Elements of A Buddhist Literary Theory As Depicted in Pali Literature

Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature
Author(s): Venerable Upali Sramon

Source: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka, New Series, Vol. 57 (2011), pp. 19-39
Published by: Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka (RASSL)
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Elements of a Buddhist Literary

Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature1
by
Venerable Upali Sramon

Like most literary and intellectual traditions, Buddhism has a
distinct way of reading or interpreting language, behaviour, and
thoughts expressed in various literary forms. There may be several
approaches to substantiate this perspective. Two major approaches
would be: firstly, to examine the manner in which the Buddha
critiqued his contemporary literature, occasionally even using
literary terms; and, secondly, employing Buddhist doctrinal and
philosophical concepts (such as the theory of Karma, Dependent
Origination, Middle Path etc.) to analyse the language, characters,
themes etc. of a literary work. The second approach being too
broad in its orientation, the present study is limited to the first. It
is only an attempt to understand the support provided by ancient
Pli texts of the Theravda school of Buddhism in construing

this distinct Buddhist perspective to literature. Two fundamental
questions that inspire this study at the background are: how does an
ardent follower of Buddhist path read or interpret a text (narrative
or otherwise)? And what principles are followed by him or her in

composing a prose or verse text2?
It must be noted that the Subodhlankra and the Vuttodaya,
which were inspired by already established Sanskrit traditions of

poetics and prosody respectively, are not taken into consideration
for the present study. Subodhlakaras, originality and leanings

towards Buddhist doctrines, as have already been noted,3 would
certainly provide much assistance in the formation of a Buddhist
theory of literary criticism. But the sole focus of this study is to
understand the distinct features, mostly ethical, that were (and

perhaps still are) taken into consideration by Buddhist followers
in their compositions and interpretations of literary works without
any influence from Sanskrit poetics. My attempt here is not to
20 Elements of a Buddhist Literary
show the superiority of the Buddhist perspective over other critical
traditions, but, to understand its distinctness and independent

development.
Literary genres in early Pli literature

During the sixth century BCE and subsequent centuries when Pli
language was initially being used for the composition, formulation,
and classification of the Buddha's teachings, literary genres and
writers were not as diverse as today. Basically, thoughts were

composed in verse, prose, and mixed verse and prose. Some of
the earliest experimentations in versification and prose styles in
India are found within this initial stage of the development of
Pli literature. The Pli word generally used for a poet is lkavi\
But, within the Tipitaka, and commentaries on corresponding

passages of the Tipitaka, as we shall see, 'kavT was used for some
limited purposes. Apart from the Buddha, the participants in the
literary sphere were known as Bhikkhus (monks) and Bhikkhunis
(nuns), or more conventionally theras and theris respectively.
This monastic orientation in Pli literature shows some difference
from the general trend in the use of the word 'kavV for a 'poet', a
versifier, or writer.
Many words like 'gth' 'kveyya', kavit,pajja, kabya, or

kabba are found in Pli literature for 'poetry'. As to the connotations
of these words, i.e. whether kavi is used for only versifiers or any
writer and kveyya to mean only metrical compositions or any
writings, there may be some controversies. Some descriptive

statements in the suttas with reference to poetry maintain that
poems are "discourses as composed by poets beautiful in words
and phrases and spoken or practised by outsiders (i.e. non-Buddhist
followers)".4 This statement clarifies two important aspects of

poetry as known at that time: firstly the use of 'beautiful or sweet
words and phrases' as opposed to general and philosophically

deep expressions [gambhfrattham]. This is suggestive of poetry as
a delightful exercise that concerned itself with linguistic elegance.
Perhaps this discussion occurred at a time when much importance

was given to ornate features [alankra] in a poetical composition.
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSLfNS), Vol. LVII - 2012 21
Secondly, poetry is referred to mainly 'as a practice of outsiders,

i.e. non-Buddhist followers.'5
An important distinction must be made in between gth

(verse composition) and kveyya (poetry). We learn from Sanskrit
literary tradition that kvyas (kveyya) are generally composed
in verses or gths, but all gths do not necessarily have

poetic merit. Generally, it was a tradition in India to compose/
write an idea in verse form, purposely, for the convenience of
committing them into memory. The word 'kavV was used loosely
for wise men, poets, seers, and philosophers who used to practise
writing of any kind. Therefore, it is not surprising that, in India
even philosophical works, mathematical formulas, or medicinal
treatises were composed in verses. In Sanskrit, the word kvya was
used even for stories written in prose but using artistic language.
In Pli literature, gth is more frequently used than kveyya,
which, as noted above, was referred to with some abhorrence, as

practised by non-Buddhists. Moreover, in the enumeration of nine
fold divisions of Buddha's discourses, we see gth as one factor
[not kveyya].6 The gths available in mainly canonical texts

like the Dhammapada, Khuddakaptha, Theragth, Therigth,
Suttanipta, Itivuttaka and Udna1 contain philosophical matters,
moralistic utterances, recollection of personal memories, and some
expressions of ecstatic joy of the Buddha and Arahants expressed
after the attainment of enlightenment.
Entertainments in the forms of songs and dances, referred

to as nacca-gta, which would not directly come into the sphere
of literary criticism, certainly existed in the time of the Buddha.
There is also use of words like nata and ntaka indicative of
some sort of theatrical performances8, which certainly were not as
much advanced as they came to be at the hands of later Sanskrit
dramatists. Stories are narrated in the suttas and kaths. The
suttas or discourses sometimes interspersed with verses dominate
large portions of the Pli canon. They are presented in the form
of conversations, elucidating doctrinal points or recollection of
personal memories. The Kaths, as in the Jtaka, Buddhavamsa,
Cariypitaka, Apadna, Vimnavatthu, and Petavatthu, which
were originally written in verse and later on commented in prose,

contain various types of narratives with human, animal, and divine
characters.
When the early Buddhist monks were critiquing their own

literature, we should understand that they were considering these
suttas, gths, and kathds.9 Even in Sanskrit, literally sophisticated
epics (mahkvyas) developed much later. In that cotext, A.K.

