Audience Newspapers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in
Journalism and Mass Communication, The Denver Sheraton, Denver, CO Online. Retrieved on December 3,
2012 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p434324_index.html
2
Vargo, C. (2011). Twitter As Public Salience: An Agenda-Setting Analysis. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Renaissance Grand & Suites
Hotel, St. Louis, MO Online. Retrieved on December 2, 2012 from
3
Kim, D. (2011). Global Health Agenda Setting: Factors Affecting the U.S. Media Agenda on the Global
HIV/AIDS Epidemic" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association,
TBA, Boston, MA Online. Retrieved on December 2, 2012 from
4
Brown, N., & Deegan, C. (2012). The public disclosure of environmental performance information, a dual test
of media agenda setting theory and legitimacy theory. Accounting and Business Research, 29(1), 21-41.
35
Sani et al. conducted a study on the setting social agenda. The researchers
suggested that cartoons genre has obtained a large interest of researcher across disciplines. In
additional, this paper illustrated that how political cartoons work like vehicle in societal
agenda setting and forming audience attitudes via socio-political topics. Cartoons contents
from Nigerian's papers were analyzed from 2007 till 2010. Using the purposive sampling,
100 cartoons (50 cartoons from each newspaper) which appeared in two dailies were chosen.
Particularly, content analysis is employed to recognize subjects contained in cartoons
representation. The findings of the study show that 80 percent of themes attended to prime
phenomena during societal agenda are set to reveal societal experiences. Additionally,
findings conclude that cartoon sets societal agendas via largely summarizing existing and
responsive topics which public are greatly concerned about1.
Heim conducted a study on intermedia agenda setting during the U.S.A.
presidential elections campaign.
The online survey of reporters (n=80) who write and
contribute to blog found the higher levels of correspondents' exposure to the political blog
posts. The results of the study find the high correlation between issues of political blogs &
attribute agendas and news media agenda. However in the both cases, it is seen that bloggers
most of time followed the lead of news media. No proofs are found the setting of intermedia
agenda among political bloggers and candidates2.
Guizlo conducted a study on how framing and agenda setting affect public
perceptions. The results of this study show the significant association between the numbers of
articles that are issues and public perception on those articles related issues. The results of the
study also reveal that agenda setting power and frames play a significance role to increase the
public perception and knowledge about the issues3.
Ashraf conducted an agenda setting study on war on terror in Pakistan. This
paper has been carried out to find out role of agenda of Pakistani print media on the issue of
1
Sani, I., Abdullah, M. H., Abdullah, F. S., & Ali, A. M. (2012). Political Cartoons as a Vehicle of Setting
Social Agenda: The Newspaper Example. Asian Social Science, 8(6), N 1911-2017 E-ISSN 1911-2025.
2
Heim, K. (2012). The boys on the blogs Intermedia agenda setting in the 2008 US presidential campaign.
University Of Missouri-Columbia. Retrieval on January 19, 2013 from
http://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/handle/10355/8321
3
Guizlo, C. (2012). "Dealing with Jell-O": How Framing and Agenda Setting Affected Public Opinion In the
2011 Debt Ceiling Debate. Retrieved on January 12, 2013 from
http://www.american.edu/soc/communication/upload/Chris-Guizlo.pdf
36
war on terror in Pakistani society. 'Media agenda' is explored after evaluating the 'way of
coverage' of the issue, 'war on terror' by conducting content analysis of editorials and editorial
notes of two leading Urdu and English Newspapers of Pakistan, i.e. Daily Dawn and Daily
Jang. 'Audience agenda' has been analyzed after conducting survey, from the respondents of
both newspapers separate. The findings of the content analyses were matched with the results
of the survey to determine a relationship. Besides difference in approach of both the
newspapers on the issue of war on terror, positive relationship is found between both media's
agenda and audience agenda. It is also found that effects of agenda setting of Urdu Daily
(0.91) have found more strongly than that of the English Daily (0.87). On the average, the
researcher found a strong positive correlation (+.89) between media and public agendas on
the issue of 'War on Terror'. Hence, a positive relationship has been found thus the hypothesis
is supported. And agenda setting theory is working1.
These studies are important because they illustrate the notion that the media
set public priorities by giving attention to certain issues over others2.
Public agenda setting studies on the whole tend to support a positive
association and a lot causal correlation within both agenda of media and public' agenda at
aggregate level3.
4.
Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Issues
Obtrusiveness is considered one of the important elements in the agenda setting theory.
According to Winter 4obtrusiveness is the quantity of individual firsthand experience with an
issue. The core theme behind this concept is that news media has limited influences to shape
or change the public perceptions on the issue/event if they have direct experience on the same
issue/event (obtrusive issue) i.e. 'unemployment' is obtrusive issue while international
problems is unobtrusive issue. The squabble is that individual's experience with an issue
1
2
Trent, J. S., & Friedenberg, R. V. (2004). Political campaign communication: Principles and practices. New
York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
3
Weaver, D., McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. L.(2004). Agenda-setting research: Issues, attributes, and influences.
In L. L. Kaid (Ed.), Handbook of political communication research (pp. 257-282). Mahwah, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
4
376383.
37
filters and to some degree dominates the emphasis of media. In his findings, Zucker declared
that mostly agenda setting occurred on unobtrusive topics. Conversely, some researches
verified that obtrusive subjects have powerful agenda setting influences on the audience1. The
current thesis may validate the Zucker's notion of unobtrusive issues in which he states that
local or national issues have a weak agenda setting effect because the public have more
individual association and thereby less depend on the news media for news about those
issues2.
5.
Media Distortion
The mass media especially print media have been praised for their service to the public acting
as watchdogs and their devotion to the truth and to some extent for their independence.
However in some circumstances the media are criticized for their bias and going too far on
some issues. Questions have been raised about the media's performance. Most of the media
contents in Pakistan are distorted for the reason of those flaks, bribery, killing and so many
others means by different outside actors. Herman & Chomsky argued that there are five types
of filters in a society which determine what is news3.
6.
Information Vacuum
Some regions in Pakistan are still suffered from no more access to current news or only
receive information that is one-sided and manipulated information in the form of news. There
are still many remote areas and towns, where to sale and access the periodicals and daily
newspapers are very difficult and unsafe.
7.
Urdu Dominates
According to the report of Federal Bureau of Statistics (2009) that during the year of 2008,
the overall share of Urdu newspapers was remained 75 percent and number of circulation per
day was 4.6 million. The second largest numbers of newspapers were English; the number of
1
Demers, I., Craff, I., Choi., Y., & Pessin, M. (1989). Issue obtrusiveness and the agenda-setting effects of
national network news. Communication Research, 76(6), 793-81; Wanta, W. (1997). The public and the
national agenda, how people learn about important issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
2
Zucker, H.G. (1978). The variable nature of news media influence. In B. D. Ruben (Ed.), Communication
Yearbook: Vol. 2. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
3
Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (2002). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media
(2nd ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
38
copies per day was 671,000. Nevertheless, it is seen that each copy of newspapers which is
sold, is read by more than one reader. So, it can conclude that the number of readers of
newspaper is much more as compared to the facts suggests. News-a-days, a number of people
like to read the e-papers or internet editions of the newspapers which are free of cost
available at the website of newspapers1.
A rapidly development of electronic and print media in Pakistan is gratifying
all types of societal and psychological needs of people. But, this growth of media becomes
insignificant, mostly when the people have no access to information and media starts to
ignore the laws and code of ethics. Mass media in Pakistan is not pluralistic and limited to big
cities. It is noted that mostly media contents cover the public figures likewise politicians,
businessmen, officials etc. and important events while ignoring the issues of general public or
social phenomenon.
It is said that the newspaper's circulation in Pakistan is pitiable but according
to the latest edition of Russell Ash's trivia book "Top Ten of Everything 2011", Pakistan has
the tenth number in the world. These are the findings of a survey was conducted by
UNESCO. The top 10 countries with highest newspapers circulation are listed below (Table
2.1). In the list of most populous countries of the world, Pakistan 185000000 (2010 est.) is
found at sixth and circulation of newspaper number corresponds to only 4.2 percent of
population. In simple words, only 4.2% Pakistanis read the daily newspapers. In such
scenario, Pakistan should increase its newspapers readers' community to raise the circulation
which may carry it sixth where it stands in the ranks of world population2.
Infosaid (2012). Media and Telecoms Landscape Guides, "Pakistan Media and Telecoms Landscape Guide
June 2012" Retrieval on April 24, 2013 from
http://www.infoasaid.org/sites/infoasaid.org/files/pakistan_guide_update_final_checked_by_rp_080612_spellch
ecked_by_tn_110612_19.12.12.pdf
2
Www. Pakistaniat.com.pk Retrieved on February 7, 2013 from
http://www.pakistaniat.com/2010/12/02/pakistan-newspapers/?cp=all#comments
39
8.
Diversification
Media diversification is an important attribute of Pakistani media. It represents the

differences of Pakistani people. The overall number of dailies, monthlies, and small
periodicals was 4,455 in 1997 phase but later on in 2003, this amount decreased and only 945
remained. However, stunning the circulation of dailies reached at 6.2 billion (IMS)1. Now,
the largest numbers of newspapers are published in Urdu language. Currently, it is noted, that
the number of newspapers circulation is rapidly increasing. Poor literacy rates, no availability
of transportation in remote areas, city based newspapers, and increasing prices of newspapers
are thought still basic issues for the low distribution of newspapers (4.2%).
9.
Media Education in Pakistan
The historical background of education in journalism is prior to the creation of

Pakistan. In 1940, first time formal media education (introduction of diploma
courses) was started at Jamia Madaris and Punjab University, Lahore. Then, electronic Media
(radio) was influenced and monopolized by the print media. It is admitted reality that many
Muslim Journalists and activists for instance some big names are Sir Syed Ahmad (Aligarh
Institute Gazette), Mohammad Ali Johar (Hamdard and The Comrade), Zafar Ali Khan
(Zamindar), Mir Khalil-ur-Rehman (Jang), Hameed Nizami (Nawa-i-Waqt) and their patrons
made important offering to promote Journalism throughout the sub-continent2.
Now formal education in journalism has gotten basis in Pakistan. Therefore, at
the national and international approximately more than 16 big intuitions like universities are
1
International Media Support (2013), "Media in Pakistan: Between radicalization and democratization in an
unfolding conflict," Retrieved on April 22, 2013 from
http://www.i-m-s.dk/files/publications/1491%20Pakistan.final.web.pdf
2
Shabir, G., Iqbal, Z., & Khan, A. W. (2011). Mass Communication Education in Punjab: Problems and
Prospects. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 31(2), 309-318.
40
offering formal education in media. One decade prior when the electronic media was starting,
mainstream of journalists were not specialized even diploma holder in mass communication
or journalism. Now the circumstances have totally changed and majority of new journalists
are specialized in their fields and area. Now-a-days, editor, correspondent, reporter, even
local reporter of any news media outlets are demanded the degree holders in mass
communication/journalism. The media education has brought the significant transformations
in presentation style of media stuffs and sociology of news in Pakistan1.
10. Nature of Newspapers' Readers in Pakistan
Urdu is the official language of Pakistan. Urdu language based newspapers have
wider access than the English and others provincial languages newspapers.
Urdu press appeals to the masses and includes all types of news (Pakistan Press foundation,
2006). The reason of this division pattern is due to literacy rate. The people who can read and
write are just 42.7% of the total population of Pakistan. However, to increase the literacy rate
a lot of measures are going to performed by the government for instance adult literacy
centers, Alama Iqbal Open University Islamabad to make available adult education through
mail, and mass media. It is seemed that mostly the people who belong to elite class who are
regarded as opinion leaders prefer to purchase the English. In Pakistani society due to less
literacy rate and so many other reasons, there is a lack of local newspapers; so many issues
from the local level are not given space in the national press2.
11. Best Media
Media is considered as ancient social agent in varied societies all over the world.
Newspaper, magazine, cinema, radio, television, internet and other are called mass
media3. Different researches have been conducted to evaluate that which media has more
effective or which media has powerful, moderate or less effect as compared to other media.
During the findings of some research reveals that electronic media has fast effects, while
1
Siraj, S. A. (2009). Critical analysis of press freedom in Pakistan. Journal Media and Communication Studies,
1(3), 043-047.
2
Paracha, S. A., Sultana, I., Zia, A., & Jan, M. (2012). Media Education and Training Facilities in Pakistan:
Problems & Prospects. European Journal of Scientific Research, 74(1), 113-125.
3
Bakhshi, M., Khaniki, H., & Safarzadeh, H. (2011). Women Representation in Iranian News Sites: A Case
Study of Four News Sites. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 12(1). Retrieved on
December 20, 2013 from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_1_No_12_September_2011/7.pdf
41
print media might have a more long-term impacts. Regarding the agenda setting role of news
based programs on television; Patterson & McClue argues that electronic media coverage has
no effects on the opinion of the views about an object 1. On the other hands, Bention &
Frazier state that the effects of newspapers on audience perception are more powerful than
television influence2. According to findings (Bention & Frazier; Patterson & McClue), the
researcher is confident in his study because the newspapers have more effects and influences
and study will be more important findings the function of print media in agenda setting in the
Pakistani societies.
12. Selected Newspapers for Study
The selected media for this research is print media, in which the researcher
concern is only three daily Urdu newspapers; Jang, Nawa-i-Waqt and Express.
The Urdu newspapers are published from several stations across the country.
Three national morning daily newspapers are preferred and sample from mainstream print
media of Pakistan. The purpose of this selection is to examine ten national issues that how
much and how frequently coverage is given to them. Early two newspapers; daily Jang and
Nawa-i-Waqt belongs to two big and old news media organizations, the daily Jang from
'Jang group of Publications', the daily Nawa-i-Waqt from 'Nada-e-Millat Group of
Publications' and the other one the daily Express from 'Century Publications'. These Urdu
papers have the greatest access and impact at the same time in community and in
management circle. The number of issues and circulation of Urdu newspapers are greater as
compared to English newspapers. Urdu newspapers also have the low prices per copy
therefore they are very popular and have very vast influence on the middle and lower classes
in Pakistan. That is why Urdu newspapers are considered as popular journalism.
13. Influences on Editorial Policies
In Pakistan, mostly newspapers are privately controlled and openly discussed
the public issues and positively criticized the government. These newspapers not
only give the coverage to the remarks of ruling party but also opposition in government, and
1
Patterson & McClue (1976). The unseeing eye: The myth of television power in national politics. New York:
Putnam.
2
Bention, M., & Frazier, P. (1976). The agenda setting function of the mass media at three levels of
"information holding". Communication Research, 3(3), 261-274.
42
the editorials of these papers also present a large variety of analysis on different types of
topics/phenomena. Sometimes, newspapers are pressurized by the police, political parties,
pressure groups, religious groups, terrorists, organizations and so many other means to make
sure that newspaper published the statement or press release. In news media organizations,
these pressures are common practice and can consist of threats and killing of journalists,
intervening in newspapers distribution. Journalists, who are working in the small towns and
remote areas, have to encounter more problems than big cities or metropolitans1.
14. Daily Jang Newspaper
The Daily Jang ( ) was first published in 1939 by late Mir
Khalil-ur-Rehman. He was the initiator and proprietor of this newspaper.
Now, son of Mir Khalil ur Rehman is the existing owner, Group Chief
Executive & Editor-in-Chief of this newspaper. This daily Jang among the other newspapers
is different and has the maximum circulation in Pakistan. It is published by Jang Group
(www.jang.com.pk) of Newspapers. It simultaneously publishes its regional editions in
different cities such as Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Multan, and Quetta. This
newspaper also prints an overseas edition in London, aimed at Pakistani migrs in Europe.
Overall, it is the largest widely circulated daily paper which has the circulation of 850,000
copies per day and its readership is increasing over time. The News is a sister publication of
Daily Jang which is considered second largest broadly circulated among the English
newspapers. Jang group of publication also publishes the biggest broadly disseminated
weekly "Akhbar-e-Jehan" in Urdu in addition to a famous monthly magazine "The Mag" in
English language. It is considered that Jang newspaper has a moderate traditional viewpoint.
Main Office of this newspaper is situated at II Chundrigharh Road, Karachi (Pakistan).
Daily Jang is such a comprehensive paper that gives coverage to all types of
news. It is very popular among the age of people because it publishes a variety of contents
that covers all people's lives. Authentic and famous reporters, journalists, columnists, feature
writers, and editors are the main reasons of the popularity of this newspaper. It also publishes
extra editions, sports editions, political editions etc.
1
www.cssforum.com.pk Retrieved on February 7, 2013 from

http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-subjects/group-b/journalism/7061
newspapers.html
pakistan-press-media-tv-radio
43
Among the other Urdu newspapers, the professional standards of this

newspaper are very high. It is rarely happened that any news story of this newspaper is
rejected. But, keeping in view the business perspective, this newspaper gives a maximum
coverage to the advertisements, mostly readers complain for that act1.
14.1
Daily Jang E-Paper
Daily Jang also publishes an E-Paper edition which is available on its website at internet. The
electronic version of Daily Jang on its site makes available the entire printed daily
newspaper. All the previous versions of Daily Jang can be read on its website;
http://www.e.jang.com.pk/
15. Daily Nawa-i-Waqt Newspaper
Daily Nawa-i-Waqt ( ) is also one of the oldest and popular
Urdu language newspapers in Pakistan. It is circulated and printed from the
main cities of Pakistan; Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi/Islamabad, Multan.
One of the reasons of the popularity of this newspaper is that it helped in
the creation of Pakistan. The Daily Nawa-i-Waqt was first published in 1940 under the
leadership of Hameed Nizami who was its founder, editor and owner. Hameed Nizami was a
strong proponent of the Pakistan Movement. Now, Majeed Nizami is existing Group Chief
Executive & Editor-in-Chief of this newspaper. The circulation of Daily Nawa-i-Waqt is
increased more than
500,000.
It
is
being published by 'Nawa-i-Waqt
Group
(www.nawaiwaqt.com.pk) of Publications'. This group of publication also publishes a sister

