Infrared Thermography Guide Revision 3

Infrared Thermography Guide
(Revision 3)
SED
R I
A L
LICE
M AT E
WARNING:
Please read the License Agreement
on the back cover before removing
the Wrapping Material.
Reduced
Cost
Technical Report
Plant
Maintenance
Support
Equipment
Reliability
Infrared Thermography Guide

(Revision 3)
1006534
Final Report, May 2002
EPRI Project Manager

P. Zayicek
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)
WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR
SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR
INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S
CIRCUMSTANCE; OR
(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER
(INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE
HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR
SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD,
PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
EPRI
ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Orders and Conferences, 1355 Willow
Way, Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520, (800) 313-3774, press 2 or internally x5379, (925) 609-9169,
(925) 609-1310 (fax).
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright 2002 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC)
1300 W.T. Harris Boulevard
Charlotte, NC 28262
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Infrared Thermography Guide (Revision 3), EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1006534.
The enclosed CD contains a PDF file of this report featuring full-color images.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
Costly equipment outages can be reduced by implementing a comprehensive predictive

maintenance program. Infrared thermography (IR), a fundamental component of such programs,
uses nonintrusive techniques to monitor the operating condition of equipment and components.
This revised report provides updated information to assist utilities in implementing an effective
IR program.
Background
IR has proven to be an effective predictive maintenance and diagnostic tool. For example, it can
be used to identify areas of condenser air in-leakage, bad terminal lugs/connections, leaking
valves, and nozzle blockages in the containment spray ring header. To broaden the range of IR
applications, EPRI sponsored the development of a guide to address IR diagnostic capabilities.
This guide was originally published in 1990 and is being revised to incorporate user input and to
update information on IR equipment and vendors.
Objective
To develop and maintain a guide that provides a consistent approach for using IR as a
predictive maintenance tool
Approach
The EPRI Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC) originally worked with Alabama
Power personnel to assess the viability of IR as a predictive maintenance tool in a nuclear plant
application. An initial IR survey and a subsequent follow-up survey identified the effectiveness
of IR for identifying abnormal operating conditions for the surveyed components. Revisions to
the guide include updated information on IR equipment, applications, training, and certification.
Results
This guide, which provides a compendium of information rather than definitive standards,
describes IR theory, summarizes existing and potential IR applications, and offers technical
information necessary for developing an effective in-house IR program. Key topics that are
included in this guide are:
The science of thermography

Selection of infrared instruments
Inspection techniques
IR applications
Basic elements of an in-house program
Training and certification
v
This revision provides updated information on commercial infrared sensing and imaging
instruments, IR applications, and training and certification criteria.
EPRI Perspective
Infrared thermography is a valuable tool in a predictive maintenance program, as has been
demonstrated by those applying the principles described in the Infrared Thermography Guide.
Periodic updates of the guide keep the utility thermographer aware of recent developments in IR
equipment technology, criteria for training and certification, and proven IR applications that add
value to the utility IR program. The guide also serves as benchmark reference for those who
contract their IR inspection services.
Keywords
Nuclear power
Infrared thermography
Fossil fuel power plants
Predictive maintenance
vi
EPRI Licensed Material
ABSTRACT
This guide is a valuable reference for the development of infrared thermography (IR) capabilities
as part of a plant predictive maintenance program. The guide includes IR theory, a summary of
IR inspection applications, and the technical information necessary to develop an effective
in-house program. The body of the guide is structured for the general user of IR, and the
appendices provide a more in-depth look at this technology for the advanced user. This third
revision of Infrared Thermography Guide contains updated information on IR equipment
technology, IR inspection applications, and training and certification criteria.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Infrared Thermography Guide was produced by the Nuclear Maintenance Applications
Center (NMAC). Extensive information for the original guide was provided by Alabama Power
Company (the primary demonstration plant) and other electric power generating utilities, and is
gratefully acknowledged. A. E. Hammett from SONOPCO is acknowledged for his efforts,
enthusiasm, and support of this project.
The following utilities are acknowledged for their review of the original guide and their
comments:
Alabama Power Co.
Arkansas Power & Light Co.
Duquesne Light Co.
Florida Power & Light Co.
Florida Power Corp.

Maine Yankee Atomic Power Co.
Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
Toledo Edison Company
The following utility personnel are acknowledged for their review of Revision 1 of the Guide
and their comments:
Larry Shay Entergy Operations
Scot Stewart Florida Power Corp.
Joe Connolley Omaha Public Power District
Russ Cabrel Washington Public Power Supply System
Tom George Wisconsin Public Service Corp.
Gary Thomas of Florida Power & Light Co. is acknowledged for his contribution of IR
inspection application images for Revision 2 of the Guide.
FLIR Systems Inc. and the Infrared Training Center are acknowledged for their contributions of
IR inspection application images for Revision 3 of the Guide.
In addition, NMAC and EPRI NDE Center staff reviewed Revisions 1, 2, and 3 and offered
comments. NMAC was supported in its efforts to develop this guide by Herb Kaplan of
Honeyhill Technical.
Honeyhill Technical
65 Fawn Ridge Lane
Norwalk, CT 06851
Honeyhill Technical
11550 Ballylee Terrace
Boynton Beach, FL 33437
ix
INTRODUCTION
Many electric generating stations and utilities have integrated the non-contact, nondestructive
capabilities of infrared thermography (IR) for condition monitoring and diagnostics in their
predictive maintenance program. The purpose of this guide is to assist the nuclear industry in its
efforts to factor IR into its predictive maintenance program. This guide provides the theory of IR,
a summary of existing and potential applications, and the technical information necessary to
develop an effective in-house program. Also included is a matrix that lists all of the known
manufacturers of IR instruments for a broad range of applications.
IR has been used in commercial applications since the early 1970s. In the early 1990s, at the time
this guide was first completed, the most frequent applications centered on building energy losses,
roof moisture detection, and inspections of major electric equipment. Applications have since
expanded to almost all areas of plant predictive maintenance (PdM), product and process control,
and nondestructive testing of materials. The wide and growing selection of thermal imagers and
viewers available for these applications provides both qualitative and quantitative displays of
temperature distribution patterns.
The manufacturers of modern thermal imagers and viewers have kept pace as detector and
microprocessor technologies have advanced. The capabilities of todays IR thermal imagers and
viewers have yet to be fully explored and developed for commercial applications. In addition,
computer software programs are now available to store, retrieve, analyze and compare infrared
images.
Much of the information presented in the original guide was developed as a result of a
demonstration project at a U.S. nuclear utility. In addition to information gathered through this
demonstration project, all Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC) members were
surveyed to provide data on the implementation status of IR technology at their facilities.
This latest revision of the guide (Revision 3) was undertaken to correct text errors, to update the
information on IR products vendors, certification, training, and techniques, and to restructure the
guide so that it can become a living document, able to be readily updated to reflect technology
changes. The body of the guide is structured for the general user of IR, and the appendices
provide an in-depth look at this technology designed for the more advanced user.
Basic IR Concepts
A target at any temperature above absolute zero will emit infrared radiation in proportion to its
temperature. Thermal imagers develop an electronic image by converting the invisible heat
radiation emitted by that target into electrical signals that can be displayed on a monitor and/or
xi
recorded on a variety of electronic storage media. By monitoring these targets with thermal
imaging equipment, a visual image of their temperature differentials can be displayed. The
variations in intensities of the blacks, grays, and whites (or color variations) provide an
indication of the temperature differences. Areas of higher temperatures will appear brighter and
the areas at lower temperatures will appear darker (or appear as different colors). The quantity
and wavelength distribution of the energy that is radiated depends upon the temperature and
spectral characteristics of the material, and on that materials radiation efficiency (emissivity).
Thermal imagers convert the invisible heat radiation into visible images while spot radiometers
convert the heat radiation from a single spot into a number indication on a meter.
The thermographer views the target through an IR instrument, while looking for unexpected or
unusual temperature patterns. A qualitative examination compares the apparent temperature
pattern of one component to that of an identical or similar component under the same or similar
operating conditions.
Temperature differences can be measured quantitatively as well. The achievement of accurate
temperature indications, however, is dependent upon many factors and extreme care must be
taken in the selection of variables used in temperature calculations. The thermal images obtained
can be stored on memory sticks, PCMCIA cards, computer hard drives, floppy disks, CDs, ZIP
disks, or video tape.
An advantage of infrared monitoring or testing is that it can be performed with the equipment in
service at normal operating conditions (that is, it will not interfere with normal plant operations).
xii
CONTENTS
1 THERMOGRAPHY OVERVIEW.............................................................................................1-1
1.1
Advantages of Non-Contact Thermal Measurement....................................................1-1
1.2
Heat Transfer and Infrared Radiation Basics...............................................................1-2
1.2.1
Heat and Temperature ........................................................................................1-2
1.2.2
Instruments for Temperature Measurement (Contact and Non-Contact)............1-2
1.2.3
Converting Temperature Units ............................................................................1-3
1.2.4
The Three Modes of Heat Transfer.....................................................................1-3
1.3
Measuring and Mapping Temperature Without Contact ..............................................1-7
1.3.1
1.4
The Three Elements of a Non-Contact Temperature Measurement...................1-7
Performance Parameters of Thermal Sensing Instruments.........................................1-9
1.4.1
Point-Sensing Instruments ..................................................................................1-9
1.4.2
Line Scanners and ImagersQualitative and Quantitative ..............................1-10
1.4.3
Thermal Imaging Software ................................................................................1-11
2 A COMPENDIUM OF COMMERCIAL INFRARED SENSING AND IMAGING

INSTRUMENTS .........................................................................................................................2-1
2.1
Classification of Instruments ........................................................................................2-1
2.2
Instrument Manufacturers ............................................................................................2-2
2.3
Discussion of Instruments............................................................................................2-2
2.3.1
Point Sensors (Radiation Thermometers)...........................................................2-2
2.3.1.1
Probes...........................................................................................................2-2
2.3.1.2
Portable Hand-Held ......................................................................................2-3
2.3.1.3
On-Line Monitoring and Control....................................................................2-3
2.3.1.4
Specials ........................................................................................................2-4
2.3.2
Line Scanners .....................................................................................................2-5
2.3.2.1
Opto-Mechanically Scanned Line Scanners .................................................2-5
2.3.2.2
Electronically Scanned Focal Plane Array Line Scanners ............................2-6
2.3.3
Thermographic Instruments ................................................................................2-6
xiii
2.4
2.3.3.1
Thermal Viewers, Opto-Mechanically Scanned ............................................2-7
2.3.3.2
Opto-Mechanically Scanned Imaging Radiometers......................................2-8
2.3.3.3
Thermal Viewers, Electronically Scanned (Pyrovidicon Imagers).................2-9
2.3.3.4
Focal Plane Array (FPA) ImagersQualitative and Quantitative ...............2-10
2.3.3.5
FPA Imager Performance Comparisons .....................................................2-11
Thermal Imaging Diagnostic Software .......................................................................2-13
2.4.1
Quantitative Thermal Measurements of Targets...............................................2-13
2.4.2
Detailed Processing and Image Diagnostics.....................................................2-13
2.4.3
Image Recording, Storage, and Recovery ........................................................2-14
2.4.4
Image Comparison............................................................................................2-15
2.5
Recording, Hard Copy, and Storage of Images and Data .........................................2-15
2.6
Report Preparation ....................................................................................................2-15
3 THE MEASUREMENT MISSION ...........................................................................................3-1

3.1
Thermal Behavior of the Target ...................................................................................3-1
3.1.1
Emissivity Difference...........................................................................................3-2
3.1.2
Reflectance Difference........................................................................................3-2
3.1.3
Transmittance Difference ....................................................................................3-2
3.1.4
Geometric Difference ..........................................................................................3-2
3.1.5
Mass Transport Difference..................................................................................3-2
3.1.6
Phase Change Difference ...................................................................................3-3
3.1.7
Thermal Capacitance Difference.........................................................................3-3
3.1.8
Induced Heating Difference.................................................................................3-3
3.1.9
Energy Conversion Difference ............................................................................3-3
3.1.10
3.2
Equipment Preparation ................................................................................................3-3
3.2.1
The Mission Checklist .........................................................................................3-3
3.2.2
Equipment Checkout and Calibration..................................................................3-4
3.2.3
Batteries ..............................................................................................................3-4
3.2.4
Facility Personnel Participation ...........................................................................3-4
3.3
xiv
Direct Heat Transfer Difference .......................................................................3-3
Some Cautions for Correct Instrument Operation........................................................3-4
3.3.1
Start-Up Procedure .............................................................................................3-5
3.3.2
Memorizing the Default Values ...........................................................................3-5
3.3.3
Setting the Correct Emissivity .............................................................................3-5
3.3.4
Filling the IFOVmeas for Accurate Temperature Measurements......................3-12
3.3.5
Aiming Normal to the Target Surface................................................................3-12
3.3.6
Recognizing and Avoiding Reflections From External Sources ........................3-12
3.3.7
Avoiding Radiant Heat Damage to the Instrument............................................3-12
4 INSPECTION TECHNIQUES .................................................................................................4-1

4.1
Mitigating Inherent Effects ...........................................................................................4-1
4.1.1
Emissivity and Reflectivity...................................................................................4-1
4.1.2
Foot Powder........................................................................................................4-3
4.1.3
Dye Check Developer .........................................................................................4-3
4.1.4
Electricians' Tape................................................................................................4-5
4.2
Proven Inspection Techniques.....................................................................................4-5
4.2.1
Mirrored Surfaces................................................................................................4-5
4.2.2
Thermal Transfer Imaging...................................................................................4-6
4.2.3
Thermal Transients .............................................................................................4-6
4.2.4
Differential Thermography...................................................................................4-7
4.2.5
Using Infrared Transmitting Windows .................................................................4-7
5 EXAMPLES OF INFRARED APPLICATIONS .......................................................................5-1

5.1
Current Applications.....................................................................................................5-1
5.2
Electrical Applications ..................................................................................................5-1
5.2.1
High Electrical Resistance ..................................................................................5-1
5.2.2
Induced Currents.................................................................................................5-2
5.2.3
Open Circuits ......................................................................................................5-2
5.3
Mechanical Applications ..............................................................................................5-2
5.3.1
Friction ................................................................................................................5-2
5.3.2
Valve Leakage/Blockage.....................................................................................5-2
5.3.3
Insulation.............................................................................................................5-3
5.3.4
Building Envelopes..............................................................................................5-3
5.4
Miscellaneous Applications..........................................................................................5-3
5.4.1
Containment Spray Ring Header ........................................................................5-3
5.4.2
Hydrogen Igniters................................................................................................5-4
5.4.3
Condensers.........................................................................................................5-4
5.4.4
Thermal Plume Detection....................................................................................5-4
5.5
Applications Summary .................................................................................................5-5
xv
6 BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN IN-HOUSE PROGRAM..............................................................6-1

6.1
Basic Elements ............................................................................................................6-1
6.1.1
Introduction .........................................................................................................6-2
6.1.2
Definitions ...........................................................................................................6-2
6.1.3
Scope ..................................................................................................................6-2
6.1.4
Responsibilities ...................................................................................................6-2
6.1.5
Precautions .........................................................................................................6-2
6.1.6
Prerequisites .......................................................................................................6-2
6.1.7
Conduct of the Survey.........................................................................................6-2
6.1.8
Acceptance Criteria.............................................................................................6-3
6.1.9
Reporting Criteria ................................................................................................6-3
6.1.10
Qualification of Personnel ................................................................................6-4
6.1.11
Scheduling .......................................................................................................6-4
6.1.12
Equipment Matrix .............................................................................................6-4
6.1.13
References ......................................................................................................6-4
6.2
Sample Program ..........................................................................................................6-5
7 TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION .........................................................................................7-1

7.1
Background..................................................................................................................7-1
7.2
Levels of Qualification..................................................................................................7-2
7.3
Training Requirements ................................................................................................7-2
7.4
Predictive Maintenance (PdM) Level III Certification Program ....................................7-4
APPENDICES:
A THE SCIENCE OF THERMOGRAPHY (PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF
THERMOGRAPHIC AND THERMAL SENSING EQUIPMENT).............................................. A-1
A.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................. A-1
A.2
Heat Transfer and Radiation Exchange Basics for Thermography............................. A-1
xvi
A.2.1
Heat and Temperature ....................................................................................... A-2
A.2.2
Converting Temperature Units ........................................................................... A-2
A.2.3
The Three Modes of Heat Transfer.................................................................... A-7
A.2.4
Conduction ......................................................................................................... A-7
A.2.5
Convection ......................................................................................................... A-8
A.2.6
Radiation ............................................................................................................ A-9
A.2.7
Radiation Exchange at the Target Surface ...................................................... A-10
A.2.8
Specular and Diffuse Surfaces......................................................................... A-12
A.2.9
Transient Heat Exchange................................................................................. A-12
A.3
The Basic Physics of Infrared Radiation and Sensing .............................................. A-13
A.3.1
Some Historical Background............................................................................ A-14
A.3.2
Non-Contact Thermal Measurements .............................................................. A-14
A.3.3
The Target Surface .......................................................................................... A-14
A.3.4
The Transmitting Medium ................................................................................ A-20
A.3.5
The Measuring Instrument ............................................................................... A-23
A.3.6
Introduction to Thermal Scanning and Imaging Instruments............................ A-25
A.4
A.3.6.1
Line Scanning............................................................................................ A-25
A.3.6.2
Two-Dimensional Scanning....................................................................... A-26
Performance Parameters of Thermal-Sensing Instruments...................................... A-29
A.4.1
Point-Sensing Instruments ............................................................................... A-29
A.4.2
Scanners and ImagersQualitative and Quantitative ..................................... A-35
A.4.3
Performance Parameters of Imaging Radiometers.......................................... A-35
A.4.3.1 Temperature Sensitivity, Minimum Resolvable Temperature

Difference (MRTD) or Minimum Resolvable Temperature (MRT) ............................ A-36
A.4.3.2 Spot Size, Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV), Imaging Spatial
Resolution, Measurement Spatial Resolution (IFOVmeas) ...................................... A-37
A.4.3.3
A.4.4
Speed of Response and Frame Repetition Rate....................................... A-41
Thermal Imaging Software ............................................................................... A-42
B MEASURING EMISSIVITY, REFLECTANCE, AND TRANSMITTANCE............................. B-1

B.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................. B-1
B.2
Measuring Emissivity .................................................................................................. B-2
B.2.1
Reference Emitter Technique ............................................................................ B-2
B.2.2
Reflective Emissivity Technique......................................................................... B-3
B.2.3
Transmittance Measurement ............................................................................. B-5
B.2.4
Generic Emissivity Values.................................................................................. B-6
C QUICK REFERENCE CHARTS AND PLATES.................................................................... C-1

D REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... D-1
E BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... E-1
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Categories of Conditions for Infrared Thermal Measurements.................................1-8
Figure 1-2 Components of an Infrared Sensing Instrument.......................................................1-9
Figure 4-1 Emissivity Improvement by CoatingSetup ............................................................4-4
Figure 4-2 Thermogram of an Uncoated Shiny Metal Container ...............................................4-4
Figure 4-3 Container Has Been Coated to Improve EmissivityThermogram Now
Reveals Fluid Level............................................................................................................4-5
Figure 5-1 Step-Up Transformer High-Resistance Connection .................................................5-8
Figure 5-2 250 kV Transformer................................................................................................5-10
Figure 5-3 Steam Line Leaks...................................................................................................5-12
Figure 5-4 Isophase Bus Bellows ............................................................................................5-14
Figure 5-5 Electric Generator...................................................................................................5-16
Figure 5-6 Regulating Transformer Cooling Oil Migration .......................................................5-18
Figure 5-7 Generator Casing ...................................................................................................5-20
Figure 5-8 Energized Ground Cable ........................................................................................5-22
Figure 5-9 480 V Breaker Connection .....................................................................................5-24
Figure 5-10 Current Transformer .............................................................................................5-26
Figure 5-11 Fuse Holder ..........................................................................................................5-28
Figure 5-12 Connection to Fuse Holder...................................................................................5-30
Figure 5-13 Knife Switch..........................................................................................................5-32
Figure 5-14 Motor Control Center Breaker ..............................................................................5-34
Figure 5-15 Motor Control Center Terminal Block ...................................................................5-36
Figure 5-16 Motor Control Center Control Wire .......................................................................5-38
Figure 5-17 Padmount Transformers.......................................................................................5-40
Figure 5-18 Vacuum Leak on Turbine Condenser...................................................................5-42
Figure 5-19 Small Transformer ................................................................................................5-44
Figure 5-20 Motor ....................................................................................................................5-46
Figure 5-21 Shell Relief Valve .................................................................................................5-48
Figure 5-22 Shell Relief Valve (Weeping)................................................................................5-50
Figure 5-23 Shell Relief Valve (Leaking) .................................................................................5-52
Figure 5-24 Vacuum Leak on Turbine .....................................................................................5-54
Figure 5-25 Steam Trap...........................................................................................................5-56
Figure 5-26 Pump Bearing.......................................................................................................5-58
xix
Figure 5-27 Office Building ......................................................................................................5-60

Figure 5-28 Building Roof with Water Saturation.....................................................................5-62
Figure 5-29 Induction Motor Air Intake Plenum .......................................................................5-64
Figure 5-30 Generator Step-Up Transformer...........................................................................5-66
Figure 5-31 Printed Circuit Module ..........................................................................................5-68
Figure 6-1 Infrared Survey Results ..........................................................................................6-14
Figure A-1 Conductive Heat Flow ............................................................................................. A-7
Figure A-2 Convective Heat Flow ............................................................................................. A-9
Figure A-3 Infrared in the Electromagnetic Spectrum ............................................................. A-10
Figure A-4 Radiative Heat Flow .............................................................................................. A-11
Figure A-5 Radiation Exchange at the Target Surface ........................................................... A-12
Figure A-6 Blackbody Curves at Various Temperatures......................................................... A-16
Figure A-7 Spectral Distribution of a Blackbody, a Gray Body, and a Non-Gray Body........... A-18
Figure A-8 Components of Energy Reaching the Measuring Instrument ............................... A-19
Figure A-9 Aiming the Instrument to Avoid Point Source Reflections ..................................... A-19
Figure A-10 Infrared Transmission of 0.3 km of Sea Level Atmosphere ................................ A-20
Figure A-11 Infrared Spectral Transmission of Glass ............................................................. A-21
Figure A-12 Characteristics of IR Transmitting Materials ....................................................... A-22
Figure A-13 Components of an Infrared Radiation Thermometer........................................... A-23
Figure A-14 Typical Infrared Radiation Thermometer Schematic ........................................... A-24
Figure A-15 Spectral Sensitivity of Various Infrared Detectors ............................................... A-25
Figure A-16 Scanning Configuration of an Infrared Line Scanner .......................................... A-26
Figure A-17 Schematic of a Typical Opto-Mechanically Scanned Imager .............................. A-28
Figure A-18 Schematic of a Typical FPA-Based Thermal Imager .......................................... A-29
Figure A-19 Instrument Speed of Response and Time Constant ........................................... A-31
Figure A-20 Fields of View of Infrared Radiation Thermometers ............................................ A-32
Figure A-21 Spectral Filtering for Polyethylene Temperature Measurement .......................... A-34
Figure A-22 Spectral Filtering for Polyester Temperature Measurement................................ A-34
Figure A-23 Test Setup for MRTD Measurement, MRTD Curve ............................................ A-37
Figure A-24 Modulation Transfer Function, Imager Spatial Resolution .................................. A-39
Figure A-25 MRTD and MTF for a System Rated at 1.0 Milliradian ....................................... A-40
Figure A-26 Setup and Curves for Slit Response Function Test ............................................ A-41
Figure B-1 Target Radiosity ...................................................................................................... B-1
Figure B-2 Using the Reference Emitter Technique ................................................................. B-3
Figure B-3 Using the Reflective Emissivity Technique ............................................................. B-4
Figure B-4 Using the Transmittance Technique (Measuring Transmittance)............................ B-5
xx
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1 Temperature Conversion Chart .................................................................................1-4
Table 2-1 Instrument Characteristics .......................................................................................2-16
Table 2-2 Equipment Manufacturers........................................................................................2-29
Table 2-3 Compilation of Typical Industrial Applications of Thermal Imaging Instruments......2-33
Table 3-1 Table of Normal Spectral Emissivities .......................................................................3-6
Table 3-2 Emissivity for Wavelengths of 814 m at 0C........................................................3-10
Table 4-1 Normal Emissivity Values of Common Materials .......................................................4-2
Table 5-1 Composite List of Infrared Applications .....................................................................5-5
Table 5-2 List of IR Application Examples .................................................................................5-6
Table A-1 Temperature Conversion Chart ................................................................................ A-4
Table B-1 Normal Emissivity Values of Common Materials...................................................... B-6
xxi
THERMOGRAPHY OVERVIEW
Temperature and thermal behavior of plant machinery, power generation and distribution
equipment, control systems, and related materials are the most critical factors in the maintenance
of operations. For this reason, temperature is frequently considered the key to successful plant
maintenance and is, by far, the most measured quantity. Although conventional methods of
temperature measurement using thermometers and thermocouples are still commonly used for
many applications, infrared thermography (IR) sensors have become less expensive, more
reliable, and electrically interchangeable with conventional thermistors and thermocouples. Noncontact measurement using infrared sensors has become an increasingly desirable alternative
over conventional methods. Now, with the proliferation of innovative computer hardware and
software, computer-aided predictive maintenance is feasible and efficient.
1.1
Advantages of Non-Contact Thermal Measurement
The four most commonly stated advantages of non-contact thermal infrared measurement over
contact measurement are that it is non-intrusive, remote, much faster than conventional methods,
and that it measures the temperature at the surface of the target (test subject) not the surrounding
air. Any one, or a combination of the following conditions, warrants the consideration of a noncontact sensor:
Target in motion When the target to be measured is moving, it is usually impractical to

have a temperature sensor in contact with its surface. Bouncing, rolling, or friction can cause
measurement errors and the sensor might interfere with the process.
Target electrically hot Current-conducting equipment and components present a hazard to

personnel and instruments alike. Infrared sensors place both out of harm's way.
Target fragile When thin webs or delicate materials are measured, a contacting sensor can
often damage the product.
Target very small The mass of a contacting sensor that is large with respect to the target
being measured will usually conduct thermal energy away from the target surface, thus
reducing the temperature and producing erroneous results.
Target remote If a target is very far away from, or inaccessible to, contacting sensors,
infrared measurement is the only option.
Target temperature changing Infrared sensors are much faster than thermocouples. Infrared
radiant energy travels from the target to the sensor at the speed of light. A rapidly changing
temperature can be monitored by infrared sensors, with a millisecond response or faster.
1-1

Thermography Overview
Target destructive to thermocouples When the high mortality rate of thermocouples due to
jarring, burning, or erosion becomes a serious factor, an infrared sensor is a far more costeffective alternative.
Multiple measurements required When many points on a target need to be measured, it is

usually more practical to re-aim an infrared sensor than it is to reposition a thermocouple or
to deploy a great number of thermocouples. The fast response of the infrared sensor is
important.
There are, of course, limitations to the non-contact approachconditions that might make it
impractical or ineffective. These will be covered as the discussion progresses.
1.2
Heat Transfer and Infrared Radiation Basics
Infrared thermography is based on measuring the distribution of radiant thermal energy (heat)
emitted from a target surface and converting this to a surface temperature map or thermogram.
The thermographer requires an understanding of heat, temperature, and the various types of heat
transfer as an essential prerequisite in preparing to undertake a program of IR thermography.
This section is an overview discussion to provide the reader with a basic understanding of how
heat transfer phenomena affect non-contact infrared thermal sensing and thermographic
measurements. For a more detailed discussion of temperature and heat transfer basics, see
Appendix A.
1.2.1 Heat and Temperature
Heat is defined as thermal energy in transition, flowing from one place or object to another as a
result of temperature difference, with the flow of heat changing the energy levels in the objects.
All of the energy must be taken into account because energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. What we often refer to as a heat source (like an oil furnace or an electric heater) is
really one form or another of energy conversion; the energy stored in one object is converted to
heat and flows to another object. Temperature is a property of matter and not a complete
measurement of internal energy. It defines the direction of heat flow when another temperature is
known. Heat always flows from the object that is at the higher temperature to the object
that is at the lower temperature. As a result of heat transfer, hotter objects tend to become
cooler and cooler objects become hotter, approaching thermal equilibrium. To maintain a steadystate condition, energy needs to be continuously supplied to the hotter object by some means of
energy conversion so that the temperatures and, hence, the heat flow, remain constant.
1.2.2 Instruments for Temperature Measurement (Contact and Non-Contact)
Conventional temperature measuring instruments use various contact sensors. A mercury
thermometer works on the principle of expansion with heat: the mercury expansion is calibrated
based on its known characteristics and the reading is an indication of the temperature at the site
of the mercury reservoir. Thermometers using thermocouples, thermopiles, and thermistors are
based on the electrical-thermal characteristics of these sensors and produce a reading based on
1-2

the temperature of the object with which the sensor is in contact. Infrared thermal instruments
are non-contact devices and produce readings based on the surface temperature of objects
at which the instrument is pointed.
1.2.3 Converting Temperature Units
Temperature is expressed in either absolute or relative terms. There are two absolute scales
called Rankine (English system) and Kelvin (metric system). There are two corresponding
relative scales called Fahrenheit (English system) and Celsius or Centigrade (metric system).
For a detailed discussion of temperature units and formulas for converting from one scale
to another, see Appendix A.
Table 1-1 is a conversion table to facilitate the rapid conversion of temperature between
Fahrenheit and Celsius values. Instructions for the use of the table are shown at the top. For
convenience, Table 1-1 is repeated in Appendix A (Table A-1). For quick reference, the
conversion factors are summarized in Appendix C, Plate 1.
1.2.4 The Three Modes of Heat Transfer
There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. All heat transfer
processes occur by one or more of these three modes. Infrared thermography is based on the
measurement of radiative heat flow and is, therefore, most closely related to the radiation mode
of heat transfer. For a detailed discussion of heat transfer modes and the relationship
between infrared measurements and radiative heat flow, see Appendix A.
1-3

Table 1-1
Temperature Conversion Chart
Instructions for Use:
1. Start in the Temp. column and find the temperature that you wish to convert.
2. If the temperature to be converted is in C, scan to the right column for the F equivalent.
3. If the temperature to be converted is in F, scan to the left column for the C equivalent.
C
1-4
Temp.
Temp.
Temp.
-101
-150
-238
-36.7
-34
-29.2
-26.7
-16
3.2
-95.6
-140
-220
-36.1
-33
-27.4
-26.1
-15
-90
-130
-202
-35.6
-32
-25.6
-25.6
-14
6.8
-84.4
-120
-184
-35
-31
-23.8
-25
-13
8.6
-78.9
-110
-166
-34.4
-30
-22
-24.4
-12
10.4
-73.3
-100
-148
-33.9
-29
-20.2
-23.9
-11
12.2
-67.8
-90
-130
-33.3
-28
-18.4
-23.3
-10
14
-62.2
-80
-112
-32.2
-26
-14.8
-22.8
-9
15.8
-56.7
-70
-94
-31.7
-25
-13
-22.2
-8
17.6
-51.1
-60
-76
-31.1
-24
-11.2
-21.7
-7
19.4
-45.6
-50
-58
-30.6
-23
-9.4
21.1
-6
21.2
-40
-40
-40
-30
-22
-7.6
-20.6
-5
23
-39.4
-39
-38.2
-29.4
-21
-5.8
-20
-4
24.8
-38.9
-38
-36.4
-28.9
-20
-4
-19.4
-3
26.6
-38.3
-37
-34.6
-28.3
-19
-2.2
-18.9
-2
28.4
-37.8
-36
-32.8
-27.8
-18
0.4
-18.3
-1
30.2
-37.2
-35
-31
-27.2
-17
1.4
-17.8
32