Warder notes "the earliest examples of kvya now available and
approximately datable are found in the Canon or gama of the
Sthaviravda school of Buddhism in Pli (pli), a Prakrit dialect
very close to the old Mgadha and strongly influenced by it."10
However, in aesthetic merits and purpose, Buddhist poetical works
[including the great Sanskrit epics of Asvaghosa of around 1st
century CE] are very much different from the epics or mahkvyas
of Hindu writers. Buddhists, as we shall see, were much critical
about these Hindu epics, many of which were inspired by the

Mahbhrata and Rmyana, concerning their contents, styles,
and purpose or use.
Four Types of Poets and Three Means of Knowledge
The Aguttaranikya records an interesting passage with a

classification of four types of poets as cintkavi, sutakavi,
atthakavi, andpatibhnakavi." As the nature of the text is, there is
nothing with regard to the context or definitions of these four poets
except these phrases. Therefore, we depend on the commentaries

that were composed around the fifth century CE to understand
their exact connotations.
Cintkavi - "Imaginative" poet who "composes after

thinking." This category indicates the poets whose compositions
are thematically or structurally original. "In some ways", A.K.

Warder notes, "he appears a truer forerunner of the great kavis
whose masterpieces we now most admire."12
Sutakavi - "traditional" poet who writes poems based on

incidents or stories told by another person. These poets borrow the
plots or subject matter from others. When the story of Vessantara
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVU - 2012 23
is told, for example, the listener becomes so overwhelmed that

he produces a metrical version of it. Sometimes, poems might
be passed on from a generation to generation by words of mouth
without writing. Thus they become incorporated in the folk

literature and the original writer is forgotten. As a result the
original story might be condensed, elaborated, or manipulated.
Atthakavi - "Didactic" poet who conveys an educational

or moral theme in his writings. Whether a theme is original or
borrowed the didactic poets always try to give a moral significance
to their poems. This was practised by commentators who illustrated
verses from the Dhammapada, Jtaka, Petavatthu etc. In some

cases, we see stories common to Sanskrit and Hindu literature.
But, in the hands of Pli commentators, they are interpreted to
serve as moral lessons. In Sanskrit literature, there is a separate
genre of didactic verses and tales which are known as upadesa,
nlti, subhdsita etc.
Patibhdnakavi - "impromptu poet" who composes a poem

on any given theme without much thinking like the cintdkavi. In
this category, Venerable Vangsa stands unique in the Pli Tipitaka.
He is perhaps the only monk to have won direct appreciations
from the Buddha for his spontaneous verse compositions. In the
Aguttara Nikya, he is declared as the foremost among those who
compose spontaneous verses.13 With regard to this, John Ireland
wrote "This gift is evidently a reference to the Parosahassa Sutta
(S I 192-93) where, after reciting a poem ... the Buddha asked

Vafigsa whether it had been devised by him beforehand or had
occurred to him "on the spot" (thnaso va tarn patibhanti). When
Vaglsa affirmed the latter, the Buddha invited him to compose
some more verses, and the result was the next poem."14
These four categories of poets can be explained from

the perspective of the three means of acquiring knowledge as
explained in Buddhist philosophy. Accordingly, the three means of
knowledge are: knowledge based on thinking (cint-may-pann),

knowledge based on learning (suta-may-pam), and knowledge
based on mental development (bhvan-may-pann).15 The first
two categories of poets can be categorized under the first two
means of knowledge respectively. The compositions of atthakavi
and patibhnakavi could be classified as knowledge based on

mental development (or bhvan-may-pama). Here, bhvan
has been taken in its broader meaning of 'mental cultivation'16
by thinking or reflecting into life's experiences, deriving lessons
therefrom, and expressing these thoughts through poetical

compositions. This is how knowledge has been built up, perhaps
with the purpose of edifying others by means of didactic verses as
done by the atthakavis; or may be with an idea to share the sheer
joy of great wisdom that these personal experiences bring about

like the patibhnakavi.
Using 'European terminologies', Paranavitana has rendered
these four poets as: "romantic", "classicist", "objective", and

"subjective" poets respectively. Further Paranavitana has evaluated
the four types of poets as follows:
In similar lists occurring in Buddhist texts, the various

classes are arranged in ascending order of merit, and we
may assume that it is so in this case too. From the Buddhist
point of view, what is most conducive to the realization
of the Ultimate Truth has the greatest value. We may on
this principle, take it that cint-kavi is the poet whose

composition is least valuable in this respect, and patibhna
kavi the closest to the ideal. This inference is strengthened
by the fact that patibhna is the fourth and the highest of the
methods of realization often associated with the attainment

of sainthood.17
Such a justification showing superiority of patibhna-kavi

over the other three appears to be a superficial one. It is clear from
the above discussion that the classification of the four types of

poets is based on 'poetic capabilities' and 'practices', not on 'the
realization of the ultimate truth '. Thus the ' romantic poets ' are better
capable of imagination than the 'classicists' who borrow subject

matter of their poems from an outside source, while 'didactic poets'
are concerned about moral implications of their compositions and
the skillful 'impromptu poets' do not need much effort to compose
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVll - 2012 25
a verse. The categorization is not a rigid one; meaning that a