publication in English which is known as The Nation and Urdu weekly magazine Nida-iMillat (Sunday magazine). Under the one umbrella of media group, both newspapers Daily
Nawa-i-Waqt and The Nation, is known for have a right wing, and conservative slant editorial
policies. Daily Nawa-i-Waqt is considered one of the largest and authentic Pakistani
newspapers. It was launched before the division of subcontinent. It is stated that this
newspaper raises the voice for Pakistan to promote the democracy and to make it Islamic
welfare state. Nawa-i-Waqt is renowned by its critical editorial and its strict policy of
following the "Two Nation theory". It is very popular among the radicals. Regarding the
1
44
treatment and coverage of news in this newspaper, it is also well-known for its high
professional standards. The reliability of this newspaper is acknowledged all over the
country. This paper today is also known as a conservative, publication that is harshly critical
of the U.S. and India and supports an Islamic ideology.
15.1
Daily Nawa-i-Waqt E-Paper
Daily Nawa-i-Waqt E-Paper also publishes an E-Paper edition which is available on its
website at internet. The electronic version of Daily Nawa-i-Waqt E-Paper on its site makes
available the entire printed daily newspaper. All the previous versions of Daily Nawa-i-Waqt
E-Paper can be read on its website;
http://www.nawaiwaqt.com.pk/
16. Daily Express Newspaper
Daily Express ( ) is one of the most circulated Urdu language
Pakistani newspapers. It was launched on 3rd September, 1998. This
newspaper is owned by one of the largest and well diversified companies of
Pakistan "The Lakson Group of Companies", printed by a company of Lakson Group
(www.lakson.com.pk) that is Century Publications, whose owner is Sultan Ali Lakhani. He is
also editor in chief of the Daily Express, and also heads McDonalds in Pakistan. He is no
longer media man himself. The owner of this paper also uses it as a protecting wrap for his
other commerce benefits. Daily Express is simultaneously circulated and published from the
biggest cities of Pakistan such as Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, Peshawar, Islamabad, Multan,
Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Sargodha, Rahimyar Khan and Sakhar. The headquarters of Daily
Express is located in Karachi. It is said that this newspaper has 24% share in circulation of
Pakistani newspapers. This group also publishes an English newspaper Express Tribune. The
success of paper in Pakistan's print media is due to cater for diverse interests, such as
entertainment, sports, women and youth issues, literature, gossip, and religion in a detail
forms. In addition to its diversified content, the paper's layout, with its color and glossy
photos, also helped increase its appeal. In the Urdu language newspapers, it gives the
coverage in news from all fields of lives. For instance, this newspaper gives the coverage of
entertainment, sports, politics, current affairs, children, teen ages, educational stuff, science
45
stuff and so many other issues of the world. It has become one of the popular newspapers
among all the people of different ages. One weekly magazine (Sunday magazine) is published
on Sunday. One of the main successes of this paper is maximum local editions in different
cities.
16.1
Daily Express E-Paper
Daily Express also publishes an E-Paper edition which is available on its website at internet.
The electronic version of Daily Express on its site makes available the entire printed daily
newspaper. All the previous versions of Daily Express can be read on its website;
http://www.express.com.pk/epaper/
17. Statement of the problem
News media has a significant role in providing bulk of information to people about different
issues and people develop their perception on the basis of those pieces of information1. Many
researchers executed to examine and explore news media's function of agenda setting,
particularly to find correlation among media agendas and public agendas. Results of the past
studies prepare the investigator to come to an end that media agenda sets public agenda but
no research is carried out in the cities of Sargodha, Faisalabad and Jhang (Punjab) in
Pakistan, regarding the role of press agenda and student agenda to find out correlation prior to
this study.
This dissertation also attempts to analyze that 'is there any relationship
between the agenda of media and the agenda of students on topics of study 'corruption',
'terrorism', 'US-drone attacks', 'Pak-Taliban talks', 'education', 'unemployment', 'health',
'energy crisis', 'economic crisis' and 'Indo-Pak relations'.
To what extent news media correlate with public agenda. What coverage in
the forms of news stories and pictorials specified to above mention ten issues at front pages
and back page of three newspapers. What is given space to the issues of 'terrorism', 'energy
crisis', 'economic crisis', 'corruption', 'Indo-Pak relations', 'US-drone attacks', 'Pak-Taliban
talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and 'health'?
1
46
In this study, the focus is on media coverage and frames as independent variables, with their
effects on readers' perceptions as dependent variable. Later, the findings of content analyses
will be associated with the results of survey.
18. Research Questions
The research questions of current study are as follows:
R.Q.1: Is there any correlation among the newspaper's agenda and student's agenda on the
issues of, 'US-drone attacks', 'economic crisis', 'corruption', 'Indo-Pak relations', 'terrorism',
'energy crisis', 'Pak-Taliban talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and 'health'?
R.Q. 2: Whether and to what extent newspaper's agenda influences student's agenda on
national issues in Pakistan?
19. Hypotheses
More than 400 dissertations conducted in the world regarding agenda setting function of
news media. A positive correlation had found within most of the previous studies based on
agenda setting theory. In these studies, coverage of an issue in media when compared with
the public opinion of the particular media exposed a positive association. The researcher
hypothesis also aims at determining the agenda setting influences and existence of an
association between newspaper's agenda and its readers (students) agenda on the topics of
the study; 'terrorism', 'energy crisis', 'economic crisis', 'corruption', 'Indo-Pak relations', 'USdrone attacks', 'Pak-Taliban talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and 'health'. Keeping in mind
the previous studies' findings on agenda setting, the researcher also formulated a speculative
statement that there is a positive link among print media agenda and public agenda on major
national issues. In other words, there will be influence of agenda setting on the readers of
selected newspapers. In the light of preceding discussion, the following hypotheses are
formulated;
H1: It is more likely that there is positive correlation between the print media agenda and
public agenda on the national issues.
H2: It is more likely that the print media agenda influences public agenda on national issues.
47
H3: It is more likely that public opinion is linked with the tone of newspaper.
H4: It is more likely that students expose more than one newspaper.
H5: It is more likely that students read newspapers for political information than
entertainment.
H6: It is more likely that students prefer to read national news than international news.
48
Chapter-3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.
Theoretical Framework
The current dissertation is conducted to analyze the association between media and public
agendas on the national issues' coverage, exploring agenda setting of national press. The core
rationale of present thesis is to explore correlation among newspapers coverage (agenda) of
specific objects and public view (agenda) ranking of those objects. Keeping in view, the
theory of agenda-setting is a major theoretical groundwork for the current dissertation. The
present research investigates whether the media coverage of objects as positive, negative or
neutral results in similar level of those national issues by the opinion of public. In addition, it
also attempts to dig out associations among media coverage topics/phenomena and those
objects/issues rating by public opinion. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate whether
the public's agenda is influenced by print media's agenda and is there any correlation between
media agenda and public agenda on the national issues.
Within the formal study of the media there are theoretical models which aim
to explain. In a place, Kaye & Medoff states that one of the good theories facilitates and
forecasts in future that what is going to occur by providing applicative understanding into
how the phenomenon is being studied/worked1. Most recent theories in mass media that give
explanation and clarification about the uses of new technologies are definitely required. As
the second decade of 21st century is progressing, the repeated challenges and hurdles for the
scholars, researchers and theorists of communication and researchers will be to keep up and
come up2. In the modern society, there is required such kinds of theories that may well
explain and describe the usages and outcomes of new technology in media and contents of
news media in Pakistan. Pakistani newspapers provide a variety of local, regional, national
and foreign news based on political, economic, social, sports, weather, showbiz etc. and
facilitate the people in selecting news contents according to their experience, requirements,
1
Kaye, B. K., & Medoff, N. J. (2000). A theoretical perspective for the World Wide Web. The World Wide
Web: A mass communication perspective. (pp. 310325). London: Mayfield Publishing Company.
2
Bryant, J., & Thompson, S. (2002). Fundamentals of Media Effects. New York: McGraw-Hill.
49
necessities & choices and build their perception according to media coverage and treatment
about those issues. In this way, people consider those issues more important that newspapers
give more coverage and display at the top of front page with six, seven or eight columns.
Therefore, the first part of this study explore respondents chosen that news contents which
newspapers highlight more as compared to the others. This dissertation justified the claims of
'Agenda Setting Theory'. This theory identified Pakistani newspapers role as agenda setting
and public agenda according to media agenda. The agenda setting factors of media lead to
exposure of those newspapers contents which in turn can generate impacts and public agenda
seems to go in line to media agenda. Major component of the present study comes under the
influence of public perceptions and behaviors regarding those issues which press display in
significant and frequently. The study of the mass media outlets in Pakistan is not easy at the
same time because a sole idea or theory cannot capture the huge picture of the influence of
the media in Pakistani society. So, for the sake of understanding the correlation between
media and public agendas, this research makes use of a combination of theories dealing with
news media effects. As researcher aspires to determine and find out correlation within
agendas of media and public on national issues in Pakistan, therefore this thesis obviously
includes the "media function as agenda setting", proposed by McCombs & Shaw (1972),
"Framing" of Goffman (1974) and the "priming" effects of media by Iyengar, Peters &
Kinder (1982). So, the groundwork of current dissertation is found on three theories; Agenda
Setting Theory, Priming Theory, and Framing Theory. They are briefly but in a
comprehensive discussed under the following lines in reference with current research.
1.1 Agenda Setting Theory
For above than 40 years, the theory of agenda setting has been one of essential theoretical
framework close with to examine and explore media influence on public perception1. Agenda
setting role of media is regarding diffusion of issues salience from news media to public.
News media has the capability to influence the issues on public agenda, is the core
assumption behind the agenda setting theory of mass media2. If a new story in the mass
media is reported repeatedly and significantly then the audience will view that topic more
Dunn, S. W. (2009). Candidate and media agenda setting in the 2005 Virginia gubernatorial election. Journal
of Communication, 59(3), 635-652, ISSN 0021-9916.
2
50
essential as compared to others. The core assumption behind the agenda setting function of
media represents news media's capability to focus audience's attention only on a few burning
topics while ignoring the others.
News media among the mass media plays a considerable function in agenda
setting to tell the people which are important news (issues) of day and on the other side that is
followed in what audience identifies the important issues.
Moreover, Agenda setting is a process in which significant incidents (for instance terrorist
activities, bomb blasts, drone attacks, bilateral negotiation) and public figures (such as
politicians, celebrities, or business leaders) play an important function to form media content.
In simple words, function of media as agenda setting is creations of events importance, what
people think are more significant and what is less important. First time, the agenda setting
role of mass media concept was formally introduced by an American famous columnist W.
Lippmann in his famous book "Public Opinion" in 1922. Lippmann's book was one of the
earliest books that discussed that media has the significant role in shaping the public
perception.
Later, Cohen offered the popular notion of agenda setting role of news media
that the newspapers is attractively successful in deceiving their readers "what to think
about"1. In fact, this theory describes media ability to influence our perception about the
issues that what issues are important among the lists of issues. Today, theory of Agenda
Setting has become one of the most influential and essential theories of mass media.
The notion 'agenda setting' got its given name by inspiration that press have
capability to hold importance of objects lying on its news agenda and then salience of item
shift to the public's agenda. In the newspapers, some news items are given space and
prominently display in a greater frequency and length, and the rest bulk of news stories gain
just short concentration.
This theory was expanded by two researchers of University of North Carolina,
McCombs & Shaw. They are the earliest who initiate the phrase of 'agenda setting' during
their research regarding the role of media in Chapel Hill, USA. The researchers draw a
1
Cohen, B. (1963). The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
51
conclusion that news media employed an important impact on what audience thought to be
significant issues of political campaign.
It describes that news media have great impact on audience as a result of its
selection to consider which issues to be hold as important and how much coverage and
importance given to them. The central theorem of this theory is the potential of media to
transfer significance of issues or salience transfer on its news agenda to public agenda.
The agenda setting theory explains association among the rate at which news
media give coverage to an issue and on the other hand the degree the audience thinks to that
issue is significant. People react to pseudo environment that media creates. According to
Hamm, this association is frequently being revealed to take place. News media by
emphasizing specific topic position the agenda for public opinion1.
Proponents of the theory including Chaffee & Berger state that this theory is
one of the good quality theories that have explanatory potential; able to explain why the
majority of audience gives importance the same issues2. At the large scale, it is also popular
as it is not complex and easy to understand. This is why the media's agenda setting role
should not only be studied quantitatively but also qualitatively. This is one of the reasons why
this study uses triangulation to study the news media in Pakistan.
The model of agenda setting gives a theoretical description intended for the
coverage of newspapers' burning issues in Pakistan. The core of this theory always remains
the transfer of topic salience; new media to the public. News media helps to transfer salience
of issue to the public. According to the agenda setting theorists, more the exposure of
topic/issue by news media more increases the salience of audience of that issue. Agenda
setting theory of mass media also claims that prominence of particular attributes of the issue
can enhance the salience of public of those attributes.
Thus, theorists and scholars of agenda setting pronounce that news media play
a significance role to influence on the issues, what issues public will think about and also
1
Hamm, B. J. (1998). History of the Mass Media in the United States: an encyclopedia. New York, NY:
Routledge.
2
Chaffee, M., & Berger, W. (1997). Setting the Community Agenda. Journalism &Mass Communication
Quarterly, 73(1), 7-16.
52
how they will think on those issues. For national issues their attributes are display and
repetition of news stories in the form of news items and pictorial. Display of the news allows
the readers to read them that are the most important news. In newspapers the lengthy,
repeated and significant published news stories are able to affect more as compared to
salience transfer of the topic. Actually, it helps to manipulate the attitude and behavior of
readers' presentation. The findings of prior study has revealed that the impacts of media
agenda is dogged with the subjects that public have less direct or unobtrusive issues,
individualized awareness with in actual world situations.
This theory is interrelated to current dissertation as the readers read
newspapers to get information about different significant issues in the form of news items. It
is also said that newspapers give more detailed information about national issues and make
the perception of the people giving these issue more significance place (at front and back
page) in the newspapers . The readers seek knowledge and information about issues then
considered those issues more important which are given more space and prominence in the
newspapers.
1.2 Priming Theory
In the history of media effect studies and theories, framing theory belongs to the fourth and
the latest (present) stage. This phase was initiated in the early 1980's. In the field of mass
media research, Iyengar, Peters, and Kinder were the initial theorists who identified the
"priming effect"1. Priming notion states that animating of one idea/issue may prove relevant
opinions. In simple, priming theory illustrates that media images stimulate similar concepts in
the minds of public.
According to Iyengar et al., priming is a process where news media focuses to a few topics
neglecting others issues and thus modify standards through which public assess issues in
natural world. Therefore, the consequences of priming salience propose that the media
agenda be able to act upon more than set agenda of public. The communication scholars
McCombs & Reynolds argue that "priming" is a commonly accepted result of media effects
inside the agenda setting framework. Priming theory verifies that news media manipulates
1
53
standards in which government, Prime Minister, President, politicians, candidates and