Table 1-1 (cont.)
C
Temp.
Temp.
Temp.
-17.2
33.8
-2.8
27
80.6
11.7
53
127.4
-16.7
35.6
-2.2
28
82.4
12.2
54
129.2
-16.1
37.4
-1.7
29
84.2
12.8
55
131
-15.6
39.2
-1.1
30
86
13.3
56
132.8
-15
41
-0.6
31
87.8
13.9
57
134.6
-14.4
42.8
32
89.6
14.4
58
136.4
-13.9
44.6
0.6
33
91.4
15
59
138.2
-13.3
46.4
1.1
34
93.2
15.6
60
140
-12.8
48.2
1.7
35
95
16.1
61
141.8
-12.2
10
50
2.2
36
96.8
16.7
62
143.6
-11.1
12
53.6
2.8
37
98.6
17.2
63
145.4
-10.6
13
55.4
3.3
38
100.4
17.8
64
147.2
-10
14
57.2
3.9
39
102.2
18.3
65
149
-9.4
15
59
4.4
40
104
18.9
66
150.8
-8.9
16
60.8
41
105.8
19.4
67
152.6
-8.3
17
62.6
5.6
42
107.6
20
68
154.4
-7.8
18
64.4
6.1
43
109.4
20.6
69
156.2
-7.5
19
66.2
6.7
44
111.2
21.1
70
158
-6.7
20
68
7.2
45
113
21.7
71
159.8
-6.1
21
69.8
7.8
46
114.8
22.2
72
161.6
-5.6
22
71.6
8.3
47
116.6
22.8
73
163.4
-5.0
23
73.4
8.9
48
118.4
23.3
74
165.2
-4.4
24
75.2
10
50
122
23.9
75
167
-3.9
25
77
10.6
51
123.8
24.4
76
168.8
-3.3
26
78.8
11.1
52
125.6
25
77
170.6
1-5

Table 1-1 (cont.)
C
Temp.
Temp.
Temp.
25.6
78
172.4
54.4
130
266
193
380
716
26.1
79
174.2
60
140
284
199
390
734
26.7
80
176
65.6
150
302
204
400
752
27.2
81
177.8
71.1
160
320
210
410
770
27.8
82
179.6
76.7
170
338
216
420
788
28.3
83
181.4
82.2
180
356
221
430
806
28.9
84
183.2
87.8
190
374
227
440
824
29.4
85
185
93.3
200
392
232
450
842
30
86
186.8
98.9
210
410
238
460
860
30.6
87
188.6
104
220
428
243
470
878
31.1
88
190.4
110
230
446
249
480
896
31.7
89
192.2
116
240
464
254
490
914
32.2
90
194
121
250
482
260
500
932
32.8
91
195.8
127
260
500
288
550
1022
33.3
92
197.6
132
270
518
316
600
1112
33.9
93
199.4
138
280
536
343
650
1202
34.4
94
201.2
143
290
554
370
700
1292
35
95
203
149
300
572
399
750
1382
35.6
96
204.8
154
310
590
427
800
1472
36.1
97
206.6
160
320
608
454
850
1562
36.7
98
208.4
166
330
626
482
900
1652
37.2
99
210.2
171
340
644
510
950
1742
37.8
100
212
177
350
662
538
1000
1832
43.3
110
230
182
360
680
566
1050
1922
48.9
120
248
188
370
698
593
1110
2012
621
1150
2102
843
1550
2822
1066
1950
3542
649
1200
2192
871
1600
2912
1093
2000
3632
677
1250
2282
899
1650
3002
1149
2100
3812
704
1300
2372
927
1700
3092
1204
2200
3992
732
1350
2462
954
1750
3182
1260
2300
4172
760
1400
2552
982
1800
3272
1316
2400
4352
788
1450
2642
1010
1850
3362
1371
2500
4532
816
1500
2732
1038
1900
3452
Conversion Factors
C = (F - 32) x 5/9
F = (C x 9/5) + 32
1-6
0 Kelvin = -273.16C
0 Rankine = -459.69F

1.3
Measuring and Mapping Temperature Without Contact
All targets radiate energy in the infrared spectrum. The hotter the target, the more energy that is
radiated. Very hot targets radiate in the visible spectrum as well as in the infrared. As targets
cool, they no longer glow but they continue to radiate. The radiation can be felt on a hand placed
near the target's surface, but the glow can't be seen because the energy has shifted from red to
infrared. Infrared detectors can sense infrared radiant energy and produce useful electrical
signals proportional to the temperature of target surfaces. Instruments using infrared detectors
allow a fast and highly sensitive target surface temperature measurement without contact.
Instruments that combine this measurement capability with the capability of scanning a target
surface area are called infrared thermal imagers. They produce thermal maps, or thermograms,
where the brightness intensity or color of any spot on the map is representative of the surface
temperature of that spot. In other words, they extend non-contact point temperature
measurements to non-contact thermography.
1.3.1 The Three Elements of a Non-Contact Temperature Measurement
In using infrared instruments for making non-contact temperature measurements, three sets of
characteristics need to be considered:
Target surface
Transmitting medium between the target and the instrument
Measuring instrument
Figure 1-1 shows how the instrument is aimed at the target and makes the measurement through
the medium.
1-7

Figure 1-1
Categories of Conditions for Infrared Thermal Measurements
Every target surface above absolute zero radiates energy in the infrared. The hotter the target, the
more radiant infrared energy is emitted. The physical laws that define this behavior are discussed
in detail in Appendix A, along with a detailed discussion of medium and instrument
characteristics. Emissivity is a very important characteristic of a target surface and must be
known in order to make accurate non-contact temperature measurements. Methods for estimating
and measuring emissivity are discussed throughout this guide, and the emissivity setting that is
needed to dial into the instrument can usually be estimated from available tables and charts. The
proper setting needed to make the instrument produce the correct temperature reading can be
learned experimentally by using samples of the actual target material. This more practical setting
value is called effective emissivity.
Although the transmitting medium is usually air, non-contact temperature measurements can be
made through a vacuum, gas, or certain solid materials. The characteristics of the medium need
consideration and a detailed explanation of this is included in Appendix A. Figure 1-2 shows the
necessary components of an infrared radiation thermometer that makes a single point non-contact
temperature measurement on the target surface. Collecting optics (that is, infrared lenses, etc.) is
necessary in order to focus the energy radiated from the target onto the sensitive surface of an
infrared detector. The detector converts this energy into an electrical signal that is representative
of the temperature of a spot on the target. Adding scanning elements between the target and the
detector (also shown in Figure 1-2) allows the instrument to scan the target surface and to
produce a thermogram. Most currently available infrared thermal imagers incorporate
1-8

multi-detector focal plane array (FPA) sensors that are electronically scanned and that eliminate
the requirement for an opto-mechanical scanning mechanism.
When an infrared radiation thermometer (point-sensing instrument) is aimed at a target, it
collects energy within a collecting beam, the shape of which is determined by the configuration
of the optics and the detector. The cross-section of this collecting beam is called the field of view
(FOV) of the instrument and it determines the size of the area (spot size) on the target surface
that is measured by the instrument. On scanning and imaging instruments this is called the
instantaneous field of view (IFOV) and becomes one picture element on the thermogram.
Figure 1-2
Components of an Infrared Sensing Instrument
1.4
Performance Parameters of Thermal Sensing Instruments
This section previews the performance parameters of point-sensing instruments and scanning and
imaging instruments. For a detailed discussion of these parameters and how to specify and test
the performance of instruments, please refer to Appendix A.
1.4.1 Point-Sensing Instruments
Point-sensing instruments are defined by the following performance parameters:
Temperature range The high and low limits over which the target temperature might vary
Absolute accuracy As related to the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology)
standard
Repeatability How faithfully a reading is repeated for the same target
1-9

Temperature sensitivity The smallest target temperature change that the instrument needs to
detect
Speed of response How fast the instrument responds to a temperature change at the target
surface
Target spot size and working distance The size of the spot on the target to be measured and
its distance from the instrument
Output requirements How the output signal is to be utilized
Spectral range The portion of the infrared spectrum over which the instrument will operate
Sensor environment The ambient conditions under which the instrument will operate
1.4.2 Line Scanners and ImagersQualitative and Quantitative

The parameters used for assessing the performance of infrared thermal line scanners and imagers
are more complex because a thermal line-scan or image is made up of a great number of discrete
point measurements. Many of the performance parameters of infrared thermal line-scanners and
imagers, such as accuracy, repeatability, and spectral range, however, are the same as those of
radiation thermometers. Others are derived from, or are extensions of, radiation thermometer
performance parameters.
Some types of thermal imagers show comparative temperatures and not actual temperature
measurements. For users of these thermal viewers (see section 3), parameters dealing with
accuracy and repeatability do not apply. Parameters exclusive to thermal line-scanners and
imagers are as follows:
Total field of view (TFOV) The thermogram image size, in terms of scanning angle.
(example: TFOV=20 Vertical x 30 Horizontal) The TFOV of a line scanner is considered
to be the TFOV of one scan line.
Instantaneous field of view (IFOV) The spot size represented by one detector element at
the target plane: Imaging spatial resolution.
(example: IFOV= 2 milliradians) (1 = 35 milliradians)
Measurement spatial resolution: (IFOVmeas) The spatial resolution that describes the
minimum target spot size on which an accurate temperature measurement can be made.
(example: IFOVmeas = 5 milliradians)
Frame (or line) repetition rate The number of times every point on the target is scanned in
one second.
(example: Frame rate = 30/second or 30 Hz; Scan rate = 60 lines/second)
Minimum resolvable temperature (MRT) The smallest blackbody equivalent target

temperature difference that can be observed: Temperature sensitivity.
(example: MRT=0.1C @ 30C target temperature)
1-10

Other parameters such as spectral ranges, target temperature ranges, accuracy and
repeatability, and focusing distances are essentially the same as those for point-measuring
instruments.
1.4.3 Thermal Imaging Software

In order to optimize the effectiveness of thermographic measurement programs, the
thermographer needs a basic understanding of the thermal image processing techniques. The
following is a list of broad categories of thermal image processing and diagnostics currently
available. A discussion of each of these categories is included in Appendix A. A detailed
description of currently available thermal imaging and diagnostic software is provided in
section 2.
Thermal imaging software can be categorized into the following groups:
Quantitative thermal measurements of targets
Detailed processing and image diagnostics
Image recording, storage, and recovery
Image comparison
Archiving and database*

*Although data and image database development is not an exclusive characteristic of thermal
imaging software, it should be considered an important part of the thermographers tool kit.
1-11
A COMPENDIUM OF COMMERCIAL INFRARED

SENSING AND IMAGING INSTRUMENTS
This chapter begins with a classification of infrared sensing and imaging instruments by type and
application. The list includes commercially available instruments, from single-point thermal
probes to on-line control sensors, to high-speed, high-resolution thermal imaging (thermography)
systems [1].
A detailed overview of performance characteristics and features follows, along with a discussion
of the typical thermographic display approaches that are used by various imager manufacturers.
This is followed by a discussion of currently available thermographic image processing software
and image hard-copy recording accessories. Finally, a tabulation of currently available
instruments by category and manufacturer is appended, including a digest of performance
characteristics and features. A current index of manufacturers' addresses, phone numbers, Web
sites (where available), and/or e-mail addresses is also included.
2.1
Classification of Instruments
Infrared sensing instruments are traditionally classified into three groups: point-sensing, linescanning, and thermographic (two-dimensional scanning). Point-sensing devices (commonly
called Infrared Radiation Thermometers) collect radiant energy from a spot or area on the
surface of an object to be measured (the target) and provide an output indication, usually in
terms of target temperature. Line-scanning instruments provide an output, generally an analog
trace, of the radiant energy (or, in ideal cases, temperature) distribution along a single straightline projection from the target surface. Thermographic instruments (imagers) provide an image
of the energy distribution over a scanned area on the target surface. This is presented in the form
of an intensity-modulated black and white picture or a synthesized color display called a
thermogram.
Point sensors, line scanners, and imagers can be further divided into sub-groups. This section
will review commercially available instruments along the lines of this breakdown:
Point-Sensing
Probes and IR thermocouples
Portable (hand-held)
On-line monitoring and control
Specials
2-1

A Compendium of Commercial Infrared Sensing and Imaging Instruments
Line-Scanning
Opto-mechanically scanned
Focal plane array (FPA), electronically scanned
Thermographic
Opto-mechanically scanned imagers
Electronically scanned pyrovidicon imagers
Electronically scanned focal plane array imagers
2.2
Instrument Manufacturers
Particularly in the point-sensing category, there are many companies offering the same
instrument under different private label arrangements. In order to avoid duplication, the original
manufacturer or prime (U.S.) distributor will be listed in the material that follows.
At the end of Section 2, a comprehensive list of instruments is included (Table 2-1), for which
descriptive literature was available at the time of the preparation of this text. The performance
characteristics are summarized rather than presented in detail. The listed manufacturer should be
contacted for detailed performance information.
A listing of current addresses, phone numbers, Web sites, and/or e-mail addresses, for the listed
equipment manufacturers, is included in a separate table (Table 2-2) at the end of Section 2. In
addition, a third table is included, which summarizes proven industrial applications for thermal
imaging instruments (Table 2-3). The information that follows will highlight the applications for
which each instrument category and group is particularly suited, based on configuration or
performance characteristics.
2.3
Discussion of Instruments
2.3.1 Point Sensors (Radiation Thermometers)

2.3.1.1
Probes
Temperature probes are characterized by low price (from less than $100 to about $1,000),
pocket-portability, and wide-collecting angle. They are battery-powered and are generally
optically pre-adjusted for minimum spot size at a short working distance (a 1/4" (6.35 mm) spot
at a 3/4" (19.05 mm) working distance is typical). Some models are designed to operate into a
conventional multi-meter and some incorporate their own readout box with a liquid crystal diode
(LCD) display. They usually feature disposable batteries and some models have ac adapters.
Temperature ranges are from about 0F, or slightly below, to 600F, and a sensitivity of +/- 1F
is easily achieved. Emissivity adjustments are available on some models. Probes are ideal for
2-2

close-up measurements and are used in circuit board analysis, troubleshooting of electrical
connections, the inspection of plumbing systems, and in application to biological and medical
studies.
2.3.1.2
Portable Hand-Held
With few exceptions, these instruments are pistol-shaped and designed for middle-distance
measurements. They are usually optically pre-adjusted for infinity focus. A typical 2 field of
view resolves a 7.5-cm (3-inch) spot at a 150-cm (60-inch) working distance, and a 30-cm (1foot) spot at a 9-m (30-foot) working distance. Prices range from about $100 to more than
$3,500. Sighting and aiming methods vary from simple aiming notches to enclosed illuminated
reticles. There are instruments with extremely narrow fields of view (0.5) that include a rifle
stock and telescopic sight. Most instruments in this group incorporate emissivity adjustments and
some include microcomputers with limited memory and data-logging capabilities. Most are
available with a recorder output, although this feature is seldom used. A meter is always
provided and, with one exception that reads in BTU/ft-h, the readout is always in temperature
units. Analog displays are still available, although they are decreasing in popularity. Digital
readouts featuring light emitting diodes (LEDs) were introduced first but the LCD display,
introduced more recently, is now used almost universally because its tiny power drain extends
battery life. For this reason, the more recent instruments offer replaceable rather than
rechargeable batteries and battery life approaches one year. Some instruments in this group have
zeroing adjustments, but all of the newer instruments include auto-zeroing features. Temperature
ranges are, typically, from 0C to 1500C. Temperature sensitivity and readability are usually
1C (or F) or 1% of scale, although sensitivities on the order of 0.1C (or F) are achievable.
This instrument group is particularly suited to applications where spot-checking of target
temperatures is sufficient and continuous monitoring is not required. A typical use would be for
periodic maintenance checks of rotating machinery to detect whether or not bearings are
beginning to overheat. These instruments, over the past few years, have become an important
part of many plant energy conservation programs. Although many of these instruments provide
extremely accurate readings, accuracy, like the recorder output, is less important to most users
than repeatability, ruggedness, portability, reliability, and ease of use. Some newer models
incorporate microcomputers with special features such as a data-logger, which has the capability
to store as many as 60 readings for future retrieval and printout.
2.3.1.3
On-Line Monitoring and Control
These instruments are primarily used for monitoring and control of manufacturing processes.
The one feature that distinguishes this instrument group from the others is dedicated use. The
instrument is generally mounted where it can measure the temperature of one specific target, and
it remains there for the life of the instrument or the process. With few exceptions, these
instruments operate on line power. The output signal of the instrument can be observed on a
meter, used to operate a switch or relay, feed a simple or sophisticated process control loop, or it
can be used in any combination of these functions.
2-3

Early on-line instruments consisted of an optical sensing head and an electronics/control readout
unit at the other end of an interconnecting cable. This configuration still exists to some extent,
but most of the newer units feature sensing heads that are more stable electronically and, hence,
more independent of the remote control units. The trend is for these new sensors to mate with
universal indicator/control units that accept input from various types of industrial sensors.
This instrument group is selected to perform a specific task, so the manufacturer provides a
shopping list ordering format to the customer, enabling them to purchase all required features.
Manufacturers offer sensing head features such as variable or fixed focus, sighting tubes, light
pipes, water-coolable housings, air purge fittings, air curtain devices, and see-through aiming
with target-defining reticles. The shopping list for the indicator/controller unit might include
digital readout, binary coded decimal (BCD) output, analog output, single, double, or
proportional set point, rate signals, sample and hold, peak or valley sensor, and data-logger
interface. Emissivity controls, located in a prominent place on a general-purpose instrument, are
more likely to be located behind a bezel on the sensor on these dedicated units, where they are
set one time and locked.
Spectral characteristics are worth mentioning separately, although, technically, they are part of
the sensing head shopping list. The spectral interval over which the sensing head operates is
selected to optimize the signal from the target, to reduce or eliminate the effect of an interfering
energy source, or to enable the instrument to measure the surface temperature of thin films of
material that are largely transparent to infrared energy. This last application has made these
instruments important factors in the manufacture of thin film plastics and also of glass.
2.3.1.4
Specials
There are several special categories of spot-measuring instruments that are worth mentioning,
although they might, by strict definition, fit into one or more of the above categories.
Two-color or ratio pyrometers are one special case of an on-line instrument. These are
particularly useful in high-temperature applications and in measuring small targets. The effective
emissivity of the target need not be known, providing that it is constant and that reflections are
controlled. The target need not fill the field of view, provided that the background is cool,
constant, and uniform. Impurities in the optical path that result in broadband absorption, do not
affect the measurement because the measurement is based on the ratio of energy in two spectral
bands. Ratio pyrometers are, generally, not applicable to measurements below 500F.
Another special case is the fiber optic-coupled thermometer. With this instrument, inaccessible
targets can be measured by replacing the optic with a flexible or rigid fiber optic bundle. This, of
course, limits the spectral performance and, hence the temperature range, to the higher values,
but it has allowed temperature measurements to be made when none were possible.
The infrared microscope is a third special case. This instrument is configured like a conventional
microscope. Through the use of reflective microscope objectives and beam splitters, it enables
2-4

the operator to simultaneously view and measure targets down to 0.0003" (.00762 mm) in
diameter with an accuracy and resolution of about 0.5F.
Another special case, known as the laser pyrometer, has also become available. This instrument
uses the reflected energy of an active laser to measure target reflectance. A built-in
microcomputer calculates target effective emissivity and uses this to provide a corrected true
temperature reading. The laser pyrometer is useful for high-temperature diffuse target surfaces.
Prices of instruments in the on-line control instrument group vary from less than $1,000 for an
infrared switch, to more than $15,000 for infrared microscopes and on-line instruments equipped
with many control features. Generally speaking, the price goes up when sensitivity, small spot
size, and speed of response are all required and, of course, when many shopping list items, or
additional features, are added.
2.3.2 Line Scanners
The purpose of spatial scanning is to derive information concerning the distribution of radiant
energy over a target scene. Quite often, a single straight line scanned on the target is all that is
necessary to locate a critical thermal anomaly. In the newer line scanners, the single-element
detector is replaced by a multi-element single-line focal plane array (FPA) and the optomechanical scanning element is eliminated. Probably the first approach to line scanning that was
adopted commercially was in an aerial-type thermal mapper in which the line scanner was
mounted on a moving aircraft and scanned lines normal to the direction of motion. The outputs
representing these individual scan lines were intensity-modulated and serially displayed in
shades of gray on a strip map. This display represented the thermal map of the surface being
overflown by the vehicle.
2.3.2.1
Opto-Mechanically Scanned Line Scanners
The earliest process-monitoring line scanners (many of which are still in use) employed a singleelement detector and a single scanning element, usually a mirror. The instantaneous position of
the scanning element is usually controlled or sensed by an encoder or potentiometer so that the
radiometric output signal can be accompanied by a position signal output and be displayed on a
chart recorder, an oscilloscope, or some other recording device.
One portable, battery-powered line scanner, still used commercially, scans a single line on target,
develops a visible temperature trace using light emitting diodes and, by means of optical beamsplitting techniques, superimposes this trace over the visible scene viewed by the operator. The
operator selects the line to be scanned by aiming the instrument's horizontal centerline. Photorecording of the composite scene is accomplished by aiming a conventional instant color camera
through the eyepiece of the scanner. This instrument has no recorder output and is, therefore, not
suited for process control applications. Unlike most thermal viewers, however, absolute
temperatures are obtainable with this device. Good applications for this line scanner include
electrical switchgear and transmission lines, the troubleshooting of plumbing systems, and webprocess profiling.
2-5

2.3.2.2
Electronically Scanned Focal Plane Array Line Scanners
The newest high-speed on-line commercial line scanners employ linear focal plane detector
arrays that are electronically scanned. They develop high-resolution thermal maps by orienting
the linear array along an axis normal to the motion of a moving target such as a paper web, a
rotating kiln, or a strip steel process. The output signal information is in real-time computercompatible format and can be used to monitor, control, or predict the behavior of the target. The
best applications for this scanner are in on-line real-time process monitoring and control.
In significant recent developments, families of line cameras have been made available with a
wide selection of linear focal plane array detectors based on the speed, resolution, and spectral
sensitivity requirements of the process being monitored.
2.3.3 Thermographic Instruments
An important advantage of radiation thermometers over contact thermometers is their speed of
response. The measured energy travels from the target to the sensor at the speed of light. The
response of the instrument can then be in milliseconds or even microseconds. This important
feature has allowed the field of infrared radiation thermometry to expand into real-time thermal
scanning and thermal mapping. When problems in temperature monitoring and control cannot be
solved by the measurement of one or several discrete points on a target surface, it becomes
necessary to spatially scan (that is, to move the collecting beam (instantaneous field of view) of
the instrument relative to the target). The detector output is intensity-modulated in proportion to
the total exitant radiant energy at each point scanned on the target surface. The image produced
is presented in monochrome or color, where the gray shades or color hue are intended to
represent a thermal level at the target surface. These thermal images are called thermograms.
The purpose of spatial scanning is to derive information concerning the distribution of infrared
radiant energy over a target scene. Scanning can be accomplished either opto-mechanically or
electronically.
Opto-mechanical scanning can be done by moving the target with the instrument fixed, or by
moving (translating or panning) the instrument, but is most practically accomplished by inserting
movable optical elements into the collected beam. Although an almost infinite variety of
scanning patterns can be generated using two moving elements, the most common pattern is
rectilinear. This is most often accomplished by two elements that each scan a line normal to the
other. A typical rectilinear scanner employs two rotating prisms behind the primary lens system
(refractive scanning). An alternate configuration uses two oscillating mirrors behind the primary
lens (reflective scanning). This is also commonly used in commercially available scanners, as are
combinations of reflective and refractive scanning elements.
Electronic scanning involves no mechanical scanning elementsthe thermal pattern of the
surface is scanned electronically. The earliest method of electronically scanned thermal imaging
is the pyrovidicon (pyroelectric vidicon) or thermal video system. With this method, charge
proportional to target temperature is collected on a single pyroelectric detector surface, within an
electronic picture tube. Scanning is accomplished by an electronic scanning beam. Although
2-6

many of these devices are currently in use in the field, manufacturers have all but discontinued
offering them in favor of instruments based on solid-state focal plane array technology.
Most recently, electronically scanned thermal imaging is accomplished by means of an infrared
focal plane array (IRFPA), whereby a two-dimensional staring array of detectors collects radiant
energy from the target and is digitally scanned to produce the thermogram.
All of the above approaches to producing an infrared thermogram will be discussed.
Commercial thermal imaging systems fall into the following categories and sub-categories:
Thermal viewers, opto-mechanically scanned
Imaging radiometers, opto-mechanically scanned
Thermal viewers, electronically scanned (pyrovidicon imagers)
Focal plane array (FPA) imagers, qualitative (thermal viewers), and quantitative (imaging
radiometers)
A comprehensive list (Table 2-1) of all known, commercially available thermal-imaging

instruments, on which descriptive literature was available at the time of the preparation of this
document, is included at the end of Section 2. Performance characteristics are also briefly
summarized. A listing of current addresses, phone numbers, Web sites, and/or e-mail addresses,
of the listed equipment manufacturers, is included in a separate table (Table 2-2) at the end of
Section 2. In addition, a third table is included, which summarizes proven industrial applications
for thermal imaging instruments (Table 2-3). The information that follows will highlight the
applications for which each instrument category and group is particularly suited, based on
configuration or performance characteristics.
2.3.3.1
Thermal Viewers, Opto-Mechanically Scanned
Note: Although they are being replaced gradually by focal plane array imagers (see section
2.3.3.4), at the time of this writing, opto-mechanically scanned thermal viewers are still in wide
use commercially. For this reason, the following operational description is provided.
Opto-mechanically scanned thermal viewers are inexpensive battery-powered scanning
instruments producing a qualitative image of the (thermally associated) radiant exitance
distribution over the surface of a target. The battery packs are rechargeable and usually provide
23 hours of continuous operation. These are one-piece, lightweight instruments, designed to be
simple to operate. The first viewers required cryogenic cooling of the detector elements, which
was accomplished by means of a small tank of compressed argon. These early units, while still in
use, are no longer manufactured. Newer units feature thermoelectric detector cooling provided
by a battery-powered cooler.
Thermal viewers are not designed for absolute temperature measurements, but they can
demonstrably sense temperature differences in tenths of degrees. Some manufacturers have
modified these viewers and introduced absolute temperature references so that absolute
2-7

measurements are possible in certain applications. This generally requires an additional box,
however, and diminishes the portability that defines the instrument group. (It also increases the
price.) Thermal viewers operate most effectively with cooler targets (0C150C) but, through
the use of optical attenuators, they can be used for targets of up to 1500C. Typically, the area
scanned (field of view) with thermal imagers is from 6 to 8 high and from 12 to 18 wide,
with spatial resolution (instantaneous spot size) of 2 mRad (1 cm at 2 m). Although a hard copy
of the thermal image can be acquired by through-the-eyepiece recording using either
conventional or instant film, currently available units offer direct video recording by means of a
conventional VCR output jack and camcorder accessories.
Applications for thermal viewers are found throughout the industrial environment but are
generally limited to those in which the temperature measurements are not critical and the
recording quality does not need to be optimum. The combination of a thermal viewer (to locate
thermal anomalies) and a hand-held thermometer (to quantify them) is powerful and costeffective. Thermal viewers are particularly useful industrially in tight spaces or, conversely,
when a sizable area must be traversed and user fatigue becomes a factor.
2.3.3.2
Opto-Mechanically Scanned Imaging Radiometers
Note: Although they are being replaced gradually by focal plane array imagers (see Section
2.3.3.4), at the time of this writing, opto-mechanically scanned imagers are still in wide use
commercially. For this reason, the following operational description is provided.
Opto-mechanically scanned imaging radiometers provide potentially quantitative temperature
measuring capability and high-resolution image quality. Detector cooling is almost always
required and this is done using any of several means including thermoelectric (Peltier effect)
coolers, compressed argon, refillable liquid nitrogen containers, and, most recently, electricpowered Stirling cycle nitrogen coolers. Most commercial imaging radiometers use a single
detector, but some manufacturers offer dual-detector or multi-detector (linear array) instruments.
All provide a means of measuring target surface temperature.
These imagers use refractive, reflective, or hybrid scanning systems and operate in either the
35 m or the 814 m atmospheric window. In addition to quantitative temperature measuring
capability in idealized circumstances, these instruments feature excellent capabilities for both
spatial resolution (about 1 mRad) and minimum resolvable temperature (0.05C to 0.1C). Most
manufacturers offer isotherm graphics features, spectral filtering, interchangeable optics for
different total fields of view, color or monochrome (black and white) displays, flexible video
recording capabilities, and computer compatibility. Most general-purpose systems in use today
feature compact, field-portable, battery-operable sensing heads and control/display units, some
of which are integrated into camcorder configurations. A complete system, including battery and
video recorder, can usually be handled by one person, by either mounting the components on a
cart or assembling them on a harness. Detector cooling for all newer models that are intended for
field operation is accomplished by means of thermoelectric or Stirling-cycle cooler, thus
eliminating the inconvenience of liquid nitrogen refills in the field.
2-8

2.3.3.3
Thermal Viewers, Electronically Scanned (Pyrovidicon Imagers)
Note: Although they are being replaced gradually by focal plane array imagers (see section
2.3.3.4), at the time of this writing, pyrovidicon imagers are still in wide use commercially. For
this reason, the following operational description is provided.
Pyrovidicon imaging systems are not unlike home video-recording systems except that the
camera tube is a pyroelectric vidicon (pyrovidicon) rather than a conventional vidicon. It records
target radiation in the infrared rather than the visible spectrum. The significant difference is that
the pyrovidicon has no dc response; that is, if the camera is not continuously panned over the
target or the collecting beam is optically chopped, the image fades from the screen. This
behavior is caused by the fundamental photoelectric response characteristics of the detector
material. Aside from the tube, which is costly, and the lens, which is generally made of
germanium and also costly, these systems use commercially available television equipment and
recording accessories.
By comparison with other infrared imaging systems, the picture quality and resolution are good,
approaching conventional television format. The thermal image can be viewed or videotaped
with equal convenience and no cooling is required. The requirement for continuous target
panning can be made less objectionable by the ability to play back an image and freeze the frame
for detailed image inspection. Compact synchronous choppers that provide flicker-free
performance and enhance image quality are incorporated in most instruments. Pyrovidicon
systems do not intrinsically offer absolute measurement capability, but a thermal profile feature,
available on some units, provides an analog of the center scan line displayed to the side of the
image. Some models incorporate a spot-measuring sensor boresighted with the scanner and its
measurement superimposed on the video display, along with a defining reticle in the center of the
display.
Software packages are offered that are specified to provide quantitative measurements by
compensating for field variations and introducing temperature references. Thermal resolution of
pyrovidicon instruments is between 0.1C and 0.2C in panned mode and between 0.2C and
0.4C (half as good) in chopped mode. Another useful feature available on some models
integrates a video camera into the viewing channel so that simultaneous visual and thermal
images can be seen on a split-screen or in a fade in, fade out format. Although pyrovidicon
displays are monochrome (black and white), some models incorporate colorizer accessories and
image-processing software packages.
Pyrovidicon systems are particularly suited to moving targets, airborne scanning, and distant
measurements. They operate well in the 84 m atmospheric transmission window. They are
susceptible to a momentary loss of sensitivity from saturation phenomena, known as depoling,
when suddenly aimed at very hot targets with the aperture improperly open. The automatic
repoling circuits require about a 30-second restoration time, resulting in some operator
inconvenience. Operating costs are very low because no coolant is required, and common
erasable videocassettes are used for recording purposes. Videotapes can be monitored on
conventional television receivers.
2-9