'romantic poet' has the potentiality and freedom of becoming a
'classicist', 'didactic', or 'impromptu verse composer' and vis-

vis based on one's practices. This reasoning can be strengthened
by the fact that, although venerable VagTsa was appreciated by
the Buddha as a patibhna-kavi for his extraordinary capability of
composing instant verses, he was not an arahant at the beginning.
In one of his verses recorded in the Theragth, he expresses that
he was disturbed by sensual desires and requested the Buddha to
teach him the method of extinguishing this fire of sensual desire.18
What the Buddha appreciated in VagTsa was his capability of

composing instant poems which were genuine expressions of
his thoughts.19 He was a poet before coming in contact with the
Buddha20 and certainly he developed this quality of composing
poems by continuous practice as can be gleaned from the fact

that he has most number of verses to his credit in the Theragth.
Therefore, asserting patibhnakavi as superior to the other three

does not seem to be appropriate.
Paranavitana had presumed that the poets of Sigiri graffiti -
earliest specimens of extant Sinhalese poetry, were influenced by

this classification. Such an assertion might be subject to question
due to the fact that many of the verses in Sigiri Graffiti contain
erotic themes with no relation to the Buddhist doctrines or the
themes of conversation as prescribed by the Buddha. However,

the classification is very important from historical and theoretical
perspective. Any poet or poetic work can be classified under any
of these headings. Paranavitana also emphasized the significance
of this classification of poets as follows: "A classification implies
a theory; and the theory we deduce from it is perhaps the earliest
on poetics that can be culled from any literature."21
Poetic Exercise and Righteous Purpose

An interesting passage in the Brahmajlasutta of the Dlghanikya
includes 'poetry' (kveyya) in a long list of base arts [tiracchna

vijja].22 Although poetry has been referred to as an 'unrighteous
livelihood' [micchjlv] of many contemporary Brahmins and
recluses, there is no elaboration to how it was practised and what

its contents were. Rhys Davids supposes, in this passage, by poetry
"impromptu hymning, ballad singing, and the composition of

poems are meant."23 In order to understand this passage, we need
to locate it in the total context of the Brahmajlasutta. This sutta is
of immense importance in understanding the society and various

philosophical views prevalent at the Buddha's time. The Buddha
was stimulated to preach this sutta with the purpose of explicating
various factors, [such as behavioral, moral, supernatural,

intellectual or philosophical and spiritual] that general people
take into consideration when talking about a recluse and brahmin
[.sramanabrdhmana]. Some of these practices relevant to our

present discussion include, "dancing, singing, or instrumental
music, theatrical performances, ballad recitations, music played
by hand-clapping, cymbals, and drums; art exhibitions and

acrobatic performances ..,"24 The Buddha presents these items as
an objective observer, with a clear indication that, many people
would praise the Buddha and his disciples as they refrain from
practising these base arts that Brahmins and sramanas engaged in.
Venerable Buddhaghosa writing in the fifth century CE, illustrates
'ballad recitations' [akkhna, probably corresponding to Sanskrit
khyna or khyyik]25 referring to talks on Mahbhrata as
"the war of Bharatas etc." "When these are being discussed",

he contends "one should not even go there."26 Poetry [kveyy]
has been illustrated by Venerable Buddhaghosa as the works of
four types of poets27 as mentioned above. In addition, he explains
"practising poetry was done as a means of livelihood and it was

done for worldly or mundane purposes."28 The allusion seems to
be that it was not the poetry composition itself that was denounced,
but, the manner in which poetry had been used and some fraudulent
purposes that might have been involved in this practice. The poetry
that the Brahmins practised at that time were certainly the Vedas
and their ancillary texts, which occasionally contain passages of

high aesthetic merits. Yet, by the time of the Buddha, many of the
Vedic verses came to be manipulated and practised for ritualistic
and sacrificial (yaa, hutam) purposes. The Dhammapada, for

example, referring to the Vedic sacrifices connected to fire (aggi,
in Sanskrit Agni, indeed the subject of the first poem of the Rig
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS). Vol. LV11 - 2012 27
Veda), maintains, "Though for a hundred years, one should tend

the sacrificial fire in the forest, yet if only for a moment, one should
worship those of perfected minds, that worship is indeed better

than a century of sacrifice."29 The Brahmajlasutta itself mentions
the various ways Vedic mantras were used at that time for
bringing good luck and bad luck, procuring abortions, using spells
to bind the tongue, binding the jaw, making the hands jerk, causing
deafness ..."30 This aspect of using Vedic verses in a destructive

manner, which does not lead one to the supreme purification of
mind, was severely criticized by the Buddhists. Apart from these
negative aspects of poetic exercise, some illustrations of the way
poetry was used are found in the Pli texts.
Venerable Vagisa in a short autobiographical poem

recalled that previously he had been a poet, drunk or obsessed in
poetry [kveyyamatta] and used to travel in different cities. In the
poem, Venerable Vagisa expresses the defect of such practices
and the consolation he gained from the Buddha's teachings.31