policies are evaluated through stressing on a few issues while neglecting others1.
Basically priming is treated as an extension of agenda setting theory in which
mutually both notions are tried to bring to an agreement via approachability or accessibility
of a news build in the mind of the people2.
In the area of mass media, previous researches reveal that the concepts of
priming are embedded in the cognitive psychology. Communication theorists say that
basically priming is a psychological process where media stress on particular topics, not
simply enhance importance of those topics, but it also induces in the memories of audience
earlier acquired facts about those topics. Those facts and pieces of information are next
utilized in forming the point of view for instance about a person, group, institution, events,
activities connected to the topics. The basic assumption of priming is that news media
information motivates connected opinions in audience memories3.
Priming theory states that news media stresses on a few topics, while ignoring
the others issues, similar as done by the agenda setting theory and thus manipulate the
standards through which audience assess issues and public figures. Priming theory is not
staying at the level of salience transfer of the issues, it goes one step further. It examines
closely the role of news media for manipulate or shifting the audience's assessing aspects4.
Moreover, the notion of attribute priming assists the researcher to comprehend how and what
public perform regarding it. During the findings of research, Iyengar et al. 5discovered that
news media sets the criteria through which public might evaluate abilities of presidential
McCombs, M. E., & Reynolds, A. (2002). News influence on our pictures of the world. In J. Bryant & D.
Zillman (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 1-18). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
2
Price, V., & Tewksbury, D. (1997). New values and public opinion: A theoretical account of media priming
and framing. In G. A. Barnett and F. J. Boster (Eds.). Progress in the Communication Sciences, Vol. 13.
Greenwich, Conn.: Ablex.
3
4
Kim, S., Scheufele, D. A., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Think about it this way: Attribute agenda-setting function of
the press and the public's evaluation of a local issue. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 79, 7-25.
5
54
candidates; and Iyengar & Kinder 1defined this process as priming effects, that set the
guidance which audience utilizes for formulating their point of view.
1.3 Framing Theory
Framing theory assists a researcher in understanding as to how an even is portrayed in a
particular news story or an article. Framing is viewed under the rubric of agenda setting
theory, which is typically illustrated same the thought that news media don't tell people what
to think , but what to think about2. According to McCombs & Shaw3, basically this theory
states that one of the influences of media is to direct perception of the audience to certain
issue. The familiarization of framing theory is very important to understand how national
issues are reported in news media. The term 'framing' traced back to work of social theorists
4
who examined and clarified function of media in determining topics for audience. A number
of researchers advocated that the notion of 'framing' is having existed for a long time and
therefore recognized and generally accepted as a field in mass media studies. Framing theory
of mass media is a microscopic theory that stresses on how audience comprehends to usually
make sense of their real world5.
According to Entman6, framing basically involves selection and salience.
Mass media tells the public how to think about it, framing (which is also called second level
of agenda setting), is about transformation of salience of selected attributes. The concept of
framing is derived from the photography, wherever a camera frames a setting of a
performance or event in order that comes into sight in a specific way what is inside the frame
7
. Framing is an expansion of agenda setting theory1. News media focuses the concentration
Iyengar, S. & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, IL.
2
Cohen, B. (1963). The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
3
Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.
4
Entman, R. M. (1991). Framing U.S. coverage of international news: Contrasts in narratives of KAL and Iran
air incidents. Journal of Communication, 41(4), 6-27.; Gitlin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching: Mass
media in the making and unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley: University of California Press.;
Goffman, E.
(1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. New York: Harper & Row.
5
Baran, S., & Davis, D. (2000). Mass communication theory: Foundations, ferment, and future. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
6
Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm. Journal of Communication,
43, 51-55.
7
Jhally, S. (2001). Framing an execution: The media & Mumia Abu Jamal [Motion picture]. (Available from
the Media Education Foundation, 60 Masonic St., Northampton, MA 01060).
55
on specific issues and then gives the coverage to these issues inside a field of meaning; it is
the core of framing theory. News media diverts audience attention to specific events that
influences what people think about.
Framing is an act of 'defining' attributes of particular objects which will act as
the frame through which the public perceives the said object2. The most cited definition of
framing is described by the proponent of this theory, that framing is the process to choose or
pick some dominions of a superficial reality and formulate them most important in a
communicating text, in a way is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them
more salient in a communicate text, in a particular way as to advance a specific definition of
problem, seminal understanding, ethical assessment, and analysis approval intended for
object portrayed3.
The framing theory explains that coverage of the news by mass media also
manipulate way, the audience take to mean a phenomenon. Framing of news is a significant
stuff as it is an integral component of agenda setting practice. It manipulates the public
opinion about an object, which in twist put in to the shape of audience perception that is
either favorable or unfavorable relating to that phenomenon. The frames have the capability
to produce the societal influence when encoded in particular phrases, on the whole just once
the phrase is broadly well-known4. Therefore news media through news framing can play a
significant role in deciding success or failure. Frames are theoretical concepts which help to
arrange systematically or to form social meanings. They affect the public opinion of the news
item, this type of agenda setting, in simple word framing not only informs its audience what
to think about, but also tells that how to think about it.
Framing has become the most utilized mass communication theory of the
present era; having less rapidly reached high level of popularity, for it barely made the list of
McCombs, M., Shaw, D. L., & Weaver, D. (1997). Communication and Democracy: Exploring the Intellectual
Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
2
McCombs, M., Lopez-Escobar, E., & Llamas, J. P. (2000). Setting the Agenda of Attributes in the 1996
Spanish General Election. Journal of Communication, 50, 77-92.
3
Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm. Journal of Communication,
43, 51-55.
4
Kerr, P. (2002). Saved from extinction: evolutionary theorising, politics and the state. The British Journal of
Politics & International Relations, 4(2), 330-358.
56
the most applied mass communication theories in the last 20th and now in the start of 21st1.
In different discipline, the notion of framing is defined in various ways in varied fields such
as sociology, economics, linguistics, communication science, political communication and
public-relations research2. Two well-known American communication scholars, Herman &
Chomsky3 continued that framing of media plays a significant function in displaying,
determining, interpreting, shaping or ruining the representation of issues.
Framing theory points to that the news media frames can perform dynamic
function in motivating favorable or unfavorable attitude and behavior for an object. They
offer ethical understanding, fundamental explanation and solution for the problems of media,
generally signify particular philosophy, media frames as well as eye-catching phrases, similes
etc. also assist to decide media "tone" while giving space or time of an object4.
As present study is based on news sorties at the main front page and back page
of the three newspapers, therefore content analysis will be based on the framing of the issues
of the research "'Terrorism', 'Energy Crisis, 'Economic Crisis', 'Corruption', 'Indo-Pak
Relations', 'US-Drone Attacks', 'Pak-Taliban Talks', 'Education', 'Unemployment' and 'Health'
" issues are selected in the form of pictorial display and news items.
2.
Variables of Study
It is important to specify the variables of any study; the current dissertation in following lines
has both independent and dependent variables:
2.1 Independent Variable
Founded on agenda setting theory of mass media, "Print Media Agenda" is treated as
independent variable of present dissertation. It is conceptualized as giving coverage on
national issues by newspapers. Therefore greater the coverage on national issues greater will
1
Bryant, J., & Miron, D. (2004). Theory and Research in Mass Communication. Journal of Communication,
54(4), 662-704.
2
Van Gorp, B. (2007). The Constructionist Approach to Framing: Bringing Culture Back in. Journal of
Communication, 57, 60-78.
3
Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (2002). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media
(2nd ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
4
Saleem, N. (2007). US. Media Framing of Foreign Countries Image: An Analytical Perspective. Canadian
Journal of Media Studies, 2(1), 130-162.
57
be the effects. And it was oprationalized as number of news stories and story's length about
an issue.
2.2 Dependent Variable
Based on agenda setting theory of mass media, "Public Agenda" is the dependent variable. It
is conceptualized as respondents' awareness of national issues in news media. Hence greater
the time on reading national issues greater will be the effects. And it is oprationalized as the
rate of significance given to them by public. The rate of significance is articulated by the
readers considering an issue as most significant problem at national level.
58
Chapter-4
RESEARCH METHDOLGY
1. Methodology
Research methodology is a systematic way to resolve the problems of research. In it, a
researcher studies and scrutinizes a variety of steps which are usually followed in examining
the research problem. Research methodology has many dimensions and research techniques1.
Basically, methodology is a collection of systematic and organized measures
or methods which are employed to collect the data and its interpretation in addition to its
analysis. A research methodology is a system of procedures, measures, techniques, skills and
models which are employed to discover the conclusion of a research problem2.
There is no lack of literature on the study of mass media, not to mention the
methodologies employed by researchers. So, this study also employs methodologies that are
used in previous studies, namely focusing on the association into agenda of media and public
agenda.
This research makes use of some of the original methods used by Shaw and
McCombs in their 1968 Chapel Hill study, in an attempt to examine link with the media
agenda and agenda of the public, or what public standpoint were the significant issues during
study period. Halloran cited in Hansen3 argues that replicating a study tests the reliability of
its methods. It means that reliability is normally considered to be high if two or more
researchers investigating the same subject with the same methods come up with the same or
similar outcomes.
Kumar, C. R. (2008). Research Methodology. Darya Ganj, New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.
Panneerselvam, R. (2006). Research Methodology. New Delhi. Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.
3
Hansen, A. (2008). Mass communication research methods. London: Sage Publications, Inc.
2
59
2. Research Design
Research design can be referred as a framework which indicates the specific kinds of
information to be collected as well as source of data and method used in collecting them. As
the present study deals with presence or absence of association between media agenda and
public agenda, according to requirements and nature of dissertation triangulation will be
used; survey design and content analysis will be used for data collection, to examine and
evaluate the association between agenda of print media and public agenda on the national
issues in Pakistan. The following chapter deals with contents analysis and survey techniques.
3. Temporal Frame
The chosen time frame of this study to analyze these newspapers is the main two months
before and after parliamentary General Elections 2013 in Pakistan from May 1 to June 31,
2013. It is a significance time span when the General Elections of Pakistan were held on 11th
May, 2013.
4. Importance of the Issues
It was a significant period of time. All the political parties of Pakistan unveiled election
manifesto before the General Elections 2013. Most of the parities' manifesto revolve around
the following issues; "terrorism", "energy crisis", "economic crisis", "corruption", "Indo-Pak
relations", "US-Drone attacks", "Pak-Taliban talks", "education", "unemployment", and
"health".
These were those issues which not only obtained the significant coverage in the mass media
but may also rank them the most important by public. So, it was the main reason that the
scholars of current study selected these ten issues and wants to examine how much these ten
important issues gain the importance in three popular newspapers and how frequently these
issues are ranked important in public agenda during the survey.
5. Research Setting
In research, the place where the data are collected is called research setting. In other words, it
is the environment or any situation that could be laboratory or a real setting, where the
60
research is carried out. The geographical scope of the current study is vast to Pakistan. The
study is carried out to collect data through survey from the students of universities and
colleges in the cities; Sargodha, Faisalabad and Jhang (Pakistan). Researcher himself visits
the above mentioned areas, to collect the data by using questionnaire survey. The researcher
decides to collect data for the study from these three cities due to convenience and their
locations and importance within the state.
6. Content Analysis
Content analysis is considered an important research method which is used to analyze
systematic study of media messages or contents. It is also reliable and authentic research
method for studying contents of media because of its potential to make an "objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication"1. Content
analysis is used to investigate contents of the news media. Content analysis has been regarded
as an appropriate research method to correctly evaluate news coverage and make inferences
to a conclusion.
A systematic research technique to investigate content of printed
information is called content analysis2. On the other hand, Krippendorff & Bock define the
quantitative content analysis as "is concerned with the frequency of occurrence of given
content characteristics"3.
Any method for making conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning by
impartially and scientifically recognizing particular characteristics of news 4. Content
Analysis is described as the scientific study of content of communication. The coverage of
ten national issues was measured with the help of the content analysis tool in three national
daily Urdu newspapers: Jang, Nawa-i-Waqt and Express because the most popular of their
size of circulation, country wide circulation, spread of readers, consistency in news coverage,
editorial independence and their elite and popular status as media organizations in Pakistan.
Berelson, B. (1952). Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: The Free Press.
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2006). Mass Media Research: An Introduction (8th Ed.). Belmont,
California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
3
Krippendorff, K., & Bock, M. A. (2009). The content analysis reader. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage
Publications.
4
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content Analysis for Social and Humanities. Reading, Mass; Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
2
61
Using this technique, this dissertation examined all the news stories in the
form of news items or pictorial about ten national issues at the front and back pages in the
newspapers of Daily Jang, Daily Nawa-i-Waqt and Daily Express.
On the basis of their importance, the above mentioned three newspapers are
selected. They are providing important national and international information to the public. A
census of news content that contained the words "terrorism", "energy crisis", "economic
crisis", "corruption", "Indo-Pak relations", "US-Drone attacks", "Pak-Taliban talks",
"education", "unemployment", and "health" were collected in three widely circulated
publications including: The Jang, The Nawa-i-Waqt, and The Express.
In the other words, the content analysis is designed to collect various
information from news stories which have the words "terrorism", "energy crisis", "economic
crisis", "corruption", "Indo-Pak relations", "US-Drone attacks", "Pak-Taliban talks",
"education", "unemployment", and "health" in three publications widely circulated in
Pakistan, including: The Jang, The Nawa-i-Waqt, and The Express. The contents of these
newspapers were analyzed from May 1, 2013 to June 31, 2013.
6.1
Unit of Analysis
Parameters that are used to analyze the collected data are referred to as units of analysis. To
identify the unit of analysis or group of persons is one of the most significant steps in
research process. The objects or people whose features are observed, explained or described
by a researcher is called unit of analysis1.
Neuman defines that unit of analysis is a sort of empirical element or unit which a researcher
examines, scrutinizes and measures in the study2. All news items and pictorials regarding the
issues of 'terrorism', 'energy crisis', 'economic crisis', 'corruption', 'Indo-Pak relations', 'USDrone attacks', 'Pak-Taliban Talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and 'health' in three
newspapers (Jang, Nawa-i-Waqt and Express) are the unit of analysis of this study.
Babbie, E. (2001). The Practice of Social Research (9th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing.
Neuman, L. W. (2007). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Illinois:
Pendleton Publications.
2
62
6.2
Population
Population is name for massive common set of various cases where a researcher extracts a
sample and that is generally articulated in hypothetical conditions1. According to Reinard, the
universe of objects or events from which sample is drained is called population2.
As a first step, the universe or population of communication is defined; the
selected universe in this particular study for content analysis comprised all the daily morning
newspapers of Pakistan which are available in Sargodha, Faisalabad and Jhang cities of
Punjab, Pakistan.
6.3
Sample and Sample Size
Good & Hat define the sample as "a smaller representation of a large whole"3. A subset or
part of the universe chosen to contribute in a research, to participate in a study, depicting
population of research is called a sample. The number of objects accessible to be studied is
called sample size. Because of restriction of money and time this research is confined to three
of the most popular circular Urdu national daily newspapers are sample of the current
dissertation for analysis of content: the Jang, the Nawa-i-Waqt and the Express. These papers
were selected due to their size of circulation, and their spread of readers.
6.4
Sampling Method
There has been employed a systematic sampling because there are relevance among news
stories at the similar date in three newspapers. The study period was two months, from 1st
May 2013 to 30th June 2013. Content of newspapers was analyzed two alternate days for
each newspaper constantly in two months. The daily Jang was analyzed (1, 4, 7, 10, 13, and
so on), The Nawa-i-Waqt was analyzed (2, 5, 8, 11, 14, and so on) and The Express was
analyzed (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and so on) days.
Neuman, L. W. (2007). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Illinois:
Pendleton Publications.
2
Reinard John C., 1998, Introduction to Communication Research, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.,
Boston, pp 233-4)
3
Goode, W. J., & Hatt, P. K. (1952). Methods of Social Research. New York: McGraw Hill.
63
6.5
Coding Unit of Analysis
Parameters that were used to analyze the press coverage data are referred to as coding units of
analysis. One of the significant parts of content analysis is unit of analysis. During the
research process a researcher basically take the interest in measuring or examining the unit of
analysis1.
On the other hand Holsti states, coding unit of analysis is a particular part of
content which is differentiated by putting it in an allocated classification. He states that only
one character, symbol or word is usually the minimum unit of analysis and the largest body
of content is context unit to characterize a recording unit2.
The paragraph of a news item about one of the selected issue is the coding unit
of analysis in content analysis. The paragraph will be counted whether it is favorable,
unfavorable or neutral. For instance, studying the paragraph about 'Pak-Taliban Talks' issue
which gives a supportive picture that Pakistan should negotiate with Taliban will be
measured as favorable. If a paragraph of news item about the same issue of 'Pak-Taliban
Talks' gives a disappointing illustration about the negotiation with Taliban will be regarded as
unfavorable. In contrast, the coding unit will be considered as a neutral if the paragraph of the
news item which has not a clear image or neither favorable nor unfavorable tendency or
combined or neutral depiction about the same issue.
6.6
Contextual Unit of Analysis
After knowing about the coding unit of analysis, the other important aspect of content
analysis research is contextual unit of analysis. In this contemporary research, the entire news
story is the contextual unit of analysis. And in the case of slants, paragraphs are measured
individually. One the other hand, in the case of framing whole news story is analyzed on the
base of this contextual unit that is news.
Stempel, G. H. (1989). Content Analysis. In G. H. Stempel& B. H. Westley (Eds) Research methods in mass
communications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
2
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content Analysis for Social and Humanities. Reading, Mass; Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
64
6.7
Variables
There are some important variables of the content analysis in the following lines;
6.7.1 Frequency
The number of news items/stories about an issue that appear in a newspaper is considered the
frequency of news story. In the content analysis research of current dissertation, the news
stories about any one of ten selected national issues of the study are numerated that printed at
the front page and back page of newspapers. After counting the number (frequency) of news
items about the issue of study then they will be ranked in ascending order. In addition, the
frequencies of these issues will be compared with the public agenda (survey research).
6.7.2 Length
The amount of space in a newspaper which a news item occupied is called length. In the
current dissertation length of news items is calculated in column per cm. The length of related
pictorial about news stories of the study issues is also included in the length of news stories.
In Pakistani Urdu daily newspapers 4.5 cm is considered standard width.
6.7.3 Slant
Slant is also one of the important elements in content analysis research. Basically, slant is a
tendency/angle of the issue which pinpoints how an issue is being presented1.
In the present study, the slant of the related news items is evaluated regarding favorable,
unfavorable and neutral. The coding unit of analysis is paragraph and slant is measured by
evaluating paragraphs of news stories. The salient features of slant in content analysis can be
comprehended in "Coding Sheet Instructions for Newspaper Content Analysis" available in
the Appendix-A.
65
6.7.4 Frame
Framing is one of the major elements in agenda setting effects of mass media. Framing in
communication can be viewed as how news story about an event or issue was framed. For
instance, US-Drone attack is one of the issues of the current study. In this issue, framing will
be evaluated whether the news story is portraying US-Drone attacks should be stopped or
not. To identify frames, the whole news item about an issue is examined from the contextual
approach.
6.7.5 Placement
It represents where the news story of an issue is printed or given place by newspaper.
Newspaper tells its readers what is important and meaningful through the placement of news
stories on its pages. The placement and coverage of news stories in a newspaper play a
significant role in print media agenda. In agenda setting role of media, it is accepted that the
way of mass media not only influence what we think but also what we think about. In current
dissertation, the categories of placement are as given below;
1- Front Page, and
2- Back Page.
At the end of the dissertation, coding sheet of newspaper's content analysis is available in
Appendix-A.
7. Survey Research
Survey research is considered to be an appropriate method to the requirements and nature of
research study for investigating the public agenda in Pakistan. The data relevant to the study
is collected via survey from the students of universities and colleges in Pakistan. The types of
questions that were raised, attempted to determine the agenda setting effects of Press on the
students. According to the previous studies, university and college students represent one of
the most significant demographic groups because of their background, living patterns,
thinking pattern and reading pattern related to different regions communities, societies and
66
culture. Thus, the relative effects upon this subpopulation might suggest some trends in
national population reader's patterns.
To best reach newspaper readers, survey was selected as the primary tool used
for collection of data. During the survey research, questionnaires were filled by the
respondents during the research period to investigate agenda setting function of print media
in Pakistani society. Students are asked to rank the issues which they see are the most
important issues at the time.
7.1
Unit of Analysis
The students enrolled in the universities and colleges in Sargodha, Faisalabad and Jhang who
read the above mentioned daily newspapers are unit of analysis for survey research, and the
purpose is to explore the correlations within news media agenda and students' agenda in
above mentioned cities of Punjab, Pakistan.
7.2
Population
The research population of the present study for survey research is consisted of all the male
or female students who read the morning newspapers of Pakistan in Sargodha, Faisalabad and
Jhang in the province of Punjab (Pakistan).
7.3
Sample and Sample Size
A sample basically a subset of the universe viewed for intuition taking inferences regarding
the nature of entire universe1.
Due to the Limitation of time and lack of resources, a sample of 300 students
(male 150 and Female 150) was selected from Sargodha, Faisalabad and Jhang cities who
read one of the above mentioned three newspapers.
Babbie, E. (2001). The Practice of Social Research (9th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing.
67
7.4
Sampling Dynamics
The list of students and their cities are in the following (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Sampling Dynamics
Cities Name
No. of Students
Sargodha
100
Faisalabad
100
Jhang
100
(n=300)
7.5
Sampling Methods
In this study for survey research, convenience or purposive sampling technique was used to
collect the data for public agenda because questionnaires were distributed to the readers who
are the students and read one of the above mentioned newspapers. There is no census or lists
of all readers of the above mentioned three newspapers that every student has not an equal
chance of being included in the sample. Therefore, there was no sample framework of the
students from where a sample might be taken arbitrarily to assurance that each student reader
has an equal opportunity to include in sample. Convenience sampling is the coherent
selection in belongings wherever it is very difficult to recognize all the objects of a
population1.
7.6
Instrument of Survey Data Collection
There are a variety of techniques in survey research to collect the data. This study is of
quantitative as well as qualitative in nature. The instrument for content analysis to collect the
data about media agenda is a coding sheet (see Appendix-B).
The instrument for this thesis to collect the data about public agenda is a structured verified
questionnaire titled "Student's Newspaper Reading Habit Survey Questionnaire" (SNRHSQ)
developed by the researcher with the help of supervisor. It consists of two sections. The
1
De Vos, AS, Strydom H, Fouche, CB and Delport, CSL. (2005). Research at grassroots level: for Social
Sciences and Human Services Professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
68
Section A of questionnaire was designed to elicit personal and demographic information from
the respondents such as sex, education and location while the Section B contains 22 items
which focus on the different behavior and perception of the respondents about the specific
subjects of the study. Questionnaire to collect the data from the students is designed in
English language while for the convenience of the respondents in Pakistani society and for
the better results; the questionnaire is translated in the language of Urdu. For compatibility of
English language questionnaire with Urdu language questionnaire, a bilingual expert was
consulted. Data of survey is collect from the students of universities and colleges in
predetermined three areas. A test is run to estimate the reliability of questionnaire. This multiitems scale posts a Cronbachs Alpha co-efficient of reliability of the instrument is 0.71. This
value shows that administered instrument has a good internal consistency. The standard for
scale development usually entails that a scale has a reliability index of .70 or greater, there
might be exclusion in this regulation1.
8. Data Presentation
Collected data by using two methods of research; survey and content analysis are interpreted,
analyzed, edited in MS Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) in the data
analysis chapter. The gathered data has been presented and measured in form of tables and
figures by using frequencies, percentage, and Pearson correlation formula and regression
analysis model.
Santos, J. R. A. (1999). Cronbachs Alpha: A tool for assessing the reliability of scales. Tools of the Trade,
37(2), 1-5.
69
Chapter-5
DATA ANALYSIS
1. Content Analysis
According to the need of dissertation, both content analysis and survey research methods
have been employed to find association between the newspaper's and public agendas on the
significant issues in Pakistan, exploring agenda setting of national press.
Content analyses of three newspapersJang, Nawa-i-Waqt and Express are
conducted and after that the findings of content analyses are matched to survey results
conducted in citiesSargodha, Faisalabad and Jhang-(Punjab) Pakistan. A period of two
months, 2013, is selected and news items and pictorials on the front and back pages in three
papers regarding the ten national issues ('Terrorism', 'Energy Crisis', 'Economic Crisis',
'Corruption', 'Indo-Pak Relations', 'US-Drone Attacks', 'Pak-Taliban Talks', 'Education',
'Unemployment' and 'Health') are selected.
In layout, newspapers are set up as the lists of column that are kept apart
through column centimeter. In content analyses, the news items and related pictures about ten
study issues at front page and back page of mainstream Urdu Pakistani newspapers are
calculated to examine the media agenda. In this study, the unit to measure the content
analysis is column centimeters. Regarding the role of newspapers media as agenda setting is
considered important at main front and back pages of newspapers. Most of the people during
the reading of newspapers rely only on the front page where the transfer of issue salience
plays a significant role. The numbers of news stories about the issues which appeared on the
front page and back page in three sample newspapers are considered as frequency (f). A
column centimeter is a measurement of the amount (length) of content (e.g. news items,
pictorial). The expressions favorable, unfavorable and neutral are used to measure the slant
(angle/tone) of the news story. In this study, the researcher measures the frames in terms of
Pakistan should support US policies and Pakistan shouldn't support US policies for the issue
of 'terrorism', Govt. should negotiate with Taliban and Govt. shouldn't negotiate with Taliban
70
for the issue of 'Pak-Taliban Talks', should stop US-Drone attacks and shouldn't stop USDrone Attacks for the issue of US-Drone Attacks, , Pro-Government and Anti-Government
on the issues of 'Energy Crisis', 'Economic Crisis', 'Corruption', 'Education', 'Unemployment'
& 'Health' and on 'Indo-Pak relations' issue frame is measured by Indo-Pak relations are
beneficial for Pakistan and not beneficial for Pakistan. In agenda setting regarding the
transfer of issue's salience, a news story or picture placing has a significant function in
affecting the public agenda. That's why, only the front and back pages of newspapers are
evaluated to examine the effects of print media agenda on the public agenda.
In order to investigate association between media agenda and students (public)
agenda on the burning ten national issues, a survey of 300 readers, residents of Sargodha,
Faisalabad and Jhang, Pakistan are conducted and the findings of survey then compared with
content analysis' results.
1.1
Frequencies
During research period of two months, all the three newspapers published 505 (frequency)
news items about ten burning national issues of the study. As depicts from Figure 5.1, 130
news items was published about 'terrorism' issue while 126 stories about 'energy crisis' issue,
58 stories about 'Indo-Pak relations' issue, 54 news stories about 'health' issue, the issue of
'corruption' scored 47 news items and 'US-Drone attacks' having a number of 37 news items.
'Economic crisis' issue got 26 news items, 'Pak-Taliban talks' scored 17 new items, 'education'
issue got 5 news stories, and 'unemployment' issue got only 4 news items. So, the total
frequencies of news items in three newspapers which examined during the study period were
only 505.
Hence, 'terrorism' issue gets the maximum number of news stories in these
three newspapers and become first issue in content analysis and 'unemployment' issue scored
the minimum news items and gets the last (10th) position (Figure 5.1).
71
News stories published
150
100
50
0
Important Issues of the study