2.3.3.4
Focal Plane Array (FPA) ImagersQualitative and Quantitative
In the mid 1980s, detector mosaics, or staring infrared focal plane arrays, were used successfully
for military night vision Forward Looking InfraRed (FLIR) viewers and have since been made
widely available for use in commercial thermal-imaging instruments. In an IRFPA imager, each
detector element is assigned one display picture element and mechanical scanning is eliminated
altogether. IR focal plane array (IRFPA) radiometers are adaptations of military and aerospace
FLIRs but, unlike FLIRs, they are designed to allow measurement of the apparent temperature at
the target surface and to produce quantitative as well as qualitative thermograms. They represent
the most recent developments in FPA imagers. Although measurement-capable IRFPA imagers
were promised as early as 1987, these capabilities were slow in arriving because of the
complexity of the task. It was well into the 1990s before good quality measurement capabilities
became available. At the present time, most commercial manufacturers offer a wide choice of
high-resolution IRFPA imagers and radiometers. Todays IRFPA imagers offer thermal
resolution that is comparable to opto-mechanically scanned imagers (0.05C to 0.2C) and
spatial resolution that is considerably better (1 mRad or better with standard optics). With
inherently faster response, no moving parts, and superior spatial resolution, IRFPA imagers and
radiometers have all but completely replaced opto-mechanically scanned imagers throughout the
user community.
Currently, most commercially available measuring and non-measuring IRFPA cameras use
uncooled focal plane arrays of bolometric or pyroelectric/ferroelectric thermal detectors.
Although detector cooling is not required, the detector arrays are temperature-stabilized by
means of low-power thermoelectric devices to ensure instrument stability. Although there are no
scanning elements, pyroelectric FPAs require a mechanical chopper because they have no dc
response.
For special applications where high speed, improved sensitivity, or spectral selectivity is
required, cooled photo-detector arrays are used. These include platinum silicide (PtSi), indium
antimonide (InSb), mercury-cadmium-telluride (HgCdTe) and, most recently, gallium arsenide
(GaAs) quantum well infrared photo-detectors (QWIP), all of which require cooling.
Detector cooling can be accomplished by any of several means, including TE (thermoelectric
Peltier effect) coolers, compressed argon, refillable liquid nitrogen containers and, most recently,
electric-powered Stirling-cycle nitrogen or helium coolers. Most of todays commercially
available cooled imagers are equipped with either a TE cooler or a compact, high-efficiency
Stirling-cycle cooler. The Stirling-cycle cooler operates like a micro-miniaturized electric
refrigerator.
2-10

2.3.3.5
FPA Imager Performance Comparisons
Most application needs can be fulfilled by means of selecting from among five categories of
instruments available in todays commercial thermal imager market. These include:
Un-Cooled FPAs (the general purpose choice)
Un-cooled IRFPA imagers, operating within the 714 m region, are suitable for most
applications in:
Predictive maintenance, condition monitoring
Buildings, roofs, and infrastructure
Process monitoring and control (except where there are high-speed or spectral
considerations)
Medical and biological studies
Materials evaluation and nondestructive testing (except for high-speed or high-resolution

applications)
Security, surveillance, night vision, search and rescue, firefighting
Typical performance characteristics of imagers in this category are:

Temperature sensitivity (noise-equivalent temperature difference [NETD]): 0.08C (80
milliKelvins) @ 30C
Spectral range: 7.513 m
Spatial resolution: 1.3 milliradian (320x240 element micro-bolometric FPA)
Frame repetition rate: 50/60 Hz
Mid-Range Infrared (MWIR) Indium Antimonide (InSb) or Platinum Silicide (PtSi) FPAs
Cooled platinum silicide (PtSi) or indium antimonide (InSb) imagers are preferable where
spectral selectivity at shorter wavelengths is important (such as in some manufacturing
processes) or for high-temperature applications (such as furnace measurements).
A typical imager in this category could have the following performance characteristics:
Temperature sensitivity (NETD): 0.07C (70 milliKelvins) @ 30C
Spectral range: 3.45 m
Spatial resolution: 1.2 milliradian (256x256 element PtSi FPA)
2-11

Frame repetition rate: 50/60 Hz

InSb-based imagers have somewhat better thermal sensitivity than PtSi-based imagers and are
somewhat more expensive.
High-speed, high-sensitivity photo-detector FPAs (for special applications)
For special applications involving high-speed phenomena, high thermal sensitivity, and
processing flexibility at longer wavelengths, the detector of choice has become the gallium
arsenide (GaAs) QWIP FPA.
Temperature sensitivity (NETD): 0.02C (2 milliKelvins) @ 30C
Spectral range: 89 m
Spatial resolution: 1.1 milliradian (320x240 element GaAs QWIP FPA)
Frame repetition rate: selectable from 50/60 Hz to 750/900 Hz
NIR (near-infrared) FPAs (for telecommunications, fiber optic, and laser-profiling
applications)
Radiant sensitivity Noise Equivalent Irradiance (NEI): 1x1010 ph/cm2/sec (Because the
applications for this type of instrument are concerned with measuring radiant power rather than
temperature, sensitivity is expressed in NEI rather than NETD.)
Spectral range: 9001700 nm (0.91.7 m)
Spatial resolution: 1.21.6 milliradian (320x256 element InGaAs FPA)
Frame repetition rate: 30 Hz
Special High-Temperature FPA Imaging Pyrometers (for special high-temperature
applications, such as furnace temperature monitoring)
Temperature sensitivity (NETD):
Spectral range: 7001100 nm (0.71.1 m) selected filters for ranges from 600C to 2400C
Spatial resolution: 1.21.6 milliradian (776x484 near-infrared FPA detector)
Frame repetition rate: 30 Hz
2-12

2.4
Thermal Imaging Diagnostic Software
The new generation of thermal imagers features image processing capabilities that can be
generally categorized into four groups. Applications for thermal imaging often require the use of
more than one of these four groups:
Image comparison
2.4.1 Quantitative Thermal Measurements of Targets

This is the temperature value of any point (or all points) on the target surface. For true radiance
measurements, the system throughput attenuation must be taken into consideration as well as
losses through the measurement medium (atmosphere, in most cases). For true temperature
measurement, the target effective emissivity must also be considered. In order to provide true
radiance values, the system calibration constants are fed into the computer on initial setup and a
system of prompts assures the operator that changes in aperture settings, target distance,
interchangeable lenses, etc. are fed into the keyboard each time a change in operating condition
occurs. For true temperature values, it is necessary for an effective emissivity value to be
inserted by the operator. The temperature readings that are then displayed assume that the entire
target surface effective emissivity is equal to this inserted value. In operation, a color scale (or
monochrome gray scale) is provided along one edge of the display with a temperature shown
corresponding to each color or gray level. The operator can also place one or more spots or cross
hairs on the image and the temperature value of that pixel will appear in an appropriate location
on the display. Some systems allow the assignment of several different effective emissivities to
different areas of the target, as selected by the operator, with the resulting temperature
correction.
One system, developed for the thermal imaging of semi-conductor devices and other microtargets, offers a spatial effective emissivity correction based on the actual measurement of the
surface effective emissivity of the target. By means of a precision-controlled heated sub-stage,
the operator heats the unpowered device to two known temperatures in sequence. At each
temperature, a radiance image is recorded. Using the known temperature and the known radiance
for two temperatures, the effective emissivity matrix is computed, pixel by pixel, and stored.
This matrix is subsequently used to correct the powered radiance image of that specific device
and to provide a true temperature thermogram.
2.4.2 Detailed Processing and Image Diagnostics
Detailed processing and image diagnostics is a phrase that describes the capability of the
computer to analyze each pixel of the thermal image and to present information in a wide variety
2-13

of qualitative and quantitative forms for the convenience of the user. Some (by no means all) of
these forms are discussed below.
In addition to the spot meter capability discussed previously, the operator might call for profile
displays. The analog trace (in x, y, or both) of the lines on the image that intersects at the
selected spot will then appear at the edge of the display. Some systems allow the operator to
display as many as seven sets of profiles simultaneously. Profiles of skew lines can also be
displayed on some systems. The operator can draw areas on the display in the form of circles,
rectangles, or point-to-point free forms. These areas can be shifted, expanded, shrunken, or
rotated. They can be used to blank out or analyze portions of the image. On command, the
computer will provide a detailed analysis of the entire image or the pixels within the area
including maximum, minimum, and average values, number of pixels, or even a frequency
histogram of the values within the area.
Although a standard (default) color scale is usually provided by the manufacturer, color scales
can be created by the operator in almost infinite variety from as many as 256 colors stored within
the computer. Zoom features allow the operator to expand a small area on the display for closer
examination, or to expand the colors for a small measurement range. Auto-scale features provide
the optimum display settings for any image that is selected. 3-D features provide an isometric
thermal contour map of the target for enhanced recognition of thermal anomalies.
2.4.3 Image Recording, Storage, and Recovery
This is the capability to index, record, and retrieve images and data. Most commercial thermal
imaging systems offer limited image storage by means of on-board removable floppy disks,
PCMCIA cards, or other reusable storage devices. Limited image analysis software can also be
incorporated into the field-portable instrument.
Images can be stored from a frozen-frame thermogram of a live target on operator command, or
the operator can set up an automatic sequence and a pre-set number of images will be stored at
pre-set time intervals. Most systems also offer VCR options so that an entire measurement
program can be recorded on videotape. These videotapes can then be played back into the system
and images can be stored on playback from videotapes. Stored images can be retrieved from
storage and displayed at the operators command.
Diagnostic software is generally offered separately from the basic imaging instrument, although
some limited diagnostic software is usually included in the basic package for on-site analysis.
The current trend by manufacturers is to offer more and more on-board image analysis
capabilities but, for extensive image storage and analysis, the images are more often downloaded from the cards to computers with large storage capacities and memory. The extensive
image and data analysis software is resident on the computer hard drive.
2-14

2.4.4 Image Comparison

Image comparison is a very significant capability in that it allows the automatic comparison of
images taken at different times. The computer allows the operator to display two images, sideby-side or in sequence, and to subtract one image from another, or one area from another, and to
display a pixel-by-pixel difference thermogram. This provides the capability for archiving
thermal images of acceptable components, assemblies, and mechanisms, and for using them as
models for comparison to items produced subsequently. Subtractive routines produce differential
images illustrating the deviation of each pixel (picture element) from its corresponding model.
Image averaging allows the computer to accumulate several scan frames and to display the
average of these frames. Comparison (subtraction) of images can be derived from two real-time
images, two stored images, or a real-time and a stored image.
2.5
Recording, Hard Copy, and Storage of Images and Data
Thermal image recording and storage has evolved dramatically from Polaroid instant photos of
the display screen, to magnetic storage and archiving of images and data (such as labels, dates,
conditions of measurement, and instrument settings), to the instant digital image storage
capabilities incorporated into most of todays thermal imagers. Hundreds of images can be
recorded in the field and stored on removable, reusable memory cards.
The problem of making a hard copy of the displayed image has also been solved with the advent
of miniaturized digital cameras and photo-quality color printers that can print high-resolution
images directly from camera outputs or from downloaded images and process them on the
computer. Thermal images are saved in any one of several digital image formats such as .bmp,
.tif, and .jpeg for archiving and future analysis.
Corresponding visible reference images of the same targets can be recorded in the same format
by digital cameras. Some manufacturers have integrated digital visible photo-recording
capabilities into their new models of thermal imagers. Both thermal and visible images can be
printed independently or as part of a detailed report, as described in Section 2.6.
2.6
Report Preparation
Stimulated by the demand of the predictive maintenance community for timely and
comprehensive reporting of the findings of IR surveys, most manufacturers of thermal imagers
have developed comprehensive report preparation software. These packages provide templates
that allow the thermographer to prepare reports in standard word processor formats (such as
Word for Windows), into which digital thermal images and visible images imported from
various imaging radiometers and digital cameras, can be directly incorporated. Additional
diagnostic software is customarily provided in these packages so that post-analysis and trending
can be added to the report.
2-15

Table 2-1
Instrument Characteristics
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
Point-Sensing
Probes and IR Thermocouples
2-16
Dickson
D161
Various models -40C to +500C, hold button LCD display, laser pointer,
emissivity control (e set).
Exergen
SnakeEye and Smart IRt/c

series
Wide range of infrared thermocouples with standard and custom

configurations.
Horiba
IT580
32F to 572F, 0300C, LCD display, e set, hold button.
Ircon
Ultimax Jr
-40C to +500C, e set, LCD display, laser aiming spectral range: 814 m.
Linear
QuickTEMP, C500, C1600,

and C1700 series
-18C to +315C, QuickTEMP has LCD display and optional laser pointer,
C500 connects to a multi-meter, C1600 has multiple models with various
ranges, some models have e set. C1700 reads heat flow in BTU/sq ft/hr.
Mikron
Model M50, M500 IR

thermocouples
Various temperature ranges from 0C 500C.
Omega
OS36, OS37, and OS38

series IR thermocouples
Modular and hand-held infrared thermocouples, various ranges.
OS200, 500, 600, 88000 and

OS20 series
Close-focus probes with LCD readouts.
Raytek
Raynger IP series
A family of plug-in accessory probes that convert a digital multi-meter (DMM)

or thermocouple meter into a close focus, non-contact IR thermometer. -18C
to 250C, 814 m.
Telatemp
TH1-440S and TemptestR
Ranges from -50C to +500C, LCD display, LED aiming available e set.

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
Point-Sensing, Hand-Held
Dickson
D160 series
Various models -40F to +950F, -45C to +538C, hold button LCD display,
laser pointer, emissivity control (e set).
Everest
Model 100.3ZL and ZH
Two models from -30C to +1100C, LCD display, analog output, aiming light,
peak sampler, differential available. Rechargeable battery.
Exergen
E series Microscanner
-50F to +550F or -5C to +285C, one piece with LED bar graph and
numerical scale, high- and low- hold feature, audio alarm.
DX series
Close-up sensor with reflective cone for target emissivity correction; ranges
from -4.5C to +871C, digital read-out.
Ircon
ULTIMAX series
Various models from -30C to +3000C, thru-the-lens sighting, spectral ranges

0.65, 0.961.06, and 813 m (some models are ratio-pyrometers), LCD
display, analog and RS-232 outputs, replaceable batteries.
Irtronics
Sniper series
Laser or visual sights, 8 wavelengths, 03000F/C.
Land
Cyclops series (Minolta),

33, 41, 52, Compac 3
High- and low-temperature (to 5500C), small targets, variable focus, reticle
display, Compac 3 has low-temperature, fixed-focus, thru-lens sight.
Linear
LT, LTL, and LTS series
-29C to 1093C, 30:1 or 60:1 optics, laser pointer or non-parallax sight

available, 1% accuracy. F-C switch, LCD display.
Mikron
M90, M100, M101, M102,

and M103 series
Various models, including ratio pyrometers, from -40C to +3000C, LCD

displays, options: laser aiming light, telescope, e set, various FOVs.
Omega
HHM, OS520, OS631,

OS900 series, others.
Wide range of models with ranges from -18C to 2482C, options include laser
aiming, through-the-lens viewing, BTU read-out.
Palmer-Wahl
Heat Spy DHS-100 series,

DHS-200 series, DHS-20
series, DHS-34 series, DHS53 series, HAS-201 series
Various models from -40C to +1760C, analog, LCD, and LED displays.
Series DHS has e set, peak-hold, and various FOVs, including telescopic.
Through-the-lens sighting and laser aiming features are available.
2-17

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
Point-Sensing, Hand-Held (cont.)

Pyrometer
Pyrolaser laser pyrometer
Ranges from 600C3000C, uses laser to measure reflectance and correct

for emissivity, thru-lens sight, rechargeable battery.
Pyrofiber series
Fiber-optic-coupled, ranges from 600C3000C, uses laser to measure

reflectance and correct for emissivity, thru-lens sights, rechargeable battery.
Raytek
Raynger MiniTemp, MX, 3I,

IP, ST series
Various models from -30C to 900C, dual LCD display, hi-lo alarms,
RS232/analog output, datalogger, max-min-mean, differential, laser aiming
available.
Teletemp
INFRAPRO 3 and 4
Various models from -32C to +760C, rechargeable battery, e set, LED

display. Laser aiming and scope available.
Williamson
600, Viewtemp, Truetemp
Viewtemp is 25C to 1650C, LED inside reticle, e set, and rechargeable

battery. Truetemp is 2-color, 550C to 2200C. 600 has analog display, various
ranges from 75F to 3000F.
E2 Technology (now
part of Mikron)
Heat switch (Solar TD100

and Meteor 300), Pulsar and
Quasar Series Photon,
Nova, Comet, other models
Various heat pulse switches and ruggedized models from 260C1650C,

including ratio pyrometers.
Everest
3000 series, 4000 series
Ranges from -40C to +1100C, spot size available down to 0.01". Multiplexes
up to 8 heads through electronics.
Horiba
IT-230
0C300C, multiple ranges, digital output with e set, multiple control features.
Ircon
Modline 3 and 4 series, SA,

SR, and 1100 Series,
Javelin, Mirage and MiniIRT
series, others.
Various models and accessories, -18C to +1375C, integrated, fixed-focus,

two-wire transmitters, spectral selection. Various models of two-piece, -18C to
3600C with thru-lens sights, LCD display, spectral selection (including ratio
pyrometers), and control and output options. IR pulse switches and fiber opticcoupled heads.
Irtronics
Argosy, Spartan, others
Various ranges from 30C to 3000C, spectral selection, telephoto, multizones, fiber-optic-coupled heads available.
Point-Sensing On-line
2-18

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
Point-Sensing On-line (cont.)

Land
System 4, SOLO, UNO, CF

series
Wide selection of instruments, 120C to 2600C, two-color, spectral selection,

fiber optic, telephoto lens option, modular, many accessories. SOLO is a line
of two-wire thermometers.
Linear
TM1000 series, M series,

MX series
TM 1000 series are modular sensors, ranges from 0C2000C, spectral

selection, thru-lens sights, linearized outputs, many control options. M series
are lower cost, fewer options. MX series are customized units with hightemperature and high-resolution options.
Mikron
M67 series
Modular, ranges from 0C1650C, spectral selection, fixed- and variablefocus, thru-lens sights, many accessories.
M68, M668, M600, M680

series
Fiber optic, one color and ratio pyrometers, ranges from 250C3500C.
M190 series
Two-piece, 0C3000C, spectral selection, fixed- and variable-focus, thrulens sights, many accessories.
M77/78
M77 is two-color, M78 is two-color, fiber-optic-coupled.
Omega
OS36, 39, 42, 65, 101, 1592

series, many others
Wide range of sensors including fiber-optic-coupled, ranges from -45C to

+3700C.
Raytek
Thermalert IT series
Thermalert ET series
Various models, -15C to +538C, two-piece, small sensing head.

Various models, -15C to +1650C, integrated sensing head, e set, spectral
selections, processing options.
Thermalert III series
Various models, -15C to +3000C, two-piece, LED display, e set, spectral

selections, processing options.
Thermalert IV series
Various models, -15C to +3000C, two-piece, dual LED display, set points,
e set, processing options, spectral selections.
Compact Series
Intended for low-cost, multiple-sensor applications.
2-19

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
Point-Sensing On-line (cont.)

Raytek (cont.)
Marathon Series
For high-temperature applications, up to 3000C, 1 m spectral region, include

ratio pyrometer and fiber-optic-coupled models.
Quantum Focus
RM2
Infrared microscope. Spot size down to 0.0003".
Williamson
PRO 80, PRO 90, PRO 100,

PRO 200
Various models including two-color, fiber-optic-coupled, 30C2500C,

spectral selections, many accessories.
TempMatic 4000, FiberView

5000, 500, 700, and 1000
series
Various models, ranges from 30C2500C, two-wire, fixed-focus transmitters

and two-wire, fixed-focus single wavelength and ratio pyrometers, some fiberoptic-coupled models.
HGH (France)
ATL-100 narrow angle (6

deg) ATL-020 wide angle
(90 deg)
Modular thermoelectrically cooled, high-resolution analog and digital outputs,

operates with control system host computer.
Ircon
ScanIR II series
Modular thermoelectrically cooled and un-cooled detectors for various spectral

bands from 1 to 5.1 m, high-resolution analog and digital outputs, visible laser
alignment feature, operates with host computer.
Infrared Solutions
IR ScanPro 1000
Scanner based on no moving parts, un-cooled 120-element thermoelectric

linear array. Extensive computer interface.
Land
Landscan LS Series optomechanically scanned
Modular, adjustable scan rate, six models with wavelengths from 1 to 5 m,

temperature ranges from 70C1400C, high-resolution analog and digital
outputs, operates with control system host computer.
ScanTemp ST Series optomechanically scanned
Low cost, adjustable scan rate, eight models with wavelengths from 1 to
14 m, temperature ranges from 0C1400C, analog and digital outputs,
operates with control system host computer.
Line Scanners
2-20

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
Mikron
MikroLine series, 250, 2128,

2256
128-, 160-, or 256-element arrays of PbSe, pyroelectric or GaAs and other

detectors, temperature ranges of 0C1300C, spectral ranges of 1.41.8 m,
3-5 m, 4.85.2 m, and 814 m, frame rates up to 18 kHz, full-processanalysis software.
Pyrometer
ThermATrace
Un-cooled, provides composite visual image and IR scan line superimposed,

portable, rechargeable battery, photo-recording only.
Raytek
CS-100, GS-100, TF-100,

TIP-450 (all using the MP-50
Thermalert line scanner)
Each system for a different process application, modular thermoelectrically

cooled, high-resolution analog and digital outputs, various wavelengths,
operate with integral control system or host computer.
Line Scanners (cont.)
Thermographic
Opto-Mechanically Scanned Imaging Radiometers
Bales
BSI TIP
Very high-resolution desk-top imager with liquid nitrogen cooling, 212 m,

TFOV 20x30 deg, extensive on-board, real-time diagnostic software, advanced
capability for variable frame rate, multiple simultaneous images. Part of pulsed
multi-mode inspection system.
Compix
PC2000 and 2000/e
TE-cooled single-element PbSe (35 m) with PC card module to convert

IBM-based desktop and notebook computers to thermal imagers, slow scan
(10 seconds and 15 seconds per frame) 244x193 pixel image. 2100 series has
magnifier lens for microscope resolution down to 0.002 inch.
PC2100 and 2100/e

CMC-Cincinnati
Electronics (also
markets AVIO)
AVIO TVS Series
TE-cooled and Stirling-cycle cooled models featuring 10-element InSb,

35 m, 10degVx15degH TFOV, lightweight and portable with on-board LCD
color monitor, accessories.
Infrared Solutions
IR SnapShot (also sold by

Ircon as DIGICAM-IR)
120-element, un-cooled thermoelectric array for 812 m operation, mounted

on slide-mechanism for single image one-second frame. Extensive diagnostic
software, remote operation capability.
2-21

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
Opto-Mechanically Scanned Imaging Radiometers (cont.)

Jenoptik
Varioscan series
Stirling-cycle cooled, liquid nitrogen cooled, and TE-cooled HgCdTe detector

models for 812 m and 35 m performance, 30x20 FOV slow-scan, highsensitivity, extensive diagnostic software.
Land
Cyclops T135
Camcorder-configured reflective scanner using TE-cooled, 12-element

HgCdTe, 35 m, 25 f/s, 16x16deg TFOV, monochrome viewer, separate
image processor available.
FPA Thermal Viewers (Non-Measuring)

AIM
Cam, FS, and FL FLIR

families
Modular, building block cameras using cooled HgCdTe, GaAs QWIP and PtSi
FPAs from 128x128 element to 640x486 element.
BAE
MicroIR
Un-cooled 320x240 element micro-bolometric FPA imager module in a

weatherproof, ruggedized housing.
CMC-Cincinnati
Electronics
Nightmaster, Night
Conqueror, others
Many models of Stirling-cycle cooled 160x120, 256x256, and 640x512 element

InSb FPA imagers (35 m) for a wide variety of military, search, and
surveillance applications.
Electrophysics
PV-320
Un-cooled barium-strontium-titanate (BST) IRFPA imager, 214 m or

0.620 m 320x240 element array, 60 Hz frame rate, quantifiable option.
FLIR
ThermaCAM E series
Un-cooled miniaturized (less than 1.5 lbs) 160(H)x120(V) element microbolometer FPA, portable, battery-powered, 7.513 m, laser aimer, nonmeasuring version.
ThermoVision 1000, Sentry

and Ranger; MilCAM
SAFIRE, UltraFORCE,
SeaFLIR, others
High-resolution, Stirling-cycle cooled InSb and PtSi, (35 m) QWIP (89 m)

selectable TFOV-thermal viewers for military, law enforcement, air and sea,
and other security and surveillance applications.
SAT HY600
Un-cooled amorphous silicon micro-bolometer 320(H)x240(V) element FPA,

814 m.
Guangzhou SAT
2-22

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
FPA Thermal Viewers (Non-Measuring) (cont.)

Indigo
Alpha NIR
Miniaturized, 320x256 element InGaAs FPA, 9001700 nm, for

telecommunication, fiber optic, and laser-profiling applications.
Alpha
Miniaturized, 160x128 element micro-bolometer FPA, 7.713.5 m.
Merlin
Family of imagers offering 320x256 element FPAs in four spectral bands:

InGaAs (0.91.68 m un-cooled), InSb (1.05.4 m Stirling-cycle cooled),
GaAs QWIP (89 m Stirling-cycle cooled), and micro-bolometer (7.513.5 m
un-cooled).
Phoenix
Family of imagers offering 320x256 and 640x512 element FPAs in three

spectral bands: InGaAs (0.91.7 m un-cooled), InSb (25 m and GaAs
QWIP (89.2 m Stirling-cycle cooled).
Omega
Miniaturized, 160x128 element micro-bolometer FPA, 7.713.5 m.
Infrared Solutions
Modular 160
120x160 pixel un-cooled micro-bolometer FPA in miniaturized (three-inch

cube) module for 814 m operation.
IRISYS
IXS 9004
Very low-cost portable, battery-powered viewer using un-cooled 16x16

element pyroelectric FPA, 814 m spectral region, connects to IBM PC and
includes image and color display software.
Marconi
Argus Series
Firefighter thermal imagers.
Mine Safety Appliance

Corp.
VideoTherm 2000
Un-cooled 320x240 element pyroelectric FPA hand-held viewer with added

measurement capability by means of boresighted radiation thermometer,
monochrome or color display (814 m).
Raytheon
PalmIR-250
Un-cooled ferroelectric 320x240 FPA, 714 m, battery-powered portable

viewer, monochrome display.
2-23

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
FPA Thermal Viewers (Non-Measuring) (cont.)

Raytheon (cont.)
Sentinal
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 320x240 element FPA 814 m, battery-powered

portable viewer, monochrome display.
Santa Barbara Focal

Plane
Various Models
High-resolution front-end detector and optics for integration into user's system,
based on liquid nitrogen-cooled, 128x128 element 256x256, 320x240,
320x256, 640x480, and 512x512 element InSb FPA (focal plane array)
detectors, 15 m.
US Infrared
THERMOviewer
Portable, battery-powered, un-cooled barium-strontium-titanate (BST) 320x240

element IRFPA imager, 214 m spectral range, 60 Hz frame rate,
boresighted IR thermometer provides spot measurement reference, color
display, aimed at low-cost PdM applications.
Wuhan
IR920, 922, and 923
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 320(H)x240(V) element FPA, 920 has image radio

transmitter and receiver. 922 is helmet-mount, 923 is long-range
monitoring/surveillance camera.
FPA Imaging Radiometers (Measuring)

Cedip
Jade MW
Jade LW
Jade UC
Stirling-cycle cooled 320x256 element FPA MCT or InSb, 35 m, extensive

diagnostic software.
Stirling-cycle cooled 320x256 element FPA MCT, 7.59.6 m, extensive
Un-cooled 320x240 micro-bolometer FPA, 814 m, extensive diagnostic
software.
CMC-Cincinnati
Electronics
2-24
TVS8500
Stirling-cycle cooled 256x256 element InSb FPA, 35 , 13.7degVx14.6degH

TFOV, multiple-temperature measurement on multiple-selected pixels,
emissivity compensation, lightweight and portable with on-board LCD color
monitor, accessories.

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics
FPA Imaging Radiometers (Measuring) (cont.)

FLIR
ThermaCAM PM390
Stirling-cycle cooled PtSi 256x256 element FPA, portable battery-powered,

3.45 m, integral display, extensive diagnostic software.
ThermaCAM E2
Un-cooled miniaturized (less than 1.5 lbs) 160(H)x120(V) element microbolometer FPA, portable, battery-powered, 7.513 m, LCD display, laser
aimer, extensive diagnostic software.
ThermaCAM P40
ThermaCAM P60
Un-cooled high-sensitivity micro-bolometer 320(H)x240(V) element FPA,

portable, battery-powered, 7.513 m, integral or LCD display, extensive
diagnostic software. P60 has improved sensitivity, laser aimer, added LCD
color display.
ThermaCAM PM545
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 320(H)x240(V) element FPA, portable, batterypowered, 7.513 m, integral or LCD display, extensive diagnostic software.
ThermaCAM PM675
ThermaCAM PM695
ThermaCAM SC300
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 160(H)x120(V) element FPA, 7.513 m,

extensive diagnostic software, low-cost research camera.
ThermaCAM SC500

extensive diagnostic software, for high-performance scientific applications.
ThermaCAM SC1000
Stirling-cycle cooled PtSi 256x256 element FPA, portable battery-powered,

3.45 m, integral display, extensive diagnostic software, for high-performance
scientific applications.
ThermaCAM SC2000
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 320(H)x240(V) element FPA, portable, batterypowered, 7.513 m, integral display, extensive diagnostic software, for highperformance scientific applications.
ThermaCAM SC3000
Stirling-cycle cooled GaAs QWIP 320(H)x240(V) element FPA, 89 m

spectral response, high-speed, up to 900 Hz, high-sensitivity, broad dynamic
range, extensive diagnostic software, for high-performance scientific
applications.
2-25

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics

FLIR (cont.)
2-26
ThermoVision 160M

extensive diagnostic software, many lenses available, including microscope,
low-cost industrial automation camera.
Thermovision 320 series

extensive diagnostic software, for multiple-process monitoring and machine
vision applications, high-performance industrial automation cameras.
Guangzhou SAT
SAT HY6000 and 6800
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 320(H)x240(V) element FPA, 814 m, extensive

diagnostic software, and wide selection of field-interchangeable lenses.
Indigo
Alpha
Miniaturized, 160x128 element micro-bolometer FPA, 7.713.5 m. Measuring

capability by means of added diagnostic software.
Merlin
Family of imagers offering 320x256 element FPAs in four spectral bands:

InGaAs (0.91.68 m un-cooled), InSb (1.05.4 m Stirling-cycle cooled),
GaAs QWIP (89 m Stirling-cycle cooled), and micro-bolometer (7.513.5 m
un-cooled). Measuring capability by means of added diagnostic software.
Phoenix
Family of imagers offering 320x256 and 640x512 element FPAs in three

spectral bands: InGaAs (0.91.7 m un-cooled), InSb (25 m Stirling-cycle
cooled) and GaAs QWIP (89.2 m Stirling-cycle cooled). Measuring
capability by means of added diagnostic software.
TVS-620
Un-cooled, 320x240 element micro-bolometer FPA, 814 m, portable handheld unit with integrated display, software, removable PC card image storage.
IRISYS
IRI 1001
Very low-cost portable, battery-powered using un-cooled 16x16 element

pyroelectric FPA, 814 m spectral region, connects to IBM PC and includes
measurement and color display software.
Infrared Solutions
Modular 160
120x160 pixel un-cooled micro-bolometer FPA in miniaturized (three-inch

cube) module for 814 m operation.
Ircon
Stinger
Un-cooled pyroelectric 320(H)x240(V) element FPA, spectral range: 814 m,

extensive diagnostic software, for multiple-process monitoring and machine
vision applications.