Regarding his early life, Malalasekere wrote "He belonged to a
brahmin family and was proficient in the Vedas. He gained repute
by tapping on skulls with his finger nail and telling thereby where
the owners of the skull were reborn. During three years, he thus
gained much money. Then, in spite of the protests of his colleagues,
he went to see the Buddha, who gave him the skull of an arahant
... Vagisa could make nothing of this."32 Probably Vagisa used

to compose his verses in order to read skulls. It was perhaps the
obsession (matta) with poetry that Vagisa was much remorseful
about. Buddhism would maintain that obsession of any kind is an
obstruction on the path of realizing the ultimate truth.33
In the Mah-ummaggajtaka34, we see a king following the

instructions of one of his ryal advisers, calls a congregation of
wise men and poets to exhibit their excellence in composing poems
in praise of the beauty of the king's daughter. The best composer
of them would be rewarded in abundance. The poems would be

put to melodic tunes to be sung by the best singers and musicians
in the country to publicize the beauty of the princess among the
beings of earth and deities of heaven, and subsequently to soften
the mind of another king. Since the purpose of the king was to
succeed in a political trick, and since the king is presented not as
virtuous one in the whole story, the importance and emphasis of
'righteous purpose' in a good poetic composition, not the ornate

features, become clear.
However, this critical viewpoint of the absence of'righteous
purpose' in the use of poetry was not limited to the non-Buddhist
compositions only. The Buddha foresaw a time (perhaps similar

to the time that we are living) when his discourses or doctrines
would encounter the similar fate at the hands of Bhikkhus. In such
a time, the Buddha asserts, "the discourses of the Tathgata, that

are deep, deep in meaning, supramundane, dealing with emptiness,
are being recited, they will not think those teachings should be
studied and mastered. But when those discourses that are mere
poetry composed by poets, beautiful in words and phrases, created

by outsiders, spoken by their disciples, are being recited, they will
be eager to listen to them, will lend an ear to them, will apply their
minds to understand them; and they will think those teachings

should be studied and mastered."35
This statement is significant in several aspects. It shows a

comparison between the use and purpose of the Buddha's discourses
and poetical works of outsiders or non-Buddhists. Buddhist

discourses, with depth of meaning and philosophy, are ultimately
concerned with supramundane realities; their aim is to understand
the emptiness or non-substantiality of phenomenal existence.

Poetical works of non-Buddhists, on the other hand, with linguistic
elegance, concern with low and mundane matters. The phrase

'outsiders' [bharik], however, should not be interpreted to mean
all Non-Buddhist literature, but, that which deal with superficial
subjects and are not concerned with 'the realization of the ultimate
truth of emptiness'. This statement is also an illustration of the

phrase 'kveyyamatt' (obsession with poetry, here emphasized
in phrases like 'reciting, eager to listen, will lend an ear') that
Vangsa frequently used. The Buddha's preemptive warning was
to retain the depth of meaning, understand the supramundane and
realize the truth of emptiness as taught by the Buddha, instead of
being obsessed with poetical compositions of others.
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS). Vol. LVII - 2012 29
Thus, we see some deceptive elements in the use of poetry

by Brahmins and recluses. The tone of Brahmajlasutta including
poetry as a base art, is not antagonistic or one that reproves

the practice outright. One reason why poetry was considered a
debased form of art was because it would not lead one to the final
goal which is the supreme purity of mind and attainment of perfect
enlightenment. From the above references, we learn that poems

were practised, with elegant expressions, in order to captivate
general people and generate some good impression of the poet's
capability in the minds of the listeners. Those who were immersed
only in the exercise of poetry, as was VagTsa in early part of his life,
and were unable to see any other truth beyond this poetic exercise
would not be appreciated by Buddhists. The Buddha emphatically
admonishes Bhikkhus to aspire for understanding higher realities.
"There are, monks, other matters, profound, hard to see, hard to
understand, peaceful, excellent, beyond mere thought, subtle, to
be experienced by the wise, which the Tathgata, having realized
them by his own super-knowledge, proclaims, and about which
those who would truthfully praise the Tathgata would rightly
speak."36
Communicational Ethics and Thematic Choice
Poetry is a form of communication of ideas, and is inherently
linked with the ethics of speech. Verbal communication, as

explained in Buddhist ethics, can be true or false, pleasant or
unpleasant, and well spoken or badly spoken.37 These three pairs
of dualities confirm three important features of the use of language
from Buddhist perspective: purpose and contents which must be

truthful; sound effects which should not be coarse; and the mode
or methods of speaking wherein a proper selection of words is
important. The positive aspects of them are obviously encouraged
by the Buddha. The negative aspects would be discouraged if

one speaks or writes false or true contents with an unrighteous
intention; if the sound effects are not pleasant to listen or creating
unrighteous attitudes in the listeners' minds; and even if a good

intention is not expressed in a proper way using proper words. In
addition to these three aspects of good speech, the Buddha adds
another factor dhamma - truth, law etc. in the same list. In the
sutta, it is recorded that Venerable Vaglsa was overwhelmed by
this discourse, and produced his own metrical version of it at that
very moment. Certainly, he considered these features as guiding
principles while composing his poems of which there is a good
collection recorded in Theragtha and Samyutta Nikya.38
Right speech, maintaining to refrain from falsehood

(musvd), malicious talks (pisunvc), harsh words
(pharusvc), and meaningless talks (sampappalp), forms an
important organ in the Buddhist middle path. Of these four factors,
sampappalpa underwent significant expansion of meaning within

the suttas and also at the hands of later commentators. Subject-wise
there are several enumerations of number of topics considered

inappropriate and inferior [tiracchna] for monks to engage in
conversations.39 These inappropriate forms of talks include talks
on kings, robbers, ministers, war, women etc.
These talks are referred to as low, vulgar, concerning

ordinary worldly people, insignificant, not contributing for
the (comprehension of) disenchantment (from this world),
dispassionateness, and destruction of ego, pacification (of
desires), realization of higher knowledge, enlightenment, and
attainment of Nibbna.40 In demonstrating why and how such talks
are inappropriate for monks, we may recall an incident from the