Data is evaluated in Frequency
(f=505)
Figure 5.1.: Frequencies of news items in dailies newspapers
1.2
News Items' Length
The researcher also evaluates the length of news stories (with remains parts) and pictures
about relevant 10 topics in column cm. Regarding news items' length, the issue of 'terrorism'
receives maximum coverage of 3543 column cm, a space of 2835 column cm is given to
'energy crisis' issue, 932 column cm to 'Indo-Pak relations' issue, 718 cm column to 'health'
issue, 906 column cm to 'corruption issue', 720 column cm to 'US-Drone attacks', the issue of
'economic crisis' gets the coverage of 564 column cm. The issue of study 'Pak-Taliban Talks'
gets coverage of 255 column cm. The issue of 'education' gets 64 column cm and the issue of
'unemployment' gets coverage of 65 cm. The coverage sequence of ten issues besides
'corruption' and 'unemployment' is remained similar as it is prior in frequencies of news items
(Figure 5.2). There has been found a link between the length of news stories and frequencies.
72
Length of the news stories (cm)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Important Issues of the study

Data is evaluated in Frequency
(f=505)
Figure 5.2.: Length of the news stories published in dailies

1.3
Slants
In content analysis, expressions (favorable, unfavorable and neutral) are used to examine the
slants (angles) of story by studying separate paragraphs (coding unit of analysis). Later, slant
whether it is neutral, favorable or unfavorable is coded in code sheets of content analysis (See
Appendix-B).
The Table 5.1 shows the slant of cumulative three newspapers about the issues
of research. These newspapers gave 6% news coverage favorable for the 'terrorism' issue,
87% coverage unfavorable and 7% neutral on the same issue. These newspapers gave less
coverage in favor of U.S. polices about 'terrorism' issue and more coverage against the U.S.
polices on 'terrorism'.
During the study period, the 'energy crisis' issue was also a burning issue. The
newspapers gave only 6% slant in favor of government, 88% slant unfavorable for
government and 6% was as neutral on 'energy crisis' issue. The favorable slants were
concerning government struggles, announcements of new projects and statements to control
and solve this crisis. The unfavorable news about the issue of 'energy crisis' for government
73
were about the long period of load shedding, public's protests against the government, closing
of some power units due to lack of fuel, oil, gas etc.
'Indo-Pak relations' issue is one of the burning issues which remained the
significant since the creation of Pakistan in 1947. Now-a-days Pakistani government and
media are playing their role to change conflicts and misunderstanding into better relationships
between India and Pakistan. But during the research period, due to different events, the
newspapers gave 39% slant in favorable of 'Indo-Pak relation's issue, 34% slant unfavorable
and 27% neutral on the same issue.
The 'health' issue got 2% slant coverage in favorable, 96% unfavorable and
2% neutral for government. Unlike the other issues, 'health' issue covered the remarkable
slant coverage as anti-government. It was very critical phase due to the lack of health
facilities many kids died due to roseola disease and the mostly news items of newspapers
were consisted on the death of these kids. Therefore slant of maximum news items were
remained unfavorable for government on the 'health' issue.
These newspapers gave 11% news coverage in favor of 'corruption' issue
regarding the acts of government to tackle this issue, 77% of coverage was unfavorable as a
result of proved the 'corruption' in government sectors while 12% slant shows the neutral
coverage about the issue of 'corruption'.
Regarding the issue of 'US-Drone attacks', three newspapers gave only 2%
news coverage in favor of 'US-Drone attacks', 95% coverage was unfavorable while 3%
coverage was neutral. It was very important phase because due to the drone attacks, different
Pak-Taliban leaders along with innocent people were killed. And every political and religious
leader in Pakistan condemned these drone attacks that in these attacks innocent people die.
So, maximum coverage was unfavorable on that issue.
These newspapers gave 18% news coverage favorable for the 'economic crisis'
issue, 59% news coverage was unfavorable while 23% news coverage was neutral. These
newspapers gave less coverage in favor of government policies and more coverage against
the government polices about 'economic crisis' issue.
74
On the topic of 'Pak-Taliban Talks', these newspapers gave maximum 59%

news coverage in favor of government should talks with Taliban, 33% news coverage was
against 'Pak-Taliban talks' while 8% coverage was neutral on the same issue.
During the study period, both 'education' and 'unemployment' issues got
minimum news stories. These issues also got the news stories in favor of 100 percent.
Actually the reason was that the news stories which were published regarding 'education' and
'unemployment' based on positive measures of government and the statements of government
(Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: Overall Slanting of news items

Issues
Favorable*
Unfavorable*
Neutral*
Terrorism
87
Energy Crisis
88
Indo-Pak Relations
39
34
27
Health
96
Corruption
11
77
12
US- Drone Attacks
95
Economic Crisis
18
59
23
Pak-Taliban Talks
59
33
Education
100
Unemployment
100
*Data is evaluated in (%)
1.4
(f=505)
Framing
Framing is also considered an important process of news media and commonly used and
measured in media research to examine the agenda setting effects of mass media. Here,
frames are measured in words of "Pakistan should support US policies" and "Pakistan
shouldn't support US policies" for the issue of 'terrorism', "Govt. should negotiate with
Taliban" and "Govt. shouldn't negotiate with Taliban" for the issue of 'Pak-Taliban Talks',
"Should stop US-Drone attacks" and "Shouldn't stop US-Drone Attacks" for the issue of US-
75
Drone attacks, "Pro-Government" and "Anti-Government" on the issue of 'Energy Crisis',

'Economic Crisis', 'Corruption', 'Education', 'Unemployment' & 'Health', "Indo-Pak relations
are beneficial for Pakistan", and "Indo-Pak relations are not beneficial for Pakistan" for the
issue of Indo-Pak relations.
1.4.1 Framing of Terrorism Issue
As shows from the Figure 5.3.1, over all three newspapers published only 9% news stories on
the subject of 'terrorism' depicted that Pakistan should support US-policies and war on
terrorism is our own war while 91% news stories depicted that Pakistan should not support
US-policies on Terrorism. The overall maximum framing of news stories on 'terrorism' issue
was anti US policies and suggested that Pakistani government should not support the USgovernment on 'terrorism' issue.
Percent
100
50
0
Pakistan should
support US policies
Pakistan shouldnt
support US policies
Terrorism
Data is evaluated in (%)
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.1: Framing of Terrorism Issue
76
1.4.2 Framing of Energy Crisis Issue

The framing of newspapers on 'energy crisis' issue is illustrates in Figure 5.3.2. Regarding the
framing of 'Energy crisis' issue, the newspapers published maximum 91% news stories giving
government a frame of anti-government whereas only 9% frame was pro-government. The
Figure 5.3.2 demonstrated that maximum frames were against the government that depicted
that negative image of the government during the coverage of 'energy crisis' issue.
Percent
100
50
0
Pro-Government
Anti-Government
Energy Crisis
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.2: Framing of Energy Crisis Issue
77
1.4.3 Framing of Indo-Pak Relations Issue

On the topic of the framing of 'Indo-Pak relations' issue Figure 5.3.3 shows that these
newspapers published maximum 70% frames of news stories that Indo-Pak relations are
beneficial for Pakistan while it was framed that Indo-Pak relations are not beneficial for
Pakistan in 30% news items during study period. So, overall findings of frame depicted the
positive image that Pakistan should build good relations with India because these relations
are beneficial for Pakistan.
Percent
100
50
0
Indo-Pak relations are
beneficial for Pakistan
Indo-Pak relations are

not beneficial for
Pakistan
Indo-Pak relations Issue
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.3: Framing of Indo-Pak Relations Issue
78
1.4.4 Framing of Health Issue

The Figure 5.3.4 shows these newspapers published only 2% news frames on 'Health' issue in
favor of government on the other hand 98% frames of news stories were against the
government. The framing of 'health' issues depicted that the maximum framing of news
stories were against the government. There were different reasons that maximum frames of
news stories about 'health' were anti government and depicted the negative image of
Percent
government (Figure 5.3.4).
100
0
Pro-Government
Anti-Government
Health Issue
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.4: Framing of Health Issue
79
1.4.5 Framing of Corruption Issue

The Figure 5.3.5 illustrates, three newspapers published 21% frames of news stories in favor
Percent
of government while 79% anti-government about 'corruption' issue.
100
0
Pro-Government
Anti-Government
Corruption
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.5: Framing of Corruption Issue
80
1.4.6 Framing of US-Drone Attacks Issue

The following figures depicts, these newspapers published 92% news items in the frame of
there should be stopped 'US-Drone attacks' while only 8% news items depicted that 'USDrone attacks' should be continued (Figure 5.3.6). The maximum framing coverage of news
items on 'US-Drone attacks' issue demonstrated that the United State of America should stop
the drone attacks in Pakistani tribal areas.
Percent
100
50
0
Should stop US-Drone
attacks
Shouldnt stop USDrone Attacks
US-Drone attacks Issue
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.6: Framing of US-Drone Attacks Issue
81
1.4.7 Framing of Economic Crisis Issue

The Figure 5.3.7 depicts, these three newspapers published 27% frames of news stories about
'economic crisis' was pro-government whereas 73% frames were against the government
(Figure 5.3.7).
Percent
100
50
0
Pro-Government
Anti-Government
Economic Crisis
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.7: Framing of Economic Crisis Issue
82
1.4.8 Framing of Pak-Taliban Talks Issue

Figure 5.3.8 depicts the framing of 'Pak-Taliban Talks Issue'. Framing on Pak-Taliban Issue,
three newspapers are seemed to support that Government should negotiate with Taliban.
These newspapers gave coverage that governments should negotiate with Taliban frame to
76% news stories on the issue while these newspapers gave space that governments shouldn't
negotiate with Taliban frame to 24% news items in this regard. The maximum framing
demonstrated that government of Pakistan should negotiate with Taliban.
Percent
100
50
0
Govt. should negotiate
with Taliban
Govt. shouldnt
negotiate with Taliban
Pak-Taliban Talks Issue
(f=505)
Figure 5.3.8: Framing of Pak-Taliban Talks Issue
The framing regarding the issues of 'unemployment' and 'education' was overall favorable and
pro-government. The reasons were that all the news stories were based on the government
acts regarding the provision of job opportunities and educational facilities.
83
1.5
News Stories Placement
Placement of a news items and related pictures also play a significant role in transfer salience
of issue which finally effects on agenda setting of mass media. A news items which is
published at front page has more powerful effects on it readers as compared to the news items
which is published in side pages of newspapers. In the newspapers, due to the importance of
main front page and back page were selected (Table 5.2).
Table 5.2: News Stories Placement in Newspapers
Issues
Front Page*
Back Page*
Terrorism
75
25
Energy Crises
63
37
Indo-Pak Relations
44
56
Health
11
89
Corruption
68
32
US-Drone Attacks
70
30
Economic Crisis
42
58
Pak-Taliban Talks
71
29
Education
60
40
Unemployment
50
50
* Data is evaluated in (%)
(f=505)
As apparent from Table 5.2, these three newspapers gave maximum coverage of 75% stories
about terrorism issue on the front pages while 25% stories on the back pages. These
newspapers published 63% news stories about 'energy crisis' issue on the front pages and
37% news about this issue on their back pages. The third issue of study (Indo-Pak relations)
was given coverage 44% news items at the front pages of newspapers while this issue got
56% coverage of news items at the back pages. The issue of 'health' got 11% coverage of
news items at front pages while 89% coverage of news items on the same issue was given at
back pages. Corruption issue got 68% coverage of news items at front pages of newspapers
while 32% at back pages. 'US-Drone attacks' remained the burning issue of study it got 70%
84
news items at front page while 30% items about that issue was at back pages of newspapers.
These newspapers printed 42% on the front pages about the issue of 'economic crisis' while
58% news stories were printed at the back pages. And 71% news items were published about
the issue of 'Pak-Taliban Talks' at front pages and 29% news items were printed on the back
pages of newspapers. 'Education' issue got 60% coverage at front page while 40% at the back
pages of newspapers. On the other hand, the issue of 'unemployment' was given 50%
coverage at front page and also 50% at back pages of newspapers. The Figure 5.4 shows that
health issue got maximum coverage at back pages while at the front pages 'terrorism' got
Percent
maximum coverage.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Front Page
Back Page
Placement of News Stories
(f=505)
Figure 5.4: News Stories Placement in Newspapers
85
2. Survey Research
Agenda setting function of print media is playing its magnificent role in setting the public
agenda to large number of people. Survey research is also used to analyze the public agenda.
As early stated in the chapter 4 of research methodology that a sample of 300 newspaper
readers who at least read one of newspapers: Daily Jang, Daily Nawa-i-Waqt, and Daily
Express are selected. To check the opinion on 10 national issues of these respondents 300
questionnaires are filled. The findings of this study explore the correlations between the
agendas of media and public on the burning national issues.
In answering some research questions set earlier in the study, the researcher collected the data
form 300 respondents (150 male, and 150 female), from three cities; Sargodha, Faisalabad
and Jhang(one hundred form each cities). All the respondents are students (Graduate 114,
Master 126, and M. Phil. 60).
2.1
Places of the Readers
During the survey research 17.3% respondents told that they read the newspaper in library1.
While 50% respondents informed that they prefer to read the newspaper in home. On the
other hand 21% respondents told that they read the newspaper in hostel and 11.7% were the
respondents who told that they read on the other places like offices, cafeteria, etc. It seems
that 50% students like to read the newspaper at home. It can also be concluded that more than
50% students have the newspapers at home to read (Table 5.3).
Table 5.3: In which place, you often prefer to read newspaper?
Places
Frequency
Percent
Library
52
17.3
Home
150
50.0
Hostel
63
21.0
Any other place
35
11.7
(n=300)
Sadaf, A. (2011). Public Perception of Media Role. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science,
1(5), 228-236
86
2.2
Purchase of Newspaper
As the Table 5.4 shows that 54.7% respondents said that they purchase their own newspaper
and like to read it, while 45.3% said that they do not purchase their own newspaper and read
the newspaper at different places. As 50% respondents early said that they prefer to read the
newspapers at home and here the result match with the early results that more than 50%
respondents were those who buy any one their own newspaper at home. It is significantly
concludes that more than 50% students have their own newspapers at home and most of the
time like to read at home.
Table 5.4: Do you also buy your own newspaper regularly?

Purchase
Frequency
Percent
Yes
164
54.7
No
136
45.3

2.3
(n=300)
Language of Newspaper
Because my target respondents were those who read at least one of the above mentioned three
popular Urdu newspapers. The results of Table 5.5 shows that 83.7% students like to read the
news in Urdu language and 16.3% said that they prefer to read the news in English although
they read Urdu newspapers. So, here the number of the readers of Urdu newspapers is
significant regarding the findings of survey research.
Table 5.5: In which language do you prefer to read newspaper?

