PET113E Ipnge Sept2014

8.9.
2014
PET 113E
INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
AND NATURAL GAS
ENGINEERING ( & ENERGY)
Abdurrahman Satman
Sept. 2014
CONTENTS
World Energy Statistics
-Reserves-Production-Consumption
-Prices, Emissions
-Strategies About Energy
Renewable Energy Geothermal
Turkey Energy Statistics
Energy: Terms and Definitions-Units
Introduction to PNGE
8.9.2014
What is Energy?
Energy is the ability to do work

Energy is what makes things move,
light up, give comfort, etc.
It is in the form of usable heat or
power
It is a source of usable power, such as
petroleum, natural gas, coal, nuclear
energy, hydropower, biomass, solar
energy, geothermal, wind, etc.
8.9.2014
Energy Careers
Engineering
Business
Earth Sciences
Energy Companies
What is ENERGY ?
Energy makes change possible. It moves cars along the road,
bakes food in the oven, lights our homes, operates televisions
and computers, and does a lot more.
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Where does ENERGY come from ?

Biomass
Energy
Fossil Fuels;
Oil, Coal,
Natural Gas
Wind
Energy
Geothermal
Energy
Hydro Power and
Ocean Energy
Nuclear Energy
Solar Energy
Clean Fuel
Wood
17. Century
Coal
Petroleum
19. Century
N. Gas
20. Century
Hydrogen
21. Century
H/C Ratio Increasing
Historical Development of Energy

Resources in the World
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World H/C Ratio
(Aguilera, R.F., JPT, June 2009)
2000
As the primary source, the shift from wood to coal occured in 1885
and from coal to oil in 1960. The question is what is next?
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Time to Reach the Peak Oil

Production for the World?
2013
33.3
Energy sources are divided into two groups:

Easily Replenished
Renewable Energy
Sources
Wind
Solar
Supplies are limited,

and cannot recreated
Non-Renewable Energy
Sources
Nuclear
Oil
Geothermal
Hydro
Power
Biomass
Natural Gas
Coal
8.9.2014
World Energy
2013
ENERGY STATISTICS
TERMS
Energy
Fossil fuels
Primary energy
Secondary energy
Conventional x unconventional energy
Renewable x nonrenewable energy
Supply x demand, production x consumption
Energy density x efficiency x intensity
...
...
8.9.2014
Types of Primary Energy Resources

Crude oil: Crude oil comprises crude oil, natural gas liquids, refinery
feedstocks and additives as well as other liquid hydrocarbons.
Natural gas: Gas includes natural gas (excluding natural gas liquids) and
gas works gas.
Coal/peat: Coal/peat includes all coal, both primary (including hard coal
and lignite/brown coal) and derived fuels (including coke oven coke, gas
coke, coke oven gas, blast furnace gas, and peat (combustible organic
soil, partially carbonized matter).
Nuclear: Nuclear shows the primary heat equivalent of the electricity
produced by a nuclear plant with an average thermal efficiency of 33%.
Hydro: Hydro shows the energy content of the electricity produced in
hydro power plants. Hydro output excludes output from pumped storage
plants.
Combustible renewables & waste: It comprises solid biomass (wood),
liquid biomass, biogas, industrial waste and municipal waste
Other: Other includes geothermal, solar, wind, tide/wave/ocean energy
(in the form of electricity and heat).
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1
1
1
1
1
1
1
kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.187 kJ = 3.968 Btu

kilojoule (kJ) = 0.239 kcal = 0.948 Btu
British thermal unit (Btu) = 0.252 kcal = 1.055 kJ
kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 860 kcal = 3600 kJ = 3412 Btu
metric tonne = 2204.62 lb
kilolitre = 6.2898 barrels = 1 cubic metre = 35 ft3
barrel = 42 U.S. Gallon = 159 litre = 0.159 m3 = 5.615 ft3
Calorific equivalents
One tonne of oil equvalent (= 7.33 barrels of oil equivalent) equals
approximately:
Heat units
10 million kilocalories
42 gigajoules
40 million Btu
Solid fuels
1.5 tonnes of hard coal
3 tonnes of lignite
3
Gaseous fuels 1111 m natural gas
0.82 tonnes LNG
Electricity*
12 megawatt-hours (energy content of
electricity)
* Primary energy equivalent of one million tonnes of oil or oil equivalent
produces about 4400 gigawatt-hours (=4.4 terawatt-hours) of electricity in a
modern thermic power station with an average thermal efficiency of 37%.
The primary energy equivalent of geothermal energy is calculated assuming an
efficiency of 10% so one million tonnes of equivalent geothermal energy
produces about 1.2 terawatt-hours of electricity.
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iea(2013)
iea(2013)
10
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11
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World Energy Resources 2013