Udana.41 Once after coming from alms round and having partaken
their forenoon meals, some monks gathered at the dhamma hall in
Jetavana monastery. In the gathering, they began this heated debate
on the two kings - King Bimbisra and King Pasenadi Kosala as to who was superior to the other in wealth, property, treasures,
territory, vehicles, military power, nobility, and munificence.
The debate continued until the Buddha came to the hall in the
evening and inquired what they had been talking about. Being
replied accordingly, the Buddha admonished that young men of
good families, ordained as they were, must not engage in such
talks. In brief, the Buddha instructed that when monks gather at a
place, they should engage in talks on dhamma or maintain noble
silence. In a verse that immediately follows this discussion, the
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVII - 2012 31
Buddha emphasizes that eliminating desires or craving is sixteen

times greatly blissful than the sensual and divine pleasures. An
important implication here is that engaging in the inappropriate or
non-dhammic talks, there is high probability of going on with an
unresolved controversy leading to no result of significance. This
admonition certainly influenced in the literary practices of monks
concerning their selection of subject matters.
In illustrating talks related to the dhamma and having

qualities opposite to the inappropriate talks mentioned above,
ten themes are enumerated in a popular list. They are: talks on
little needs, contentment, seclusion, less or no contact (with

people), initiation of perseverance (in dhammic practices), on
morality, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and talks on seeing
or comprehending the knowledge of liberation.42 One advances
on the Buddhist path by following these, and conversely begins
to understand the significance of these and undertakes them from
one's own accord as one progresses on the path.
The Buddha's gradual preaching of the dhamma, known

as nupubbkath, has the sequence of subjects such as liberality,
morality, divinity, pointing out the danger, folly, defilements of
sensual objects, and inducing people for renunciation.43 This

sequence too had immense impacts in the use of narratives in the
texts containing kath-s. Most of the stories used therein were to
illustrate one or the other of these themes, which were broadly

categorized into ten perfections (or par amis).** Furthermore,
the Dhammapada repeatedly emphasizes that a verse with some
significance and depth of meaning is better than thousands of
meaningless verses.45
The Buddha's enunciation of meaningless talks

[sampappalpa] had been expanded to such an extent that
later commentators even forbid the reading of epics like the
Mahbhrata and Rmyana, referred to as stories of the 'war of
Bharatas' and 'abduction of St' respectively.46 Such prohibitions
were made, perhaps, when the stories of the Mahbhrata and
Rmyana were gaining popularity in Sri Lanka where a great

king Kumradsa even wrote an excellent epic 'Jnakharana '
[Abduction of Jnak or STt]. Despite forbidding these stories,

Buddhists themselves could not escape their indelible influences.
Therefore, we see that when the commentator of the DTghanikya
was condemning these stories as 'nonsense', the commentator

of the Jtaka included non-Buddhist stories like the story of
Rma [in Dasarathajtaka] and Krishna [in Ghatapanditajtaka
of Jtaktthakath and Kanhapetavatthu and Akurapetavatthu
of Petavatthupli\, identifying some characters as connected

to the Buddha and his disciples in the past. However, these
adaptations were garbed in the principles of Buddhist doctrines
and they aim at moralizing and inducing their readers to follow
the path of wisdom. These observations construct an ethical and
"soteriological" ground for the development of Buddhist literary
theory.
The Basic Elements of a Poem
In another instance, an analysis of the basic parts of a metrical

composition is seen. Therein metre is explained as the scaffolding
of a verse; letters or syllables as its beautification; names as the
basis; and a poet is figuratively shown as a dwelling place of

them.47 48 In the commentary, it is further clarified as follows:
Metres beginning with the gyatti are the scaffolding of

verses; for one beginning the preliminary verses considers,
"in which metre should it be?"
Syllables make up words and words make up a verse, and a

verse reveals the meaning.
One composing a verse composes it relying on some name

such as "the ocean" or "the earth".
Verses come forth from the poet, and thus he is their

support.49
This classification is historically important as it is among

the earliest records, if not the first, of splitting up a poem into its
fundamental components. It is clear that discussions on metres
were already prevalent in Buddha's time and the Buddha was

proficient in them. Why were metres so important? It is obviously
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS). Vol. LVI1 - 2012 33
for the convenience of memorization. At least in the Bhridatta
Jtaka, the purpose is given in the following manner:
Sentences are made and learnt by rote

In metric forms not easily forgot;
The obscurity but tempts the foolish mind,
They swallow all they are told with impulse blind.50
Discussions on the basic parts of a poem as recorded in

this instance might have been influenced by already existing
Vedic metres. In subsequent centuries following the earliest
Pli literature, Sanskrit poetics developed greatly. Following the
developments in Sanskrit prosody, prominently the Vrttaratnakara
of Kedra Bhatta, ancient Pli scholars too emulated the same in
Pli. The best work on metres in Pli is the Vuttodaya of Venerable
Sagharakkhita.
Conclusion
According to the above discussion, we see that there are two

aspects of the hypothesized Buddhist literary theory - analytic
and evaluative. Classification of poets based on their sources and
expressions and dividing fundamental components of a poem are
parts of its analytic aspect. The evaluative aspect is fundamentally
based on the principle of righteousness. Persistent emphasis on
righteous thinking and expression in Buddhist ethics are closely
connected in this process of evaluation of the quality of a literary
work. The development of the theory happened in a process of
expansion of certain 'ethical expressions' like the sampappalpa

in recommending certain themes and rejecting others. Even
a cursory glimpse of the Pli literature developed over the
centuries would show that Pli litterateure closely adhered to
these recommendations. Thematic innovations, linguistic

embellishments and incorporation of non-Buddhist narratives
were done within the limits of these principles. When a Buddhist
monk or an ardent follower of the Buddhist path is appreciating
or critiquing a verse from Rabindranath Tagore's Gitajali or