Language
Frequency
Percent
Urdu
251
83.7
English
49
16.3
(n=300)
87
2.4
Spending Time on Newspaper Reading
During the question that how much average time you spend per day on reading newspapers
71% respondents said that they spent near about up to 30 minutes daily on reading
newspaper. While 25.7% students said they read the newspaper one hour. Only 3.3%
respondents said that they read the newspaper more than 2 hours. Here, again the results are
illustrating the significance that most of the respondents consume up to 30 minutes to read
the newspapers, it can be concluded that they will prefer to read the front page and back page
of the newspapers to read the important news (Table 5.6).
Table 5.6: Approximately how much average time per day you spend on
reading daily newspapers?
Time
Frequency
Percent
Up to 1/2 Hour
213
71.0
1 Hour
77
25.7
Two or more than Two Hours
10
03.3

2.5
(n=300)
Level of News
In evaluating the agenda setting effects of print media, researcher concerns with the national
news. So, it was important to raise the question about the level of news. Table 5.7 listed that
64.7% respondents said that they like to read the national news in newspapers while 35.3%
respondents said that they are interested in international level of news to read. It also
significantly supported the hypothesis of the study.
Table 5.7: What level of news do you often read in daily newspaper?
Level of news
Frequency
Percent
National
194
64.7
International
106
35.3
(n=300)
88
2.6
Reader's Satisfaction at Coverage of News Contents
On the question of satisfaction with the coverage of newspapers on national issues, more than
26% respondents said that they are satisfied to very much with the coverage of newspaper,
27.3% said they are much of the time satisfied with the coverage of time. On the other hand
27.0% respondents said that they are somewhat satisfied with the coverage of newspapers and
15.3% said rarely, 4.3% said that they are absolutely not satisfied with the converge of
newspapers on national issues (Table 5.8). Here again the results were significant and
supported the study that maximum respondents said that they are much and very much
satisfied with the coverage of newspapers.
Table 5.8: To what extent you are satisfied with the coverage of
newspapers on national issues in Pakistan?
Frequency
Percent
Very Much
78
26.0
Much
82
27.3
Somewhat
81
27.0
Rarely
46
15.3
Not at all
13
04.3
2.7
(n=300)
The most Sincere Friend Country of Pakistan
During the question that which is the most sincere friendly country of Pakistan, 66.7%
respondents said that China is the most sincere friend country of Pakistan as compared to the
others countries while at the second 26% said that Saudi Arabia is the most sincere friend
country of Pakistan, 3.3% respondents said that Iran is the sincere country with Pakistan
while 3% said any other country, 0.7% respondents said India and 0.3% said America is the
sincere friend. It was dramatic conclusion that only 0.3% respondents said that America is
sincere friendly country. While on the other hand, 0.7% respondents said that India is sincere
friend of Pakistan. Keeping in view the results of the Table 5.9, Pakistani government should
be careful on the issue of Indo-Pak relations and Pak-America relations.
89
Table 5.9: Which one of the following is the most sincere friend
country of Pakistan?
Countries
Frequency
Percent
China
200
66.7
Saudi Arabia
78
26.0
India
00.7
America
00.3
Iran
10
03.3
Any other
03.0
2.8
(n=300)
Readers of Daily Newspapers
During the survey, the research findings also showed that 37.7% respondents said that they
read the Daily Express newspaper very much and at second majority of the respondents
(26.0%) said that they like to read the Daily Jhang and at the third respondents (31.1%) said
that prefer to read the newspaper Daily Nawa-i-Waqt (Table 5.10, Figure 5.5).
Table 5.10: How often do you prefer to expose the following

newspapers for information of national issues?
Jang
Nawa-i-Waqt
Express
Very Much
22.5
04.3
37.3
Much
26.0
14.3
24.3
Somewhat
26.3
34.0
17.0
Rarely
18.3
31.7
14.7
Not at all
07.0
15.7
06.7
(n=300)
90
A number of respondents state that they read more than one newspapers daily. Over all here
again the findings of the study reveal that respondents read at least one of the newspapers
(Figure 5.5).
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Daily Jhang
Daily Nawa-i-Waqt
Daily Express
Very Much Much Somewhat Rarely Not at all
(n=300)
Figure 5.5: Expose the Newspapers

2.9
Readers' Exposure to News Contents
The finding of the Table 5.11 demonstrates that majority of the respondents (34.3%) said that
they prefer to read the political news very much while 38.7% respondents said that they
prefer to read the social news contents, 35.7% respondents said that they read the economic
news much of time. On the contents of entertainment 30.3% respondents said that they read
these contents very much. And 31% respondents said that they prefer to read the sports
contents. Overall Table 5.11 significantly depicts that majority of respondents said that they
most of the time prefer to read the political issues related news contents because it was
elections 2013 period. Most of the respondents were more interested in political contents as
compared to others.
91
Table 5.11: How often do you like to read the following news contents?
Political
Social Economic
Entertainment
Sports
Very Much
34.3
20.0
21.0
30.3
31.0
Much
25.3
38.7
35.7
26.0
21.3
Somewhat
26.0
29.7
26.0
21.0
18.7
Rarely
11.3
10.3
15.3
18.3
17.7
Not at all
37.0
01.3
02.0
04.3
11.3
2.10
(n=300)
Public's Ranking Order on National Issues
To examine the public agenda, the question is asked "Please rank and write down at least
three among the following issues according to your own opinion. Important issues should be
written from up to down 'Terrorism, Energy Crisis, Economic Crisis, Corruption, Indo-Pak
Relations, US-Drone Attacks, Pak-Taliban Talks, Education, Unemployment and Health'".
The data of public's ranking order about 'first second and third' rank of each issue has been
presented in cumulative one rank. Then the cumulative ranks order are compared with each
other and given position. Table 5.12 illustrates public agenda on the important issues of the
daily three newspapers.
Overall, the 21% readers of the daily three newspapers thought that 'terrorism'
issue is most significant among the list of other issues, 19.1% readers stated that 'energy
crisis' as most significant issue, 2.43% of respondents said that 'Indo-Pak relations' is the
most significant issue, 4.8% respondents ranked 'Health' as most significant issue of the
country. Meanwhile, 11.5% students stated that 'corruption' is most important issue, 7.5%
respondents stated that 'US-Drone Attacks' is most burning issue, 6.80% respondents said that
'economic crisis' is vital issue, 0.6% respondents suggested that 'Pak-Taliban Talks' is most
significant issue, 11.2% respondents stated that 'Education' is the most important issue while
92
15.13% respondents stated that 'unemployment' is the most important issue of Pakistan
(Shehata, 2010)1.
Table 5.12: Public's Ranking Order on National Issues

Issues
First*
Second*
Third*
Terrorism
37. 0
14.3
11.7
21.0
Energy Crisis
23.0
23.7
10.7
19.1
Indo-Pak Relations
01.7
5.3
00.3
2.43
Health
03.7
04.3
06.5
4.8
Corruption
07.7
14.0
12.8
11.5
US- Drone Attacks
05.3
06.7
10.3
07.5
Economic Crisis
05.0
08.7
06.7
06.8
Pak-Taliban Talks
00.3
01.0
00.3
00.6
Education
12.7
10.0
11.0
11.2
Unemployment
03.7
12.0
29.7
15.13
2.11
Cumulative Rank*
(n=300)
Information Source
Reliable and authentic sources of information have a significant role in setting of media
agenda. Subsequent to exploring the significance of issues among the respondents, the
researcher asked the next question about the reliable source of information regarding the
above mentioned issues. The readers of the newspapers were said that they tick one of the
following three options:
a- Newspaper
b- Television
c- Any other
1
Shehata, A. (2010). Unemployment on the Agenda: A Panel Study of AgendaSetting Effects during the 2006
Swedish National Election Campaign. Journal of Communication, 60(1), 182-203.
93
The 300 random selected readers of three dailies were accessed for survey in Sargodha,
Faisalabad and Jhang. According to the survey, out of 300 readers, 139 or 46.3% consider the
newspaper as reliable and authentic source for news. And among 119 or 39.7% respondents
consider that television is reliable source of information, while there is 42 or 14% said that
any other media likewise social media is reliable and authentic source of information on the
these issues. The findings of the source of information regarding the issues are also
significant (Table 5.13).
Table 5.13: Reliable & Authentic Source of Information

Source
Frequency
Percent
Newspaper
139
46.3
Television
119
39.7
Any other
42
14.0
2.12
(n= 300)
Discussion with colleagues and Friends
The Table 5.14 illustrates the answer that the readers to what extent discuss with colleagues
and friends on these vital issues. As Table elaborates, 28.3% readers of the three dailies
declared that they talked about these selected issues with colleagues and friend very much
while 34.3% readers of three newspapers stated they talked about these issues with colleagues
much of the time. And 30.3% respondents said that they talked about these issues to
somewhat. While 6.0% readers said that they discussed these issues with their colleagues and
friends rarely and 1.0 % said didn't discuss with anybody. Overall, the findings regarded the
issues discussion with friends and colleagues significantly support that the majority of
respondents discuss these issues with friends. It is evidence that people who receive the news
information about an issue also discuss that issue with friends.
94
Table 5.14: Discuss the Issues with Friends

Frequency
Percent
Very Much
85
28.3
Much
103
34.3
Somewhat
91
30.3
Rarely
18
06.0
Not at All
01.0
2.13
(n=300)
Readers' Opinion about the issues
The slant, frames and placement of news stories about the significant issues early discussed
in content analysis results. Through the survey research, the opinions of the readers toward
issues are evaluated regarding the effects of the slant and frame on them.
2.13.1 Terrorism Issue
During the survey, only 5% respondents were set up in favorable of U.S. government about
policies on 'terrorism'. Nevertheless, majority of the readers' opinion (72%) were found
opposing US on this issue. On the other hand, 23% readers' said that we should do any other
thing about 'terrorism'. The public's perception results about 'terrorism' issue (Table 5.15.1)
highly associated with findings of content analysis, which is discussed early in Figure 5.3.1.
Table 5.15.1: Public Opinion about Terrorism Issue
Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Support the US Policies
15
05.0
Don't Support the US policies
216
72.0
Any other
69
23.0
(n= 300)
95
2.13.2 Pak-Taliban Talks Issue

During the survey, 81.3% respondents said that Pakistan government should talk with Taliban
to resolve the issue of 'terrorism' in Pakistan while only 9.3% said that we should not
negotiate with Taliban and 9.4% said that we should do any other thing ( Table 5.15.2). Here
again the findings of the public opinion on 'Pak-Taliban Talks' significantly correlated with
the findings of newspapers' contents in earlier Figure 5.3.8.
Table 5.15.2: Public Opinion about Pak-Taliban Talks Issue
Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Talks With Taliban
244
81.3
Don't Talks with Taliban
28
09.3
Any other
28
09.3
(n=300)
2.13.3 US-Drone Attacks Issue

During the survey, 94.7% respondents said that Pakistani government should stop US-Drone
attacks in Pakistan while only 02.0% said that we should not stop US-Drone attacks and
03.3% said that Government should do any other thing regarding the issue of 'US-Drone
attacks' (Table 5.15.3). Here again the findings of the public opinion on US-Drone attacks
significantly correlated with results of the newspapers content analyses in the earlier Figure
5.3.6.
Table 5.15.3: Public Opinion about US-Drone Attacks Issue
Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
284
94.7
Shouldn't stop US-Drone Attacks
02.0
Any other
10
03.3
Should stop US-Drone Attacks
(n=300)
96
2.13.4 Energy Crisis Issue

Table 5.15.4 depicts that during the survey, 62.7% respondents told that negligence of
government is the main reason of 'energy crisis' in Pakistan while on the other hand 25.3%
respondents said that lack of energy resources is the main reason of 'energy crisis' in Pakistan.
Only 12% respondents stated that there is any other possible reason of 'energy crisis' in
Pakistan. Here, again the result of public perception about 'energy crisis' issue is also
significant and significantly correlated with the findings of newspapers content analysis
(Figure 5.3.2).
Table 5.15.4: Public Opinion about Energy Crisis Issue

Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Negligence of government is the main

reason of energy crisis
188
62.7
Lack of energy resources is the main

reason of energy crisis
76
25.3
Any other
36
12.0
(n=300)
2.13.5 Indo-Pak Relations Issue

During the survey research (Table 5.15.5), 48.7% respondents told that Pakistan should build
the good relations with India while on the other hand 38.3% respondents said that Indo-Pak
relations are not beneficial for Pakistan. Only 13% respondents have not clear mind about
'Indo-Pak relations' topic. Here, again the result of public opinion about Indo-Pak relations is
also significant and significantly correlated with the findings of newspapers content analysis
(Figure 5.3.3).
97
Table 5.15.5: Public Opinion about Indo-Pak Relations Issue

Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Indo-Pak Relations are beneficial
146
48.7
Indo-Pak Relations are not beneficial
115
38.3
Not clear
39
13.0
(n=300)
2.13.6 Health Issue

When the questionnaire was given to the respondents to told is there health facilities are
sufficient or not in Pakistan, the majority of respondents 85.3% respondents said that health
facilities are not sufficient in Pakistan while only13% respondents were those who said that
health facilities are enough in Pakistan (Table 5.15.6). The same situation was seen in content
analysis of the newspapers (Figure 5.3.3).
Table 5.15.6: Public Opinion about Health Issue

Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Health facilities are sufficient
39
13.0
Health facilities are not sufficient

Any other
256
5
85.3
01.7
(n=300)
2.13.7 Corruption Issue

When the question was asked about the 'corruption' issue, the majority of respondents
(51.7%) said that our majority of politicians, businessmen and bureaucrats are corrupt and are
the main reasons of 'corruption' in our country. While 46% said that we actually as a whole
nation are 'corruption' and causing 'corruption' in Pakistan and 2.3% respondents said that
there is any other reason of 'corruption'. Table 5.15.7 depicts the public opinion about the
issue of 'corruption'. Here, again the findings supported the media framing on this issue
(Figure 5.3.5).
98
Table 5.15.7: Public Opinion about Corruption Issue

Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Politicians etc. are Corrupt
155
51.7
We as a whole nation are corrupt
138
46.0
02.3
Any other
(n=300)
2.13.8 Economic Crisis Issue

When the question about 'economic crisis' was asked, 50.7% respondents said that 'terrorism'
is the main reason of 'economic crisis' while 44.7% respondents said that 'corruption' is the
main reasons of 'economic crisis' in Pakistan, and only 4.7% respondents were those who said
that there may be any other reason of 'economic crisis'. Table 5.15.8 describes the public
opinion about 'economic crisis'.
Table 5.15.8: What one of the following do you think about the issue of
economic crises?
Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Terrorism is the main reason
152
50.7
Corruption is the main reason
134
44.7
Any other
14
04.7
(n= 300)
2.13.9 Public Opinion about the Root Cause of All Problems

It was an interesting question in the questionnaire of the study. When the reason was asked
that which one of the following is the main reason of the all types of problems in Pakistan,
stunningly 88% respondents said that ineligible political leadership is the main and root cause
of all problems while only 7.7% respondents said that lack of resources is the root cause and
4.3% said that any other reason is the root cause of all problems. It is an alarming situation
99
that the majority of respondents said that the leadership is ineligible to tackle the problems.
Table 5.15.9 depicts the responses of the respondents in this regard.
Table 5.15.9: Which one of the following do you think the root cause of
all kinds of problems in Pakistan?
Public's Perception
Frequency
Percent
Ineligible Political Leadership
264
88.0
Lack of Resources
23
07.7
Any other
13
04.3
(n= 300)
100
2.14
Public's Ranking Order on National Issues (Open Ended Question)
An open opened question is not restricted to yes or no or with only some options. In open
ended question, the respondent has to answer in his or her own words. In this question,
people are free to talk in a way that is not intended or controlled. These questions normally
begin with what, how, when, where, and why, for instance in your opinion what is most
important issue of Pakistan. Regarding the agenda setting role of media, there was also asked
an open ended question on the significant national issues of Pakistan. The personal opinion of
three newspapers readers are set up in the results of survey research. Table 5.16 illustrates the
readers' agenda of the daily three newspapers. The findings of open ended question reveal the
same results but with slightly differences that were early asked in the close ended question
(Table 5.12) about the important issues of Pakistan. Here again responded mentioned
'terrorism' issue the most significant issue, at the second they said that 'energy crisis' issue is
the important issue and the issue which obtained the third position in public opinion was
'unemployment' issue. The findings of the open ended question in questionnaire survey
supported the issues of the study which were taken as significant topics of the nation. The
greater part of respondents stated that these are the burning issues among the people in
Pakistan (Table 5.16).
Overall in the open ended question, 19.23% respondents stated that 'terrorism' is the most
important issue, 18.4% respondents said that 'energy crisis' is most significant issue, 0.90%
respondents suggested that 'Indo-Pak relations' is the vital issue, 1.53% respondents sated that
'health' is important issue, 14.40% respondents suggested that 'corruption' is most significant
issue, 4.66% respondents said that 'US-Drone attacks' is most significant issue, 5.76%
respondents argued that 'economic crisis' is significant issue, .33% students said that 'PakTaliban talks' is most significant issue, 11.33% suggested that 'education' is most important
issue, 15.80% said that 'unemployment' is most important issue. Meanwhile, 0.90%
respondents suggested that 'Poor Law & Order Situation' is burning issue, 5.10% stated that
'Incompetent Leadership' is big problem in Pakistan, 0.33% respondents stated that 'foreign
interference' is the important issue, 1.13% respondents stated that 'Injustice' is the big issue,
0.10% said that 'Price hacks' is the important issue (Table 5.16).
101
Table 5.16: Public's Ranking Order on National Issues (OEQ)

Issues
First*
Second*
Third*
Cumulative Rank*
Terrorism
30.7
14.7
12.30
19.23
Energy Crisis
22.7
23.3
09.30
18.4
Indo-Pak Relations
01.0
01.0
00.70
00.90
Health
00.0
00.3
04.30
01.53
Corruption
10.3
17.0
16.00
14.40
US- Drone Attacks
02.3
04.0
07.70
04.66
Economic Crisis
04.7
06.3
06.30
05.76
Pak-Taliban Talks
00.0
00.7
00.30
00.33
Education
14.7
09.3
10.00
11.33
Unemployment
07.0
17.7
22.70
15.80
01.3
00.7
00.70
00.90
04.3
03.7
07.30
05.10
Foreign Interference
00.0
00.7
00.30
00.33
Injustice
00.7
00.7
02.00
01.13
Price hacks
00.0
00.0
00.30
00.10
Poor Law & Order