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics

HGH
Source of AVIO and CMC Cincinnati Cameras.
Jenoptik
VarioTHERM series
Stirling-cycle cooled, 256x256 PtSi FPA. 3.47 m, portable, battery-powered,

extensive diagnostic software.
Land
Cyclops PPM
Radiometric version of the Raytheon PalmIR 250 (same as Raytheon PalmIR

500D) modified by Electrophysics and sold by Land); 320(H)x 240(V) uncooled BST FPA, 0C300C, PC memory card.
FTI-6
FPA imager with on-board diagnostic software.
MikroScan 5102
Stirling-cycle cooled 255x223 element HgCdTe FPA, 812 m, line- or batterypowered portable viewer, on-board display, and flip-up LCD option.
MikroScan 5104
TE-cooled 255x223 element HgCdTe FPA, 35.2 m, line- or battery-powered

portable viewer, on-board display, and flip-up LCD option, spectrally selective
models available for working with glass or flame.
MikroScan 5104i
TE-cooled 255x223 element HgCdTe FPA, 35.2 m, line-powered fixedmount camera for on-line process monitoring and control.
MikroScan 7102i
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 320x240 element FPA 814 m, fixed-mount

camera for on-line process monitoring and control.
MikroScan 7200
Lightweight, un-cooled micro-bolometer 320x240 element FPA 814 m,

battery-powered portable viewer, on-board display, and flip-up LCD option.
MikroScan 7515
Lightweight, un-cooled micro-bolometer 320x240 element FPA 814 m,

battery-powered portable viewer, on-board display, and flip-up LCD option,
upgrade version of the 7200 with remote control option and analysis and
report-writing software.
M9000 series
Imaging Pyrometer, un-cooled 776x484 near infrared FPA detector for hightemperature targets, multi-range with selected filters from 600C to 2400C,
extensive diagnostic software integrates PC with color monitor.
Mikron
2-27

Table 2-1 (cont.)
Manufacturers
Models
Characteristics

Nikon (see HGH)
Laird S270 and 3A series
537x505 and 768x494 element Stirling-cycle cooled PtSi FPAs, (35 m)

battery- and line-powered, ac adapter, interchangeable color display available.
Multiple temperature measurement on multiple selected pixels, emissivity
compensation.
Quantum Focus
Instruments
InfraScope, InfraScope II
Lab-operated imager for microelectronics applications, features liquid

nitrogen-cooled InSb FPA, automatic emissivity compensation, full field
temperature measurement, spatial resolution down to 2.5 m, 60 Hz frame
rate.
Raytheon
Radiance HSX
Stirling-cycle cooled 256x256 element InSb FPA, 35 m, 60 Hz frame rate

(Radiance HS has selectable frame rates up to 1400 Hz, optional displays,
extensive thermal analysis software).
PalmIR 500D
Radiometric version of the Raytheon PalmIR modified by Electrophysics and

sold by Land); 320(H)x240(V) un-cooled BST FPA, 0C300C, PC memory
card.
Thermoteknix
VisIR
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 160(H)x120(V) element FPA, portable, batterypowered, 7.513 m, integral LCD display, image storage, radio link, extensive
Thermal Wave Imaging
EchoTherm
EchoTherm is an NDE system, built around a selection of high-speed FPA

imagers. Includes flashlamp sources, power supplies, synchronizing
electronics, and analytical software for TRIR. ThermoScope is a field-portable
version.
ThermoScope
Wuhan
2-28
IR912 and 913
Un-cooled micro-bolometer 320(H)x240(V) element FPA, portable, batterypowered, 814 m, 912 and 913 have fold-out LCD display, extensive

Table 2-2
Equipment Manufacturers
Company Name
Mailing Address
Phone Number
Web Site or E-mail
AIM Infrarot-Module GmbH
Theresienstrasse 2 D-74072
Heilbron, Germany
+49-7131-6212-460
www.aim-ir.com
BAE, Information and

Electronic Warfare Systems
2 Forbes Rd., LEX01-112

Lexington, MA 02421-7306
(781) 863-3684
www.iews.baesystems.com/iris
Bales Scientific Inc., div. CTI
1620 Tice Blvd.

Walnut Creek, CA 94595
(510) 945-0144
www.balesscientific.com
CEDIP, SA
19 Blvd. G. Bidault
F-77183 Croissy Beaubourg, France
(+33) 01 60 37 01 00
cedip@wanadoo.fr
CMC-Cincinnati Electronics
Corp. Div BAE Systems
7500 Innovation Way

Mason, OH 45040-9699
(513) 573-6744
www.cmccinci.com
greed@cine.com
Compix
15824 SW Upper Boones Ferry Road

Lake Oswego, OR 97035
(503) 639-8496
www.compix.com
info@compix.com
The Dickson Company
930 S. Westwood Ave.

Addison, IL 60101
(800) 323-2448
http://www.dicksonweb.com/
Electrophysics Corp.
373 Rte 46 West, Building E

Fairfield, NJ 07004
(973) 882-0211
(800) 759-9577
www.electrophysicscorp.com
E2Technology Corporation
(part of Mikron)
4475 Dupont Court, Unit 9

Ventura, CA 93003
(805) 644-9544
www.e2t.com
sales@e2t.com
Everest Interscience Corp.
1891 N. Oracle Rd.

Tucson, AZ 85705
(520) 792-4545
(800) 422-4342
http://www.everestinterscience.com/
meverest@aol.com
Exergen Corporation
51 Water St.
Watertown, MA 02472
(617) 923-9900
(800) 422-3006
www.exergen.com
industrial@exergen.com
2-29

Table 2-2 (cont.)
Company Name
Mailing Address
Phone Number
Web Site or E-mail
FLIR Systems, Inc.

World Headquarters
16505 SW 72 Ave.
Portland, OR 97444
(503) 684-3771
(800) 322-3731
www.flir.com
FLIR Systems, Boston

Formerly Inframetrics
16 Esquire Road
N. Billerica, MA 01862
(978) 670-5555
www.flir.com
FLIR Systems AB, Sweden

Formerly AGEMA
Rinkebevgen 19, PO Box 3 SE182-11

Danderyd, Sweden
+(46) 8 753 2500
www.flir.com
Guangzhou SAT Infrared

Technology Co., Ltd.
10 Diongjiang Ave., Guangzhou Econ.

& Tech. Dev. District, China 51073
+86-20-82229925
+86-20-82227947
www.sat.com.cn
sat@sat.com.cn
HGH Systemes Infrarouges
3, rue du Saule-Trapu,
F91300 Massy, France
(33-1) 60110141
http://www.hgh-infrarouge.fr/
hgh@hgh-infrarouge.fr
Horiba
17671 Armstrong Ave.

Irvine, CA 92614
(800) 446-7422
(949) 250-4811
www.horiba.com
labinfo@horiba.com
Indigo Systems Corp.
5385 Hollister Ave. #103

Santa Barbara, CA 93111
(805) 964-9797
www.indigosystems.com
Infrared Solutions, Inc.
3550 Annapolis Lane North, Suite 70

Plymouth, MN 55447
(763) 551-0038
sales@infraredsolutions.com
IRCON Instruments
7300 N. Natches Ave.

Niles, IL 60714
(847) 967-5151
(800) 323-7660
www.ircon.com
IRISYS
Towcester Mill, TowcesterNorthants

NN12 6AD, UK
+44(0)1327 357824
www.irisys.co.uk
ti@irisys.co.uk
Irtronics
132 Forest Blvd.

Ardsley, NY 10502
(914) 693-6291
No e-mail address
JENOPTIK, GmbH
Goschwitzer Strabe 25, D-07745

Jena, Germany
+49(3641) 65 33 11
www.jenoptik.de
norbert.thiel@jenoptik.com
2-30

Table 2-2 (cont.)
Company Name
Mailing Address
Phone Number
Web Site or E-mail
Land Infrared
10 Friends Lane
Newtown, PA 18940-1804
(215) 504-8000
www.landinst.com
irsales@landinstruments.net
Linear Laboratories
42025 Osgood Rd.

Fremont, CA 94538
(800) 536-0262
www.linearlabs.com
Marconi Electronic Systems
4 Westchester Plaza
Elmsford, NY 10523
(914) 592-6050
(800) 342-5338
www.marconitech.com
mtech.usa@marconi.com
Mikron Instrument Co., Inc.
16 Thornton Road
Oakland, NJ 07436
(201) 405-0900
(800) 631-0176
www.mikroninst.com
Mine Safety Appliances
1000 Cranbury Woods Road

Cranbury, PA 16066
(800) 821-3642
(724) 776-7700
www.msanet.com
Minolta (see Land)
101 Williams Dr.

Ramsey, NJ 07446
(201) 529-6049
(888) 473-2656
www.minoltausa.com
NEC
(see Mikron)
Nikon (see Pyrometer

Instruments and HGH)
Omega Engineering, Inc.
One Omega Drive

P.O. Box 2349
Stamford, CT 06906
(203) 359-1660
(800) 826-6342
Info@omega.com
www.omega.com
Palmer Wahl Instrumentation

Group
234 Old Weaverville Road

Asheville, NC 28804
(828) 658-3121
(800) 421-2853
www.instrumentationgroup.com
Pyrometer Instrument Co.
209 Industrial Pkwy.

Northvale, NJ 07647
(201) 768-2000
(800) HOT-PYRO
www.pyrometer.com
pyroinfo@pyrometer.com
2-31

Table 2-2 (cont.)
Company Name
Mailing Address
Phone Number
Web Site or E-mail
Quantum Focus Instruments

Corp.
990 Park Center Drive, Suite D

Vista, CA 92083
(760) 599-1122
www.quantumfocus.com
Raytek, Inc.
1201 Shaffer Rd.

Santa Cruz, CA 95060
(831) 458-1110
www.raytek.com
annas@raytek.com
Raytheon Corporation
5756 Thornwood Dr.

Goleta, CA 93117
(805) 683-6621
(800) 990-3275
www.raytheoninfrared.com
Raytheon Corporation,
Ind. Auto. Div.
P.O. Box 655012

Dallas, TX 75265
(800) 990-3275
www.raytheoninfrared.com
Santa Barbara Focal Plane

Division of Lockheed Martin
69 Santa Felicia Dr.

Goleta, CA 93117
(805) 562-8777
www.sbfp.com
Teletemp Corp.
P.O. Box 5160, 351 S. Raymond

Fullerton, CA 92635
(800) 321-5160
(714) 879-2901
www.telatemp.com
techsales@telatemp.com
Thermal Wave Imaging, Inc.
845 Livernois Street

Ferndale, MI 48220-2308
(248) 414-3730
www.thermalwave.com
US Infrared
1535 S. Memorial Dr. Suite 117

Tulsa, OK 74112
(918) 663-7833
www.bpcintl.com
Williamson Corp.
70 Domino Dr. Box 1270

Concord, MA 01742
(978) 369-9607
www.williamsonir.com
wbarronsr@williamsonir.com
Wuhan Guide Electronic

Industrial Co. Ltd.
Hongshan Chuangye Ctr. Bldg.

Luoyu Rd. No. 424
Wuhan, China
+86-27-87659277
+86-27-87659069
www.wuhanguide.com
whguide@public.wh.cb.cn
Thermoteknix Systems, Ltd.
2-32

Table 2-3
Compilation of Typical Industrial Applications of Thermal Imaging Instruments
Typical Applications by Industry
Industry
Applications
Metals
Continuous casting, strip annealing, extrusion presses, rolling mills,

induction heating, resistance heating, heat treating, electrolytic refining
Glass
Tank refractories, glass body temperatures, mold temperatures, bottle

machines, float glass, tempering and annealing, fiberglass manufacturing
Cement
Kiln shell, refractory insulation, bridge delamination inspection
Textiles
Permanent press heat setting, dye setting, foam lamination, carpet backing
Plastics
Vacuum forming, extrusion, film process monitoring and control
Paper
Dryer drums, coating ink drying
Chemical and
Petroleum
Furnace tube temperatures, pipe and vessel corrosion, mixing process

monitoring and control
Food and
Confectionary
Rotary cooker temperatures, continuous infrared ovens, mixers, continuous

baking ovens, freeze-dry processes
Asphalt Paving
Road stone dryer, mixing temperature, rolling temperature
Rubber
Hot rubber sheetscooling and rolling, tire testing
Utilities
Electrical systems, steam valves, motors, pumps, boilers, circuit boards,

switchyards, transmission and distribution lines
2-33

Table 2-3 (cont.)
Compilation of Typical Industrial Applications of Thermal Imaging Instruments
Typical Applications by Discipline
Discipline
Design
Workmanship
Component Failure
2-34
Applications
Exhaust stacks, flue pipes
Heating units (ovens, boilers, furnaces)
Buildings (offices, schools, hospitals, plants)
Process pipes, vessels, linessteam and water lines
Kilns
Cryogenic storage vessels
Electrical and electronic circuits and micro-circuits
Operational procedures
Installation of refractory materials
Installation of foam insulation materials
Installation of fiberglass materials (roof insulation and so on)
Replacement of parts and other repairs
Roof inspection for moisture saturation
Steam traps, underground steam lines, plumbing lines and systems
Electrical lines and substations
Electrical and electronic components and modules
Insulationfoam, fiberglass, and refractory
Sealslow- and high-temperature
Doors, ports, windows
Cooling towers, heat exchangers
Motors, pumps, ventilators, bearings
THE MEASUREMENT MISSION
The successful completion of a field measurement mission requires planning, caution, and the
ability to interpret the thermographic results. The thermographer also needs a clear
understanding of the thermal behavior of the targets involved in the measurement mission. The
mission tasks can be subdivided as follows:
Understanding the thermal behavior of the target
Preparing the equipment for the mission
Using correct instrument operating procedures
3.1
Thermal Behavior of the Target
There are 10 sources of energy transfer at the target surface that can cause IR thermal imaging
equipment to register apparent temperature changes. Some of these represent real temperature
changes at the target surface and some do not. It is important for the thermographer to
understand these phenomena and to be able to distinguish between apparent and real target
temperature changes. Examples of the 10 sources of apparent target temperature differences will
be described. They are tabulated as follows:
Apparent
Emissivity difference
Reflectance difference
Transmittance difference
Geometric difference
Real
Mass transport difference
Phase change difference
Thermal capacitance difference
Induced heating difference
Energy conversion difference
Direct heat transfer difference

3-1

The Measurement Mission
3.1.1 Emissivity Difference

As discussed in Appendix A, Section A.3.3, the radiant energy emitted by a target surface is
proportional to emissivity as well as to a power of the target temperature. If the emissivity of the
target surface changes, or if the wrong effective emissivity value is assumed for the target, the
apparent temperature reading will be in error. The resultant inaccuracy will not be the result of a
real temperature change at the target surface.
3.1.2 Reflectance Difference
An apparent temperature change will occur when thermal radiant energy from an external heat
source is reflected off the target surface. The apparent change will be proportional to a power of
the temperature difference between the actual target and that of the external heat source. It will
also be proportional to the reflectance (1.0 minus the emissivity value) of the target and to the
emissivity of the external heat source. This apparent change will not be the result of a real
temperature change at the target surface.
3.1.3 Transmittance Difference
An apparent temperature change will occur when thermal radiant energy from an external heat
source behind the target surface is transmitted through the target surface. The apparent change
will be proportional to a power of the temperature difference between the actual target and that
of the external heat source. It will also be proportional to the transmittance of the target and to
the emissivity of the external heat source. This apparent change will not be the result of a real
temperature change at the target surface.
3.1.4 Geometric Difference
An apparent temperature change might occur as a result of the geometric shape of the target. If
the target surface is shaped so as to form a cavity, for example, multiple reflections of radiant
energy between the cavity walls will result in an apparent increase in emissivity. The corner of
an enclosure with three mutually perpendicular surfaces in close proximity is a good example of
this. The apparent change will be similar to that caused by an emissivity variation and will not be
the result of a real temperature change at the target surface.
3.1.5 Mass Transport Difference
An example of a mass transport difference is air leakage from the inside of a building through
the building surface that happens to be the target. The air in transit might heat or cool the target
surface. This results in a real temperature change at the target surface.
3-2

3.1.6 Phase Change Difference

An example of a phase change difference is water that condenses (changes from gas to liquid) on
or behind a target surface and temporarily cools the surface. This results in a real temperature
change at the target surface.
3.1.7 Thermal Capacitance Difference
An example of a thermal capacitance difference is when solar heat stored in water-saturated
sections of a roof warms the surface of the roof at night, in contrast to the non-saturated sections.
This is because the water-saturated sections have higher thermal capacitance than the dry
sections and it results in a real temperature change at the target surface.
3.1.8 Induced Heating Difference
An example of an induced heating difference is the inductive heating of ferrous bolts that are
improperly installed in an aluminum buss bar. The magnetic field will cause inductive heating in
ferrous materials, which results in a real temperature change at the target surface.
3.1.9 Energy Conversion Difference
Most temperature rises observed in a plant environment are the result of energy conversion
(friction to heat, chemical reaction to heat, and so on). A common example of an energy
conversion difference is when the resistance of a poor connection converts electric current to
heat. This results in a real temperature change at the target surface.
3.1.10 Direct Heat Transfer Difference
A direct heat transfer difference occurs by conduction, convection, or radiation as described in
Appendix A, Section A.2. Examples of direct heat transfer are found in the nondestructive
testing of materials where a uniform heat flow is generated and observed thermal anomalies
indicate flaws. These are real temperature changes at the target surface.
3.2
Equipment Preparation
3.2.1 The Mission Checklist

In preparation for the measurement mission, the thermographer should use checklists to ensure
that there are no surprises on site. A standard checklist should be prepared to include all items in
the thermographic equipment inventory. The list should include: instruments, spare lenses,
tripods, harnesses, transport cases, carts, batteries, chargers, liquid or gaseous cryogenic coolant,
if applicable, safety gear, special accessories, film, diskettes, spare fuses, tool kits, data sheets,
operator manuals, calibration data, radiation reference sources, inter-connecting cables,
3-3

accessory cables, and special fixtures. Well in advance of the mission, the thermographer can
highlight all of the items that will be required for a particular job. The highlighted standard list
will then become the checklist for the job.
3.2.2 Equipment Checkout and Calibration
All quantitative thermography equipment should be calibrated periodically in accordance with
the manufacturer's recommendations found in the operator's handbook. In addition, a quick
operation and calibration check should be performed by the thermographer to make certain that
the equipment is in working order and in calibration. This can be performed by using an infrared
radiation reference blackbody source or by a more quick and simple means such as a two-point
check. This approximate test can be performed by using two known targets such as ice water
(0C) and the palm of the thermographer's hand (approximately 35C).
3.2.3 Batteries
Too many thermographic measurement missions have had to be postponed or prematurely
terminated because the thermographer ran out of charged batteries. This can be very costly in
terms of lost inspection time and customer confidence. The batteries item on the mission
checklist should be understood to mean fully-charged batteries and it is the thermographer's
responsibility to ensure that there is a comfortable surplus of battery power available for each
mission. The fact that batteries become discharged more rapidly in cold weather also needs to be
considered in preparing for the mission.
3.2.4 Facility Personnel Participation
A knowledgeable facility representative should accompany the thermographer on the
measurement mission or be available during measurements. By providing expert information
concerning the processes taking place and the likely sources of temperature differences, this
assistance will enable the thermographer to anticipate thermal behavior and to better understand
and interpret the thermographic results.
3.3
Some Cautions for Correct Instrument Operation
Assuming that the instrument selected is appropriate to the measurement application, there are a
few things that the thermographer should remember to avoid common mistakes in use. These
include the following:
Learn and memorize the start-up procedure.
Learn and memorize the default values.
Set or use the correct effective emissivity.
Make sure that the target to be measured is larger than the instantaneous field of view for
measurement (IFOVmeas) of the instrument.
3-4

Aim the instrument as close to normal (perpendicular) with the target surface as possible.
Check for reflections off the target surface.
Keep portable inspection instruments as far away as possible from very hot targets.
3.3.1 Start-Up Procedure

Thermographers that operate several different models of thermographic and thermal-sensing
equipment need to be certain that they re-familiarize themselves with the start-up procedure of
the equipment selected for each measurement mission. This allows the data-gathering process to
begin with no unnecessary delays. It saves valuable on-site time and inspires confidence on the
part of facility personnel. A quick review of the operator's manual and a short dry run prior to
leaving home base is usually all that is required.
3.3.2 Memorizing the Default Values
The operator's manual also provides default values for several important variables in the
measurement such as emissivity, ambient (background) temperature, distance from sensor to
target, temperature scale (F or C), lens selection, and relative humidity. These are the values
that the instrument processor automatically uses to compute target temperature unless the
thermographer changes these values to match the actual measurement conditions. Typical
default values are: 1.0-meter distance to target, emissivity of 1.0, and ambient temperature of
25C. Failure to correct for these (for example, if the target is known to be 10 meters away, is
known to have an effective emissivity of approximately 0.7, and is in an ambient of 10C) can
result in substantially erroneous results. By memorizing the default values, the thermographer
will know when it is necessary to change them, and when time can be saved by using them
unchanged, without having to refer to a look-up menu.
3.3.3 Setting the Correct Emissivity
Table 3-1 and Table 3-2 list various targets and their approximate generic emissivities. There are
emissivities shown for various temperatures and in several spectral bands. Where it is not
otherwise indicated, temperatures should be assumed to be 30C. If possible, it is always better
to directly determine the actual effective emissivity of the surface to be measured by using the
actual instrument to be used in the measurement. Effective emissivity (e*) is defined as:
the measured emissivity value of a particular target surface under existing measurement
conditions, that can be used to correct a specific measuring instrument to provide a correct
temperature measurement.
3-5

Table 3-1
Table of Normal Spectral Emissivities
Short Wave (SW) = 25.6 m
Long Wave (LW) = 6.520 m
Material
3-6
Wavelength
(micrometers)
Temperature
(C)
Emissivity
Alumina brick
SW
17
0.68
Aluminum, heavily weathered
SW
17
0.830.94
Aluminum foil
0.09
Aluminum foil (bright)
0.04
Aluminum disk, roughened
0.28
Asbestos slate (wallboard)
0.96
Brick, common
SW
Brick, facing, red
SW
0.92
Brick, facing, yellow
SW
0.92
Brick, masonry
SW
0.72
Brick, red
0.94
Brick, waterproof
SW
17
0.9
Chipboard, untreated
SW
Concrete, dry
36
0.95
Concrete, rough
SW
17
0.920.97
Copper, polished, annealed
10
0.01
Fibre board (hard), untreated
SW
0.85
Fibre board (porous), untreated
SW
0.85
Filler, white
SW
0.88
Firebrick
SW
17
0.68
Formica
LW
27
0.937
Frozen soil
LW
Glass, chemical ware (partly transparent)
35
0.97
Granite, natural surface
36
0.96
Gravel
LW
Hardwood, across grain
SW
17
0.82
Hardwood, along grain
SW
17
0.680.73
Hessian Fabric, green
SW
0.88
Hessian Fabric, uncolored
SW
0.87
17
0.810.86
0.9
0.93
0.28

Table 3-1 (cont.)
Material
Wavelength
(micrometers)
Temperature
(C)
Emissivity
Iron, heavily rusted
SW
17
0.910.96
Limestone, natural surface
36
0.96
Mortar
SW
17
0.87
Mortar, dry
36
0.94
P.V.C.
SW
17
0.910.93
Broma Alkyd enamel 102 gold leaf
40
0.98
Broma Alkyd enamel 113 light blue
Chromatone stabilized silver finish

Alumatone Corp.
3
10
25
0.26
0.31
Krylon flat black 1502
50
0.95
Krylon flat white
40
0.99
Krylon ultra-flat black
36
0.97
3M black velvet coating 9560 series optical

black
40
>0.99
Oil
SW
17
0.87
Paint (by manufacturer)
0.95
black flat
SW
0.94
black gloss
SW
0.92
gray flat
SW
0.97
gray gloss
SW
0.96
Plastic, black
SW
0.95
Plastic, white
SW
0.84
Paper, cardboard box
0.81
Paper, white
SW
17
0.68
Perspex , plexiglass
SW
17
0.86
Plaster Pipes, glazed
SW
17
0.83
Plaster
SW
17
0.860.9
3-7

Table 3-1 (cont.)
Material
Wavelength
(micrometers)
Temperature
(C)
Emissivity
Plasterboard, untreated
SW
0.9
Plastic, acrylic, clear
Plastic paper, red
SW
Plywood
SW
17
0.830.98
Plywood, commercial, smooth finish, dry
36
0.82
Plywood, untreated
SW
Polypropylene
SW
36
0.94
0.94
0.83
17
0.97
Redwood (wrought), untreated
SW
0.83
Redwood (unwrought), untreated
SW
0.84
Rendering, gray
SW
0.92
Roofing Metal
Azure blue, smooth
SW
0.54
Azure blue, textured
SW
0.51
Burnished copper, smooth
SW
0.54
Burnished copper, textured
SW
0.56
Dark bronze, textured
SW
0.7
Mansard brown, smooth
SW
0.58
Matte black, smooth
SW
0.73
Roman bronze, smooth
SW
0.69
Slate gray, smooth
SW
0.64
Stone white, smooth
SW
0.57
Terra Cotta, smooth
SW
0.61
Adobe
SW
0.77
Black
SW
0.83
Bright red
SW
0.96
Chestnut brown
SW
0.67
Colonial green
SW
0.83
Dawn mist
SW
0.76
Desert tan
SW
0.74
Frost blende
SW
0.76
Meadow green
SW
0.78
Noire black
SW
0.90
Shinglesasphalt (sm. Ceramic-coated rock

granules)
3-8

Table 3-1 (cont.)
Material
Wavelength
(micrometers)
Temperature
(C)
Emissivity
Shinglesasphalt (sm. Ceramic-coated rock

granules) cont.
Sea green
SW
0.83
Shadow gray
SW
0.81
Slate blende
SW
0.65
Snow white
SW
0.81
Wedgewood blue
SW
0.75
Wood blende
SW
0.75
Average
SW
0.89
Frost blende
SW
0.83
Mahogany
SW
0.84
Meadow mist
SW
0.98
Noire black
SW
0.93
Snow white
SW
0.74
Wood blende
SW
0.81
Average
SW
0.86
SW
0.79
Fiberglassasphalt (sm. Ceramic-coated rock

granules)
Solid vinyl
Autumn gold, textured
Butternut beige, textured
SW
0.80
Lexington green, textured
SW
0.86
Oyster white, textured
SW
0.88
Quaker gray, textured
SW
0.89
Sunshine yellow, textured
SW
0.75
White, smooth
SW
0.93
Average
SW
0.94
Styrofoam, insulation
37
0.60
Tape, electrical, insulating, black
35
0.97
Tape, masking
36
0.92
Tile, floor, asbestos
35
0.94
Tile, glazed
SW
17
0.94
3-9

Table 3-1 (cont.)
Material
Wavelength
(micrometers)
Temperature
(C)
Emissivity
Varnish, flat
SW
0.93
Wallpaper (slight pattern) lt. gray
SW
0.85
Wallpaper (slight pattern) red
SW
0.90
Wood, paneling, light finish
36
0.87
Wood, polished spruce, gray
36
0.86
Table 3-2
Emissivity for Wavelengths of 814 m at 0C
Material
3-10
Emissivity
(%)
Material
Emissivity
(%)
Asbestos
Board
Paper
Slate
96
94
96
Aluminum, polished
Rough surface
Strongly oxidized
5
7
25
Brick
Glazed, rough
Fireclay
Red, rough
Carbon, purified
Cement
Charcoal, powder
Clay, fired
Enamel
Fabric, asbestos
85
85
94
90
80
54
96
91
90
78
Brass, dull, tarnished

Polished
22
3
Bronze, polished
Porous, rough
10
55
Cast iron, casting

Polished
81
21
Glass
Frosted
92
96
Chromium, polished
10
Ice
97
Copper, commercial burnished

Electrolytic, polished
Oxidized
Oxidized to black
7
2
65
88
Lacquer, bakelite
Black, dull
Black, shiny (on metal)
White
93
87
87
87
Gold, polished
Lampblack
96
Iron, hot-rolled
Oxidized
Sheet, galvanized, burnished
Sheet, galvanized, oxidized
Shiny, etched
Wrought, polished
77
74
23
28
16
28
Pure and Oxidized Metals

Table 3-2 (cont.)
Emissivity for Wavelengths of 814 m at 0C
Material
Emissivity
(%)
Material
Emissivity
(%)
Oil paint, various colors
94
Paper, black, shiny

Black, dull
White
90
94
90
Lead, gray
Oxidized
Red, powder
Shiny
28
63
93
8
Porcelain, glazed
92
Mercury, pure
10
Nickel on cast iron

Pure, polished
5
5
Pure and Oxidized Metals
Quartz
93
Platinum, pure
Rubber
95
Steel, galvanized
Oxidized strongly
Rolled freshly
Rough surface
Rusty, red
Sheet, nickel-plated
Sheet, rolled
28
88
24
96
69
11
56
Shellac, black, dull

Black, shiny on tin plate
91
82
Tin, burnished
Snow
80
Tungsten
Tar paper
92
Zinc, sheet
20
Water
98
There are several methods described in Section 4 that can be used to estimate target effective
emissivity quickly. Using the instrument chosen for measurement, one method of determining
the setting needed for a particular target material is to:
1. Prepare a sample of the material large enough to contain several spot sizes or IFOVs of the
instrument. A 10 cm x 10 cm (4" x 4") sample is a good choice.
2. Spray one half of the target sample with flat black (light absorbing) paint; cover it with black
masking tape or use some other substance of known high emissivity.
3. Heat the sample to a uniform temperature as close as possible to the temperature at which
you estimate your actual measurement will be made.
4. Set your instrument emissivity control to the known emissivity of the coating and measure
the temperature of the coated area with your instrument. Note the reading.
5. Immediately point to the uncoated area and adjust the emissivity set until you repeat the
reading you obtained in 4. above. This is the effective emissivity, the value you should use in
measuring the temperature of this material with this instrument.
For quick reference, this procedure is illustrated and summarized in Appendix C, Plate 5.
3-11

3.3.4 Filling the IFOVmeas for Accurate Temperature Measurements

If you need to measure the temperature of a spot on a target, be certain that this spot completely
fills the Instantaneous Measurement Field of View (IFOVmeas) of the instrument. If it doesn't,
you can still learn some useful things about the target with the instrument, but you can't get an
accurate reading of target temperature. Use the quick calculation that is provided in Appendix
C, Plate 2 to determine spot size based on IFOVmeas and actual working distance. If your target
spot size is 5 cm or larger, for example, and the calculated spot size is 5 cm, move the instrument
closer to the target or use a higher magnification lens, if either is possible. If not, expect to see
some background effect in your reading. Also, be sure to allow for aiming errors and instrument
imperfections; to be sure, allow an extra 30%.
3.3.5 Aiming Normal to the Target Surface
The effective emissivity of a target surface is due partially to the surface texture. It stands to
reason, then, that if you look at a surface at a skimming angle, you won't see the texture; the
effective emissivity will change greatly and you will see misleading reflections. These can result
in cold errors as well as hot errors. A safe rule is to view the target at an angle within 30 of
normal (perpendicular). If the target effective emissivity is very high, you can go as high as a 60
angle if necessary.
3.3.6 Recognizing and Avoiding Reflections From External Sources
If there is a source of radiant energy in a position to reflect off your target surface and into your
instrument, you should take steps to avoid the misleading results of this effect. The greatest
likelihood of errors due to reflections from external sources occurs when:
The target emissivity is low.
The target is cooler than its surroundings.
The target surface is curved or irregularly shaped.
You can find out if a thermal anomaly is due to a point source by moving the instrument and
pointing it at the target from several different directions. If the anomaly moves on the
thermogram, it is a reflection. You can eliminate the effect of an interfering source, once you
identify it, by changing your viewing angle, by blocking the line of sight to the source, or by
doing both (refer to Appendix A, Figure A-9). For reflections from hot backgrounds, refer to
Appendix A, Section A.3.3.
3.3.7 Avoiding Radiant Heat Damage to the Instrument
Unless specifically selected for continuous operation in close proximity to a very hot target, your
instrument might be damaged by extensive thermal radiation from a target. Don't leave the
instrument in areas that are too warm to place your hand comfortably.
3-12
INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
This section is divided into two sub-sections that deal with the common problems and solutions
that are encountered when using infrared thermography in a plant or industrial environment. The
first section deals with the inherent or indigenous problems, such as emissivity or reflectance.
The second section explains the tricks of the trade that are used to get the best possible
information out of the imaging systems.
The references (Appendix D) and the bibliography (Appendix E) provide many sources of
additional information on a wide variety of problems, both theoretical and practical.
4.1
Mitigating Inherent Effects
There are several factors that affect the production and subsequent proper interpretation of a
thermal image. These factors include the target's emissivity, reflectance, distance from the
imager, temperature, background temperature, ambient temperature, orientation, target size, and
the transmittance of the intervening atmosphere. In addition, the image, as presented on the
imager, is not temperature but radiosity. Imagers measure the radiant energy emitted by the
target plus the radiant energy reflected from and transmitted through the target. The sum of these
radiant energies is the commonly accepted definition of radiosity.
There are practical considerations that will simplify the following discussions of the inherent
effects. In general, the transmittance (energy transmitted through the targets) can be ignored in
most, if not all, cases for targets in a power plant. Transmittance is an important factor in
industries where the temperature of a thin film of plastic or other infrared opaque targets are
being observed. Also, with the exception of absolute temperature measurements being required,
the transmittance through the atmosphere can be ignored as well. The major exception would be
in cases where long distances were involved in a humid atmosphere (that is, hydrogen igniters or
spray nozzles in containment).
4.1.1 Emissivity and Reflectivity
A review of the references in the bibliography (Appendix E) will show that no one subject is
discussed more than emissivity. The effective emissivity of a target clearly must be known in
order to measure its absolute temperature. This is discussed in detail in Appendix A. Table 4-1
provides some values of emissivity for common objects. Aluminum, the most commonly used
electrical conductor, can range from 0.55 for a rough highly oxidized plate, to 0.039 for a highly
polished plate. In practical terms, this means that 45% of the anodized plate and 96% of the
polished plate's incident energy are reflected and that any hot or cold objects in the optical
4-1