Walt Whitman's Songs of Myself, we would notice that the same
principles are at work.
Endnotes
1 During the process of my research I made a presentation on this

topic in the 4th Annual Conference of the Royal Asiatic Society of
Sri Lanka. An abstract of that presentation was published in the
conference Book of Abstracts. I have made some methodological

changes to the plan of my research as indicated in that abstract. See
Upali Sramon 2011.1 would like to thank Prof. Oliver Abeynayake
who was present in that conference for sharing some of his

experiences and views in Buddhist literary criticism. I also thank
Mr. Rohana Seneviratne, Dr. Amarakeerthi Liyanage, and Dr. Hema
Goonatilake who read some parts of this paper and provided me
valuable suggestions and encouragement.
2 It is noteworthy here that I have avoided the much discussed question
on the aesthetic position of Buddhist liberated saints, since it would
result in reiteration of some facts. Another element consciously
avoided here is Buddhist analysis of words and meanings which is
more abstract, and relates more to Buddhist linguistic theory and
epistemology, but, can also be connected to our study.
3 J. C. Wright "77ie Pali Subodhlahkra and Dandin's Kvydarsa"

in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University
of London, Vol. 65, No. 2 (2002), pp. 323-341.
4 kavikat kveyy cittkkhar cittabyanjan bhirak svakabhsit

(SN, II, 267)
5 As to why it was referred to as a practice of outsiders, we shall have
occasion to return to this definition in the section on poetic exercise
and righteous purpose.
6 The navagasatthusdsana "consists of Suttas (Sutta), mixed prose

(geyya), exegesis (veyykarana), verses (gth), solemn utterances
{udna), sayings of the Blessed One (itivuttaka), birth stories

(jtaka), extraordinary things (abbhutadhamma), and analysis
(vedalla)". (Nyanatiloka Mahathera, Buddhist Dictionary, Digital
edition, see ssana,)
7 Some parts of Suttanipta, Itivuttaka and Udna have contents in

mixed verse and prose.
8 For an account of the references to theatrical performances in

Tipitaka see O.H. De. A. Wijesekera (1994), the chapter on 'Buddhist
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSLfNS), Vol. LVII - 2012 35
Evidence for the Early Existence of Drama' in Buddhist and Vedic

Studies, pp. 13-24, Motilal Banarssidas Publishers, Delhi.
9 I have compressed the nine-fold divisions of the doctrine from the
perspective of stories and verses as contained in the form of suttas,
gth, and kaths.
10 A. K. Warder, Indian Kvya Literature, Vol.1, p.4.
11 Morris, Rev. Richard ( 1885), ed. Aguttara Nikya II, PTS, London,
p.230
12 A. K. Warder, Indian Kvya Literature, Vol. 2, pp. 23.
13 Morris, Rev. Richard (1885), ed. Aguttaranikya, I, PTS, London,
p.21.
14 Ireland, John D. ( 1997), VahgTsa an Early Buddhist Poet, The Wheel
Publication No. 417/418, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, see,

introduction. For an exposition on the four poets and Vagsa see
also A. K. Warder, Indian Kvya Literature, Vol. 2, pp. 23ff.
15 Apar'pi tisso pa: cintmay pa, sutamay pa

bhvanmay pa. (DN. Ill 219)
16 Pali-English Dictionary, ed. Rhys Davids and William Stede, PTS,
see bhvana
17 Paranavitana, S, (1956), Sigiri Graffiti: Being Sinhalese Verses of

the 8'\ 9th, and 10"' centuries, Volume -1, Oxford University Press,
p.cxcii.
18 Kmargena dayhmi cittam me paridayhati Sdhu nibbpanarri

brhi anukampya gotama. (Theragtha, PTS, p. 110).
19 Feer, M. Leon, (ed.) Samyutta Nikya, Vol. I, PTS, London, ppl88

189.
20 Malalasekere G.P., Dictionary of Pli Proper Names, PTS, London,

1960, p.802. see below.
21 Paranavitana, S, Ibid, 1956, The following remark has been made

by the Professor in a foot-note "It is generally accepted that the
Aguttara Nikya was known as a compilation in the third century
B.C. the particular passage quoted was commented upon by

Buddhaghosa in the fifth century C.E."
22 Davids, T. W. Rhys and Prof. J Estin, [Pli edition] The DTgha

Nikya, Vol. I, Pli Texts Society (PTS), London, 1949, p. 11. For
English translation of the passage I have referred the following
translation: Walshe, Maurice, The Long Discourses of the Buddha:
a translation of the DTgha Nikya, Wisdom Publication, Boston,
1987, rep. 1995, p.72.
23 Davids, T. W. Rhys, [tr.] Dialogues of the Buddha, Part I, PTS,

London, 1956, p.22, foot note 3.
24 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, The Discourse on All-Embracing Net of Views,

English Translation of the Brahmajlasutta and its Commentaries,
Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1978, reprint 1992, p.55.