Situation
Incompetent
Leadership
(n=300)
102
2.15
Comparison between Media Agenda and Public Agenda
The Figure 5.6 depicts the comparison between media agenda and public agenda when the
frequencies of news stories are compared with the ranked issue by the readers of newspapers
on national issue; dramatic results are found between media agenda and public agenda. The
findings shows that among the ten national burning issues, 'Terrorism' issue gets the
maximum stories (25.7%) and gets first position in media agenda while it is also ranked the
highest on the public agenda (21%). 'Energy crisis' issue is at the second issue in media
agenda (24.9%) and it gets also second rank order (19.1%) in public agenda. 'Indo-Pak
relations' issue is at third in media agenda (11.6%) while it gets the second last (9th) position
in public agenda (2.43%). The 4th issue in media agenda is 'health' (10.70%) but it is ranked
at the 8th by public agenda 4.8%). 'Corruption' issue is at the 5th in media agenda (9.3%) while
it is ranked at 4th by public (11.5%). The issue of 'US-Drone attacks' is 6th in media agenda
(7.3%) meanwhile it is also at the 6th position in public agenda (7.5%). 'Economic crisis' issue
is at the 7th in media agenda (5.1%) while it is also at the 7th position in (6.8%) public agenda
(Yoon, 1998). 'Pak-Taliban Talks' issue is at the 8th position in media agenda (3.4%) while in
public agenda (0.6%) it is at the last position (10th). The 9th issue in media agenda (1%) is
'education' on the other side in public agenda (11.2%) it is at 5th position. The unemployment
issue is such issue which given minimum coverage (0.8%) in newspapers and gets last
position in media agenda while it got at the 3rd position in public agenda (15.13%).
Here, Figure 5.6 depicts that four out of ten issues; terrorism (25.74%, 21%),
energy crisis (24.95%, 19.1%), US-Drone attacks (7.32%, 7.5%) and 'economic crisis'
(5.14%, 6.78%) of the study absolutely match within media and public's agendas.
103
% of Coverage/ Importance of Issues
Comparision
30
25
20
15
10
Media Agedna
Public Agenda
Issues of Study
(f=505, n=300)
Figure 5.6: Comparison between Media Agenda and public Agenda
104
3. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
3.1 Testing of Hypotheses
It is a process in which a researcher decides on the base of responses attained from the
sample data whether to accept or reject assumptions or statements in the form of hypotheses
about the value of parameter. The main hypotheses which are formulated for current study
are given below;
H0: It is more likely that there is no positive correlation between the print media agenda and
H0: It is more likely that the print media agenda doesn't influence public agenda on national
issues.
3.1.1 Correlations between Media Agenda and Public Agenda
H0: It is more likely that there is no positive correlation between the print media agenda and
Level of significance/P-value=0.05
Level of confidence= .95 or 95%
Correlation between print media and public agendas on the ten national burning issues in
Pakistan is evaluated after relating the findings of content analysis of three newspapers with
the findings of the survey of three hundred respondents. The values of both content analysis
and survey are evaluated in percentage.
During the survey of 300 respondents, questionnaires are deliberated in such a way that it can
be correlated with content analysis findings. The collective findings of content analyses of
three newspapers are correlated with the results of survey of three newspapers readers. To
explore correlations within agenda of media and public agenda the following correlation
formula is applied.
105
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
In the statistics, measure r, called the linear correlation coefficient which is applied to
measure the strength of the straight-line or a linear association between two variables. It is
also called Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. If correlation coefficient is close
to +1, it means there is a strong positive relationship between the variables. If correlation
coefficient is near to -1, it means there is a strong negative relationship. But if the correlation
coefficient is close to 0, it means you have no correlation. The relationship is measured by
using the IBM SPSS Statistics 20.
In the current dissertation the researcher applied the correlation formula to find out the
correlation between media agenda and public on all ten burning national selected study
issuesTerrorism, Energy Crisis, Indo-Pak Relations, Health, Corruption, US-Drone
Attacks, Economic Crisis, Pak-Taliban Talks, Education, and Unemployment and found the
following results;
Correlations
Media Agenda
Pearson Correlation
Media Agenda
Public Agenda
.579**
10
.040
10
.579**
.040
10
10
Sig. (1-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (1-tailed)
N
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level Sig. (1-tailed).
Public Agenda
(f=505, n=300)
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= +.
106
Bivariate correlations are employed to identify the significance of correlations between the
independent (Media Agenda) and dependent variables (Public Agenda). According to
Rosenberg1, this tool is used because findings can then be correctly generalized to the
population from which the sample is drawn. The above mentioned table indicates that P-value
is .040 and the level of statistical significance is 0.05. As the P-value of current study is less
than alpha () (0.05) so the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected and alternate hypothesis (H1) is
accepted. If the researcher rejects the null hypothesis, he will be wrong 5 times and will
commit type 1 error or an error of first kind. Type on error is denoted by alpha. And it is that
we reject null hypothesis when actually it true. Here, the findings of study cumulatively on
ten national issues reveal that there is a moderate correlation between media agenda and
public agenda and support that there is a positive correlation between media agenda and
public agenda2. In other words, it can be said "more the exposure of news stories more will be
the effects of media agenda on public agenda".
Keeping in view the agenda setting role of media the researcher was curious that there is a
high positive correlation exists between the media agenda and public agenda on the four
issuesterrorism, energy crisis, US-Drone attacks and economic crisis of the study. So, here
again the correlation formula was employed to examine the correlation between media
agenda and public agenda. The findings of the study reveal that there is a significant high
positive correlations exists media agenda and public agenda.
Rosenberg, M. (1968). The logic of survey analysis. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Vargo, C. (2011). Twitter As Public Salience: An Agenda-Setting Analysis. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Renaissance Grand & Suites
Hotel, St. Louis, MO Online. Retrieved on December 2, 2012 from
2
107
Correlations
Media Agenda
Pearson Correlation
Media Agenda
.997**
.003
10
.997**
.003
4
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Public Agenda
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Public Agenda
(f=505, n=300)
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= +.
It is clear from the results that there is a strong positive correlation exists between media
agenda and public agenda on four out of ten national issues. So, it can be said that is a high
significant positive correlation exists between media agenda and public agenda and
hypothesis was significantly proved on four issues.
3.1.2 Influence of Media Agenda on Public Agenda
Regression analysis is a statistical process for the investigation of relationship among
variables. Basically, Regression analysis is a statistical analysis which is used to find out the
magnitude of change in dependent variable with change in one independent variable. Usually,
it facilitates to discover the causal effects of one variable upon other variableeffects of
press regarding agenda setting may increase upon more time spending to read newspapers.
More in particular, it helps one to be aware of how the typical value of dependent variable
changes when the independent variable is varied. In the current research, the researcher
makes an effort to quantify the effects of newspapers upon public perceptions without careful
108
attention to the other factors. Simple linear regression model is most commonly used a
technique to find and determine the degree to which one variable changes with a given
change in another variable. In other words, simple linear regression is employed to find how
one variable of interest (dependent variable) is affected by changes in another variable
(independent variable). It is used to find that with what magnitude of an independent variable
affects another dependent variable. Basically, it is applied for three major functions;
i.
To illustrate the linear dependence of one variable on another variable
ii.
To calculate values of one variable from values of another variable.
iii.
To correct for the linear dependence of one variable on another, in order to clarify
other features of its variability.
H0: It is more likely that the print media agenda doesn't influence public agenda on national
issues.
Level of confidence= .90 or 90%
To address the statement that whether and to what extent newspaper's agenda influences
student's agenda in Pakistan and the print media influences public agenda, the following
simple linear regression model formula is constructed;
= +
=slop= degree of change in dependent variable
y = dependent variable = Public agenda
X = independent variable = Media agenda
Null Hypothesis: H0: B= 0 (not affecting)
Alternative Hypothesis: Ha: B0 (affecting)
109
Coefficients
Model
Unstandardized
Standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
Std. Error
Beta
B
5.544
2.903
1 (Constant)
.222
.445
Media Agenda
a. Dependent Variable: Public Agenda
Significant at the 0.1
.579
Sig.
1.910
2.010
.09
.07
(f=505, n=300)
Here, the above mentioned table indicates that the P-value is .07 and the level of significance
is 0.1. Because the P-value is less than alpha (0.1), we are able to reject the null hypothesis
(H0) and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1). If we reject the null hypothesis then we will
be wrong 10 times and will commit type one error. And the type one error is that we reject
the null hypothesis when actually it is true. Along the P-value we also see the rate of change.
If the rate of change () is zero then there is no effect of media agenda on public agenda and
alternative hypothesis will be rejected and null hypothesis will be accepted. Here the findings
of study show the following results;
=.445
It can be concluded that rate of change (B) value is greater than zero (0), so there is accepted
and proved the H1: that print media agenda influences public agenda on national issues. The
findings of the study reveal that press agenda effects the public agenda on national issues1.
Here again the results support that media agenda effects the public agenda on national issues
in Pakistan.
Brubaker, J. (2008). The freedom to choose a personal agenda: Removing our reliance on the media agenda.
American Communication Journal, 10(3), 1-1.
110
Table 5.17: Statistical Sig. of Hypotheses
Hypotheses Statements
H1: It is more likely that there is positive correlation between the
Conclusive Inconclusive
print media agenda and public agenda on the national issues.
H2: It is more likely that the print media agenda influences public
agenda on national issues.
H3: It is more likely that public opinion is linked with the tone of
newspaper.
H4: It is more likely that students expose more than one
newspaper.
H5: It is more likely that students read newspapers for political
information than entertainment.
H6: It is more likely that students prefer to read national news than
international news.
*Significant at the 0.05 level; **Significant at the 0.1
(f=505, n=300)
Over all findings of the current study indicate that there is a moderate and to some extent
correlations exit between media agenda and public agenda and all the Alternate hypotheses
approved.
111
Chapter-6
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
1. Findings
The core rationale of current study is to find the correlation between media agenda and public
agenda and also to find the effects of media agenda on public/student's agenda. According to
the needs and requirements of dissertation both content analysis for media agenda and survey
research for public agenda have been administered to find out association and effects on the
considerable issues in Pakistan, exploring agenda setting of national press.
The daily three Urdu newspapers-Jang, Nawa-i-Waqt and Express on their front page
and back page pages collectively published 505 (frequency) news items on all ten selected
vital national issues during the study period of two moths on alternate days (Figure 5.1). As
depicts from Figure 5.1, 130 news items was published about 'terrorism' issue while 126
stories about 'energy crisis' issue, 58 stories about 'Indo-Pak relations' issue, 54 news stories
about 'health' issue, the issue of 'corruption' scored 47 news items and 'US-Drone attacks'
having a number of 37 news items. 'Economic crisis' issue got 26 news items, 'Pak-Taliban
talks' scored 17 new items, 'education' issue got 5 news stories, and 'unemployment' issue got
only 4 news items. So, the total frequencies of news items in three newspapers which
examined during the study period were only 505.
The result about issues of study regarding 'length column cm' was remained the
similar as it was in the number of frequency of news stories about the same issues in the
newspapers of the study excluding the issues of 'corruption' and 'unemployment' (Figure 5.2).
The coverage sequence of ten issues besides 'corruption' and 'unemployment' is remained
similar as it is prior in frequencies of news items. In simple words, there is found a link
between the length of news stories and frequencies.
Regarding the slant about 'terrorism' issue over all three newspapers gave more
unfavorable news coverage for US policies than the favorable for US policies. And the
newspapers also gave maximum slant unfavorable of government and fewer slants in favor
112
for government on 'energy crisis' issue. Regarding slant about 'Indo-Pak relations' issue, the
newspapers gave more slants in favorable of Indo-Pak relations as compared to unfavorable.
The maximum unfavorable slant was given to the 'health' issue while very little favorable for
government. As compared to other issues, 'health' issue covered a remarkable slant as antigovernment. Regarding the slant of 'corruption' issue, again dominant slant was found against
the government. Regarding the issue of 'US-Drone attacks', three newspapers also gave
dominant coverage unfavorable of 'US-Drone Attacks'. On 'economic crisis' issue, again the
more coverage was anti-government. On the topic of 'Pak-Taliban Talks', these newspapers
gave maximum coverage in favor of that government should talk with Taliban. During the
study period, both 'education' and 'unemployment' issues got minimum news stories but these
issues got over all news stories in favor of government. Actually the reason was that the news
stories which were published regarding 'education' and 'unemployment' based on positive
measures and announcements of government (Table 5.1)1.
The outcome of the framing of issues is similar as the results of the slant of news
measurement. Over all the newspapers published a few news stories on the subject of
'terrorism', depicted that Pakistan should support US policies and war on terrorism is our own
war while the majority of news stories depicted that Pakistan should not support US policies
on 'Terrorism' issue. The overall maximum framing of news was anti US policies (Figure
5.3.1). Regarding the framing of 'Energy Crisis' issue, newspapers published maximum news
stories giving government a frame of anti-government whereas only a few frames were progovernment (Figure 5.3.2). On the topic of the framing of 'Indo-Pak relations' issue, (Figure
5.3.3) newspapers published dominant news stories that 'Indo-Pak relations are beneficial for
Pakistan' while it was framed that 'Indo-Pak relations are not beneficial for Pakistan' in less
news items during study period2. Newspapers published only a very few news frames on
'Health' issue in favor of government on the other hand maximum frames were against the
government (Figure 5.3.4). These newspapers published maximum frames anti-government
about 'corruption' issue (Figure 5.3.5). Again, dominant framing on the coverage of 'USDrone attacks' issue demonstrates that American government should stop the drone attacks in
Tan, Y., & Weaver, D. (2009). Local media, public opinion, and state legislative policies: agenda setting at the
state level. International Journal of Press and Politics. 14(4), 454-476.
2
Iyengar, S. & Simon, A. (1993). News Coverage of the Gulf Crisis and Public Opinion. Communication
Research, 20(3), 365-383.
113
Pakistani tribal areas (Figure 5.3.6). The three sample newspapers also published maximum
frame of news stories about 'economic crisis' as anti-government (Figure 5.3.7). The
maximum framing on 'Pak-Taliban talks' issue supports the government to negotiate with
Taliban (Figure 5.3.8). On the other hand, if we view at the 'unemployment' and 'education'
issue, these two issues got minimum coverage in the newspapers. The entire news stories
frame was pro-government. The reasons of pro-government frame on these two issues are the
news stories that are contained on the government positive acts and official statements about
these issues.
It is seemed that the placement of news stories about the topics of study in
newspapers has a significant role in agenda setting (Table 5.2). 'Terrorism' issue on the whole
obtained more space on front page than back page and it also got first position not only in
media agenda but also in public agenda. Regarding the placement of 'energy crisis' issue, it
was also given more space at front page than back page. The 'Indo-Pak relations' issue of
study was given less coverage at front pages of the newspapers while this issue got more
coverage of news items at back pages. The issue of 'health' got maximum coverage of news
items at back pages while minimum coverage of news items was given at front pages.
'Corruption' issue also got maximum coverage of news items at front pages of newspapers
while minimum at back pages. 'US-Drone attacks' remained the burning issue of study; it also
got maximum news items at front page while minimum news stories about this issue were
published at back page of newspapers. These newspapers printed minimum news stories on
the front pages about the issue of 'economic crisis' while maximum news stories were printed
at back pages. And the newspapers' dominant news items about the issue of 'Pak-Taliban
Talks' were published at front pages and less news items were printed on the back pages of
newspapers. 'Education' issue got more coverage at front page while less at the back pages of
newspapers. On the other hand, the issue of 'unemployment' was given equal coverage at
front page and back page of all newspapers. The findings show that 'terrorism' issue got
maximum coverage at front pages and stood first not only in media agenda but also in public
agenda among all the issues of study. On the other hand, 'health' issue obtained the maximum
coverage at back pages and got the fourth position in media agenda while it was at eighth
position in public agenda among the issues of study (Table 5.2).
114
The three hundred randomly selected readers of the three newspapers were said to fell
the questionnaires. In this way, the public agenda was evaluated in the contrast with print
media agenda.
Regarding the ranking of ten national issues among the public agenda, the findings of
survey research suggests the moderate correlation within the contents analysis results (media
agenda) and survey research (public agenda). Conversely on the four issues out of ten issues
of the study are significantly high correlated among the public agenda and media agenda
(Figure 5.6).
Regarding the most significant issue among the given list of 10 issues, the maximum
respondents said that 'terrorism' is the most important issue while the majority of respondents
stated that 'energy crisis' issue is the second most important issue similar to the content
analysis, so here evidence supported the hypothesis that there is a correlation between media
agenda and public agenda on national issue. The third issue in public agenda was
'unemployment' issue which was at the tenth in media agenda. This is definitely an
unanticipated result that individual's suffering, necessities and wants play a significant role to
set public agenda as compared to media agenda1. The findings are as a result of an obtrusive
issue. The fourth issue in public agenda was 'corruption' which was at the 5th in media
agenda; it was another difference among the public agenda and media agenda. The overall
readers of all newspapers put the 'US-Drone attacks' issue at the 6th position while it was also
on sixth position in the media agenda. Again on the 'US-Drone attacks' issue the results
support the hypotheses. Likewise the media agenda, the public agenda also put the 'economic
crisis' issue at the seventh position and again the results support the hypothesis that media set
the public agenda. In contrast to the results, the readers state the 'health' issue is the eighth
important issue but it was put at the fourth in media agenda. There is a dramatic and stunning
difference that media puts 'health' issue at fourth issue but students putting it at the 8th
position. Regarding the ranking order of ninth significant issue in readers' agenda was 'IndoPak relations' issue, which was at the third position in media agenda. There is really a
1
Riaz, S. (2008). Agenda Setting Role of Mass Media. Global Media Journal, 1(2), ISSN 2070-2469.; Winter,
J. P., & Eyal, C. H. (1981). Agenda-setting for the civil rights issue. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45(3), 376383.;
Zucker, H.G. (1978). The variable nature of news media influence. In B. D. Ruben (Ed.), Communication
Yearbook: Vol. 2. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.; Wanta, W. (1997). The public and the national
agenda, how people learn about important issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
115
difference among the media agenda and public agenda. The overall readers of three
newspapers stated Pak-Taliban issue as the least important (10th) issue among the list of ten
national important issues (Figure 5.6).
Reliable and authentic sources of information have a significant role in setting of
public agenda. Subsequent to exploring the significance of issues among the respondents, the
researcher asked the next question about the reliable and authentic source of information
regarding the national issues. The majority of respondents said that newspapers are the
reliable and authentic sources of information about the issues; it shows that still students rely
on the newspapers regarding the important information. While slightly less said that
television is more reliable and authentic source of information while smaller amount of
students (14%) said that any other media i.e. social media is more authentic and reliable
source of information as compared to newspapers and television. It shows that dependency on
print media to acquire the information still exists among the students (Table 5.13).
The effects of frames and slants of newspapers on the respondents' opinion regarding
the issues of study were also investigated by questionnaire.
During the survey, a few respondents were set up in favorable of U.S. government
policies on 'terrorism' issue. Nevertheless, majority of the readers' opinion were found
opposing US on this issue. The public's perception results about 'terrorism' issue (Table
5.15.1) highly associated with findings of content analysis framing (Figure 5.3.1). Regarding
the public perception about 'US-Drone attacks' issue, most of the respondents stated that there
should be stopped US-Drone attacks, while a few respondents supported US-Drone attacks
continuity (Table 5.15.3). Here again findings linked with the media agenda and result
supports the effects of media framing on public agenda (Figure 5.3.6). The majority of
respondents stated that negligence of government is the main reason of energy crisis in
Pakistan. It shows the anti-government perception of the public regarding 'energy crisis'
issue; here finding also supported the results of content analysis (Figure 5.3.2 & Table
5.15.4). The majority of respondents were found in favor of the negotiation with Taliban1,
here again the findings of the public opinion were significantly correlated with the results of
116
content analysis/media frame (Table 5.16 & Figure 5.3.8). On the public opinion about 'IndoPak relations' issue, the maximum respondents told that it is bifacial for Pakistan to build the
good relations with India. Here, again the results of public opinion about 'Indo-Pak relations'
issue are correlated with the findings of newspapers content analysis (Figure 5.3.3 &Table
5.15.4). The majority of respondents said that health facilities are not sufficient in Pakistan.
The same situation was seen in content analysis of the newspapers that maximum news
stories depict that health facilities are not sufficient in Pakistan (Table 5.18 & Figure 5.3.4).
To examine the effects of agenda setting role of news media, the discussion with
friends and colleagues variable was also included. If we examine the early two categories
(very much and much); it can be found that more than sixty percent respondents discuss these
issues with their friends (Table 5.14). The findings are reliable regarding the significance of
issues which is given by media to set the public agenda. Overall, the findings regarded the
issues discussion with friends and colleagues, significantly support that the majority of
respondents discuss these issues with friends. It is evidence that the people who receive the
information in the form of news stories about an issue, they consider those news stories
important, also like to discuss and share those issues with their friends and others.
During the survey research, the majority of the respondents (50%) stated that they
prefer to read the newspapers at home, 21% said they often read the newspapers in hostel,
17.3% respondents told that they read the newspaper in library1 while11.7 % were the
respondents who told that they read on the other places like offices, cafeteria, etc. It can also
be concluded that more than 50 percent students have their newspapers at home to read
(Table 5.3).
During the survey, more than 54% respondents said that they purchase their own
newspapers while others said that they don't purchase their own newspapers. Here, the
findings suggested that students have their own print newspapers even in the access of EPapers at internet (Table 5.4).
Sadaf, A. (2011). Public Perception of Media Role. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science,
1(5), 228-236
117
The researcher target respondents are those who read at least one of the above
mentioned three popular Urdu newspapers. The results (Table 5.5) shows that 83.7% students
like to read the news in Urdu and 16.3% said that they prefer to read the news in English
although they read Urdu newspapers. So, here the number of the readers of Urdu newspapers
is significant and support the findings of current study.
During the survey, 71% respondents said that they spent near about up to 30 minutes
daily on reading newspaper. While 25.7% students said that they read the newspapers one
hour. Only 3.3% respondents said that they read the newspaper more than 2 hours. Here,
again the results are illustrating the significance that most of the respondents consume up to
30 minutes to read the newspapers, it can be concluded that they have not enough time and
prefer to read the front page and back page of the newspapers to read the important news
stories about important issues(Table 5.6).
In evaluating the agenda setting effects of print media, the researcher is interested in
national news because the main focus of current study is to examine the agenda setting role of
national press on national issue. So, it was important to raise the question about the level of
news. The majority of the respondents said that they like to read the national news in
newspapers. It is also significantly supported the hypothesis of the study (Table 5.7).
On the question of satisfaction with the coverage of newspapers on national issues, if
we look at the first two categories (very much and much), we can conclude that more than
fifty percent respondents are satisfied with the coverage of newspapers (Table 5.8). Here,
again the results are significant and support the study that maximum respondents said that
they are much and very much satisfied with the coverage of newspapers on the issues of the
study.
The finding of the survey also demonstrates that majority of the respondents prefer to
read the political contents as compared to the others news stories. Overall, again the results
significantly depict that majority of respondents prefer most of the time to read the political
issue related news contents because it was elections 2013 period. Most of the respondents are
more interested in political contents as compared to others.
118
During the survey research, to make the findings more valid and reliable, an open
ended question was also asked from the respondents. According to media agenda the
'terrorism', 'energy crisis' issues remained the similar significant issues in the public agenda,
while on the other issues were ranked similar public agenda in close ended question about the
ranking order of important with slightly differences. Again, the findings of the study also
reveal that the ten selected current study issues are also the important among the public
agenda in open ended question (Table 5.16).
2. Discussion on Results
The notion of selection and salience of issue is core to both agenda setting and framing
theories. Basically, agenda setting research suggests that issue salience in news media
constitutes a main factor in the process of public opinion formulation. Even though initial
agenda setting theory doesn't suggest that media can tell people what to think, it does assert
that media are able to tell audience what to think about1. The considerable findings of current
research are that the results support the fundamental hypothesis of agenda setting theory on
four out of ten national issues that media sets the agenda of public. Because the individual's
requirements and necessitates don't depend on media agenda to become public agenda2.
Keeping in view the agenda setting effects, the core of present results can be drawn in3
researches of obtrusive issues and unobtrusive issues. On the foundation of his study, Zucker
declares that agenda setting occurred on unobtrusive issues excluding obtrusive issues. In his
findings, he suggests that obtrusiveness of issue is a significant feature in the agenda setting
frame work.
As evident in Figure 5.6 shows, over all findings regarding the issues significance
reveal the moderate positive correlation4 but on the four out of ten issues were highly
1
Cohen, B. (1963). The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.; McCombs, M. E.,
& Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.
2
national network news. Communication Research, 76(6), 793-81.; Riaz, S. (2008). Agenda Setting Role of Mass
Media. Global Media Journal, 1(2), ISSN 2070-2469.; Wanta, W. (1997). The public and the national agenda,
how people learn about important issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
3
376383.; Zucker, H.G. (1978). The variable nature of news media influence. In B. D. Ruben (Ed.),
Communication Yearbook: Vol. 2. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
4
Harris, P., Kolovos, I., & Lock, A. (2001).Who sets the agenda? An analysis of agenda setting and press
coverage in the 1999 Greek European elections. European Journal of Marketing, 35(9/10), 1117-1135.
119
correlated within media agenda and public agenda. In the findings of media agenda setting
(content analysis), overall three newspapers ranked the 10 issues of the study in the below
order (Figure 5.1);
'Terrorism, Energy Crisis, Indo-Pak Relations, Health, Corruption, US-Drone Attacks,
Economic Crisis, Pak-Taliban Talks, Education, Unemployment'
On the other hand, in the results of public agenda (survey research) the readers of
three newspapers ranked the issues in the subsequent order (Table 5.12);
'Terrorism, Energy Crisis, Unemployment, Corruption, Education, US-Drone Attacks,
Economic Crisis, Health, Indo-Pak Relations, Pak-Taliban Talks'
If we look attentively the findings of media agenda and public agenda on all ten
national issues of the study, the agenda setting theory is moderately and to some extent
supported. While on the other hand, the theory of agenda setting significantly supported on
four issues 'terrorism, energy crisis, US-Drone attacks and economic crisis' excluding the
other six issues of 'Indo-Pak relations, Health, Corruption, Pak-Taliban Talks, Education and
Unemployment'1. The 'Indo-Pak relations, Health, Corruption, Pak-Taliban Talks, Education
and Unemployment' issues are found simultaneously at third, fourth, fifth, eighth, ninth and
tenth position in the findings of content analysis of three newspapers but the respondents state
these issues as a ninth, eighth, fourth, tenth, fifth and third important issues (Figure 5.6). It
shows that a major part of respondents relate more significance with 'Unemployment,
Corruption and Education' issues as compared to media agenda setting (newspapers
coverage). In simple words, in public agenda these issues ranked more significant than some
other issues. As early discussed, during the survey research most of the respondents were
suffered from lack of jobs opportunities, educational facilities and corruption. These were the
main reasons that most of respondents associated with these issues and considered them more
important. But there is astonishing finding regarding the 'health' issue because it was ranked
at fourth in media agenda. While on the other hand, 'health' issue which is also personal need
and requirement was at the eight positions in public agenda. The reason which is seen
regarding this issue is the coverage of news about this issue at the back pages of newspapers
1
Behr, R., & Iyengar, S. (1985). Television news, real-world cues, and changes in the public agenda. Public
Opinion Quarterly, 49(1), 38-57.
120
and the maximum reported about only kids died due to roseola disease. Overall, the findings
of public agenda reveal serendipitous results that individual necessities and needs of public
are not dependent on the media agenda1.
Another finding is that the national press of Pakistan doesn't appropriately give
coverage to the actual issues of educated youth and jobless people in the society.
Nevertheless, the number of youth is 60 percent of total population in Pakistan. During the
study along with the other issues, 'unemployment, education and corruption' were also
existent as general problems of the respondents but the press gave less coverage to these
issues than others issues of study.
In the present study, the slant/tone (favorable, unfavorable and neutral) and frame of stories
are also important variables2. Table 5.1 depicts that overall all newspapers published more
unfavorable stories for US on 'terrorism' issue and the issue of 'US-Drone attacks'. On the
other hand, the same situation was seen among public's opinion about 'terrorism' and 'USDrone attacks' issues in public agenda. The framing of majority of news stories on 'terrorism'
issue depicts that Pakistan should not support the USA on their policies about terrorism. In
addition, the maximum frames regarding 'US-Drone attacks' illustrate that Pakistan should
stop US-Drone attacks because it is against the sovereignty of Pakistan. In the prior study
Riaz found the same results on the slant and framing of 'terrorism' issue in Urdu newspaper
Daily Jang. On the issues of 'energy crisis', 'economic crisis', 'corruption' and 'health', all
newspapers gave the maximum slant unfavorable in their news coverage for the government
(Table 5.1). On the other side maximum frames of 'energy crisis', 'economic crisis',
'corruption' and 'health' issues are anti-government and depict the negative image of the
government. All of the newspapers on the issues of 'Pak-Taliban talks, education,
unemployment and health' have favorable slants for the government. The frames of news
stories on 'education' and 'unemployment' are also seen pro-government. And the maximum
frames regarding 'Pak-Taliban talks' issue depict that Pakistan should negotiate with Pakistani
Taliban. Regarding the slants of 'Indo-Pak relations' issue are found favorable for bilateral
1
national network news. Communication Research, 76(6), 793-81: Riaz, S. (2008). Agenda Setting Role of Mass
Media. Global Media Journal, 1(2), ISSN 2070-2469: Wanta, W. (1997). The public and the national agenda,
how people learn about important issues. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
2
McCombs, M. (2005). A Look at Agenda-setting: past, present and future. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 543-557.
121
relations between India and Pakistan (Table 5.1). Moreover, the maximum frames of all
newspapers about 'Indo-Pak relations' issue are shown that Indo-Pak relations are beneficial
for Pakistan and Pakistan should build the good relations with India (Figure 5.3.3). Here
again framing and slants of 'Indo-Pak relations' issue supported the prior findings of Riaz's
study1. It shows that Indo-Pakistan relations issue is always remained important issue.
The news placement of study's issues is another important variable. As early
discussed, the news placement is divided in front and back pages of newspapers. During the
study, 'terrorism' issue got the maximum coverage among the coverage of all issue at the
front page as compared to back page (Table 5.2). So, it is found that press gives more
significant coverage to 'terrorism' issue in their pattern. Regarding the 'energy crisis' issue, the
maximum news stories were published on the front pages as compared to the back pages.
About 'Health' issue, majority of news stories were published at pack pages and very little at
front pages. The three newspapers about 'Indo-Pak relations' issue gave less coverage at front
page as compared to back page. The majority of news coverage regarding 'health' issue was
published at back pages of newspapers. The issues of 'Corruption', 'US-Drone attacks', 'PakTaliban talks' and 'Education' got maximum coverage at front page while 'economic crisis'
and 'Unemployment' issues got the minimum coverage at back page (Table 5.2).
To check the effects of media agenda on public agenda, the results of survey research
are also discussed. In survey research, rank order of issues is a main variable of the study.
Another variable is the language of newspaper in which readers prefer to read. Majority of
the respondents stated that they preferred to read the newspapers which are in Urdu language
(Table 5.5). The time spending of readers during the reading of newspaper is also important
variable in the current study. Most of the readers said that they read the newspapers up to
thirty minutes daily (Table 5.6). The researcher main concern was to check the agenda setting
effects of print media at national issues, so majority of the respondents stated that they prefer
to read the national news as compared to the international news. The hypothesis of the study
"It is more likely that students prefer to read national news than international news" is proved
and supported the findings of the study (Table 5.7). Regarding the satisfaction of readers
about news coverage in newspapers, most of the respondents state that they are satisfied with
1
122
the coverage of newspapers (Table 5.8). There were general elections 2013 in Pakistan;
during the period of study the researcher also raised the question regarding the preference of
news contents. Most of respondents stated that they preferred to read the political news
content. Here, the hypothesis "It is more likely that students read newspapers for political
information than entertainment" also significantly supported by the findings of the study. The
other variable was the reliable and authentic source of information for national issues. Most
of the respondents stated that newspaper is reliable and authentic source of information
(Table 5.13).
The public opinion about national issues is another key variable of the survey
research. The impacts of slant and framing of the news stories given by newspapers on the
public perceptions are examined. The majority of respondents are stated that government
should not support American on their policies about 'terrorism' issue (Table 5.15.1). These
results significantly correlate with the findings of content analysis (Figure 5.3.1). Regarding
'Pak-Taliban talks' issue, the majority of respondents state that government should negotiate
with Taliban (Table 5.15.2). Here, again the findings of the survey research support the media
agenda (Figure 5.3.8). The public opinions about 'US-Drone attacks' are also examined; the
majority of respondents declare that government should stop the US-Drone attacks in
Pakistani tribal areas (Table 5.15.3). Here, again the findings of public opinion match with
the results of media agenda (Figure 5.3.6). The public perception about 'energy crisis' issue is
also associated with the results of media frame and slant, and stated that government is
responsible of energy crisis in Pakistan (Figure 5.3.2 & Table 5.15.4). The public perception
regarding 'health' issue is also found in line with the media agenda and supports the agenda
setting function of mass media (Table 5.18 & Figure 5.3.4). Therefore, the finding of public
perception about 'Indo-Pak relations' issue is also revealed that public perception is correlated
with the media frame on this issue (Table 5.15.5 & Figure 5.3.3). Overall, these findings are
consistent with prior studies1 suggesting that agenda setting occurred on unobtrusive issues
excluding obtrusive issues. People are not equally affected by newspapers coverage on
national issues. So, individuals are not sufficiently interested in obtrusive issues.
Riaz, S. (2008). Agenda Setting Role of Mass Media. Global Media Journal, 1(2), ISSN 2070-2469.; Zucker,
H.G. (1978). The variable nature of news media influence. In B. D. Ruben (Ed.), Communication Yearbook:
Vol. 2. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
123
3. Similarities in Media Agenda and Public Agenda