Inspection Techniques
background will reflect their energy off these surfaces. These mirrors do have surface thermal
patterns. It is difficult to measure them, however, because of the low emitted energy and the
natural ability to reflect thermal energy as well as light. In general, if a target is acting as a
visible mirror, it is acting as an infrared mirror as well. An exception to this rule is the
germanium lenses used on the thermal imager. These lenses transmit more than 90% of the
energy in the infrared spectrum but have light-reflecting coatings that reflect more than 90% of
the energy in the visible spectrum.
Table 4-1
Normal Emissivity Values of Common Materials
Material
Emissivity
Aluminum
Highly polished plate 98.3% pure
0.039
Polished plate
0.040
Rough plate
0.55
Chromium
0.080
Copper
Commercial, emeried, polished, with no pits remaining
0.030
Commercial, scraped, shiny but not mirror-like
0.072
Polished
0.023
Iron and steel

Cast iron, polished
0.21
Wrought iron, highly polished
0.28
Cast iron, newly turned
0.435
Oxidized surfaces
4-2
Iron plate, pickled then rusted red
0.612
Completely rusted
0.685
Rolled sheet steel
0.657
Steel oxidized at 110
0.79
Cast plate, smooth
0.80
Cast plate, rough
0.82

Given that shiny objects have surface thermal patterns that are hard to image, there are several
techniques that improve the ability to establish a satisfactory image. The most common way to
obtain a useful thermal image from a shiny or low-emissivity surface is to add a coating to it that
has a higher emissivity. (This is not practical and is not recommended for an energized
electrical surface.) There are three common non-permanent materials that have been used to
improve emissivity. These are:
Foot powder
Dye check developer
Electricians tape
4.1.2 Foot Powder

Foot powder is sprayed on a target to create a uniform layer that reduces the reflections. After the
powder has reached thermal equilibrium with the surface, the temperature measurements can be
made. The emissivity of foot powder has been estimated to be 0.96. Before any coating is
applied, however, the chemical composition of the coating should be determined to avoid any
negative effects from its application.
4.1.3 Dye Check Developer
(Caution: Ensure that all manufacturer precautions are followed prior to use of any developer.
For example, Magnaflux Zyglo developers, such as ZP-9E and ZP-9F, might produce chlorine
gas or become flammable when they come in contact with moderately heated surfaces.)
An alternative to foot powder is liquid dye penetrant developer. It has an estimated emissivity of
0.97 and might already have been formulated to conform to QA requirements for sulfur and
halogen purity. Application of it is identical to the foot powder. Given the temperature of the
target, it might take several minutes for the developer to reach thermal equilibrium as its
propellant cools the target's surface. The best way to use this in an actual survey would be to
apply it to all targets to be surveyed before commencing the actual survey. This will ensure that
all target surfaces will have reached thermal equilibrium.
The target in Figures 4-1 and 4-2 is a shiny metal can of dye check developer with the label
removed. There are no hot objects in or near the can. With the imager's emissivity set at 1.0, an
analysis of the temperature distribution over the can yielded a temperature range of 74.6F to
67.9F (6.7F T). The reason for the variation is reflection of the cold window plus geometric
considerations in measuring a curved surface. Setting the emissivity at 0.10, a more realistic
figure for a shiny surface, yielded a maximum temperature of 66.2F and a minimum
temperature of 23.9F (42.3F T). The room ambient temperature was 68F. Without changing
anything, the can surface was coated with developer and allowed to achieve thermal equilibrium.
The first effect noted was the observation of the level of the developer in the can (Figure 4-3).
This was due to the difference in the heat capacity of the liquid and vapor present inside the can.
The cooling action of the propellant developed a thermal transient that resulted in the liquid level
4-3

visible on the thermogram. The emissivity was reset to 0.97 and the can was allowed to achieve
thermal equilibrium with the room. After 10 minutes, the maximum temperature observed was
70.4F and the minimum temperature was 69.5F (0.9F T), close to room ambient of 68F.
(The 0.9F temperature spread is normal because the dye check developer might not have
uniformly coated the surface.) Clearly, the developer served its intended function of improving
the surface emissivity and, therefore, the results.
Figure 4-1
Emissivity Improvement by CoatingSetup
Figure 4-2
Thermogram of an Uncoated Shiny Metal Container
4-4

Figure 4-3
Container Has Been Coated to Improve EmissivityThermogram Now Reveals Fluid Level
4.1.4 Electricians' Tape

Another alternative that improves the surface emissivity is the use of electricians' tape (it has an
estimated emissivity of 0.95). This method is easy to use and apply but can present problems if
the glue on the tape contains chlorine or other chemicals that can attack the target surface.
4.2
Proven Inspection Techniques
4.2.1 Mirrored Surfaces

A commonly encountered situation is one where there is little or no room to place the imager and
the area of interest is behind another object. This is commonly found in electrical switchgear.
One method that works well is to use a material with a high reflectivity (low emissivity) as an
infrared mirror. The mirror is placed in such a manner that the reflected image is viewed from a
more convenient position. This is a common technique for visual inspection. The determination
of temperature, though, requires that the emissivity of the reflecting surface be taken into
account. Also, as in the visual technique, the mirrored image will appear reversed, thus requiring
care in interpreting the data.
There are excellent front surface mirrors available for this technique. These mirrors have the
reflecting material on the front surface so that the incoming energy is not refracted by the glass.
Sources for these mirrors include most optics manufacturers.
4-5

4.2.2 Thermal Transfer Imaging

As reported in Subsurface Flaw Detection in Reflective Materials by Thermal-Transfer
Imaging [2], there are a number of inspection techniques that can easily be applied in the field
to handle targets with low emissivity. One of these techniques is called Thermal Transfer
Imaging (TTI). This technique was developed primarily for the steel industry where low
emissivity and high temperatures exist as major problems in infrared imaging. In a case included
in Subsurface Flaw Detection in Reflective Materials by Thermal-Transfer Imaging [2], the
surface thermal patterns of a piece of hot steel needed to be determined. The resultant thermal
image provided too much reflection and too little emission to observe meaningful surface
thermal patterns. The patterns were observed after they had been transferred to a material that
had a higher emissivity. In other words, the surface patterns of the target were observed on the
surface of another object after the two had been in contact with each other. If the emissivities of
both materials are known and accounted for, temperature measurements can be made this way.
4.2.3 Thermal Transients
Another useful inspection technique for handling targets with low emissivity is to add or subtract
heat from a target. Most uses of IR are in the steady state condition. When there are two
materials with different heat capacities involved, however, a thermal transient is most useful. A
graphic example of this is shown in Figure 4-3, dealing with the can of dye check developer. A
thermal transient was induced on the can just by spraying it. The endothermic reaction of the
propellant as it evaporated caused heat to transfer from the inside of the can (warmer) to the
outside. In the case of the propellant inside, the liquid had a higher heat capacity (Cp) than the
vapor space above it. During the transient, the liquid, therefore, caused a larger transfer and
resultant temperature difference due to conduction on the can surface. The higher emissivity of
the developer on the cans surface allowed it to be seen more readily.
This is an extremely useful technique. Where large masses are concerned, however, a large
amount of heat transfer might be needed for observation. This technique can be used to
determine relative thicknesses of material and locations of voids, delaminations, and internal
structures.
The heat transfer can be induced by several methods. In the case of locating reinforcing bars
(rebar) in concrete, a large induction coil placed on the concrete causes the bars to heat. The
locations of the bars and their relative depth can, subsequently, be observed on the surface. When
looking for voids in composite materials [3], a flash lamp can be used for a short pulse of energy.
Hot air from a compressor can be used for containment spray ring header nozzle inspections and
for locating materials near the surface of concrete [4]. It should be noted, however, that heating
is not always the most effective approach. Cooling is sometimes more effective, especially in hot
areas.
4-6

4.2.4 Differential Thermography

Another state of the art inspection technique is differential thermography. This method was
originally developed for the U.S. Army for the identification of defective components on the
surface of a printed circuit board. The reports, Infrared Automatic Mass Screening (IRAMS)
System for Printed Circuit-Board Fault Detection [5] and Infrared Automatic Screening
(IRAMS) Progress Report [6], provide details on this successful technique and results. As
applied in a power plant, a good example would be to observe the resultant surface thermal
patterns of reflective insulation to learn about its efficiency. Given that the reflective insulation
on a pipe or heat exchanger is not only reflective but large in size, coating with dye check
developer or tape is impractical; an infrared imager shows the surface and all reflections from it.
The technique here involves a computer, image enhancement, and commercial software. A
baseline image is taken at one temperature, for example, during start-up. This image is digitized
and stored on a computer. A second image, or subsequent images, are taken from the same
location but at a different temperature, at full power for example. This image is also digitized and
stored on the computer. The two images are then subtracted. The high reflectance due to the low
emissivity exactly cancels out, leaving an image of true surface thermal patterns. One important
assumption here is that the background remains the same. These patterns can then be correlated
with a visual image for location of internal insulation damage. Also, knowing the emissivity of
the insulation and the resultant temperature patterns provides an opportunity to measure the Rvalue of the insulation. This should help in determining the cost-effectiveness of insulation repair
or replacement.
The differential thermography technique requires that the images be taken from the same place.
There are several ways to do this. The first is called pin registration and involves drilling small
pilot holes into the floor so that the pins of a tripod's feet would fit in to them. The only variable
then becomes the orientation of the thermal imager head on the tripod. A better application of
this differential thermography technique is to have the computer at the imager. The original is
placed on the screen as a mask. When the mask and the live image cancel each other out, there is
exact registration (within the accuracy of the optics). In some cases, such as measuring the Rvalue for the entire heat exchanger, the temperatures above and below certain targets are
canceled out (chopped). The analysis is then done on the resultant images. The criteria for
chopping can be due to background sources and/or hot reflective sources.
4.2.5 Using Infrared Transmitting Windows
For the purpose of safety, it might be inadvisable or in violation of safety regulations, to remove
bolts from operating high voltage equipment or to open panels. However, it might be possible to
install viewing windows of infrared transmitting materials for infrared inspection. There are
numerous materials available for this purpose. In Appendix A, Figure A-12 shows the spectral
transmission characteristics of several of these materials, many of which transmit energy past
10 m. These materials are often used as lenses and optical elements in low-temperature infrared
sensors. Installing IR transmitting windows in critical locations is a growing trend, enabling
periodic inspection of these locations without the hazard or inconvenience of opening panels or
removing bolts.
4-7
EXAMPLES OF INFRARED APPLICATIONS
5.1
Current Applications
The applications described below are broken down into three categories: electrical, mechanical,
and miscellaneous. The primary use of infrared thermography has been in the electrical area. The
mechanical area involves rotating equipment, heat exchangers, valves, and buildings. The
miscellaneous section describes research in progress and unique applications. The Bibliography
section of this Guide (Appendix E) provides references to many other publications where
examples of other applications are presented.
5.2
Electrical Applications
The primary use for infrared thermography, and usually the most straightforward application for
it, is in the area of electrical predictive maintenance. Within this area, there are three main
categories of problems: high electrical resistance, inductive currents, and open circuits.
5.2.1 High Electrical Resistance
High electrical resistance is the most common problem that can be identified by using an infrared
imager. Based on Ohm's law, power (watts) is calculated as the square of the current multiplied
by the resistance (P = I2R). When the resistance is high, the power that is dissipated will be high.
A higher power translates into a higher temperature at the same location. This creates the hot
spots that are detected by the infrared thermal imager.
Typical problems in this category include loose and/or corroded connections (see Figure 5-9),
under-sized electrical conductors, and open individual strands of a multiple-stranded conductor.
A special case in this category is phase imbalance. The situations that cause a phase imbalance
are numerous, but all involve the situation where the current in one phase of a three-phase circuit
is significantly different than in the other phase(s). The difference in the higher current phase
will be seen as a heating difference. The individual phase currents should be measured to verify
this.
Another special case within the category is high resistance within a battery cell. Normally,
batteries under trickle charge will be near ambient temperatures. High resistance, internal to the
battery, can be observed on the battery exterior as areas of higher temperature when compared to
similar batteries. These observed temperature differences on an unloaded battery cell will be very
5-1

Examples of Infrared Applications
small (that is, 0.25F to 1.0F). Any temperature differences along the inner cell connections
with the battery on float indicate a potentially serious connection problem. There have been
several cases where high internal battery resistance has gone unnoticed and has subsequently led
to battery failure.
5.2.2 Induced Currents
In situations involving high currents, hot spots might appear, not from the primary current but
from currents induced in nearby ferrous elements or structures. This is often the case near the
main electrical generator. These hot spots can appear in unlikely places such as the supporting
steel structure of the generator. Other inductive hot spots have been observed on the generator
stator casing and on the frames of motors. Not all of the hot spots are problems, however. In the
case of the steel structure, the hot spots might be at the location where the electrical fields from
the generator coincide. Hot spots are also common on motors. In both cases, this type of problem
should be well documented and, where necessary, trended for future evaluation.
5.2.3 Open Circuits
One frequently overlooked application of infrared thermography is in identifying open circuits.
For example, a common problem with inverters happens when one or more capacitors fail open.
In this case, the failed capacitors will appear to be cooler than other similar capacitors within the
inverter.
5.3
Mechanical Applications
IR applications that do not fall into the electrical category are usually described as mechanical.
Within this category, there are four major subsets: heating due to friction, valve leakage/blockage,
insulation, and building applications.
5.3.1 Friction
In the case of rotating or moving equipment, the result of friction is readily observable as an
increase in temperature. Typical situations evolve in the area of bearings on pumps (see Figure
5-26) and motors. If a bearing or coupling is inadequately lubricated, internal friction can cause
heating, which can usually be observed during operation. A misaligned shaft can result in
unequal loading, which causes heat generation at the point of highest mechanical resistance. This
situation can be detected from the resultant elevated temperatures seen at the shaft bearing or
coupling.
5.3.2 Valve Leakage/Blockage
The leakage of fluid past a normally closed valve might be easy to observe with an infrared
imager, provided that the insulation on the pipe is accounted for or removed, and that there is a
5-2

sufficient temperature difference between the pipe surface and ambient. Typical situations are
leaking safety valves (see Figures 5-21, 5-22, 5-23, and 5-25), drain valves, and steam traps.
Blockage in a pipe or a valve is a special case. In this situation, it might be necessary to add or
remove heat from the area in question in order to locate the blockage. As an example, if a
blockage were suspected in a boric acid transfer line, adding or removing heat in the area of the
blockage would result in a thermal discontinuity at the location of the blockage. The
discontinuity exists because boric acid, in the solid form, has a different heat capacity (Cp) than
boric acid in the liquid form. Therefore, if a uniform amount of heat is added or removed from
both areas, the areas will cool or heat at different rates. The rate difference will, for some period
of time, show up as a temperature difference. The interface will be at the location of the
blockage. This same mechanism, transient heating or cooling, is the mechanism that allows the
remote detection of fluid levels in a tank by means of thermal imaging.
5.3.3 Insulation
Insulation on piping and equipment can be tested for integrity using an infrared imager. IR
applications include the assurance of complete coverage of the area, thinning/degradation of the
insulation, and wet insulation. A most challenging application is when the insulation is a
reflective type of insulation or has a reflective covering. The very low emissivity of the surface
can result in reflected hot spots from the background, thus, making temperature measurements
difficult. One process that can be used is to observe the insulation over a period of time when the
system is heating up or cooling down. Using differential thermography, and subtracting two
images, cancels out the effects of emissivity and might result in an interpretable thermal
difference image.
5.3.4 Building Envelopes
Buildings can be inspected for energy conservation with an infrared imager. Typical problems
that can be found include air infiltration or exfiltration, poor insulation, and wet roofs. These are
traditional applications for infrared thermography. The bibliography (Appendix E) provides
sources of further information on these types of applications.
5.4
Miscellaneous Applications
There are numerous applications for infrared thermography that are unique to the nuclear
industry or that require special mention. These applications include, inspecting the containment
spray ring header, the hydrogen igniters, and the condensers for air in-leakage, and observing
thermal plumes.
5.4.1 Containment Spray Ring Header
Due to the inaccessibility of the containment spray ring header for physical inspection, infrared
imagers have proven to be quite useful in detecting nozzle blockage. In the past, verification of
5-3

unblocked nozzles on the header has involved several methods including smoke tests and
balloons. The infrared method involves pumping heated air into the header and observing the
thermal patterns at the nozzles. A blocked nozzle will not pass any hot air and an unblocked
nozzle will. Due to the small size of the nozzle and the distance involved, a telescopic lens must
be used with the imager for this inspection.
5.4.2 Hydrogen Igniters
Infrared thermography has been used for inspecting the containment hydrogen igniters. Through
the use of telescopic attachments, the temperature of the igniters can be measured from a remote
distance. This technique eliminates the need for staging for close-up inspection.
5.4.3 Condensers
Infrared thermal imagers have been used for inspecting condensers for both tube leaks and
vacuum leaks (air in-leakage). As the air is drawn into the condenser, the leaks are observable as
cooler areas. This inspection technique, however, is very labor-intensive and requires close and
careful inspection of valve stems, bonnets, flanges, penetrations, and tubes.
5.4.4 Thermal Plume Detection
The use of an infrared imager in a helicopter or airplane can assist the plant in verifying thermal
discharge patterns in cooling ponds or other bodies of water. The thermal plume, or outfall, is
easily observed from the air. The hottest spots on the surface of the water are easily located. This
facilitates routine environmental monitoring for thermal discharge.
5-4

5.5
Applications Summary
Table 5-1 is a composite list of potential applications for infrared thermal imaging in the areas
discussed.
Table 5-1
Composite List of Infrared Applications
Electrical
Electrical connections (loose/corroded)
Switchyard disconnects
Transformers (connections, arrestors, cooling)
Transformers (internals)
Misaligned contacts, brushes, fuses, fuse clips, holders
Splices, crimps
Motor Control Center (MCC) heaters
Conductors (stranded, undersized, damaged)
Inductive heating (structure, bus ducts)
Batteries (connections, cells)
Open circuits (capacitors)
Load imbalance
Printed circuit boards
Motors (frames, bearings, connections)
Motors (failed coil in stator)
Mechanical
Valves (leakage, blockage)
Bearings
Couplings
Insulation (wet, damaged, coverage)
Pipes (thin areas, blockage, missing lining)
Refractory buildings (insulation, air leakage, roofs)
Reinforcing bar location
Underground leaks
Steam traps
Boiler tubes
Miscellaneous
Containment spray ring header nozzles
Containment hydrogen igniter temperatures
Condensers (air in-leakage, tube leaks)
Thermal plumes
Heat transfer evaluation of heat exchangers
5-5

To assist utility personnel in thermal image interpretation and recognition, this section also
contains a number of examples of applications. These are thermal and visual images of
components that appear to be in a degraded condition, along with a number of thermal and visual
images of other components that appear to be in good working order. Table 5-2 is a listing of the
example images that follow. Full-color images are available on the enclosed CD.
Table 5-2
List of IR Application Examples
5-6
Figure Number
Application Description
5-1
Step-Up Transformer High-Resistance Connection
5-2
250 kV Transformer
5-3
Steam Line Leaks
5-4
Isophase Bus Bellows
5-5
Electric Generator
5-6
Regulating Transformer Cooling Oil Migration
5-7
Generator Casing
5-8
Energized Ground Cable
5-9
480 V Breaker Connection
5-10
Current Transformer
5-11
Fuse Holder
5-12
Connection to Fuse Holder
5-13
Knife Switch
5-14
Motor Control Center Breaker
5-15
Motor Control Center Terminal Block
5-16
Motor Control Center Control Wire
5-17
Padmount Transformers
5-18
Vacuum Leak on Turbine Condenser
5-19
Small Transformer
5-20
Motor
5-21
Shell Relief Valve
5-22
Shell Relief Valve (Weeping)
5-23
Shell Relief Valve (Leaking)
5-24
Vacuum Leak on Turbine
5-25
Steam Trap
5-26
Pump Bearing
5-27
Office Building
5-28
Building Roof with Water Saturation
5-29
Induction Motor Air Intake Plenum
5-30
Generator Step-Up Transformer
5-31
Printed Circuit Module

Full-color images of the following figures are provided on the enclosed CD.
5-7

Figure 5-1
Figures and text provided by Richard Bjornson, Seabrook Nuclear Power Station, Seabrook, NH,
FLIR/InfraMation 2000 Proceedings
5-8

Figure 5-1 (cont.)

5-9

Figure 5-2
250 kV Transformer
5-10

Figure 5-2 (cont.)

250 kV Transformer
5-11

Figure 5-3
Steam Line Leaks
Figures and text provided by Mark Lanius, PECO, Peach Bottom Nuclear Station, Delta, PA,
5-12

Figure 5-3 (cont.)

Steam Line Leaks
5-13

Figure 5-4
5-14

Figure 5-4 (cont.)

5-15

Figure 5-5
Electric Generator
5-16

Figure 5-5 (cont.)

Electric Generator
5-17

Figure 5-6
Figures and text provided by James Dan Roark, Knoxville Utilities Board, Knoxville, TN,
5-18

Figure 5-6 (cont.)

5-19

Figure 5-7
Generator Casing
Figures and text provided by Greg Stockton, Stockton IR Thermography Service, Randleman, NC,
5-20

Figure 5-7 (cont.)

Generator Casing
5-21

Figure 5-8
5-22

Figure 5-8 (cont.)

5-23

Figure 5-9
5-24

Figure 5-9 (cont.)

5-25

Figure 5-10
Current Transformer
5-26

Figure 5-10 (cont.)

Current Transformer
5-27

Figure 5-11
Fuse Holder
5-28

Figure 5-11 (cont.)

Fuse Holder
5-29

Figure 5-12
5-30

Figure 5-12 (cont.)

5-31

Figure 5-13
Knife Switch
5-32

Figure 5-13 (cont.)

Knife Switch
5-33

Figure 5-14
5-34

Figure 5-14 (cont.)

5-35

Figure 5-15
5-36

Figure 5-15 (cont.)

5-37

Figure 5-16
5-38

Figure 5-16 (cont.)

5-39

Figure 5-17
Figures and text provided by Jeff Sullivan, Mississippi Power Co., Hattiesburg, MS,
5-40

Figure 5-17 (cont.)

5-41

Figure 5-18
Figures and text provided by Mark Lanius, PECO, Peach Bottom Nuclear Station, Delta, PA,
5-42

Figure 5-18 (cont.)

5-43

Figure 5-19
Small Transformer
5-44

Figure 5-19 (cont.)

Small Transformer
5-45

Figure 5-20
Motor
5-46

Figure 5-20 (cont.)

Motor
5-47

Figure 5-21
Shell Relief Valve
5-48

Figure 5-21 (cont.)

Shell Relief Valve
5-49

Figure 5-22
5-50

Figure 5-22 (cont.)

5-51

Figure 5-23
5-52

Figure 5-23 (cont.)

5-53

Figure 5-24
5-54

Figure 5-24 (cont.)

5-55

Figure 5-25
Steam Trap
5-56

Figure 5-25 (cont.)

Steam Trap
5-57

Figure 5-26
Pump Bearing
5-58

Figure 5-26 (cont.)

Pump Bearing
5-59

Figure 5-27
Office Building
5-60

Figure 5-27 (cont.)

Office Building
5-61

Figure 5-28
Figures and text provided by Kathryn Barker, American Infrared Testing and Consulting,
5-62

Figure 5-28 (cont.)

5-63

Figure 5-29
5-64

Figure 5-29 (cont.)

5-65

Figure 5-30
Figures and text provided by Mark Goff, Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, TN,
InfraMation 2001 Proceedings
5-66

Figure 5-30 (cont.)

5-67

Figure 5-31
Figures and text provided by Richard Fishbune, IBM, Rochester, MN,
5-68

Figure 5-31 (cont.)

5-69
BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN IN-HOUSE PROGRAM
The creation of an in-house program to utilize infrared thermography would be customized to

each facility's methods of conducting operations. The basic elements of each program, however,
would probably be much the same. This section outlines a generic approach to developing and
implementing a comprehensive infrared thermography program. A discussion of the basic
elements is followed by a sample program.
6.1
Basic Elements
An in-house program can be developed by many different approaches. A program that is limited to
the use of only qualitative thermal imaging instruments (as compared to radiometric/quantitative)
is likely to be less comprehensive. Assuming that a program was created to make full use of a
radiometric/quantitative imager and image processing software, the following topics would need to
be addressed:
Introduction
Definitions
Scope
Responsibilities
Precautions
Prerequisites
Conduct of the Survey
Acceptance criteria
Reporting requirements
Qualification of personnel
Scheduling
Equipment matrix
References
6-1

Basic Elements of an In-House Program
6.1.1 Introduction
This section provides a discussion of the purpose and goal of the IR survey.
6.1.2 Definitions
In order to put the program in the proper context, the definitions should be at the front. This will
allow the reader or reviewer to have an easy reference for the terminology that follows.
6.1.3 Scope
The scope of the program should be very specific as to what is covered and what is not. The
applications for infrared thermography are very broad. Inspections of roofs and buildings should
not be addressed in a document that has inspections of safety-related equipment as its main
purpose. An addendum to the main procedure should be used to avoid confusion.
6.1.4 Responsibilities
This section should clearly delineate who is responsible for the various aspects of the program
from administration through corrective action. The main areas of responsibility are
administration, inspection (Infrared Thermographer), and corrective action. Most of the difficulty
in applying this technology is in image interpretation and diagnosis. It might be necessary to use
others in this effort and, if so, their role should be specifically identified.
6.1.5 Precautions
Many of the infrared inspections necessitate that panels be removed from energized electrical
equipment. Precautions as to electrical and personnel safety should be included.
6.1.6 Prerequisites
All of the prerequisites for conducting the survey should be identified here. This should include
the qualification of personnel, calibration of equipment, approvals needed from Operations
and/or Management, and the required resources (equipment and personnel).
6.1.7 Conduct of the Survey
This section could reference or include specific procedures for inspections. Specific techniques
and a suggested sequence of inspections could also be included.
6-2

6.1.8 Acceptance Criteria

All survey results should be compared to either a baseline thermogram or other industry accepted
standards. Problems or anomalies should then be reviewed for determination of which corrective
action, if any, should be undertaken. The following acceptance criteria provide a generic
example but would need adaptation for component-specific use.
Advisory
1F to 15F rise above a reference (0.5C8C)
Intermediate
16F to 50F rise above a reference (9C28C)
Serious
51F to 100F rise above a reference (29C56C)
Critical
in excess of 100F rise above a reference (56C)
An alternative to the above classification is that used in Military Standard MIL-STD-2194

(1988). The MIL Standard uses four categories as follows:
Desirable
Component is 10C (18F) to 24C (44F) above ambient
Important
Mandatory
Immediate
Component is 70C (126F) or more above ambient
The main difference between the two methods of problem classification is that the MIL Standard
references temperature rise above ambient and the guide classification relates to a temperature
rise above a reference value. That reference value could be ambient or, in the case of three-phase
electrical circuits, a temperature rise above an adjacent phase.
Each facility should adopt criteria that provide a balance between maintenance requirements and
operational considerations.
6.1.9 Reporting Criteria
A rigid process should be established when reporting the results of infrared inspections. This
rigidity is necessary due to the ease of misinterpretation of the thermograms by untrained
personnel. A typical quarterly survey of electrical equipment might result in 25 to 50 problems in
200 pieces of inspected equipment. The vast majority of these problems might be minor in nature
and require corrective action on a low priority. The process that works best, based on industry
responses, is one that keeps the report distribution and decision-making in the hands of the right
people (operations, maintenance, and/or program managers).
The format for the report should also be consistent. At a minimum, it should include the
following:
Time/date
Equipment identification
Location
6-3

Specific problem
Corrective action recommended
Problem action criteria
Visible photograph
Infrared photograph
Inspectors name and signature
6.1.10 Qualification of Personnel

Personnel responsible for conducting the surveys and interpreting the results should be trained in
the use of the equipment and certified by their employer. The training and certification criteria,
established by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), should be adapted and
incorporated into the program. These criteria are outlined in their document SNT-TC-1A and
will be discussed in more detail in Section 7.
6.1.11 Scheduling
The documentation requirements and listing of equipment to be evaluated during the survey
should be established in advance so that trends in equipment operation can be translated easily
into predictions of future results. This is the key to predictive maintenance. The program must
also be flexible enough to accommodate emergency inspections and inspections during
unplanned outages. Typically, the administrator of the IR program provides this interface.
6.1.12 Equipment Matrix
The equipment to be surveyed, the selection criteria, and the locations and frequency of
inspection should be compiled in a matrix. Typically, the electrical equipment is grouped
together, as are the other major component groups. An alternate approach would be to list the
equipment in a route of survey-format, which might save time for the infrared thermographer.
6.1.13 References
References to any helpful information should be provided. These typically include training
materials, textbooks on the subject, and equipment operation manuals.
6-4

6.2
Sample Program
This section incorporates the above recommendations and could serve as the basis for a program
using infrared thermography as part of a predictive maintenance program.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
This program is for the administration and conduct of an infrared inspection program of
electrical and mechanical equipment. The purpose of this program is to identify
equipment that requires maintenance and to improve its reliability through the use of
infrared thermography (IR).
1.2
This document contains the recommended scope, frequency, and corrective action criteria
for routine and unscheduled infrared surveys.
1.3
Requests for changes to this program and questions relative to it shall be directed to the
administrator of the IR program.
2.0
DEFINITIONS
2.1
Infrared Electromagnetic radiation having wavelengths that are greater than those of
visible light, but shorter than microwaves. As it applies to IR thermography, the
wavelengths are between 3 to 15 micrometers.
2.2
Infrared Survey A comprehensive examination of components and equipment with an

infrared imaging system.
2.3
Emissivity The ratio of radiance from a surface to the radiance at the same wavelength
from a perfect blackbody at the same temperature. Functionally, this is the radiation
efficiency of a surface in the infrared spectrum.
2.4
Radiosity Thermal energy of a surface as seen by the infrared detector.
2.5
Thermogram A recorded, displayed, or hard-copy image of the output of an infrared

imaging system.
2.6
Isotherm A thermal contour on a thermogram where all of the spots along it are at the
same apparent temperature.
2.7
Infrared thermographer An individual who is trained and qualified to operate infrared

imaging equipment and to interpret the images.
3.0
SCOPE
3.1
The requirements of this procedure shall apply to all safety-related components. It shall
also be applicable to non-safety-related equipment where financial benefit might be
achieved by monitoring (that is, increased plant availability, decreased maintenance
costs, and so on).
3.2
This procedure includes guidelines for the following:
Component selection
6-5

6-6
Interval selection
Determining component acceptability
4.0
RESPONSIBILITIES
4.1
Administrator of IR It is the administrators responsibility to oversee the program. This

includes making changes to the procedure. All surveys, whether they are scheduled or
conducted on an emergency basis, shall be approved by the administrator or his/her
designee. The administrator shall be responsible for budgeting, planning, and interfacing
with outside organizations.
4.2
Infrared Thermographer The infrared thermographer is the only person trained and
qualified to operate the infrared imaging equipment. He/she is responsible for conducting
the surveys, interpreting the images, writing the reports, and acting as a technical
resource to other plant departments. The infrared thermographer is responsible for the
maintenance and calibration of the infrared imaging equipment.
4.3
Cognizant Engineer At the request of the infrared thermographer, a discipline-cognizant

engineer will provide assistance in diagnosing a problem. The cognizant engineer will
also suggest corrective action and provide coordination with other plant disciplines.
4.4
Root Cause Determination of root cause and the subsequent applicable action level
shall be the responsibility of plant management. When necessary, the infrared
thermographer shall request assistance from a cognizant systems or maintenance engineer
in determining the root cause or the recommended corrective action.
5.0
PRECAUTIONS
5.1
Many of the components that are being inspected represent potential plant trip hazards;
exercise extreme care.
5.2
All safe work practices as outlined in the plant safety manual, shall be followed. These
practices include exhibiting caution near energized electrical equipment, rotating
equipment, and hot pipes. All surveys shall be conducted from a safe stable location.
5.3
Infrared surveys within the Radiological Controls Area shall be conducted within the
guidelines of the Health Physics Department. In areas of potential contamination, the
infrared thermographer shall be responsible for covering the equipment with plastic as
directed by Health Physics.
5.4
When practical, surveys in areas of airborne contamination should be avoided. When this
is not possible, a thin piece of polyethylene or plastic can be placed over the lens. If this
is done, the transmittance of the covering must be taken into account.
6.0
PREREQUISITES
6.1
Personnel The infrared thermographer and one craft person constitute the minimum
personnel necessary to conduct a survey when the operating or opening of equipment is
necessary.