Maurice Walshe renders the relevant passage (naccam gtam
vditam pekkham akkhnam pfissaram vetlam kumbhathnam
sobhanakam cartdlam vamsam dhovanam, Dghanikya I, PTS

edition, p.6) as "dancing, singing, music, displays, recitations, hand
music, cymbals and drums, fairy-shows, acrobatic and conjuring
tricks..." [Walshe, Maurice op.cit. 1987, rep. 1995, p.70]. Although
one would have expected poetry (kveyya) to appear in this list from
Middle section on Morality (majjhimasa), it in fact, has been listed
in a later list of the large section on morality (mahsl).
25 For a distinction between khyyik and kath, see Sushil Kumar

De, "The Akhyayika and the Katha in Classical Sanskrit", in Bulletin
of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, Vol. 3, No.
3, 1924, pp. 507-517
26 Akkhnanti bhratayujjhandikam. Yasmim utthne kathyati,

tattha gantumpi na vattati. (Dghanikya Atthakath I, PTS edition,
p.84)
27 kveyyanti "cattro, bhikkhave, kavi. Katamo cattro? Cintkavi,
Sutakavi, atthakavi, patibhnakavti (AN IV.231). Imesam catunnam
kavnam attano cintvasena va: "vessantaro nma ahosF'ti-dini
sutv sutavasena va; imassa ayam attho, evam tam yojessmti

evam atthavasena va; kicideva disv tappatibhgam kattabbam
karissmti evam thnuppattikapatibhnavasena v; jvikatthya
kabyakaranam. Lokyatam vuttameva." [T.W. Rhys Davids and J.E.
Carpenter (ed.1929; 2nd ed. 1968) Sumagalavilsin- Commentary
to the Dghanikya, Vol. I, PTS ]
28 Ibid, jvikatthya kabyakaranam. Lokyatam vuttameva
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVH-2012 37
29 Verse 106 -107, The Dhammapada: The Buddha's Path of Wisdom,

translated from the Pali by Acharya Buddharakkhita, with an
Introduction by Bhikkhu Bodhi, Kandy: Buddhist Publication
Society, 1985.
The Pli version of the gths from PTS edition of the Dhammapada
Yo ca vassasatam jantu aggim paricare vane (107)
Ekaca bhvitattnam muhuttampi pjaye
Syeva pjan seyyyace vassasatam hutam.

30 Walshe, Maurice (1987, rep.1995). op.cit. 72.
31 "kveyyamatt vicarimh pubbe, gm gmam purpurani"
(Feer, M. Leon, (ed.) Samyutta Nikya, Vol. I, PTS, London, p. 196. )
Translation - "Drunk with Diving art of old we roamed/From town
and village onto town again." (Davids, Mrs. Rhys, Samyutta Nikya
I, Pli Texts Society, London, p.248.)

32 See, Vagsa in Malalasekere G.P., Dictionary of Pli Proper Names,
PTS, London, 1960, p.802.

33 Appamdo amatapadam pamdo maccuno padam
Appamatt na myanti ye pamatt yath mat. (Dhammapada verse
21)
34 Fausball, V. (ed.) The Jtaka together with its Commentaries Being
Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, Volume VI, PTS,
London, 1964, pp.329-478. The particular episode is found in p.410.
35 Bodhi Bhikkhu, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New

Translation of the Samyuttanikya, Vol. I, Wisdom Publication,
Boston, 2000, 709.
36 Walshe, Maurice, op.cit. 1987, rep.1995, 73.
37 Catuhi bhikkhave agehi samanngat vc subhsit hoti no

dubbhsit anavajj ca, ananuvajj ca vinam. Katamehi catuhi?
Idha bhikkhave bhikkh subhsitam yeva bhsati no dubbhsitam.
Dhammarri yeva bhsati no adhammam. piyarri yeva bhsati no

appiyam. Saccam yeva bhsati no alikam. Imehi kho bhikkhave
cathi agehi samanngat vc subhsit hoti no dubbhsit
anavajj ca ananuvajj ca vimnanti. (Feer, M. Leon, op. cit.,
pp 188-189).
38 Ireland, John D., Vagsa an Early Buddhist Poet, The Wheel

Publication No. 417/418, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy,
1997.
39 rdjakatham corakatham mahmattakatham sendkatham

bhayakathamyuddhakatham annakatham pdnakatham vatthakatham
sayanakatham mlkatham gandhakatham dtikathani ydnakatham
gmakatham nigamakatham nagarakatham janapadakatham
itthikatham srakatham visikhkatharrt kumbhatthnakatham
pubbapetakatham ndnattakatham lokakkhyikam

samuddakkhdyikam itibhavbhavakatham. (DNI, 8-9; MNIII113).
Lily de Silva gives an account on ethical aspects of speech in her
short but interesting essay 'Speech: the privilege and the problem
of Man' in Y. Karunadasa, 1990 ed.; Ananda: Essays in honour of

Ananda W.P. Guruge, published by the felicitation committee.
40 hind gamma pothujjanikd anariyd anatthasamhit na nibbiddya na

viragdya na nirodhaya na upasamdya na abhidya na sambodhdya
na nibbdndya sarrivattati (MN III 113).
41 PTS edition p. 10
42 appicchakathd santutthikathd pavivekakathd, asasaggakathd,

viriydrambhakathd, silakathd, samddhikathd, padkatha,
vimuttikathd vimuttidnadassanakathd, iti evarpim katham
kathessmti. Itiha tattha sampajdno hoti.
43 ddnakatham sllakatham saggakatham kamdnam adinavam okdram

sakilesam nekkhamme ca dnisamsam pakdsesi (Vin.1,15).
44 Ten qualities leading to Buddhahood: (1) perfection in giving (or

liberality; dna-pram), (2) morality (slla- pram), (3) renunciation
(nekkhamma- pram), (4) wisdom (pa- pram), (5) energy