Findings of the content analysis and survey research are evaluated and reveal the seminaries
on following issues with media agenda and public agenda;
There are found a positive correlation between media agenda and public agenda on
four national issues-Terrorism, Energy crisis, US-Drone Attacks and Economic Crisis.
Public perception about the issues-Terrorism, Energy Crisis, Indo-Pak Relations,

Health, Corruption, US-Drone Attacks, Economic Crisis and Pak-Taliban Talks are
found the same as these issues were framed and slanted by the media.
4. Differences in Media Agenda and Public Agenda

Findings of the content analysis and survey research are also revealed the differences on
following issues with media agenda and public agenda;
There are not found correlation between media agenda and public agenda on six
national issues-Indo-Pak Relations, Health, Corruption, Pak-Taliban Talks,
Education and Unemployment.
5. Conclusion
The dissertation, "An Analytical Study to find Correlation between the Media Agenda and
Public Agenda on the National Issues in Pakistan: Exploring Agenda Setting of National
Press" is carried out to determine agenda setting effects on the national issues of 'Terrorism,
Energy Crisis, Economic Crisis, Corruption, Indo-Pak Relations, US-Drone attacks, PakTaliban Talks, Education, Unemployment and Health' in the state. Agenda on these issues set
by three leading national Urdu daily newspapers is matched with the perceptions of relevant
readers of these dailies to find out the effects of media agenda on public agenda and presence
of correlation between the media agenda and public agenda. The contents of three
newspapers are analyzed and speculated cumulatively. After the results of current
dissertation, there is found a moderate correlation on ten national issues while a significant
and strong positive correlation is found between national press agenda and public agenda on
four out of ten national issues. Therefore, these are only four issues which are significantly
high correlated between the media agenda and public agenda. So, the findings regarding the
importance of ten issues are somewhat supported the correlations between media agenda and
124
public agenda while strongly supported the correlation on four issues. It appears that readers
of all newspapers don't follow the same agenda as the newspapers present on the national
issues. On the other side, the perceptions of the readers regarding research issues are
correlated with media slants and frames of issues. On the finding of the current study, it is
also concluded that press not only tells the readers what to think about but also how to think
about. In the newspapers, news story's placement is one of the important factors of media
agenda setting. The issues which obtained more coverage at the front page received a better
score by the public.
6. Recommendations and Suggestions
After analyzing and getting results from the both contents analysis and survey research,
researcher has the following hints for the news organizations, readers of the newspapers and
government. Media organizations should be careful during the coverage of any news, because
coverage of the news items plays an important role to make the mind of the people about the
societal, national and international phenomena. So, the coverage of any news items should be
in such a way that it leaves the positive and constructive impact on readers not distractive and
negative. Farther, it is the time of social media; if news organizations, both electronic and
print media want to survive and long living then they should follow the public agenda as
compared to their own or corporate agendas on national issues, which most of the time differ
on some issues from public agenda. In this way, a news organization can increase its
readership by following the public agenda. And public agenda can be evaluated by the
feedback i.e. letter to editors, Email etc. In Pakistan, youth of total population is nearly 60%,
who can play a significant role in the development but they are constantly ignored by the
media. During the survey the third import issue of public agenda (unemployment) was at the
last position in media agenda. While the third important issue in media agenda was 'Indo-Pak
relations' issue which was ranked at ninth in public agenda. It is grieved situation that media
is not properly highlighting the third important issue of public concerned. If the print media
organizations want that people read the newspapers even in electronic age and in the presence
of electronic media then they should take it to serious and should follow the media agenda.
People should also be careful about the issues which are given coverage in newspapers. They
should read the newspapers for information then evaluate them and make the perception after
properly analyzing those issues by different other means of communications about different
125
issues. On the other hand government should take revolutionary steps about the major
national issues. Government should take proper measures to overcome terrorism, energy
crisis, economic crisis, corruption, unemployment and lack of health and education facilities.
The findings of this study also suggest that government should also talk with Taliban and try
to overcome Taliban related issues. Pakistani government should build good relations with
Indian and solves the problems with negotiation. Government should also stop the US-Drone
attacks in tribal areas because these attacks are against the sovereignty of state, creating
anxiety among the people and others are raising the fingers about the sovereignty of Pakistan.
7. Directions for Future Research
The current dissertation unlocks the new areas for farther research in agenda setting of mass
media. In the future studies, the researchers can investigate and explore the effects of public
agenda on media agenda. In the future, one of the other areas of research is that a researcher
can explore the impacts of social media's agenda on setting traditional media agenda. There
can also be explored the role of social media agenda on public agenda and policy agenda.
During 21st century the role of electronic media has been increased, in the future, a researcher
can find out the impacts of electronic media agenda and public agenda in Pakistani society.
8. Delimitations of Study
The current dissertation is limited to find out impacts of print media agenda on the student
agenda and found the moderate correlation between media agenda and public agenda on
national issues. This dissertation is limited to front and back pages of the newspapers.
According to Pakistani scholar Riaz, these front and back pages are mostly read by the
readers of the newspapers1. The other pages like sports page, showbiz page, metropolitan
page etc. also are read by the readers but these pages were not analyzed in the current
dissertation. Researcher could only conduct the survey of 300 respondents (students) from
three cities of Pakistan due to the shortage of time and money. In the current study only three
Urdu newspapers are examine for media agenda, English can also be examined. The current
study is limited to only two months, the time of study can be extend to check the agenda
setting role of media on public agenda.
126
APPENDIXES
Appendix-A
127
Coding Sheet Instructions for Newspaper Content Analysis