6.2
Approvals The required approvals to conduct a survey shall be coordinated with the IR
administrator. The control room should be notified both prior to the start of the survey
and at its end. If requested, the infrared thermographer will inform the control room prior
to opening equipment that presents a possible plant trip hazard.
6.3
Emergencies In cases where requests for surveys are done on an emergency basis, the
infrared thermographer shall fulfill the duties of the IR administrator and provide the
necessary coordination.
7.0
CONDUCT OF THE SURVEY
7.1
The equipment survey matrix shall identify the equipment to be surveyed and the
frequency of the survey.
7.2
The sequence of the survey is not important unless specifically stated in the procedure or
requested by either Maintenance or Operations. All equipment on the matrix must be
surveyed unless it is not in operation or conditions dictate otherwise. The infrared
thermographer shall note any exceptions in the inspection report.
7.3
Standard practice is to videotape all surveys and to include an audio track for verbal
identification and discussion.
7.4
The thermal images must be of sufficient resolution to identify the components and any
problem areas.
7.5
When problems are identified, the thermographer shall reposition the imager and obtain
more than one view. This is done to eliminate the possibility of apparent problems being
caused by reflections from hot objects. The hard-copy images should be obtained from
the position that provides the best image.
7.6
All problems are to be photographed in the visible as well as in the infrared. This is to
allow proper and easy identification of the problem areas, which will facilitate
maintenance activities.
7.7
The problems shall be customarily reported as a temperature rise. This rise can be
calculated from ambient, thermal baseline data, or made by comparison in the cases
where similar equipment exists.
7.8
When absolute temperatures are requested or required, the infrared thermographer shall
determine and use the target's effective emissivity to assure accuracy. A standard table of
effective emissivities will be developed by measurement and will be maintained by the
infrared thermographer.
7.9
Important information relating to test conditions, such as load, flow, and pressure shall be
noted by the thermographer if it is available. This information will be used in component
trend analysis.
7.10
The components shall be inspected with the imager aimed along a line normal
(perpendicular) to the target surface whenever possible, to minimize the potential for
errors due to reflections.
6-7

6-8
7.11
During the infrared inspection, the components must also be inspected visually and any
discolorations, questionable noise, or smell should be reported.
7.12
In cases where precise measurements must be obtained, the instrument background

radiation effects must be taken into account. Instrument background temperature can be
determined by placing a good diffuse reflector (such as a piece of aluminum foil that has
been crumpled and re-flattened) in ambient air and measuring its apparent temperature
with the imagers emissivity set to 1.0.
7.13
Where external optics, such as telescopic and wide-angle lenses are used, the
transmittance of the optics must be taken into account. The information that corrects the
effects of these devices is supplied by the manufacturer and is entered directly into the
imager software.
7.14
When measurements are being made on targets, the size of the target and the distance
must be known. The IFOVmeas (Instantaneous Field of View for measurement) of the
instrument must fit comfortably within the required target spot at the measurement
distance. If these criteria are not satisfied, the instrument must be moved closer to the
target and/or a higher magnification lens must be used. (See section 3.3.4 for a more
detailed discussion of this subject).
7.15
The survey should be done with the imager scanned at a speed that does not cause
blurring of the image so that acceptable thermograms can be obtained from the videotape
on playback.
7.16
If requested or desired, a second (backup) measure of temperature can be obtained

through the use of contact thermocouples or spot radiometers. (Care should be used in
evaluating the results of measurements that are not calibrated.)
7.17
In general, equipment shall be surveyed when in a normal operational state. In cases

where equipment is not energized or running normally, the thermographer shall note it in
the IR inspection report.
7.18
Equipment such as batteries shall be surveyed during both normal operation and during
discharge tests.
7.19
Requests for equipment operation for the sole purpose of an infrared inspection shall be
coordinated with operations by the IR administrator. In most cases, this should be
avoided.
7.20
All infrared inspections, whether done by on-site personnel or outside contractors, will be
performed under the guidance and procedures listed in this program. Special tests outside
of the normal inspection shall be reviewed and approved in advance by the IR
administrator.
8.0
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
8.1
Subsequent to an initial thermal baseline, the following action levels are to be used to
classify each problem:

Advisory (Level 1)
1F to 15F rise
Intermediate (Level 2)
16F to 50F rise
Serious (Level 3)
51F to 100F rise
Critical (Level 4)
in excess of 100F rise
8.2
When indications on components fall into levels 2, 3, 4, section 9 of the program shall be
followed for reporting.
8.3
To determine acceptability of the inspection, the results and final report shall be
compared against the criteria set forth in this program.
9.0
REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
9.1
Every scheduled and unscheduled infrared inspection shall be documented and reported
in accordance with the requirements of this section (see Figure 6-1).
9.2
At a minimum, the report shall contain the following:
9.3
Summary of inspection and findings
Equipment list
Data sheets with IR and visible photographs of anomalies
Root cause analysis and corrective action
Comments
The report shall be issued to the IR administrator within five working days of the
completion of the survey.
9.4
A verbal report shall always be given to the on-site IR administrator upon completion of
the survey.
9.5
The reporting of problems that fall within the four acceptance action levels are as
follows:
Advisory (Level 1)
Normal cycle of corrective maintenance.
Intermediate (Level 2) High priority during an unscheduled shutdown.

Serious (Level 3)
Alert Operationspotential failure. Correct ASAP.
Critical (Level 4)
Alert Operations, Management. Remove from service ASAP.
9.6
Items classified as serious are to be immediately reported to the IR administrator who

will advise Maintenance and Operations.
9.7
Items classified as critical are to be immediately reported to Operations, Maintenance,

and the IR administrator.
6-9

10.0
QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL
10.1
The infrared thermographer shall be qualified by examination and certified by the plant to
conduct the survey.
10.2
The qualifying examination and training shall meet the guidelines of ASNT SNT-TC-1A
(current edition).
10.3
In addition to the ASNT qualifications, the thermographer shall be knowledgeable in the

following areas:
Equipment-specific operation
Infrared theory
Heat transfer modes
Safety practices
10.4
Certification of the thermographer shall be made through a written and a practical

examination.
10.5
The plant Training Department shall administer the initial and re-qualification training.
11.0
SCHEDULING
11.1
The IR administrator is responsible for scheduling all routine infrared inspections.
11.2
The Equipment Matrix (Program, section 12.0) lists the frequency of inspection for each
component.
11.3
Inspections on an emergency basis or for a special test shall be scheduled and coordinated
by the IR administrator.
12.0
EQUIPMENT MATRIX
12.1
Component Selection Criteria
12.1.1 The components that are to be included in the thermographic analysis program should be
selected based on the perceived or documented benefit of thermography on the type of
equipment and the following criteria categories:
A. Critical: Critical equipment shall be defined as:
Equipment whose function is necessary and must be available at all times.
Equipment upon which thermography has been used to deviate from a specific
vendor-recommended preventive maintenance activity.
Equipment necessary to maintain full-power generating capabilities (that is, nonredundant).
B. Vital: Vital equipment shall be defined as those components whose function is

necessary but that, through redundant design, do not have to be available at all times.
6-10

C. Vendor Recommended: Vendor-recommended equipment whose manufacturer or

vendor recommends the periodic monitoring of the equipment with infrared
thermography.
D. Non-Vital: Non-Vital equipment shall be defined as:
Equipment whose replacement cost versus periodic monitoring cost does not differ
greatly and does not fall into category A or B above.
Components that are used very infrequently and do not fall into category A or B.
12.1.2 The IR administrator shall maintain a listing of all of the components in the
thermographic analysis program, the category to which they belong, and their monitoring
interval.
12.1.3 Equipment in category D that has a failure history relating to thermography might be
included in the program in order to determine root cause, or to prevent failure recurrences
or significant inconveniences. Otherwise, equipment in category D should be omitted
from the program.
12.1.4 The above recommended component selection criteria should be applied predominantly
to electrical equipment such as:
Motor control centers

Load centers
Transformers
Switchgear
Battery chargers
Switchyard equipment
Large motor termination
12.1.5 The above criteria can also be applied to:
12.2
Pumps/motors
Steam traps
Valves
Performance Intervals
12.2.1 The selection of performance intervals should be based upon several factors, such as:
The impact of the component on plant operation and personnel safety if an

unexpected failure were to occur.
The speed at which a component fault manifests itself into a stage of degradation,
which affects the components operability.
Vendor/manufacturers recommendations.
The category of the component as stated in section 12.1.1 of the program.
6-11

12.2.2 When considering the vendors recommended frequency for thermography, the
application of the equipment should be taken into consideration (that is, the run time
experienced by the equipment in this installation versus what the vendor expects for
typical run times). Also, if the component falls into categories A or B of 12.1.1, then the
most limiting interval (between the vendor-recommended interval and the recommended
interval in section 12.2.3 of the program) shall be used for the monitoring of the
equipment.
12.2.3 The following recommended intervals for the given categories should be used:
A. Critical Equipment
Monitor quarterly for those components that are operated continuously or are optested at least quarterly.
Monitor semi-annually for those components that are operated continuously or are
run-tested at least semi-annually.
At start-up, monitor when the component is placed on-line, is at a stabilized

temperature, and has not been monitored for at least one monitoring interval.
Equipment less than 240 V does not require periodic monitoring.
B. Vital Equipment
Monitor equipment greater than 480 V quarterly.

Monitor equipment greater than 240 V but less than 480 V semi-annually.
Equipment less than 240 V does not require periodic monitoring.
12.2.4 Changes to monitoring intervals should be reviewed carefully prior to making changes in
order to ensure that maximum component availability and program efficiency is
provided.
12.2.5 At a minimum, documentation for interval changes shall be maintained, by the IR
administrator.
12.2.6 Components need not be operated for the sole purpose of collecting thermography data.
6-12
13.0
SUGGESTED PROGRAM REFERENCES
13.1
Infrared Thermography Guide (Revision 3), (formerly NP-6973)
13.2
Plant Administrative Procedures Manual
13.3
Plant Safety Manual
13.4
Plant Training Manual
13.5
Plant Quality Assurance Procedures Manual
13.6
Plant Systems Training Manual

13.7
Infrared Imager Instruction Manual
13.8
Plant Predictive Maintenance, INPO Good Practice 89-009.
13.9
Wolfe, W. L. and Zissis, G.J., The Infrared Handbook. Environmental Research Institute
of Michigan (1996).
13.10
Mil-Std-2194, Infrared Thermal Imaging Survey Procedure Electrical Equipment.
13.11
American Society for Nondestructive Testing Standard Practice SNT-TC-1A,

Qualifications Guidelines.
13.12
American Society for Nondestructive Testing Infrared and Thermal Testing Handbook,
2001.
13.13
American Society for Nondestructive Testing Level III Study Guide: Infrared and
Thermal Testing Method, 2001.
6-13

Figure 6-1
Infrared Survey Results
6-14
TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION
This section deals solely with the efforts of the American Society of Nondestructive Testing
(ASNT) in the training and certification of infrared thermographers. The purpose is to provide
guidelines for training individuals who will be able to deliver the best level of service possible.
It is important to understand that certification via the ASNT Certification Program, does not
imply authorization or licensing of the certificate holder to perform infrared thermography tasks.
It is solely the employer's responsibility to review the individual's qualification records for
completeness and to authorize individuals to perform infrared thermography tasks.
7.1
Background
Commercially available infrared imagers are quite easy to both use and misuse [7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Many small, independent contractors, from electricians to engineers, provide a wide range of
services to many different industries. In the absence of formal training, most of these people
have learned on the job while working with more experienced individuals.
At the request of many ASNT members, a committee was formed in the fall of 1989 to propose
modifying ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, the qualification guideline for
nondestructive testing, to accept and recognize infrared thermography as a valid nondestructive
examination method. At this writing, all of the training, qualification, and certification guidelines
are in place and SNT-TC-1A has been updated (1996) to include the T/IR (Thermal Infrared)
method.
Two additional ASNT publications were released in 2001 to support training and certification:
ASNT Infrared and Thermal Testing Handbook, 2001
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Infrared and Thermal Testing Method, 2001
Recommended training and certification guidelines for infrared thermographers are summarized
in the ASNT Infrared and Thermal Testing Handbook on pages 1518, and are explained in detail
in SNT-TC-1A.
The ASNT training program is intended to supplement equipment-specific training that might be
offered by the manufacturers. Certification is the responsibility of the individual employer.
SNT-TC-1A states the following in this regard:
7-1

Training and Certification
Written Practice. The employer shall establish a written practice for the control and
administration of nondestructive personnel training, examination and certification. The
employers written practice should describe the responsibility of each level of certification for
determining the acceptability of materials and components in accordance with applicable codes,
standards, specifications and procedures.
7.2
Levels of Qualification
The recommended Levels of Qualification for infrared thermographers follow those of

traditional NDE methods. These levels are as follows:
Level I
A Level I infrared thermographer shall be qualified to perform specific IR

inspections in accordance with detailed written instructions and to record the results;
the Level 1 infrared thermographer shall perform inspections under the cognizance
of a Level II or Level III. The Level I shall not independently perform nor evaluate
inspection results for acceptance or rejection when such inspection results are for the
purpose of verifying compliance to code or regulatory requirements.
Level II
A Level II infrared thermographer shall be qualified to set up and calibrate

equipment, conduct inspections, and to interpret inspection results in accordance
with procedure requirements. The individual shall be familiar with the limitations
and scope of the method employed and shall have the ability to apply techniques
over a broad range of applications within the limits of their certification. The Level
II shall be able to organize and report inspection results. A Level II must have the
ability to correctly identify components and parts of components within the scope of
the IR inspection.
Level III
A Level III infrared thermographer is capable of designating a particular inspection

technique, establishing techniques and procedures, and interpreting results. The
individual shall have sufficient practical background in his/her area of expertise to
develop innovative techniques and to assist in establishing acceptance criteria where
none are otherwise available. The individual shall have general familiarity with other
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods and inspection technologies. The Level III
individual shall be qualified to train and examine Level I and Level II personnel for
qualification and certification as an infrared thermographer.
7.3
Training Requirements
The training requirements for each level of the infrared thermographer qualification parallel
those for the other traditional NDE methods in that on-the-job training, educational background,
and classroom work all count toward qualification. There are qualification examinations and
annual re-qualification requirements at all levels. It is up to the utilities training organization
and individual employers to implement the appropriate recommendations of the training program
set forth in SNT-TC-1A.
7-2

The experience and education recommendations for the three levels are:
Level I
A high school diploma (or equivalent) or 6 months of experience
Level II
A two-year college or technical degree or 18 months of experience
Level III
A four-year technical degree from a college or university or 5 years of experience
The required classroom training is as follows:

Level I
40 hours of instruction, 50-question written examination, classroom experiment
Level II
40 hours of instruction, 75-question written examination, classroom experiment
Level III
40 hours of instruction, 75-question written examination, procedure preparation

for classroom experiment
The classroom training is based on the body of knowledge reviewed, adopted, and updated by
ASNT, summarized in ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, and reviewed in ASNT
Level III Study Guide: Infrared and Thermal Testing Method, 2001. The depth that is covered by
these areas corresponds to the level of the training. This translates into more extensive training at
Level III than Level I, even though the classroom hours are the same.
The four areas for training and associated practical aspects are listed below. At the conclusion of
training, the trainee will:
A. Radiosity or Target Exitance
Understand the concepts of radiosity and associated parameters.
Be able to measure emissivity, reflectance, transmittance, background temperature,

foreground temperature, and target temperature.
Be cognizant of potential errors in the measurement of the above parameters, caused by

variation across the target surface.
B. Spatial Resolution
Understand the concept of spatial resolution.
Understand the difference between image resolution and measurement resolution.
Understand the effect on measurement of the distance between the instrument and the target.
Be able to calculate measurement spot size.
Be able to exploit equipment-specific aids to determine measurement adequacy.
7-3

C. Heat Transfer
Understand the fundamental concepts of heat transfer including conduction, convection, and
radiation.
Understand the difference between steady state and transient heat flow and application
dependence.
Understand the effect of the environmental conditions of sky temperature, view factor, wind
velocity, and surface orientation.
Understand the potential problems if evaporation or condensation occur at the target surface.
D. Equipment Operation
Be able to set up and operate the necessary equipment.
Understand dynamic range and its implication in image acquisition.
Demonstrate good data acquisition practices.
Demonstrate the use of accessories.
Understand how to compensate for external optics.
Understand the implications of system spectral response.
The written examination is derived from a pool of 200-300 questions that are reviewed and
approved by the ASNT T/IR committee members. During training, practical exams are
conducted through classroom experiments and are focused on one particular concept, such as
transient thermal heat transfer. The actual practical exam is determined by the trainer and is
conducted within the guidelines for each particular level.
Infrared thermography was adopted as a nondestructive inspection method in the fall of 1991.
7.4
Predictive Maintenance (PdM) Level III Certification Program
Recognizing that there are areas of specialization within the infrared thermography discipline,
the ASNT T/IR committee has promoted the development of specialty certification. The
Predictive Maintenance Level III Certification Program has been developed by ASNT in
response to this effort. Developed to meet the needs of the predictive maintenance sector of the
industry, this program incorporates the vibration analysis (VA) and infrared/thermal (IR) test
methods. A PdM-specific body of knowledge, including knowledge of the Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A and the ANSI/ASNT CP-189 standard, is used for the two-hour PdM
basic examination. The VA and IR method tests are the same as those used in the ASNT NDT
Level III program. A separate and distinct PdM Level III certificate is issued for this
certification.
The PdM basic examination is more specific than the ASNT NDT Level III basic examination,
and thus, PdM certificate holders wishing to gain traditional NDT Level III certification will still
7-4

be required to sit for the ASNT NDT Level III basic examination, as well as taking an ASNT
NDT Level III method test.
Certification via the ASNT PdM Level III Certification Program, as with the ASNT NDT Level
III program, does not imply authorization or licensing of the PdM certificate holder to perform
PdM tasks. It is solely the employer's responsibility to review the individual's qualification
records for completeness and to authorize individuals to perform PdM.
7-5
THE SCIENCE OF THERMOGRAPHY (PRACTICAL

APPLICATION OF THERMOGRAPHIC AND THERMAL
SENSING EQUIPMENT)
A.1
Introduction
This appendix is presented as a reference guide to provide the practical thermographer with an
understanding of the science behind the measurements. It is intended as an aid in performing and
understanding non-contact thermal and thermographic measurements using infrared sensing
equipment.
The deployment and operation of infrared sensing instruments was, at one time, cumbersome and
difficult. Thermographers were often required to perform on-the-spot calculations in order to
reduce their measurement data and determine actual temperature values; this is no longer so.
Modern instruments are light in weight, portable, and rugged. Menu-driven on-board software
now makes it relatively simple to operate equipment and to gather data directly in terms of target
temperature.
Because of this very ease of operation, it is also relatively simple to misinterpret the results so
easily and quickly obtained. Erroneous conclusions can have an extremely negative effect on the
measurements program and on the credibility of the thermographer. A solid understanding of the
basis on which thermographic measurements are made will go a long way toward minimizing
operator error and ensuring the success of the thermographic program.
The subject matter in this appendix begins with a discussion of heat transfer and how radiative
heat transfer is the basis for infrared thermography. The basic physics of infrared radiation and
how it applies to instrument performance is explained. Finally, the performance parameters of
infrared point-sensing and imaging instruments are discussed, including how to select, calibrate,
and evaluate the performance of the instrument that is best suited to your application.
A.2
Heat Transfer and Radiation Exchange Basics for Thermography
This section is to provide the reader with an understanding of how heat transfer phenomena
affect non-contact infrared thermal sensing and thermographic measurements. Infrared
thermography depends on measuring the distribution of radiant thermal energy (heat) emitted
from a target surface, thus, the thermographer requires an understanding of heat, temperature,
A-1

The Science of Thermography (Practical Application of Thermographic and Thermal Sensing Equipment)
and the various types of heat transfer as an essential prerequisite in preparing to undertake a
program of IR thermography.
A.2.1 Heat and Temperature
What is often referred to as a heat source (like an oil furnace or an electric heater) is really one
form or another of energy conversion; the energy stored in one object is converted to heat and
flows to another object. Heat can be defined as thermal energy in transition. It flows from one
place or object to another as a result of temperature difference, and the flow of heat changes the
energy levels in the objects. Temperature is a property of matter and not a complete
measurement of internal energy. It defines the direction of heat when another temperature is
known.
Heat always flows from the object that is at the higher temperature to the object that is at
the lower temperature. As a result of heat transfer, hotter objects tend to become cooler and
cooler objects become hotter, approaching thermal equilibrium. To maintain a steady-state
condition, energy needs to be continuously supplied to the hotter object by some means of
energy conversion so that the temperature and, hence, the heat flow remains constant.
A.2.2 Converting Temperature Units
Temperature is expressed in either absolute or relative terms. There are two absolute scales
called Rankine (English system) and Kelvin (metric system). There are two corresponding
relative scales called Fahrenheit (English system) and Celsius or Centigrade (metric system).
Absolute zero is the temperature at which no molecular action takes place. This is expressed as
zero Kelvins or zero Rankines (0 K or 0 R). Relative temperature is expressed as degrees Celsius
or degrees Fahrenheit (C or F). The numerical relations among the four scales are as follows:
T Celsius = 5/9 (T Fahrenheit - 32 )
T Fahrenheit = 9/5 T Celsius + 32
T Rankine = T Fahrenheit + 459.7
T Kelvin = T Celsius + 273.16
Absolute zero is equal to -273.1C and is also equal to -459.7F.
To convert changes in temperature or delta T between the English and Metric systems, the
simple 9/5 (1.8 to 1) relationship is used:
DELTA T Fahrenheit (or Rankine) = 1.8 DELTA T Celsius (or Kelvin)
A-2

Table A-1 is a conversion table to allow for the rapid conversion of temperature between
Fahrenheit and Celsius values. Instructions for the use of the table are shown at the top. For
quick reference, the above conversion factors are also summarized in Appendix C, Plate 1.
A-3

Table A-1
Instructions for Use:
1. Start in the Temp. column and find the temperature that you wish to convert.
2. If the temperature to be converted is in C, scan to the right column for the F equivalent.
3. If the temperature to be converted is in F, scan to the left column for the C equivalent.
C
A-4
Temp.
Temp.
Temp.
-101
-150
-238
-36.7
-34
-29.2
-26.7
-16
3.2
-95.6
-140
-220
-36.1
-33
-27.4
-26.1
-15
-90
-130
-202
-35.6
-32
-25.6
-25.6
-14
6.8
-84.4
-120
-184
-35
-31
-23.8
-25
-13
8.6
-78.9
-110
-166
-34.4
-30
-22
-24.4
-12
10.4
-73.3
-100
-148
-33.9
-29
-20.2
-23.9
-11
12.2
-67.8
-90
-130
-33.3
-28
-18.4
-23.3
-10
14
-62.2
-80
-112
-32.2
-26
-14.8
-22.8
-9
15.8
-56.7
-70
-94
-31.7
-25
-13
-22.2
-8
17.6
-51.1
-60
-76
-31.1
-24
-11.2
-21.7
-7
19.4
-45.6
-50
-58
-30.6
-23
-9.4
21.1
-6
21.2
-40
-40
-40
-30
-22
-7.6
-20.6
-5
23
-39.4
-39
-38.2
-29.4
-21
-5.8
-20
-4
24.8
-38.9
-38
-36.4
-28.9
-20
-4
-19.4
-3
26.6
-38.3
-37
-34.6
-28.3
-19
-2.2
-18.9
-2
28.4
-37.8
-36
-32.8
-27.8
-18
0.4
-18.3
-1
30.2
-37.2
-35
-31
-27.2
-17
1.4
-17.8
32

Table A-1 (cont.)
C
Temp.
Temp.
Temp.
-17.2
33.8
-2.8
27
80.6
11.7
53
127.4
-16.7
35.6
-2.2
28
82.4
12.2
54
129.2
-16.1
37.4
-1.7
29
84.2
12.8
55
131
-15.6
39.2
-1.1
30
86
13.3
56
132.8
-15
41
-0.6
31
87.8
13.9
57
134.6
-14.4
42.8
32
89.6
14.4
58
136.4
-13.9
44.6
0.6
33
91.4
15
59
138.2
-13.3
46.4
1.1
34
93.2
15.6
60
140
-12.8
48.2
1.7
35
95
16.1
61
141.8
-12.2
10
50
2.2
36
96.8
16.7
62
143.6
-11.1
12
53.6
2.8
37
98.6
17.2
63
145.4
-10.6
13
55.4
3.3
38
100.4
17.8
64
147.2
-10
14
57.2
3.9
39
102.2
18.3
65
149
-9.4
15
59
4.4
40
104
18.9
66
150.8
-8.9
16
60.8
41
105.8
19.4
67
152.6
-8.3
17
62.6
5.6
42
107.6
20
68
154.4
-7.8
18
64.4
6.1
43
109.4
20.6
69
156.2
-7.5
19
66.2
6.7
44
111.2
21.1
70
158
-6.7
20
68
7.2
45
113
21.7
71
159.8
-6.1
21
69.8
7.8
46
114.8
22.2
72
161.6
-5.6
22
71.6
8.3
47
116.6
22.8
73
163.4
-5.0
23
73.4
8.9
48
118.4
23.3
74
165.2
-4.4
24
75.2
10
50
122
23.9
75
167
-3.9
25
77
10.6
51
123.8
24.4
76
168.8
-3.3
26
78.8
11.1
52
125.6
25
77
170.6
A-5

Table A-1 (cont.)
C
Temp.
Temp.
Temp.
25.6
78
172.4
54.4
130
266
193
380
716
26.1
79
174.2
60
140
284
199
390
734
26.7
80
176
65.6
150
302
204
400
752
27.2
81
177.8
71.1
160
320
210
410
770
27.8
82
179.6
76.7
170
338
216
420
788
28.3
83
181.4
82.2
180
356
221
430
806
28.9
84
183.2
87.8
190
374
227
440
824
29.4
85
185
93.3
200
392
232
450
842
30
86
186.8
98.9
210
410
238
460
860
30.6
87
188.6
104
220
428
243
470
878
31.1
88
190.4
110
230
446
249
480
896
31.7
89
192.2
116
240
464
254
490
914
32.2
90
194
121
250
482
260
500
932
32.8
91
195.8
127
260
500
288
550
1022
33.3
92
197.6
132
270
518
316
600
1112
33.9
93
199.4
138
280
536
343
650
1202
34.4
94
201.2
143
290
554
370
700
1292
35
95
203
149
300
572
399
750
1382
35.6
96
204.8
154
310
590
427
800
1472
36.1
97
206.6
160
320
608
454
850
1562
36.7
98
208.4
166
330
626
482
900
1652
37.2
99
210.2
171
340
644
510
950
1742
37.8
100
212
177
350
662
538
1000
1832
43.3
110
230
182
360
680
566
1050
1922
48.9
120
248
188
370
698
593
1110
2012
621
1150
2102
843
1550
2822
1066
1950
3542
649
1200
2192
871
1600
2912
1093
2000
3632
677
1250
2282
899
1650
3002
1149
2100
3812
704
1300
2372
927
1700
3092
1204
2200
3992
732
1350
2462
954
1750
3182
1260
2300
4172
760
1400
2552
982
1800
3272
1316
2400
4352
788
1450
2642
1010
1850
3362
1371
2500
4532
816
1500
2732
1038
1900
3452
Conversion Factors
C = (F - 32) x 5/9
F = (C x 9/5) + 32
A-6
0 Kelvin = -273.16C
0 Rankine = -459.69F

A.2.3 The Three Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. All heat transfer
processes occur by one or more of these three modes. Infrared thermography is based on the
measurement of radiative heat flow and is, therefore, most closely related to the radiation mode
of heat transfer.
A.2.4 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat in stationary media. It is the only mode of heat flow in solids,
but can also take place in liquids and gases. It occurs as the result of molecular collisions (in
liquids) and atomic vibrations (in solids), whereby energy is moved one molecule at a time, from
higher temperature sites to lower temperature sites. Figure A-1 is an illustration of conductive
heat flow. The Fourier conduction law expresses the conductive heat flow through the slab
shown in Figure A-1.
Figure A-1
Conductive Heat Flow
The Fourier Conduction Law:

Q = K (T1 - T2)
A
L
where:
Q/A = the rate of heat transfer through the slab per unit area perpendicular to the flow
A-7

= the thickness of the slab
T1
= the higher temperature (at the left)
T2
= the lower temperature (at the right)
= the thermal conductivity of the slab material
Thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical conductivity and is inversely proportional to

thermal resistance, as shown in the lower portion of Figure A-1. The temperatures, T1 and T2,
are analogous to voltages V1 and V2, and the heat flow, Q/A, is analogous to electrical current, I,
so that:
if:
R electrical = V1 - V2
I
then:
R thermal = T1 - T2 = L
Q /A K
Heat flow is usually expressed in English units. K is expressed in BTU/hr-ft-F and thermal
resistance would then be expressed in F-hr-ft/BTU.
A.2.5 Convection
Convective heat transfer takes place in a moving medium and is almost always associated with
transfer between a solid and a moving fluid (such as air). Forced convection takes place when an
external driving force, such as wind or an air pump, moves the fluid. Free convection takes place
when the temperature difference necessary for heat transfer produces density changes in the fluid
and the warmer fluid rises as a result of increased buoyancy.
In convective heat flow, heat transfer takes effect by means of two mechanisms, the direct
conduction through the fluid and the motion of the fluid itself. Figure A-2 illustrates convective
heat transfer between a flat plate and a moving fluid. The presence of the plate causes the
velocity of the fluid to decrease to zero at the surface and influences its velocity throughout the
thickness of a boundary layer. The thickness of the boundary layer depends on the free velocity,
V, of the fluid. It is greater for free convection and smaller for forced convection. The rate of
heat flow depends on the thickness of the convection layer, as well as the temperature difference
between Ts and T (Ts is the surface temperature, T is the free field fluid temperature outside
of the boundary layer.)
Newtons cooling law defines the convective heat transfer coefficient:
h = Q /A
(Ts- T)
A-8
(h is expressed in BTU/hr-ft-F)

rearranged:
Q /A = (Ts- T)
Rc
where:
Rc = 1/h and is the resistance to convective heat flow
Rc is also analogous to electrical resistance and is easier to use when determining combined
conductive and convective heat transfer.
Figure A-2
Convective Heat Flow
A.2.6 Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is unlike the other two modes in several respects:
It can take place in a vacuum.
It occurs by electromagnetic emission and absorption.
It occurs at the speed of light.
The energy transferred is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature difference
between the objects.
The electromagnetic spectrum is illustrated in Figure A-3. Radiative heat transfer takes place in
the infrared portion of the spectrum, between 0.75 m and about 100 m, although most
A-9

practical measurements can be made out to 20 m. ( or m stands for micrometers or microns.