(viriya- pram), (6) patience (or forbearance; khanti- pram), (7)
truthfulness (sacca- pram), (8) resolution (adhitthna- pram), (9)
loving-kindness (mett- pram) (10) equanimity (upekkh- pram).
[Nyanatiloka Mahathera, Buddhist Dictionary, Digital edition, see
pram]
45 Vide Sahassavagga of the Dhammapada

46 Anatthavipik kyavacpayogasamutthpik akusalacetan
samphappalpo. So sevanamandatya appasvajjo,

sevanamahantatya mahsvajjo, tassa dve sambhr - bhratayu
Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LV11 - 2012 39
ddhastharanniratthpurekkhrat, tathrpam kath kathanaca

(Dghanikya-atthakath, I. 75).
47 In Pli - "chando nidnam gthnant, akkhar tesam viyajanam,

nmsannissit gth, kavi gthnani sayo" [The Saipyutta Nikya
of the Sutta-pitaka, part-I, Sagthavagga, ed. M. Leon Feer, PTS,
London, p.38.]
48 Literal translation of the above passage -Metre's the hidden source
whence verses flow./Letters it is that issue from that source/'This
names of things whereon verses are hung,/The bard is the abode
wherein they dwell. (Davids, Mrs. Rhys assisted by Sryagoda

SumangalaThera, The Book of the Kindred Sayings (Saniyuttanikya)
or Grouped Suttas, Part I, PTS, London, 1917, p.54).
Translation of the same passage by Bhikkhu Bodhi "Metre is the scaffolding of verses;
Syllables constitute their phrasing
Verses rest on a base of names,
The poet is the abode of verses." (Bodhi, Bhikkhu, The connected
Discourses of the Buddha - a new translation of the Samyutta

Nikya, Volume I, Wisdom Publications, Boston, 2000, p. 130).
49 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, op.cit., p.379-380, foot note 120.
50 Cowell, E.B. [tr.]77ie Jtaka or the Stories of the Buddha's Former
Births, Vol.VI, Translated by E.B. Cowell and W.H.D. Rouse, Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1990 reprint.
"vc kat giddhikat gahit,dumocay kavypathnupann.bl

na cittam vsame niviffham, tad appapaa abhisandahanti. "
(Fausbll, V. (ed.) The Jtaka together with its Commentaries Being
Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, PTS, London, 1964,
p.213).

Elements of A Buddhist Literary Theory As Depicted in Pali Literature

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Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

Author(s): Venerable Upali Sramon

Elements of a Buddhist Literary

Venerable Upali Sramon

is only an attempt to understand the support provided by ancient

Pli texts of the Theravda school of Buddhism in construing

or otherwise)? And what principles are followed by him or her in

which were inspired by already established Sanskrit traditions of

for the present study. Subodhlakaras, originality and leanings

understand the distinct features, mostly ethical, that were (and

any influence from Sanskrit poetics. My attempt here is not to

20 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

show the superiority of the Buddhist perspective over other critical

traditions, but, to understand its distinctness and independent

Literary genres in early Pli literature

and classification of the Buddha's teachings, literary genres and

writers were not as diverse as today. Basically, thoughts were

But, within the Tipitaka, and commentaries on corresponding

Many words like 'gth' 'kveyya', kavit,pajja, kabya, or

writer and kveyya to mean only metrical compositions or any

writings, there may be some controversies. Some descriptive

followers)".4 This statement clarifies two important aspects of

words and phrases' as opposed to general and philosophically

Perhaps this discussion occurred at a time when much importance

Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSLfNS), Vol. LVII - 2012 21

Secondly, poetry is referred to mainly 'as a practice of outsiders,

An important distinction must be made in between gth

in verses or gths, but all gths do not necessarily have

which, as noted above, was referred to with some abhorrence, as

fold divisions of Buddha's discourses, we see gth as one factor

[not kveyya].6 The gths available in mainly canonical texts

Entertainments in the forms of songs and dances, referred

suttas or discourses sometimes interspersed with verses dominate

Cariypitaka, Apadna, Vimnavatthu, and Petavatthu, which

22 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

were originally written in verse and later on commented in prose,

When the early Buddhist monks were critiquing their own

epics (mahkvyas) developed much later. In that cotext, A.K.

of Hindu writers. Buddhists, as we shall see, were much critical

about these Hindu epics, many of which were inspired by the

Four Types of Poets and Three Means of Knowledge

The Aguttaranikya records an interesting passage with a

except these phrases. Therefore, we depend on the commentaries

Cintkavi - "Imaginative" poet who "composes after

are thematically or structurally original. "In some ways", A.K.

Sutakavi - "traditional" poet who writes poems based on

plots or subject matter from others. When the story of Vessantara

Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVU - 2012 23

is told, for example, the listener becomes so overwhelmed that

without writing. Thus they become incorporated in the folk

Atthakavi - "Didactic" poet who conveys an educational

verses from the Dhammapada, Jtaka, Petavatthu etc. In some

Patibhdnakavi - "impromptu poet" who composes a poem

(S I 192-93) where, after reciting a poem ... the Buddha asked

These four categories of poets can be explained from

knowledge are: knowledge based on thinking (cint-may-pann),

24 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

means of knowledge respectively. The compositions of atthakavi

and patibhnakavi could be classified as knowledge based on

therefrom, and expressing these thoughts through poetical

done by the atthakavis; or may be with an idea to share the sheer

joy of great wisdom that these personal experiences bring about

these four poets as: "romantic", "classicist", "objective", and