Variables
Classifications
1. Topics /
Issues
i. Terrorism
Rules
Coverage on 'terrorism' issue means all news
stories and pictorials related to the terrorist
activities i.e. suicide blasts, bombs explosions,
kidnapping in Pakistan which cause financial
or human loss.
ii. Energy Crisis
Coverage about 'energy crisis' issue means all

the news stories and pictorials display in the
newspapers relevant to shortage of electricity,
shortfall
of
consumption,
electricity,
Power
electricity
generation,
load
shedding, power cut-off, Power plant, power

crisis, increasing bills of electricity.
iii. Economic Crisis
Coverage about 'economic crisis' issue means

stories and pictorials relevant to the economic
issues of Pakistani government i.e. loan
scheme, economic policy, redressing domestic
revenue/GDP
ratio,
payment
of
loans,
revenues, low investment, GST, credit, debit,

IMF, Security expenditures, IMF at high rates
of interest.
iv. Corruption
Coverage about 'corruption' issue means news

items and pictures relevant to 'corruption' in
Pakistani government i.e. bribery, dishonest or
fraudulent, morally depraved, embezzlement,
depravity, decay, putrefaction, venality, lack
of transparency in different government's
128
sectors etc.
v. Indo-Pak Relations
Coverage on the issue of 'Indo-Pak relations'

means all news stories and pictures relevant to
two-sided relationships between Pakistan and
India.
vi. US-Drone attacks
Coverage about 'US-Drone attacks' issue

means news stories and pictorial display
relevant to US-Drone attacks in Pakistani
areas.
vii. Pak-Taliban Talks
Coverage about 'Pak-Taliban Talks' issue

means stories and pictures relevant to
negotiation of Pakistani government with
Pakistani Taliban.
viii. Education
Exposure about 'education' issue means stories

and pictures relevant to the 'education',
literacy, illiteracy ratio, facilities and lack of
facilities.
ix. Unemployment
Exposure about 'unemployment' issue means

stories
and
pictures
relevant
to
unemployment, employment, jobs, salaries,

opportunities, government acts regarding the
jobs provision.
x. Health
Coverage on the issue of 'health' means news

related to the 'health' i.e. health facilities and
lack of facilities in Pakistan.
2. Slant
Favorable for U.S.A.
It means the paragraph of a news story about
129
(About Terrorism, & US- the issue of 'terrorism' or 'US-Drone attacks'

Drone attacks).
that gives a favorable or depicts a positive
image of U.S.A.
It also contains news on the war against
'terrorism', drone attacks, statements of the
U.S.A. government and Pakistan government,
official visits of both states, news on Pak-US
relations, US aid to Pakistan etc.
Unfavorable for U.S.A.
(About Terrorism, & USDrone attacks).

the issue of 'terrorism' or 'US-Drone attacks'
that gives an unfavorable image or depicts a
negative image of U.S.A.
Neutral for U.S.A.

(About Terrorism, & USDrone attacks).

'terrorism' or 'US-Drone attacks' that gives not
a clear image or depicts a neutral image of
the U.S.A.
Favorable for Government

(About
energy
crisis,
economic
crisis,
corruption,
Pak-Taliban
Talks,
Education,
Unemployment & Health).
It means the paragraph of a news story that
Unfavorable
for
Government (About energy
crisis, economic crisis,
corruption,
Pak-Taliban
Talks,
Education,
gives a favorable image or a positive image of

the government on the issues of 'energy crisis',
'economic crisis', 'corruption', 'Pak-Taliban
talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and 'health'.
gives an unfavorable or negative image of the

government on the issues of 'energy crisis',
'economic crisis', 'corruption', 'Pak-Taliban
talks', 'education', 'unemployment' and 'health'.

Neutral for Government
(About
energy
crisis, gives not a clear image or depicts a neutral
economic
crisis, image of the government on the issues of
130
corruption,
Pak-Taliban 'energy crisis', 'economic crisis', 'corruption',
Talks,
Education, 'Pak-Taliban
talks',
'education',
'unemployment' and 'health'.
Favorable for Indo-Pak
Relations

gives
positive
image
for
two-sided
relationships between India and Pakistan.

Unfavorable for Indo-Pak
Relations

gives
negative
image
for
two-sided
relationships between India and Pakistan.

Neutral
For Indo-Pak Relations

gives not a clear image or depicts a neutral
image on the relationships between India and
Pakistan.
3. Frequency
The numbers of news stories about the issues

which appeared on the front page and back
page in the three sample newspapers were
considered as frequency.
4. Length
The amount of space in a newspaper which a

news item occupied is called length. In the
current dissertation length of news items is
calculated in column per cm. The length of
related pictorial about news stories of the
study issues was also included in the length of
news stories. In Pakistani newspapers 4.5 cm
is considered standard width1.
131
5. Frame
Pakistan and USA both have a common
Pakistan should support

US policies
enemy. Pakistan should support the US

policies regarding 'terrorism'.
Pakistan
should
support US policies
not Pakistan paid a very high cost in favoring US

policies. Pakistan should make its own
policies and strategies regarding 'terrorism'.
Govt. should negotiate

with Taliban
The coverage will come under this frame if

news stories and pictorial welcome peace
negotiation, give positive image of Taliban
and suggests that negotiation with Taliban
will be better for Pakistan and the people of
Pakistan.
Govt. shouldn't negotiate

with Taliban
Govt.
shouldn't
negotiate
with
Taliban
because it is not in favor of Pakistan. Pakistan

should take the military action against
Taliban.
Pakistan should stop USDrone attacks
Pakistan
should
stop
US-Drone
attacks
because it is against the sovereignty of

Pakistan. It is causing death of innocent
People. It is causing anxiety among the people
of Pakistan. It is the main reason of suicide
bomb blasts and other terrorists' activities in
Pakistan.
Pakistan shouldn't stop US- Pakistan shouldn't stop US-Drone attacks

because it is causing to remove the terrorists
Drone attacks
in Pakistan. In this way Pakistan can
overcome the 'terrorism'. It is not against the
sovereignty of Pakistan.
132
Pro-Government
(about
Energy Crisis, Economic
Crisis,
Corruption,
Education, Unemployment
& Health).
Pro-Government news frames (on 'Energy

Crisis,
'Economic
Crisis',
'Corruption',
'Education', 'Unemployment', and 'Health') of

newspapers means the news stories and
relevant pictorials that portray a positive
picture of government.
Anti- Government (about

Energy Crisis, Economic
Crisis,
Corruption,
Education, Unemployment
& Health).
Anti-Government news frames (on 'Energy

Crisis',
'economic
crisis',
'Corruption',
'Education', 'Unemployment', and 'Health') of

newspapers means the news stories and
relevant pictorials that portray a negative
picture of government.
Indo-Pak relations are Pakistan should build good relations with

India because 'Indo-Pak relations' are
beneficial for Pakistan.
Indo-Pak relations are not Pakistan shouldn't build good relations with
India because 'Indo-Pak relations' are not
beneficial for Pakistan.
6. Placement
Front Page
News stories and relevant pictorials which

published on the front page of the newspapers
will be fallen here in this category.
Back Page
News stories and relevant pictorials which

published on the back page of the newspapers
will be fallen here in this category.
133
Appendix-B
Coding Sheet for Newspaper Content Analysis
Date
Newspaper
Topic/
Issue
Frequency
Length Column
Centimeter
Slants
UF
Frames
Placement
Keys
Newspapers:
1. Daily Jang 1,
2. Daily Nawa-i-Waqt 2, and
3. Daily Express 3.
134
Topics:
Terrorism 1, Energy Crisis2, Economic Crisis 3, Corruption 4, Indo-Pak Relations5, USDrone attacks 6, Pak-Taliban Talks 7, Education 8, Unemployment 9 and Health 10.
Slant:
1. Favorable 1,
2. Unfavorable 2, and
3. Neutral 3 (not a clear image or emphasis).
Placement:
1. Front page 1, and
2. Back page 2,
Frame:
1. Pakistan should support US policies 1,
2. Pakistan shouldn't support US policies 2,
3. Govt. should negotiate with Taliban 3,
4. Govt. shouldn't negotiate with Taliban 4,
5. Should stop US-Drone attacks.5,
6. Shouldn't stop US-Drone Attacks 6,
7. Pro-Government (about Energy Crisis, Economic Crisis, Corruption, Education,
Unemployment & Health) 7,
8. Anti-Government (about Energy Crisis, Economic Crisis, Corruption, Education,
Unemployment & Health) 8.
9. Indo-Pak relations are beneficial for Pakistan 9, and
10. Indo-Pak relations are not beneficial for Pakistan 10.
135
Appendix-C
Student's Newspaper Reading Habit Survey Questionnaire
Mr. Muhammad Yaqoub has been assigned a task to conduct research on "An
Analytical Study to find Correlation between the Media Agenda and Public Agenda on the
National Issues in Pakistan: Exploring Agenda Setting of National Press" under the
supervision of undersigned as partial requirement for the degree of M. Phil. Mass
Communication. This is a research questionnaire. You are kindly requested to participate in
this study by replying to the following questions. Your co-operation in this regard will be
highly appreciated.
The information gained from the questionnaire will be used for research purpose only.
No individual names are required since all the information you give is strictly confidential.
Dr. Mudassar H. Shah
Supervisor
Note: According to your opinion tick one of the following correct options in each question.
A. Personal Information
Gender:
[1] Male
[2] Female
Education:
[1] Graduation
[2] Master
[3] M. Phil
Location:
[1] Sargodha
[2] Faisalabad
[3] Jhang
____________________________________________________________________________
B. Public Opinion
Q.1: In which place, you often prefer to read newspaper?
[1] Library
[2] Home
[3] Hostel
[4] Any other place
Q.2: Do you also buy your own newspaper regularly?

[1] Yes
[2] No
136
Q.3: In which language do you prefer to read newspaper?

[1] Urdu
[2] English
Q.4: Approximately how much average time per day you spend on reading daily
newspapers?
[1] Up to 30 minutes [2] 1 hours
[3] 2 or more than 2 hours
Q.5: What level of news do you often read in daily newspaper?

[1] National
[2] International
Q.6: To what extent you are satisfied with the coverage of newspapers on national issues
in Pakistan?
[1] Very much
[2] Much
[3] Somewhat
[4] Rarely
[5] Not at all
Q.7: Which one of the following is the most sincere friend country of Pakistan?
[1] China
[2] Saudi Arabia
[3] India
[4] America
[5] Iran
[6] Any other
Q.8: How often do you prefer to expose the following newspapers for information of
national issues?
Newspapers
Very often
Often
Somewhat
Seldom
Never
Jang
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Nawa-i-Waqt
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Express
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
137
Q.9: How often do you like to read the following news contents?
Contents
Very often
Often
Somewhat
Seldom
Never
Political
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Economic
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Social
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Entertainment
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Sports
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Q.10: Please rank and write down at least three among the following issues according to
your own opinion. Important issues should be written from up to down.
Terrorism, Energy Crisis, Economic Crisis, Corruption, Indo-Pak Relations,
US Drone Attacks, Pak-Taliban Talks, Education, Unemployment, Health
Your Opinion
1. ---------------------2. ---------------------3. ----------------------
Q.11: In your point of view which is the most reliable and authentic medium of
information about the above mentioned issues that you signified?
[1] Newspapers
[2] Television
[3] Any other
138
Q.12: To what extent you talk about with friends about above mentioned issues that you
signified?
[1] Very much
[2] Much
[4] Rarely
[5] Not at all
[3] Somewhat
Q.13: Which one of the following do you think about the issue of 'terrorism'?
[1]
We should support the policies of the US government regarding terrorism.
[2]
We should not support the policies of the US government regarding terrorism.
[3]
Any other.
Q.14: Which one of the following you perceive regarding 'Pak-Taliban Talks' issue?
[1]
We should negotiate with Taliban.
[2]
We should not negotiate with Taliban.
[3]
Any other.
Q.15: Which one of the following do you think about the issue of 'US-Drone Attacks'?
[1]
We should stop US-Drone Attacks.
[2]
We should not stop US-Drone Attacks.
[3]
Any other.
Q.16: Which one of the following do you think about the issue of 'energy crisis'??
[1]
Negligence of government is the main reason of energy crisis.
[2]
Lack of energy resources is the main reason of energy crisis.
[3]
Any other.
139
Q.17: Which one of the following do you think about 'Indo-Pak relations' issue?
[1]
Indo-Pak relations are beneficial for Pakistan.
[2]
Indo-Pak relations are not beneficial for Pakistan.
[3]
Not clear.
Q.18: Which one of the following do you think about the 'health' issue?
[1]
Health facilities are sufficient in Pakistan.
[2]
Health facilities are not sufficient in Pakistan.
[3]
Any other.
Q.19: Which one of the following do you think about the issue of 'corruption'?
[1]
Majority of politicians, businessmen and bureaucrats are corrupt and are the
main reasons of corruption.
[2]
We as a whole nation are corrupt.
[3]
Any other.
Q.20: What one of the following you perceive regarding 'economic crisis' issue?
[1]
Terrorism is the main reason of economic crisis.
[3]
Corruption is the main reason of economic crisis.
[3]
Any other.
Q.21: Which one of the following do you think the root cause of all kinds of problems in
Pakistan?
[1] Ineligible political leadership
[2] Lack of Resources
[3] Any other
140
Q.22: According to your opinion which three national issues are the most important?
(Important issues write from up to down according to their importance.)
1. -----------------------------------------------------2. -----------------------------------------------------3. -----------------------------------------------------THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR CO-OPERATION, PATIENCE AND TAKING
THE PRECIOUS TIME AND EFFORT TO COMPLETE THIS QUESTIONNAIRE!
141
Appendix-D
"An Analytical Study to find Correlation between the Media Agenda and Public Agenda on
"the National Issues in Pakistan: Exploring Agenda Setting of National Press

) (Questionnaire
.
: )(opinion
:
:
] [1
][2
] [1
] [2
] [3
] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.1
] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.2
] [1
] [2
:Q.3
] [1
142
] [2
] [4
:Q.4
] [1
] 1 [2
] 2 [3
:Q.5 )(level
] [1
] [2
:Q.6
] [1
] [2
] [3 ] [4 ] [5
:Q.7
] [1
] [2 ] [3 ] [4 ] [5
] [6
:Q.8

][1
][2
][3
][4
][5
][1
][2
][3
][4
][5
][1
][2
][3
][4
][5
:Q.9 )(news contents
143
][1
][2
][3
][4
][5
][1
][2
][3
][4
][5
][1
][2
][3
][4
][5
][1
][2
][3
][4
][5
:Q.10

:

.1
------------------------
.2
------------------------
.3
------------------------
:Q.11
)(reliable)(Authentic
] [1
] [2 ] [3
:Q.12
] [1
] [2
] [3
] [4 ] [5
:Q.13 ) (Terrorism
] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.14 ) (Pak-Taliban Talks
] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.15 )(US-Drone Attacks
] [1
] [2
] [3
144
:Q.16 )(Energy Crisis

][1
][2
][3
:Q.17 )(Indo-Pak Relations

] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.18 )(health
] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.19 ) (Corruption
] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.20 )(Economic Crisis
] [1
] [2
] [3
:Q.21
] [1 )(leadership
] [2
] [3
145
:Q.22
)(
------------------------------------------------------- .1
------------------------------------------------------- .2
------------------------------------------------------- .3
THE END
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR CO-OPERATION, PATIENCE AND TAKING
THE PRECIOUS TIME AND EFFORT TO COMPLETE THIS QUESTIONNAIRE!
146

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ABSTRACT

Unit of Analysis -------------------------------------------------------- 62

Discuss the issues with friends -------------------------------------- 95

1. Introduction of the Study

and an explanatory power in journalism, mass communication, political communication and

Figure 1.1: Research Process

To investigate the correlation between media agenda and public agenda.

To explore agenda setting role of national press on national issues in Pakistan.

To explore the tone of newspapers about the important national phenomena.

To find out which medium is popular among the students.

To explore the perception of readers regarding America, India and China.

To determine the needs and preferences of Pakistani youth students regarding

To provide helpful data to the government in order to organize their policies on

To identify the reasons of reading newspaper.

To explore the perception of students/youth regarding political leadership.

To find out the root cause of all problems in Pakistan.

Development and Research in Agenda Setting

Review of Literature is thought-out a significant step of research process

Agenda Setting Studies in 20th Century

Figure 2.1: McCombs & Shaws Agenda setting model (1976)

Further, Funkhouser conducted a national survey comparing what people

Brosius & Kepplinger conducted a study on agenda setting function of

Dalton et al. conducted a study to examine newspaper content and public

Agenda Setting Studies in 21st Century

In simple language, mass media is successful in salience

Brubaker conducted a study on the freedom to choose a personal agenda. The

The online survey of reporters (n=80) who write and

Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Issues

Media diversification is an important attribute of Pakistani media. It represents the

Media Education in Pakistan

The historical background of education in journalism is prior to the creation of

www.cssforum.com.pk Retrieved on February 7, 2013 from

Among the other Urdu newspapers, the professional standards of this

Daily Jang E-Paper

being published by 'Nawa-i-Waqt

(www.nawaiwaqt.com.pk) of Publications'. This group of publication also publishes a sister

Daily Nawa-i-Waqt E-Paper

Daily Express E-Paper

standards in which government, Prime Minister, President, politicians, candidates and

A systematic research technique to investigate content of printed

Sample and Sample Size

Coding Unit of Analysis

Contextual Unit of Analysis

Sample and Sample Size

Instrument of Survey Data Collection

News stories published

Important Issues of the study

Figure 5.1.: Frequencies of news items in dailies newspapers

News Items' Length

Length of the news stories (cm)

Important Issues of the study

Figure 5.2.: Length of the news stories published in dailies

On the topic of 'Pak-Taliban Talks', these newspapers gave maximum 59%

Table 5.1: Overall Slanting of news items

US- Drone Attacks

*Data is evaluated in (%)

Drone attacks, "Pro-Government" and "Anti-Government" on the issue of 'Energy Crisis',

Data is evaluated in (%)

Figure 5.3.1: Framing of Terrorism Issue

1.4.2 Framing of Energy Crisis Issue

Data is evaluated in (%)

Figure 5.3.2: Framing of Energy Crisis Issue

1.4.3 Framing of Indo-Pak Relations Issue