A micron is one-millionth of a meter and is the measurement unit for radiant energy
wavelength.)
Figure A-3
Infrared in the Electromagnetic Spectrum
A.2.7 Radiation Exchange at the Target Surface

The measurement of thermal infrared radiation is the basis for non-contact temperature
measurement and thermal imaging (or thermography). The process of thermal infrared radiation
leaving a surface is called exitance or radiosity. It can be emitted from the surface, reflected off
of the surface, or transmitted through the surface. This is illustrated in Figure A-4. The total
radiosity is equal to the sum of the emitted component (E), the reflected component (R), and the
transmitted component (T). The surface temperature is related to E, the emitted component
only.
A-10

Figure A-4
Radiative Heat Flow
Thermal infrared radiation impinging on a surface can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted as

illustrated in Figure A-5. Kirchhoff's law states that the sum of the three components is always
equal to the received radiation (the percentage sum of the three components equals unity):
A (absorptivity) + R (reflectivity) + T (transmissivity) = 1
When making practical measurements, the specularity or diffusivity of a target surface is
taken into effect by accounting for the emissivity of the surface. Emissivity is discussed as
part of the detailed discussion of the characteristics of infrared thermal radiation in section
A.3.
A-11

Figure A-5
Radiation Exchange at the Target Surface
A.2.8 Specular and Diffuse Surfaces

It should be noted that the roughness or structure of a surface will determine the type and
direction of reflection of incident radiation. A smooth surface will reflect incident energy at an
angle complementary to the angle of incidence. This is called a specular reflector. A rough or
structured surface will scatter or disperse some of the incident radiation. This is a diffuse
reflector. No perfectly specular or perfectly diffuse surface can exist in nature. All real surfaces
have some diffusivity and some specularity.
A.2.9 Transient Heat Exchange
The discussions of the three types of heat exchange in sections A.2.4, A.2.5, and A.2.6 deal with
steady-state heat exchange for reasons of simplicity and easier understanding. Two fixed
temperatures are assumed to exist at the two points between which the heat flows. In many
applications, however, temperatures are in transition, so that the values shown for energy
radiated from a target surface are the instantaneous values from the moment that measurements
are made. There are numerous instances where existing transient thermal conditions are
exploited in order to use thermography to reveal material or structural characteristics in test
articles. The thermogram of the outside surface of an insulated vessel carrying heated liquid, for
example, should be relatively isothermal and somewhat warmer than the ambient air. Insulation
voids or defects will cause warm anomalies to appear on the thermogram, allowing the
A-12

thermographer to pinpoint areas of defective or damaged insulation. Here a passive approach can
be taken because the transient heat flow from the liquid through the insulation to the outside air
produces the desired characteristic thermal pattern on the product surface. Similarly, watersaturated areas on flat roofs will retain solar heat well into the night; long after the dry sections
have radiated their stored heat to the cold night sky, the saturated sections will continue to
radiate and exhibit distinct anomalies to the thermographer.
When there is no heat flow through the material or the test article to be evaluated, an active, or
thermal injection, approach is used to generate a transient heat flow. This approach requires the
generation of a controlled flow of thermal energy across the laminar structure of the sample
material under test, thermography monitoring of one of the surfaces (or sometimes both) of the
sample, and a search for anomalies in the thermal patterns that will indicate a defect in
accordance with established accept-reject criteria. This approach has been used extensively and
successfully by the aerospace community in the evaluation of composite structures for
impurities, flaws, voids, disbonds, delaminations, and variations in structural integrity. Most
recently, time-based heat injection methods have been applied successfully to measure the depth
of voids, as well as their location. This is effective because thinner sections of a given material
will heat more rapidly than thicker sections.
A.3
The Basic Physics of Infrared Radiation and Sensing
All targets radiate energy in the infrared spectrum. The hotter the target, the more energy is
radiated. Very hot targets radiate in the visible as well, and our eyes can see this because they are
sensitive to light. The sun for example, at about 6000 K, appears to glow white-hot; a tungsten
filament, at about 3000 K, has a yellowish glow, and an electric stove element, at 800 K, glows
red. As the stove element cools, it loses its visible glow but it continues to radiate. We can feel it
with a hand placed near the surface but we can't see the glow because the energy has shifted from
red to infrared. Infrared detectors can sense infrared radiant energy and produce useful electrical
signals proportional to the temperature of target surfaces. Instruments that use infrared detectors
and optics to gather and focus energy from the targets onto these detectors are capable of
measuring target surface temperatures with sensitivities better than 0.1C, and with response
times as fast as microseconds. Instruments that combine this measurement capability with
capabilities for scanning the target surface are called infrared thermal imagers. They can
produce thermal maps or thermograms where the brightness intensity or color hue of any spot on
the map is representative of the temperature of the surface at that point. In most cases, thermal
imagers can be considered as extensions of radiation thermometers or as a radiation
thermometer with scanning capability. The performance parameters of thermal imagers are
extensions of the performance parameters of radiation thermometers.
A-13

A.3.1 Some Historical Background

The color of a glowing metal is a fair indication of its temperature (the higher the temperature,
the whiter the color). The ancient sword-maker and blacksmith knew from the color of a heated
part when it was time to quench and temper. This technique is still in use today; precision optical
matching pyrometers are used to match the brightness in color of a product with that of a
glowing filament. The brightness of the filament is controlled by adjusting a knob that is
calibrated in temperature. The next logical step is to substitute a photomultiplier for the
operator's eye and, thus, calibrate the measurement. Finally, a differential measurement is made
between what the brightness of the product is and what it should be (the set point), and the
differential signal is injected into the process and used to drive the product temperature to the set
point. With the advent of modern infrared detectors, the precision measurement of thermal
energy radiating from surfaces that do not glow became possible. Measurements of cool
surfaces, well below 0C, are accomplished routinely with even the least expensive of infrared
sensors.
A.3.2 Non-Contact Thermal Measurements
Infrared non-contact thermal sensing instruments are classified as infrared radiation
thermometers by the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), even though they
don't always read out in temperatures [12]. The laws of physics allow for the conversion of
infrared radiation measurements to temperature measurements. This is done by first measuring
the self-emitted radiation in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum of target
surfaces, and then converting these measurements to electrical signals. In making these
measurements, three sets of characteristics need to be considered:
The target surface
The transmitting medium between the target and the instrument
The measuring instrument
A.3.3 The Target Surface

The chart of the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure A-3) indicates that the infrared portion of the
spectrum lies adjacent to the visible. Every target surface above absolute zero (0 Kelvins or
-273 Centigrade) radiates energy in the infrared. The hotter the target, the more radiant energy
is emitted. When targets are hot enough, they radiate or glow in the visible part of the spectrum
as well. As they cool, the eye becomes no longer able to see the emitted radiation and the targets
appear to not glow at all. Infrared sensors are employed here to measure the radiation in the
infrared, which can be related to target surface temperature.
The visible spectrum extends from energy wavelengths of 0.4 m for violet light to about
0.75 m for red light. ( or m stands for micrometers or microns. A micron is one-millionth of
a meter and is the measurement unit for radiant energy wavelength.) For practical purposes of
temperature measurement, the infrared spectrum extends from 0.75 m to about 20 m.
A-14

Figure A-6 shows the distribution of emitted energy over the electromagnetic spectrum of targets
at various temperatures. The sun, at 6000 K, appears white hot because its emitted energy is
centered over the visible spectrum with a peak at 0.5 m. Other targets, such as a tungsten
filament at 3000 K, a red-hot surface at 800 K, and the ambient earth at 300 K (about 30C), are
also shown in this illustration. It becomes apparent that, as surfaces cool, not only do they emit
less energy, but the wavelength distribution shifts to longer infrared wavelengths. Even though
the eye becomes no longer capable of sensing this energy, infrared sensors can detect these
invisible longer wavelengths. They enable us to measure the self-emitted radiant energy from
even very cold targets and, thereby, determine the temperatures of target surfaces remotely and
without contact.
A-15

Figure A-6
Blackbody Curves at Various Temperatures
A-16

Two physical laws define the radiant behavior illustrated in Figure A-6:
The Stephan-Boltzmann Law (1):
W = T4
and Wien's Displacement Law (2):
m = b/T
where: W = Radiant flux emitted per unit are a (watts/cm)
= Emissivity (unity for a blackbody target)
= Stephan-Boltzmann constant = 5.673 x10-12 watts cm-2
T = Absolute temperature of target (K)
m = Wavelength of maximum radiation (m)
b = Wien's displacement constant = 2897 (m - K)
According to (1), the radiant energy emitted from the target surface (W) equals two constants
multiplied by the fourth power of the absolute temperature (T) of the target. The instrument
measures W and calculates T. One of the two constants, , is a fixed number. Emissivity () is the
other constant and is a surface characteristic that is only constant for a given material over a
given range of temperatures. For point measurements, one can usually estimate the emissivity
setting needed to dial into the instrument from available tables and charts. One can also learn,
experimentally, the proper setting needed to make the instrument produce the correct
temperature reading by using samples of the actual target material. This more practical setting
value is called effective emissivity (e*).
According to (2), the wavelength at which a target radiates its peak energy is defined as simply a
constant (b = 2897 3000) divided by the target temperature (T) in Kelvins. For the 300 K
ambient earth, for example, the peak wavelength would be 300/3000 or 10 m. This quick
calculation is important in selecting the proper instrument for a measurement task, as will be
discussed in section A.4.
Target surfaces can be classified in three categories: black bodies, gray bodies, and non-gray
bodies. The targets shown in Figure A-6 are all blackbody radiators (or black bodies). A
blackbody radiator is a theoretical surface having unity emissivity at all wavelengths and
absorbing all of the energy available at its surface. This would be an ideal target to measure
because the temperature calculation within the instrument would be simply mechanized and
always constant. Fortunately, although blackbody radiators do not exist in practice, the surfaces
of most solids are gray bodies, that is, surfaces whose emissivities are high and fairly constant
with wavelength.
A-17

Figure A-7 shows the comparative spectral distribution of energy emitted by a blackbody, a gray
body, and a non-gray body (also called a spectral body), all at the same temperature. For gray
body measurements, a simple emissivity correction can usually be dialed in when absolute
measurements are required. For non-gray bodies, the solutions are more difficult. To understand
the reason for this, it is necessary to see what an instrument sees when it is aimed at a non-gray
target surface.
Figure A-7
Spectral Distribution of a Blackbody, a Gray Body, and a Non-Gray Body
Figure A-8 shows that the instrument sees three components of energy: first, emitted energy (e);
second, reflected energy from the environment (R); and third, energy transmitted through the
target from sources behind the target (T). The percentage sum of these components is always
unity. The instrument sees only e, the emitted energy, when aimed at a blackbody target because
a blackbody reflects and transmits nothing. For a gray body, the instrument sees e and R, the
emitted and reflected energy. The instrument sees all three components when aimed at a nongray body because a non-gray body is partially transparent.
A-18

Figure A-8
Components of Energy Reaching the Measuring Instrument
If the emissivity of a gray body is very low, as in the case of polished metal surfaces, the
reflectance becomes high (reflectance = 1 minus emissivity) and can generate erroneous readings
if not properly handled. Reflected energy from a specific source can generally be redirected by
proper orientation of the instrument with respect to the target surface, as shown in Figure A-9.
This illustrates the proper and improper orientation that is necessary to avoid reflected energy
from a specific source.
Figure A-9
Aiming the Instrument to Avoid Point Source Reflections
A-19

Under certain conditions, an error in temperature indication can occur as the result of a high
temperature background, such as a boiler wall (behind the instrument), reflecting off of a
reflective target surface and contributing to the apparent temperature of the target. Most
instrument manufacturers provide a background temperature correction to compensate for this
condition.
Often, in practice, the troublesome component is T, the energy transmitted through a non-gray
target from sources behind the target. A discussion of solutions to this type of problem is
included in section A.4.
A.3.4 The Transmitting Medium
The transmission characteristics of the medium in the measurement path between the target and
the instrument need to be considered in making non-contact thermal measurements. No loss of
energy is encountered when measuring through a vacuum. For short path lengths, a few feet for
example, most gases including the atmosphere, absorb very little energy and can be ignored
(except where measurements of precision temperature values are required). As the path length
increases to hundreds of feet, or as the air becomes heavy with water vapor, the absorption might
become a factor. It is then necessary to consider the infrared transmission characteristics of the
atmosphere.
Figure A-10 illustrates the spectral transmission characteristics of 0.3 km of ground level
atmosphere. Two spectral intervals can be seen to have very high transmission. These are known
as the 15 m and the 814 m atmospheric windows, and almost all infrared sensing and
scanning instruments are designed to operate in one or the other of these windows. Usually, the
difficulties encountered with transmitting media occur when the target is viewed by the
instrument through another solid object such as a glass or quartz viewing port in a process.
Figure A-10
Infrared Transmission of 0.3 km of Sea Level Atmosphere
A-20

Figure A-11 shows transmission curves for various samples of glass and quartz. Upon seeing
these, our first impression is that glass is opaque at 10 m where ambient (30C) surfaces radiate
their peak energy. This impression is correct and, although in theory, infrared measurements can
be made of 30C targets through glass, it is hardly practical. The first approach to the problem is
to attempt to eliminate the glass, or at least a portion of it, through which the instrument can be
aimed at the target. If, for reasons of hazard, vacuum, or product safety, a window must be
present; a material that transmits in the longer wavelengths might be substituted.
Figure A-11
Infrared Spectral Transmission of Glass
Figure A-12 shows the spectral transmission characteristics of several of these materials, many
of which transmit energy past 10 m. These materials are often used as lenses and optical
elements in low-temperature infrared sensors. Of course, as targets become hotter and the
emitted energy shifts to the shorter wavelengths, glass and quartz windows pose less of a
problem and are even used as elements and lenses in high-temperature sensing instruments.
A-21

Figure A-12
Characteristics of IR Transmitting Materials
The characteristics of the window material will always have some effect on the temperature
measurement, but the attenuation can always be corrected by pre-calibrating the instrument with
a sample window placed between the instrument and a target of known temperature.
In closing the discussion of the transmitting medium, it is important to note that infrared sensors
can only work when all of the following spectral ranges coincide or overlap:
The spectral range over which the target emits
The spectral range over which the medium transmits
The spectral range over which the instrument operates
A-22

A.3.5 The Measuring Instrument

Figure A-13 shows the necessary components of an infrared radiation thermometer. Collecting
optics (an infrared lens, for example) is necessary in order to focus the energy emitted by the
target onto the sensitive surface of an infrared detector, which, in turn, converts this energy into
an electrical signal.
Figure A-13
Components of an Infrared Radiation Thermometer
When an infrared radiation thermometer (point-sensing instrument) is aimed at a target, it

collects energy within a collecting beam, the shape of which is determined by the configuration
of the optics and the detector. The cross-section of this collecting beam is called the field of view
of the instrument, and it determines the size of the area (spot size) on the target surface that is
measured by the instrument. On thermal imaging instruments, this is called the instantaneous
field of view (IFOV) and becomes one picture element on the thermogram.
Infrared optics are available in two general configurations, refractive and reflective. Refractive
optics (lenses), which are at least partly transparent to the wavelengths of interest, are used most
often for high-temperature applications where their throughput losses can be ignored. Reflective
optics (mirrors), which are more efficient but somewhat complicate the optical path, are used
more often for low-temperature applications, where the energy levels cannot warrant throughput
energy losses. An infrared interference filter is often placed in front of the detector to limit the
spectral region or band of the energy reaching the detector. The reasons for spectral selectivity
will be discussed later in this section.
The processing electronics unit amplifies and conditions the signal from the infrared detector and
introduces corrections for such factors as detector ambient temperature drift and target surface
emissivity. Generally, a meter indicates the target temperature and an analog output is provided.
The analog signal is used to record, display, alarm, control, correct, or any combination of these.
Figure A-14 illustrates the configuration of a typical instrument employing all of the elements
outlined. The germanium lens collects the energy from a spot on the target surface and focuses it
A-23

on the surface of the radiation thermopile detector. The 814 m filter limits the spectral band of
the energy reaching the detector so that it falls within the atmospheric window. The detector
generates a dc emf proportional to the energy emitted by the target surface. The auto-zero
amplifier senses ambient temperature changes and prevents ambient drift errors. The output
electronics unit conditions the signal and computes the target surface temperature based on a
manual emissivity setting. The analog output terminals accept a 1530 VDC loop supply and
generate a 420 milliampere signal, proportional to target surface temperature.
All infrared detector-transducers exhibit some electrical change in response to the radiant energy
impinging on their sensitive surfaces. Depending on the type of detector this can be an
impedance change, a capacitance change, the generation of an emf (voltage), or the release of
photons. Detectors are available with response times as fast as nanoseconds or as slow as
fractions of seconds. Depending on the requirement, either a broadband detector or a spectrally
limited detector can be selected.
Figure A-14
Typical Infrared Radiation Thermometer Schematic
Infrared detectors fall into two broad categories: thermal detectors, which have broad, uniform
spectral responses, somewhat lower sensitivities, and slower response times (on the order of
milliseconds), and photodetectors, (or photon detectors), which have limited spectral responses,
higher peak sensitivities, and faster response times (on the order of microseconds). Thermal
detectors will generally operate at or near room temperature, while photodetectors are generally
cooled to optimize performance. The mercury-cadmium-telluride (HgCdTe) detector, for
example, is a photodetector cooled to 77 K for 814 m operation and to 195 K for 35 m
operation. Because of its fast response, this detector is used extensively in high-speed scanning
and imaging applications. The radiation thermopile, on the other hand, is a broadband thermal
detector operating uncooled. It is used extensively for spot measurements of cool targets. It
generates a dc emf proportional to the radiant energy reaching its surface and is ideal for use in
portable, battery-powered instruments. Figure A-15 illustrates the spectral responses of various
infrared detectors.
A-24

Figure A-15
Spectral Sensitivity of Various Infrared Detectors
Point-sensing instruments for measuring very hot targets, usually operate in shorter wavelengths
(0.91.1 m, for example), and instruments for measuring cooler targets usually operate in longer
wavelengths (35 m or 814 m, for example). Most infrared thermal imagers operate in either
the 35 m or 814 m spectral region.
A.3.6 Introduction to Thermal Scanning and Imaging Instruments
When problems in temperature monitoring and control cannot be solved by the measurement of
one or several discrete points on a target surface, it becomes necessary to spatially scan (that is,
to move the collecting beam (field of view) of the instrument relative to the target). This can be
accomplished by inserting a movable optical element into the collecting beam, or by employing a
multi-detector array or mosaic, and scanning the array electronically. A brief overview of
scanning and imaging instruments follows. A more detailed overview can be found in section 2.
A.3.6.1
Line Scanning
The purpose of spatial scanning is to derive information concerning the distribution of radiant
energy over a target scene. Quite often, a single straight line scanned on the target is all that is
necessary to locate a critical thermal anomaly. The instantaneous position of the scanning
A-25

element (or the position of the element in the linear array) is controlled or sensed, so that the
radiometric output signal can be accompanied by a position signal output and be displayed on a
chart recorder, an oscilloscope, or some other recording device.
A typical high-speed commercial line scanner develops a high-resolution thermal map by
scanning normal to the motion of a moving target, such as a paper web or a strip steel process.
The resulting output is a thermal strip map of the process as it moves normal to the scan line (as
illustrated in Figure A-16). The output signal information is in real-time computer compatible
format and can be used to monitor, control or predict the behavior of the target.
Figure A-16
Scanning Configuration of an Infrared Line Scanner
A.3.6.2
Two-Dimensional Scanning
The purpose of spatial scanning is to derive information concerning the distribution of infrared
radiant energy over a target scene. Scanning can be accomplished either opto-mechanically or
electronically.
Opto-mechanical scanning can be done by moving the target with the instrument fixed, or by
moving (translating or panning) the instrument, but it is more practically accomplished by
inserting movable optical elements into the collected beam. Although an almost infinite variety
of scanning patterns can be generated using two moving elements, the most common pattern is
rectilinear, and this is most often accomplished by two elements, each scanning a line normal to
the other. A typical rectilinear scanner employs two rotating prisms behind the primary lens
A-26

system (refractive scanning). An alternate configuration uses two oscillating mirrors behind the
primary lens (reflective scanning). This is also commonly used in commercial scanners, as are
combinations of reflective and refractive scanning elements.
Now, electronically scanned thermal imaging is accomplished by means of an infrared focal
plane array (IRFPA), whereby a two-dimensional staring array of detectors collects radiant
energy from the target and is digitally scanned to produce the thermogram. In the case of the line
scanner (Figure A-16), the opto-mechanical scanning approach is gradually being superceded by
replacement of the single-element detector with an electronically scanned linear focal plane array
(a line of detectors), thus eliminating the scanning mechanism entirely.
At the time of this writing, focal plane array imagers have all but completely replaced optomechanically scanned imagers in manufacturers inventory and product literature.
Because many opto-mechanically scanned line scanners and imagers are still in use
throughout the predictive maintenance community, the following discussion is included in
this appendix.
A typical commercial rectilinear opto-mechanical scanner is shown schematically in Figure
A-17. It employs two oscillating mirrors (reflective scanning) behind the primary lens and is
commonly used in commercially available scanners. This approach has the advantage of a broad
spectral response limited only by the spectral characteristics of the detector and the primary lens
system. The main disadvantage is that the elements and their associated drive mechanisms must
be arranged so that there is no optical or mechanical interference. This makes compact design
more difficult. An alternate approach to scanning employs two rotating prisms behind the
primary lens system. This instrument, using refractive scanning elements, has the advantage of
compact design, because all of the scanning elements can be arranged in a line. It has the
disadvantage of spectral limitation in that each element must transmit the entire portion of the
infrared spectrum for which the instrument was designed. Some energy is absorbed by each
refractive element, reducing the throughput somewhat, and the rather high cost of infrared
transmitting materials add to the instrument cost. It should be pointed out that opto-mechanical
scanners can employ refractive or reflective scanning elements or even combinations of both
elements.
A-27

Figure A-17
Schematic of a Typical Opto-Mechanically Scanned Imager
Electronic scanning involves no mechanical scanning elementsthe surface is scanned

electronically. The earliest type of electronically scanned thermal imager is the pyrovidicon.
Pyrovidicon thermal imagers (pyroelectric vidicons) or thermal video systems are devices in
which charge proportional to target temperature is collected on a single pyroelectric detector
surface within an electronic picture tube, and scanning is accomplished by an electronic scanning
beam. The pyrovidicon is a video camera tube that operates in the infrared (214 m) region
instead of in the visible spectrum. Electronically scanned thermal imaging systems based on
pyrovidicons and operating in the 814 m atmospheric window are in common use today. They
provide qualitative thermal images and are classified as thermal viewers.
Focal plane array (FPA) imagers have, over the last decade, become the imagers of choice over
opto-mechanically scanned imagers, replacing them in virtually all commercial applications.
Manufacturers of FPA imagers offer a wide choice of both cooled and uncooled detector arrays,
with a wide selection of spectral ranges for both measuring (quantitative) and non-measuring
(qualitative) applications. A more detailed discussion of focal plane array imagers can be found
in Section 2.
Published performance characteristics of currently available infrared commercial thermal
imaging systems, including detailed discussions of diagnostic software and image recording
methods, can also be found in Section 2, Table 2-1.
A-28

Figure A-18 is a schematic of a typical focal plane array based thermal imager.
Figure A-18
Schematic of a Typical FPA-Based Thermal Imager
A.4
Performance Parameters of Thermal-Sensing Instruments
To select an instrument suitable to a particular application, the thermographer needs to

understand how to determine and specify its required performance. This section provides
information regarding the performance parameters of point-sensing instruments and scanning
and imaging instruments.
A.4.1 Point-Sensing Instruments
For point-sensing instruments (infrared radiation thermometers), the following performance
parameters should be considered:
Temperature range: The high and low limits over which the target temperature can vary
Absolute accuracy: As related to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
standard
Repeatability: How faithfully a reading is repeated for the same target
Temperature sensitivity: The smallest target temperature change that the instrument needs to
detect
Speed of response: How fast the instrument responds to a temperature change at the target
surface
Target spot size and working distance: The size of the spot on the target to be measured, and
its distance from the instrument
Output requirements: How the output signal is to be used
Spectral range: The portion of the infrared spectrum over which the instrument will operate
Sensor environment: The ambient conditions under which the instrument will operate
A-29

Temperature range and absolute accuracy will always be interrelated; for example, the
instrument might be expected to measure a range of temperatures from 0 to 200C with an
absolute accuracy 2C over the entire range. This could alternately be specified as 1%
absolute accuracy over full scale. On the other hand, we might require the best accuracy at some
specific temperature, say 100C. In this case, the manufacturer should be so informed. The
instrument can then be calibrated to exactly match the manufacturer's laboratory calibration
standard at that temperature. It is difficult for a manufacturer to comply with a tight specification
for absolute accuracy because absolute accuracy is based on traceability to the National Institute
of Standards and Technology (NIST) standard. An absolute accuracy of 0.5C 1% of full
scale is about as tight as can be reasonably specified. Repeatability, on the other hand, can be
more easily assured by the manufacturer, and is usually more important to the user.
Temperature sensitivity is also called thermal resolution or noise equivalent temperature
difference. It is the smallest temperature change at the target surface that must be clearly sensed
at the output of the instrument. This is almost always closely associated with the cost of the
instrument, so unnecessarily fine temperature sensitivity should not be specified. An important
rule to remember is that, for any given instrument, target sensitivity will improve for hotter
targets where there is more energy available for the instrument to measure. We should specify
temperature sensitivity, therefore, at a particular target temperature, and this should be near the
low end of the range of interest. We might, for example, specify temperature sensitivity to be
0.25C at a target temperature of 25C, and be confident that the sensitivity of the instrument
will be at least that for targets hotter than 25C.
Speed of response is generally defined as the time it takes the instrument output to respond to
95% of a step change at the target surface. Figure A-19 shows this graphically. Note that the
sensor time constant is defined by convention to be the time required to reach 63% of a step
change at the target surface. Instrument speed of response is about 5 time constants, and is
generally limited by the detector used. As previously discussed, this limit is on the order of
microseconds for photodetectors and milliseconds for thermal detectors. There is, however, a
tradeoff between speed of response and temperature sensitivity. As in all instrumentation
systems, as the speed of response becomes faster (wider information bandwidth), the sensitivity
becomes poorer (lower signal-to-noise ratio). We learn from this that the speed of response
should not be over-specified.
A-30

Figure A-19
Instrument Speed of Response and Time Constant
Target spot size (also called spatial resolution) and working distance can be specified as just that
(1 cm at 1 meter, for example), or we can put it in more general terms such as field of view angle
(10 milliradians, 1 degree, 2 degrees) or a field of view (spot size-to -working distance) ratio
(D/15, D/30, D/75). A D/15 ratio means that the instrument measures the emitted energy of a
spot one-fifteenth the size of the working distance (3 cm at 45 cm, for example). Figure A-20
illustrates the fields of view for several instruments and how an instrument can be selected based
on the spot size and working distance required. An examination of the collecting beams of the
instruments shown also shows that, at very close working distances, this simple ratio does not
always apply. If close-up information is not clearly provided in the product literature, the
instrument manufacturer should be consulted. For quick reference, a method of approximating
spot size based on manufacturer-provided information is illustrated in Appendix C, Plate 2.
A-31

Figure A-20
Fields of View of Infrared Radiation Thermometers
A-32

The output requirements are totally dependent on the user's needs. If a readout indicator is
required, a wide selection is usually offered. An analog output suitable for recording, monitoring,
and control is commonly provided. In addition, most manufacturers offer a broad selection of
output functions including digital (BCD coded) outputs, high, low, and proportional set-points,
signal peak or valley sensors, sample and hold circuits, and even closed-loop controls for specific
applications. Many currently available instruments, even portable hand-held units, include
microprocessors that provide many of the above functions on standard models.
As previously noted, the operating spectral range of the instrument is often critical to its
performance. For cooler targets, up to about 500C, most manufacturers offer instruments
operating in the 814 m atmospheric window. For hotter targets, shorter operating wavelengths
are selected, usually shorter than 3 m. One reason for choosing shorter wavelengths is that this
enables manufacturers to use commonly available and less expensive quartz and glass optics,
which have the added benefit of being visibly transparent for more convenient aiming and
sighting. Another reason is that estimating effective emissivity incorrectly will result in smaller
temperature errors when measurements are made at shorter wavelengths. A good general rule to
follow, particularly when dealing with targets of low or uncertain effective emissivities, is to
work at the shortest wavelengths possible without compromising sensitivity or risking
susceptibility to reflections from visible energy sources.
Spectrally selective instruments employ interference filters to allow only a very specific broad or
narrow band of wavelengths to reach the detector. (A combination of a spectrally selective
detector and a filter can also be used.) This can make the instrument highly selective to a
specific material whose temperature is to be measured in the presence of an intervening medium
or an interfering background. For example, for measuring the temperature of objects from 200C
to 1000C inside a heating chamber with a glass port, or inside a glass bell jar, an instrument
operating in the 1.5 to 2.5 m band will see through the glass and make the measurement easily.
A very important generic example of the need for spectral selectivity is in the measurement of
plastics in the process of being formed into films and other configurations. Thin films of many
plastics are virtually transparent to most infrared wavelengths but do emit at certain wavelengths.
Polyethylene, polypropylene, and other related materials, for example, have a very strong,
though narrow, absorption band at 3.45 m. Polyethylene film is formed at about 200C in the
presence of heaters that are at about 700C. Figure A-21 shows the transmission spectra of 1.5mil thick polyethylene film and the narrow absorption band at 3.45 m. The instrument selected
for measuring the surface of the film has a broadband thermal detector and a 3.45 m spike band
pass filter. The filter makes the instrument blind to all energy outside of 3.45 m, and enables it
to measure the temperature of the surface of the plastic film without seeing through the film to
the heaters.
A-33

Figure A-21
Spectral Filtering for Polyethylene Temperature Measurement
Figure A-22 shows a similar solution for 0.5-mil thick polyester (Mylar) film under about the
same temperature conditions. Here, the strong polyester absorption band, from 7.7 to 8.2 m,
dictates the use of a 7.9 m spike filter placed in front of the same broadband detector.
Figure A-22
Spectral Filtering for Polyester Temperature Measurement
A-34

A.4.2 Scanners and ImagersQualitative and Quantitative

The parameters used for assessing the performance of infrared thermal imaging scanners are
complex and the methods used for testing performance have generated some controversy among
manufacturers and users of these instruments. A thermal image is made up of a great number of
discrete point measurements, however, many of the performance parameters of infrared thermal
imagers are the same as those of radiation thermometers (point-sensing infrared radiometers that
read out in temperature). Others derive from, or are extensions of, radiation thermometer
performance parameters.
Qualitative (non-measuring) thermal imagers, also called thermal viewers, differ from
quantitative (measuring) thermal imagers, also called imaging radiometers, in that thermal
viewers do not provide temperature or thermal energy measurements. It should be noted,
therefore, that for users requiring qualitative rather than quantitative thermal images, many of the
parameters discussed herein are of no importance.
A.4.3 Performance Parameters of Imaging Radiometers
The Environmental Research Institute, Michigan (ERIM) Infrared Handbook [13] provides an
extensive table of terms and definitions (section 19.1.2) and a list of specimen specifications
(section 19.4.1). The section of the Handbook covering infrared imaging systems does not,
however, deal with the imager as a quantitative measurement instrument, and so the performance
parameters related with temperature measurement need to be added. Some simplifications can be
made, which result in some acceptable approximations. Bearing these qualifications in mind, the
following definitions of the key performance parameters of infrared thermal scanners are offered:
Total field of view (TFOV): the image size, in terms of scanning angle. (example: TFOV =
20V x 30H)
Instantaneous field of view (IFOV): the angular projection of the detector element at the
target plane; imaging spatial resolution. (example: IFOV= 2 milliradians )
Measurement spatial resolution (IFOVmeas): the spatial resolution describing the minimum
target spot size on which an accurate temperature measurement can be made. (example:
IFOVmeas = 5 milliradians)
Frame repetition rate: The number of times every point on the target is scanned in one
second. (example: Frame rate = 30 /second)
Minimum resolvable temperature (MRT): The smallest blackbody equivalent target

temperature difference that can be observed; temperature sensitivity (example: MRT=0.1C
@ 30C target temperature)
MRT and the terms relating to spatial resolution are interrelated and cannot be considered
independently. Other parameters, such as spectral ranges, target temperature ranges, accuracy
and repeatability, and focusing distances, are essentially the same as those defined previously for
infrared radiation thermometers, although they can be expressed differently. Dynamic range and
reference level range, for example, are the terms that define the target temperature ranges for
A-35

thermal imagers. While the operating spectral range of a radiation thermometer is often critical to
its performance, the spectral range of operation of a thermal imager is not usually as critical to
the user, except for a few specialized applications. Most commercial thermal imagers operate in
either the 25 m or the 812 m atmospheric window, depending on the manufacturer's choice
of detector. Filter wheels or slides are usually available to enable users to insert special
interference filters and perform spectrally selective measurements when necessary.
Despite some manufacturers' claims to the contrary, there is usually little difference in overall
performance between an imager operating in the 25 m band and an imager operating in the
812 m band, all other parameters being equal. For a specific application, however, there might
be a clear choice. One example of this would be selecting an imager operating in the 2 5 m
band to observe a target through a quartz window. There would be no alternative because quartz
is virtually opaque in the 812 m region. Another example would be selecting an imager
operating in the 812 m band to observe a cool target through a long atmospheric path. The
choice would be obvious because long-path atmospheric absorption is substantially greater in the
25 m window than in the 812 m window.
For qualitative (non-measuring) thermal viewers, parameters relating to temperature range are
only applicable in the broadest sense. Absolute accuracy and stability parameters are not
applicable. MRT is applicable only as an approximation because stability cannot be assured.
IFOVmeas is not applicable.
Secondary features, such as field uniformity and spatial distortion, are design parameters and are
assumed to be handled by responsible manufacturers. A discussion of the significant
performance parameters (figures of merit) follows.
A.4.3.1
Temperature Sensitivity, Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference

(MRTD) or Minimum Resolvable Temperature (MRT)
Temperature sensitivity, also called thermal resolution or noise equivalent temperature

difference (NETD) for a radiation thermometer, is the smallest temperature change at the target
surface and can be clearly sensed at the output of the instrument. For an imaging system, the
MRT or MRTD defines temperature sensitivity but also implies spatial resolution (IFOV).
MRTD is expressed as a function of angular spatial frequency. Testing for MRTD is usually
accomplished by means of a subjective procedure developed by the Department of Defense
community. This involves selecting the smallest (highest frequency) standard periodic test
pattern (four bars, 7:1 length-to-width aspect ratio) that can be distinguished as a 4 bar contrast
target by the observer, and recording the smallest detectable element-to-element temperature
difference between two blackbody elements on this pattern. Unlimited viewing time and
optimization of controls is allowed and the target is oriented with the bars normal to the
horizontal scan line. Figure A-23 illustrates the setup using an ambient pattern and a heated
background. The MRTD curve shown is a function of spatial frequency (cycles/mRad).
Additional points on the curve are achieved by changing the pattern size or the distance to the
scanner.
A-36

Figure A-23
Test Setup for MRTD Measurement, MRTD Curve
A.4.3.2
Spot Size, Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV), Imaging Spatial

Resolution, Measurement Spatial Resolution (IFOVmeas)
For thermal imagers, the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) expresses spatial resolution for
imaging purposes but not for measurement purposes. Measurement instantaneous field of view
(IFOVmeas) expresses spatial resolution for measurement purposes. The modulation transfer
function (MTF) is a measure of imaging spatial resolution. Modulation is a measure of radiance
contrast and is expressed:
Modulation = Lmax- Lmin
Lmax + Lmin
A-37

Modulation transfer is the ratio of the modulation in the observed image to that in the actual
object. For any system, MTF will vary with scan angle and background, and will often be
different when measured along the horizontal than it is when measured along the vertical. For
this reason, a methodology was established and accepted by manufacturers and users alike to
measure the MTF of an imager and, thereby, to verify the spatial resolution for imaging (night
vision) purposes. A sample procedure follows for a system where IFOV is specified at 2.0
milliradians. This is shown in Figure A-24 and uses the same setup as illustrated in Figure A-23:
A standard 4 bar (slit) resolution target (7:1 aspect ratio) with a 2-mm slit width is placed in
front of a heated blackbody reference surface at a distance of 1 meter from the primary optic
of the instrument. The ratio of the 2-mm slit width to the 1-meter working distance is 2
milliradians). The target is centered in the scanned field (oriented so that the horizontal axis
is normal to the slit), and a single line scan output signal is monitored. The analog signal
value of the 4 peaks (Vmax), as the slits are scanned, and the analog signal value of the 3
valleys (Vmin), are recorded using the bar target surface ambient temperature as a base
reference. The MTF is expressed as a ratio equal to (Vmax -Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin). If this
ratio is at least 0.35, the 2 milliradian IFOV is verified.
There are some disagreements among users and manufacturers regarding the acceptable
minimum value of MTF to verify imaging spatial resolution, with values varying between 0.35
and 0.5, depending on the manufacturer and the purpose of the instrument. For most users, a
tested value of MTF, equal to or greater than 0.35 for a slit width representing a specified spatial
resolution is generally considered sufficient to demonstrate that spatial resolution for imaging
purposes.
A-38

Figure A-24
Modulation Transfer Function, Imager Spatial Resolution
Both MRTD and MTF are functions of spatial frequency for any given system. This is illustrated
in Figure A-25, reprinted from J.M. Lloyd, Thermal Imaging Systems [14], for a typical system
rated by the manufacturer to be 1 milliradian. The cut-off frequency is where the IFOV equals 1
cycle (one bar and one slit) so that the intersection of the two curves at the half-cut-off frequency
represents the actual performance of the system for an MRTD of 1C. MTF is seen to be about
0.22 for this system.
A-39

Figure A-25
MRTD and MTF for a System Rated at 1.0 Milliradian
For measurement purposes, of course the slit width should, ideally, be increased until the
modulation reaches unity. For this reason the MTF method was found to be unsatisfactory for
commercial thermal imagers where quantitative temperature measurement and control are often
necessary. Another procedure, called the Slit Response Function (SRF), was developed for this
purpose and is generally accepted for measuring IFOVmeas. In this method, illustrated in Figure
A-26, a single variable slit is placed in front of a blackbody source and the slit width is varied
until the resultant single-line-scan signal approaches the signal of the blackbody reference.
Because there are other errors in the optics, the 100% level of SRF is approached rather slowly,
as shown in the curve of Figure A-26. The slit width at which the SRF reaches 0.9, divided by
the distance to the slit (W/d), is usually accepted as the IFOVmeas of the instrument under test.
Figures A-23 and A-26 are adapted from the Ohman paper, Measurement Versus Imaging in
A-40

Thermography [15], which provides a detailed description of the Slit Response Method, setup
diagrams, and a discussion of imaging and measurement spatial resolution figures of merit. The
step-by-step procedure for measuring SRF is described in detail in Appendix C, Plate 6.
Figure A-26
Setup and Curves for Slit Response Function Test
Note: Because FPA imagers have all but replaced opto-mechanically scanned imagers, many
experienced thermographers suggest that the SRF measurement procedure be performed in both
the horizontal and vertical scan-line direction. The larger of the two results is then accepted as
the IFOVmeas of the imager under test.
A.4.3.3
Speed of Response and Frame Repetition Rate
Speed of response of a radiation thermometer is generally defined as the time it takes the
instrument output to respond to 95% of a step change at the target surface (about 5 time
constants). This parameter is not applicable to thermal imagers.
A-41

Frame repetition rate is the measure of the data update of a thermal imager. This is not the same
as field repetition rate. (Manufacturers might use fast field rates with not all of the picture
elements included in any one scan, and then interlace the fields so that it takes multiple fields to
complete a full frame. This might produce a more flicker-free image and be more pleasing to the
eye than scanning full data frames at a slower rate. Frame repetition rate is the number of times
per second every picture element is scanned.
A.4.4 Thermal Imaging Software
In order to optimize the effectiveness of thermography measurement programs, the
thermographer needs a basic understanding of thermal image processing techniques. The
following is a broad discussion of thermal image processing and diagnostics. A detailed
description of thermal imaging and diagnostic software currently available from manufacturers is
provided in section 2.
Thermal imaging software can be categorized into the following groupings:
Image comparison
Archiving and database*

*Although data and image database development is not an exclusive characteristic of thermal
imaging software, it should be considered an important part of the thermographer's tool kit.
With the introduction of computer-assisted thermal image storage and processing, thermography
has become a far more exact science, and the ability to perform image analysis and trend analysis
has greatly expanded its reach. Innovative software has been tailored specifically for detailed
image and thermal data analysis, and has been rapidly updated and expanded.
Most software packages for thermography image analysis and diagnostics offer a number of
standard features. These include spot temperature readout, multiple X and Y analog traces,
monochrome and multiple-color scale selection, image shift, rotation and magnification, area
analysis with histogram display, image averaging and filtering, and permanent disk storage and
retrieval. Some of these capabilities are offered as part of the basic instrument and some are
found in a diagnostics package offered separately. The newest field-portable instruments allow
the thermographer to store images to disc (or data card) during field measurements, and perform
detailed image analysis upon return to home base (see Section 2 for details).
The ability to perform differential thermography is a most powerful feature of thermographic
software routines. This is the capability for archiving thermal images of acceptable operating
components, and assemblies and mechanisms, and using these stored images as models for
A-42

comparison to subsequently inspected items. Subtractive routines produce differential images,

illustrating the deviation of each pixel (picture element) from its corresponding model.
Another powerful routine that was recently introduced is an emissivity determination and
correction program, which produces true surface-temperature thermograms of microelectronic
devices and other very small targets. To perform this function, the unpowered device is heated
sequentially to two known low-level temperatures, and the stored thermal images are used to
allow the computer to calculate emissivity of each pixel. The device is then powered and the
image produced is corrected, point by point, for the emissivities previously computed. There is
great interest in applying this spatial emissivity correction to larger targets such as circuit cards.
The difficulty in developing a reliable emissivity matrix lies in achieving tight control over the
temperature and temperature uniformity while heating a target of this size.
For the professional thermographer, the maintenance of an historical database is most critical,
and thermography software allows this to be done systematically. The historical data included
with stored images (time, date, location, ambient conditions, distance to target, estimated
effective emissivity, scanner serial number, and additional stored comments) serve as important
inputs and subsequent backup for the written report.
New software to aid the thermographer in the efficient and rapid preparation of professionallooking reports is also available from most manufacturers of thermal imagers (see Section 2).
A-43
MEASURING EMISSIVITY, REFLECTANCE, AND

TRANSMITTANCE
B.1
Introduction
An infrared radiometer measures the sum of the emitted (We), reflected (Wr), and transmitted
(Wt) energies coming from the target of interest. Figure B-1 (repeated from Appendix A, Figure
A-8) demonstrates this graphically. The sum of We + Wr + Wt is called Exitance or Radiosity.
To determine the temperature of the target, the emitted energy must first be subtracted from the
reflected and transmitted energies. This value must then be corrected to account for the
emissivity of the target and to obtain a blackbody equivalent value. The blackbody equivalent
value is then converted to temperature by referencing a calibration curve.
All of the techniques discussed below for measuring emissivity, reflectance, and transmittance
assume that the user has a thermal imager. Also note that the values for emissivity, reflectance,
and transmittance are valid only for the spectral range of that instrument [16].
Figure B-1
Target Radiosity
B-1

Measuring Emissivity, Reflectance, and Transmittance
B.2
Measuring Emissivity
There are several common techniques for the measurement of emissivity using a single band
radiometer, two of which are illustrated below. The first technique, known as the reference
emitter technique, is accomplished by direct comparison with a known emitter at the same
temperature. The second technique, known as the reflective emissivity technique, is
accomplished by calculating emissivity indirectly using measured values of reflectance (and
transmittance if applicable). The reference emitter technique works well when the target is at a
different temperature than the background, such as in the case of a steam inlet valve whose body
is at system operating temperature, while the applied emissivity reference is at the same
temperature as the target. The reflective emissivity technique works well for smooth surfaces
such as an electrical connection. The reflective emissivity technique is independent of target
temperature, although the temperature of the target must remain constant throughout the
measurement. A third, field-type method for estimating the effective emissivity of a specific
target under specific conditions, is described in Section 3.3.3 and is illustrated in Appendix C,
Plate 5.
B.2.1 Reference Emitter Technique
The reference emitter technique assumes both that the transmittance through the target is zero,
and that a constant temperature difference between the target and the background is maintained.
Ideally, this temperature difference, either hotter or colder, should be in the range of at least 15F
to 25F. If the target is colder than the background, it should be above the dew point so that
condensation on the surface of the target cannot occur. The reference emitter technique will only
work if a reference emitter is applied to the surface of the target. Good reference emitters are
foot-powder, dye check developer, or black electrician's tape, as previously discussed in sections
4.1.2 through 4.1.4.
The procedure for determining the effective emissivity of a target using the reference emitter is
as follows (refer to Figure B-2):
1. Apply the reference emitter (E) to a portion of the target (an area of at least one square inch
is normally adequate).
2. Set the imager to measure isotherm units.
3. Measure the background thermal level (B) adjacent to the target. Do this by placing a piece
of cardboard to which is applied a crumpled, flattened piece of aluminum foil. Take this
measurement over a large area of the foil. (An area of at least one square foot is normally
adequate.)
4. Measure the target thermal level (T).
5. Measure the reference emitter level (R). The reference emitter must be in thermal equilibrium
with the target. This thermal equilibrium condition will be apparent when the reference
emitter thermal level is not changing. (In the case of dye check developer, its application
B-2

cools the surface as the propellant evaporates. Wait at least 15 minutes after application
unless the target is very warm.)
6. Calculate the emissivity by using the equation:
Emissivity=(T-B)/(R-B)
7. Measure the emissivity several times. Determine the final value by taking an average of all measured
emissivity values.
Figure B-2
Using the Reference Emitter Technique
B.2.2 Reflective Emissivity Technique

The reflective emissivity technique involves measuring the reflectance of the target and
subtracting it from 1.0 (emissivity = 1 minus target reflectance).
The procedure for determining emissivity using the reflective emissivity technique works best
when dealing with highly reflected or mirrored surfaces, such as mirror insulation, and when
dealing with pipes or electrical contacts. Some of these surfaces naturally have a low emissivity.
In this technique, the target should not be coated with a reference emitter and must be kept at a
constant temperature. Also, once a range is chosen for measuring temperature, both
measurements must be made on that range. This technique is temperature independent.
The emissivity, using the reflective emissivity technique, is calculated from the ratio of the
thermal level differences. The procedure for determining the reflective emissivity technique
follows (refer to Figure B-3). Note: The temperatures of the two sources must be constant and
with a substantial spread between them (15F to 25F).
B-3

1. Establish that the two sources are at different temperatures and are thermally stable. This can
be adequately accomplished with a hand-held contact pyrometer. The exact temperature of
each surface does not need to be known, only the T. The T, however, is limited by the
temperature range of the imager.
2. Aim the imager at each source and measure the direct isotherm levels (Sa and Sb).
3. Reposition the imager so that the sources are reflected off the target. Measure the reflected
isotherm levels (Ta and Tb). In most situations, this requires reflecting one source at a time
(the exception is when they are reflected off a large uniform surface).
4. Calculate the target reflectance:
Reflectance = (Ta-Tb) /(Sa-Sb)
To ensure that the data is reliable, take the average of several of these measurements over several
parts of the surface, particularly if the surface is non-uniform in appearance. The exception to
this is when an imager, either directly or through software, allows an area to be defined and
averaged.
Figure B-3
Using the Reflective Emissivity Technique
B-4

B.2.3 Transmittance Measurement

The transmittance of non-opaque targets is measured similar to the reflectance measurement
technique. As shown in Figure B-4, two sources are again used. In this case, the target is placed
directly in front of the two sources rather than reflected off of it. To calculate transmittance,
substitute the reflected levels in the equation cited previously for reflectance (Section B.2.2) with
the transmitted thermal levels.
Figure B-4
Using the Transmittance Technique (Measuring Transmittance)
B-5

B.2.4 Generic Emissivity Values

Table B-1 lists broadband, generic normal emissivity values for several common materials
(repeated from Section 4, Table 4-1. These values should only be used as references until the
user can compile a library of values based on actual measurements.
Table B-1
Normal Emissivity Values of Common Materials
Material
Emissivity
Aluminum
Highly polished plate 98.3% pure
0.039
Polished plate
0.040
Rough plate
0.55
Chromium
0.080
Copper
Commercial, emeried, polished, with no pits remaining
0.030
Commercial, scraped, shiny but not mirror-like
0.072
Polished
0.023
Iron and Steel

Cast iron, polished
0.21
Wrought iron, highly polished
0.28
Cast iron, newly turned
0.435
Oxidized surfaces
B-6
Iron plate, pickled then rusted red
0.612
Completely rusted
0.685
Rolled sheet steel
0.657
Steel oxidized at 110
0.79
Cast plate, smooth
0.80
Cast plate, rough
0.82
QUICK REFERENCE CHARTS AND PLATES
C-1

Quick Reference Charts and Plates
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
TCELSIUS
5/9 (TFAHRENHEIT 32)
TFAHRENHEIT
9/5 TCELSIUS + 32
TRANKINE
TFAHRENHEIT + 459.7
TKELVIN
TCELSIUS + 273.16
DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE:
TFAHRENHEIT OR RANKINE = 1.8 TCELSIUS OR KELVIN
Plate 1
C-2

CALCULATING INSTANTANEOUS FIELD OF VIEW,

QUICK CALCULATION
Plate 2
C-3

MTF DETERMINATION USING AN IR IMAGER
Plate 3
C-4

MINIMUM RESOLVABLE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

(MRTD) ESTIMATE USING AN IR IMAGER
Plate 4
C-5

MEASURING AND SETTING EFFECTIVE EMISSIVITY

USING AN IMAGER OR A POINT SENSOR
Plate 5
C-6

MEASURING IFOVmeas OF AN IMAGER

USING THE SLIT RESPONSE FUNCTION (SRF)
Plate 6
C-7

CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS (GUIDELINES)

RELATING TO 50% OF MAXIMUM LOAD
CLASS
TEMPERATURE RISE
DESCRIPTION
Greater than 5C
First stage of overheatingshould be kept under

control and repaired at the next scheduled
maintenance.
II
5 to 30C
Developed overheatingshould be repaired at the

first opportune moment with due consideration to
loading conditions.
III
Greater than 30C
Acute overheatingrepair at once but with

consideration to the load.
Joules Law: P = I2R. Use this to proportion the temperature rise to 50% of the load. For example:
At 20% of load, an 8C rise is seen. To proportion it to 50% of load, multiply by the square of the load ratio as follows:
(50/20) = 6.25; 6.25 x 8C = 50C equivalent temperature rise
Plate 7
C-8
REFERENCES
1. H. Kaplan, Honeyhill Technical Co., An Update on Commercial Infrared Sensing and
Imaging Instruments, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation
Engineers (SPIE), SPIE Thermosense VI (1983). 446-34.
2. J. C. Krapez and P. G. Cielo, National Research Council Canada, X. Maldague, Laval
University, Canada, Subsurface Flaw Detection in Reflective Materials by ThermalTransfer Imaging, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
(SPIE) (1989). 1094-27.
3. S. D. Cowell, D. D. Burleigh, General Dynamic Space Systems Division, T. J. Murray, Army
Materials Technology Lab, Flash Lamp Heat Flux Requirements for Thermographic
Inspection of Fiber Composite Laminates, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical
Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) (1989). 1094-29.
4. F. T. Caruso, Environmental Thermography & Testing Services, Inc., Thermal Imaging for
the Nuclear Power Industry, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation
Engineers (SPIE) (1985). 581-26.
5. P.W. Hugo, U.S. Army Office for Test Measurement and Diagnostic Equipment, Infrared
Automatic Mass Screening (IRAMS) System for Printed Circuit-board Fault Detection,
Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) (1987).
780-23.
6. H. Kaplan, Honeyhill Technical Co., Infrared Automatic Screening (IRAMS) Progress
Report, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)
(1988). 934-10.
7. G. E. Courville, Oak Ridge National Lab, Current Status of Professionalism in Commercial
Infrared Sensing, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
(SPIE) (1985). 581-01.
8. C. C. Roberts, Jr., C. Roberts Consulting Engineers, The Misuse of Infrared
Thermography, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
(SPIE) (1985). 581-03.
9. G. S. Baird, Thermal Services, Inc., Questions of Quality in Thermographic Services,
581-04.
D-1

References
10. C. C. Roberts, Jr., C. Roberts Consulting Engineers, Inc., Proposed Code Ethics for Infrared
Thermographic Professionals, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation
Engineers (SPIE) (1987). 780-40.
11. G. S. Baird, Baird Infrared Technology, Inc., D. R. Brooks, Northeast Utilities, Inc.,
Certification, Qualification and Certificate of Completion: What is the Difference?
934-02.
12. Richmond/Dewitt, Applications of Radiation Thermometry. American Society for Testing
and Materials: 1984. ASTM STP 895.
13. Wolfe, Zissis, ERIM, ONR, Department of the Navy, The Infrared Handbook, 1978.
14. J. M. Lloyd. Thermal Imaging Systems. Plenum Press 1975.
15. C. Ohman, Agema Infrared Systems, Measurement VS Imaging in Thermography, or What
is Resolution? Proceedings of the Fifth Infrared Information Exchange, New Orleans, LA
16. R. B. Johnson, C. Feng, J. D. Fehribach, University of Alabama/Huntsville, On the Validity
and Techniques of Temperature and Emissivity Measurements, Proceedings of the Society
of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) (1988). 934-37.
D-2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. D. C. Baird. Experimentation: An Introduction to Measurement Theory and Experiment
Design. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1962.
2. G. S. Baird, Infrared Detection Instruments and Techniques Boost Energy Management and
Analysis Capability, Electrical Energy Management (December/January 1981).
3. M. A. Bramson. Infrared Radiation. Plenum Press, New York 1968.
4. G. J. Burrer, N. B. Stetson, and M. C. Terrell, Fast Scan Infrared Imaging Devices, Proceedings of
the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE), Bellingham, Washington (1975).
5. M. A. Burton. ABC's of Infrared. Howard W. Sams and Company, Inc. 1970.

6. E. Feit, Insulation and Infrared Imaging: An Engineer's Perspective, Insulation Outlook.
(October 1986).
7. E. L. Grant, W. G. Ireson, and R. S. Leavensworth. Principles of Engineering Economy.
Ronald Press, New York 1976.
8. R. B. Headley, Infrared Thermography Requirements Study for Energy Conservation.
Prepared for the Energy Research and Development Administration by Aerodyne Research,
Inc.: April 1977. CONS/2109-1.
9. C. W. Hurley and K. G. Kreider, Applications of Thermography for Energy Conservation in
Industry, National Bureau of Standards. (October 1976).
10. F. R. Jack and R. L. Bowman, Effective Aerial Thermography for Energy Conservation.
Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Thermosense
II (1979).
11. J. A. Jamieson, R. H. McFee, G. N. Plass, R. H. Grube, and R. G. Richards. Infrared Physics
and Engineering. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1963.
12. H. Kaplan, ASNT Level III Study Guide: Infrared and Thermal Testing Method. ASNT 2001.
13. H. Kaplan, SPIE Tutorial Text TT34, Practical Applications of Infrared Thermal Sensing
and Imaging Instruments Second Edition, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation
Engineers (1999).
E-1

Bibliography
14. H. Kaplan, SPIE Mini-Course, Basics of Practical Infrared Radiation Measurements, Society
of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (1980).
15. F. Kreith. Principles of Heat Transfer. Haddon Craftsmen, Inc., Pennsylvania 1967.
16. K. G. Krieder and P. T. Sheahen, Use of Infrared Thermography to Industrial Heat Balance
Calculation, Proceedings of the Fourth Biennial Infrared Information Exchange, AGA
Corporation.
17. A. S. Levens. Nomography. John Wiley and Sons, New York 1959.
18. J. M. Lloyd. Thermal Imaging Systems. Plenum Publishing Corporation 1975.
19. R. Lucier, Non-Problems in Power Plants - A Primer on Correct Diagnosis, Yankee
Atomic Electric Company, Proceedings of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation
Engineers (SPIE) Thermosense IX, Orlando, Florida (1987).
20. R. P. Madding, Fundamentals of Heat Transfer Through Structures, Proceedings of the
Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Thermosense II (1979).
21. X. P. V. Maldague. Infrared and Thermal Testing Handbook, Third Edition, Volume 3.
ASNT, 2001.
22. J. B. Nelson, Life Cycle Costing, A Practical Use of Engineering Economy. Engineering
Extension Short Course Notebook (1980).
23. D. G. Newman. Engineering Economic Analysis. Engineering Press, California 1980.
24. R. L. Petritz, Fundamentals of Infrared Detectors. I.R.E., 1959.
25. W. M. Rohsenow and J. Hartnett (editors). Handbook of Heat Transfer. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
1973.
26. E. A. Saporetti and W. L. McCracken, Design Monograph Black Body Radiation Functions.
Honeywell EO Center, Lexington, Massachusetts (1979).
27. Thermosense I, Proceedings. American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia (1979).
28. Thermosense II, Proceedings. American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia (1980).
29. Thermosense III, Proceedings. American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia (1981).
30. H. Kaplan, editor, Thermosense VIII, Proceedings. Society of Photo-Optical Engineers,
Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1985.
31. R. Madding, editor, Thermosense IX, Proceedings. Society of Photo-Optical Engineers,
Orlando, Florida: 1987.
E-2

Bibliography
32. U.S. Department of Energy. Energy Measures and Energy Audits. Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 10, Part 450.
33. U.S. Department of Energy. Instructions for Energy Audits, Volumes 1 and 2. DOE/CS0041/12 and 13, September 1978.
34. U.S. Department of Energy. Status of Thermal Imaging as Applied to Conservation. HCP/M
4228-ON, December 1978.
35. J. A. White, M. H. Agee, and K. E. Case. Principles of Engineering Economic Analysis. John
Wiley and Sons, New York 1977.
36. R. K. Willardson and A. C. Beer. Semiconductors and Semimetals, Volume 5, Infrared
Detectors. Academic Press, Inc., New York 1970.
37. W. L. Wolfe and G. J. Zissis, The Infrared Handbook. Environmental Research Institute of
Michigan (1973).
E-3
SINGLE USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Target:
Nuclear Power
THIS IS A LEGALLY BINDING AGREEMENT BETWEEN YOU AND THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). PLEASE READ IT CAREFULLY BEFORE REMOVING THE WRAPPING MATERIAL.
BY OPENING THIS SEALED PACKAGE YOU ARE AGREEING TO THE TERMS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO
THE TERMS OF THIS AGREEMENT,PROMPTLY RETURN THE UNOPENED PACKAGE TO EPRI AND THE PURCHASE PRICE WILL
BE REFUNDED.
1. GRANT OF LICENSE
EPRI grants you the nonexclusive and nontransferable right during the term of this agreement to use this package only for your own
benefit and the benefit of your organization.This means that the following may use this package: (I) your company (at any site owned
or operated by your company); (II) its subsidiaries or other related entities; and (III) a consultant to your company or related entities,
if the consultant has entered into a contract agreeing not to disclose the package outside of its organization or to use the package for
its own benefit or the benefit of any party other than your company.
This shrink-wrap license agreement is subordinate to the terms of the Master Utility License Agreement between most U.S. EPRI
member utilities and EPRI.Any EPRI member utility that does not have a Master Utility License Agreement may get one on request.
About EPRI
EPRI creates science and technology solutions for
the global energy and energy services industry. U.S.
electric utilities established the Electric Power
Research Institute in 1973 as a nonprofit research
consortium for the benefit of utility members, their
customers, and society. Now known simply as EPRI,
the company provides a wide range of innovative
products and services to more than 1000 energyrelated organizations in 40 countries. EPRIs
multidisciplinary team of scientists and engineers
draws on a worldwide network of technical and
business expertise to help solve todays toughest
energy and environmental problems.
EPRI. Electrify the World
2. COPYRIGHT
This package, including the information contained in it, is either licensed to EPRI or owned by EPRI and is protected by United States
and international copyright laws. You may not, without the prior written permission of EPRI, reproduce, translate or modify this
package, in any form, in whole or in part, or prepare any derivative work based on this package.
3. RESTRICTIONS
You may not rent, lease, license, disclose or give this package to any person or organization, or use the information contained in this
package, for the benefit of any third party or for any purpose other than as specified above unless such use is with the prior written
permission of EPRI.You agree to take all reasonable steps to prevent unauthorized disclosure or use of this package.Except as specified
above, this agreement does not grant you any right to patents, copyrights, trade secrets, trade names, trademarks or any other
intellectual property, rights or licenses in respect of this package.
4.TERM AND TERMINATION
This license and this agreement are effective until terminated.You may terminate them at any time by destroying this package. EPRI has
the right to terminate the license and this agreement immediately if you fail to comply with any term or condition of this agreement.
Upon any termination you may destroy this package, but all obligations of nondisclosure will remain in effect.
5. DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
NEITHER EPRI,ANY MEMBER OF EPRI,ANY COSPONSOR, NOR ANY PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ACTING ON BEHALF
OF ANY OF THEM:
(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE
OF ANY INFORMATION,APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE, INCLUDING
MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR
INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTYS INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS
PACKAGE IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USERS CIRCUMSTANCE; OR
(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY
CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS PACKAGE OR ANY INFORMATION,APPARATUS,
METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE.
6. EXPORT
The laws and regulations of the United States restrict the export and re-export of any portion of this package, and you agree not to
export or re-export this package or any related technical data in any form without the appropriate United States and foreign
government approvals.
7. CHOICE OF LAW
This agreement will be governed by the laws of the State of California as applied to transactions taking place entirely in California
between California residents.
8. INTEGRATION
You have read and understand this agreement, and acknowledge that it is the final, complete and exclusive agreement between you
and EPRI concerning its subject matter, superseding any prior related understanding or agreement. No waiver, variation or different
terms of this agreement will be enforceable against EPRI unless EPRI gives its prior written consent, signed by an officer of EPRI.
2002 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc. All rights

reserved. Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered
service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric
Power Research Institute, Inc.
Printed on recycled paper in the United States of America
1006534
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com

Infrared Thermography Guide Revision 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Infrared Thermography Guide Revision 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Infrared Thermography Guide

Infrared Thermography Guide

Final Report, May 2002

EPRI Project Manager

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

Costly equipment outages can be reduced by implementing a comprehensive predictive

The science of thermography

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

Florida Power Corp.

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

Advantages of Non-Contact Thermal Measurement....................................................1-1

Heat Transfer and Infrared Radiation Basics...............................................................1-2

Heat and Temperature ........................................................................................1-2

Instruments for Temperature Measurement (Contact and Non-Contact)............1-2

Converting Temperature Units ............................................................................1-3

The Three Modes of Heat Transfer.....................................................................1-3

Measuring and Mapping Temperature Without Contact ..............................................1-7

The Three Elements of a Non-Contact Temperature Measurement...................1-7

Performance Parameters of Thermal Sensing Instruments.........................................1-9

Point-Sensing Instruments ..................................................................................1-9

Line Scanners and ImagersQualitative and Quantitative ..............................1-10

Thermal Imaging Software ................................................................................1-11

2 A COMPENDIUM OF COMMERCIAL INFRARED SENSING AND IMAGING

Classification of Instruments ........................................................................................2-1

Instrument Manufacturers ............................................................................................2-2

Point Sensors (Radiation Thermometers)...........................................................2-2

Portable Hand-Held ......................................................................................2-3

On-Line Monitoring and Control....................................................................2-3

Line Scanners .....................................................................................................2-5

Opto-Mechanically Scanned Line Scanners .................................................2-5

Electronically Scanned Focal Plane Array Line Scanners ............................2-6

Thermographic Instruments ................................................................................2-6

EPRI Licensed Material

Thermal Viewers, Opto-Mechanically Scanned ............................................2-7

Opto-Mechanically Scanned Imaging Radiometers......................................2-8

Thermal Viewers, Electronically Scanned (Pyrovidicon Imagers).................2-9

Focal Plane Array (FPA) ImagersQualitative and Quantitative ...............2-10

FPA Imager Performance Comparisons .....................................................2-11

Thermal Imaging Diagnostic Software .......................................................................2-13

Quantitative Thermal Measurements of Targets...............................................2-13

Detailed Processing and Image Diagnostics.....................................................2-13

Image Recording, Storage, and Recovery ........................................................2-14

Recording, Hard Copy, and Storage of Images and Data .........................................2-15

Report Preparation ....................................................................................................2-15

3 THE MEASUREMENT MISSION ...........................................................................................3-1

Thermal Behavior of the Target ...................................................................................3-1

Transmittance Difference ....................................................................................3-2

Geometric Difference ..........................................................................................3-2

Mass Transport Difference..................................................................................3-2

Phase Change Difference ...................................................................................3-3

Thermal Capacitance Difference.........................................................................3-3

Induced Heating Difference.................................................................................3-3

Energy Conversion Difference ............................................................................3-3

Equipment Preparation ................................................................................................3-3

The Mission Checklist .........................................................................................3-3

Equipment Checkout and Calibration..................................................................3-4

Facility Personnel Participation ...........................................................................3-4

Direct Heat Transfer Difference .......................................................................3-3

Some Cautions for Correct Instrument Operation........................................................3-4

Start-Up Procedure .............................................................................................3-5