1993
2011
% change
Population (billion)
5.5
8.1
+27%
GDP (PPP) (billion 2005 USD)
25
70
+180%
Coal (Mt)
4 474
7 520
+68%
Oil (Mt)
3 179
3 973
+25%
Natural Gas (bcm)
2 176
3 518
+62%
Nuclear (TWh)
2 106
2 386
+13%
Hydropower (TWh)
2 286
2 767
+21%
Total Electricity production (TWh)
12 607
22 202
+76%
Emissions, total CO2 (Gt)
21
30
+44%
World Energy Council 2013
(World Energy Council (WEC), 2013)
12
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13 113 Mtoe
World Total
Primary
Energy Supply
from 1971 to
2011 by fuel
(Mtoe)
(IEA, 2013)
BALANCE TABLE
World Total Primary Energy Supply and Consumption (2011),
by fuel (Mtoe)
(IEA, 2013)
13
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Primary (Commercial) Energy

Biofuels (wood, crops used for energy production) and
waste (industrial and municipal) are not considered
Primary energy world consumption

12.7 billion toe in 2013
1 toe = ~3 tonnes of lignite
=1111 m3 NG
=40.4x106 Btu
=12 MWh
(BP, 2013)
14
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Primary energy consumption per capita, toe
World Average = 1.57 toe per person
(BP, 2013)
Fossil fuel reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios

at end 2013, years
113 Years
53
55
(BP, 2013)
15
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Illumination at night over the WorldI
People without access to electricity by region, 2009 (million)
1.3 billion people are without electricity!
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
16
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World Population
10000
WORLD POPULATION
Ref: United Nations, http://esa.un.org/unpp, 2007
9.19
9.19 milyar
billion
%0.50
%0.98
2030
2012
6000
2005
%1.6
4000
%1.9
2.535billion
milyar
2.535
1975
2000
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
77
YEAR
33
700
600
500
400
2014
Population
20
30
20
20
20
10
20
00
19
90
19
80
300
200
100
0
Total Energy Consumed,

Quadrillion BTU
(1015 BTU)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
19
60
Population,
Billion Persons
Energy Consumption Will Grow Even More Rapidly

Than Population
19
70
milyon
Population,
million
Population,
8000
Total Energy Consumed

34
Source:
U.S. Department of Labor 2001 Occupational Employment
Statistics; EIA, International Energy Outlook 2004
17
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CRUDE OIL (PETROLEUM)
Oil reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios, Years
53 Years
(BP, 2013)
18
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Distribution of proved oil reserves, %
147 billion tonnes
238 billion tonnes
Oil reserves are increasing in years!

(BP, 2013)
Oil production/consumption by region, Million barrels daily
87 million barrels/day=4.1 billion tonnes/year

(2013)
91 million barrels/day=4.2 billion tonnes/year

(2013)
(BP, 2013)
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Oil consumption per capita, tonnes
World Average = 4.8 barrels or

0.68 tonnes per person
(BP, 2013)
Producers, net exporters and net importers of crude oil*
(iea, 2013)
20
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Production of unconventional tight oil (about an estimated 1.5 million barrels

per day) is the main cause of growth in crude oil production in USA.
Chart of crude oil prices since 1861
Adjusted for Inflation vs. Money of the Day
(BP, 2013)
21
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U.S. $/Gallon
Taxes Are The Primary Reason for Difference

in Gasoline Prices Between U.S. and Europe
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
e
nc
a
Fr
m
er
G
y
an
I ta
ly
et
N
nd
la
r
he
Gasoline Cost
.
.K
U
.S
U
Taxes
Source: EIA, Weekly Petroleum Status Report
(Average for Jan-May 2004)
Major oil trade movements 2013

Trade flows worldwide (million tonnes)
(BP, 2013)
22
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OPEC (Organization of Petroleum

Exporting Countries)
OPEC Members
Middle East: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates
North Africa: Algeria, Libya
West Africa: Angola, Nigeria
South America: Ecuador, Venezuela.
World Active Wells Distribution
Turkey
927
Active Wells
(TPAO, 2012)
23
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Average Wellhead Crude Oil Production (Barrel/Day)
Turkey
36
BOPD/Well
(TPAO, 2012)
NATURAL
GAS
24
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Distribution of proved gas reserves

in 1993, 2003 and 2013, %
118.4 trillion m3
185.7 trillion m3
Natural gas reserves are increasing in years!

(BP, 2013)
3.4 trillion m3/year
3.3 trillion m3/year

(BP, 2013)
25
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Gas consumption per capita 2013
World Average = 435 m3 or 0.40 toe per person
(BP, 2013)
(BP, 2013)
26
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Major gas trade movements 2013

World:
Total trade = 1036 billion m3

Pipeline trade = 711 billion m3 (69% of total)
LNG trade = 325 billion m3 (31% of total)
(BP, 2013)
Producers, net exporters and net importers* of natural gas
iea(2013)
27
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The remaining reserves (BP, 2013)

53 years of OIL
55 years of NATURAL GAS
Is the world running out

of OIL and GAS ???
The largest reserves of

OIL
Natural Gas
Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
Canada
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
United Arab Emirates
Russian Federation
Libya
Nigeria
Iran
Russian Federation
Qatar
United States
Saudi Arabia
United Arab Emirates
Venezuela
Nigeria
Algeria
Iraq
(BP, 2013)
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Oil and Natural gas will continue to

be the primary energy sources for
years to come.
Unconventional oil and gas will
become increasingly more important.
Reservoir properties
cannot changed by industry
Technology new techniques can be developed

Economics
affects everything
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Conventional
Resources
Visible Part
ENERGY ICEBERG
Stranded Natural Gas

Gas Shale
Invisible Part
Extra Heavy Oil

Bitumen
Oil Shale
Gas Hydrates
Conventional and Non-Conventional Resources

How to obtain next generations energy supplies?
Our current economy is based on

cheap energy
... at a growing price
Availability of oil resources as a function of economic price
... in modern technology

Source: IEA
30
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Canadas Oil Sands Have Become a Source of

North America Production Through
Advanced Drilling and Production Techniques
Steam injected
through a well drilled
horizontally allows
Canadas oil sands
resources to be
produced.
Photo Courtesy of Petro-Canada.
Application of new technology has made oil sands commercially

viable. Canada recently expanded its oil reserves by 174 billion
barrels to reflect the production expected to come from oil sands
in the future.
What does unconventional mean?

Unconventional oil and natural gas is exactly the same
commodity as conventional oil and natural gas. The word
unconventional is typically applied to major new advances in
extraction technology in the oil and natural gas industry that
allow access to resources not previously technically or
economically recoverable. In recent years, unconventionals
have included oil sands, extra-heavy oil extraction
technologies and deep water drilling technologies.
As an example; unconventional natural gas is produced from
low permeability source rock using a combination of horizontal
drilling, which exposes more of the subsurface to the well, and
hydraulic fracturing, which creates pathways that allow the oil
and natural gas to flow through the dense rock into that
wellbore.
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Unconventional Gas Resources

Unconventional gas refers to a part of the gas resource base that has
traditonally been considered difficult or costly to produce. Three main
categories of unconventional gas:
Shale gas is natural gas contained within a commonly occuring rock
classified as shale. Shale formations are characterized by low permeability
with more limited ability of gas to flow through the rock than in the case
with a conventional reservoir. These formations are often rich in organic
matter and unlike most hydrocarbon reservoirs, are typically the original
source of the gas, i.e. the shale gas is gas that has remained trapped or
close to its source rock.
Coalbed methane, also known as coal seam gas in Australia, is natural gas
contained in coalbeds. Although extraction of coalbed methane was initially
undertaken to make mines safer, it is now typically produced from nonmineable coal seams.
Tight gas is a general term for natural gas found in low-permeability
formations. Generally, tight gas is clasiffied as those low permeability gas
reservoirs that cannot be produced economically without the use of
technologies to stimulate flow of the gas towards the well, such as
hydraulic fracturing.
Geology of Natural Gas Resources

(AllConsulting, 2012)
32
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(IEA, 2012)
(IEA, 2012)
33
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Separation Between Drinking Water Aquifers and Hydraulic Fractures

About 5-10
thousand tonnes of
water are needed
to drill and
fracture a single
unconventional gas
well. During the
fracturing process
water is mixed
with chemicals and
sand before
injection into the
well. This has led
to the emergence
of environmental
and community
concerns about the
chemical
composition of
fracturing fluid.
Migration of natural has and fracturing fluid from the source rock upwards through
thousands of feet of impermeable formations into drinking water aquifers is higly
unlikely, if not impossible.
US Natural Gas Production

Unconventional gas, shale gas
in particular, has
transformed the US gas
market. Technologies such as
horizontal drilling or hydrofracturing has made
accessible deposits previously
considered unrecoverable.
The addition of shale gas
reserves helped to boost US
proved gas reserves by
almost 50% over the last
decade.
(BP, 2010)
34
8.9.2014
Heavy Oil:
Make it Light
Heat Delivery
69
Tar
Sands
Resources Available!
Oil Shale
70
35
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The volumes of unconventional resources are

larger than those of conventional resources.
New Offshore Production Structures Enable

Development in Deeper Water
72
Industry has moved from fixed to floating structures to develop oil and gas in deeper water
36
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Complex Computer Models Let Industry

See Below the Subsurface
3D Seismic Reflection of sound
waves from subsurface are used
to create models of formations
below the ground to identify oil
and gas deposits
Increased accuracy in locating

resources leads to fewer wells
drilled and less waste, for the
same volume of oil and gas
Photo courtesy of Schlumberger
Visualization Theaters 3D seismic models are projected in a 180

degree view. Geoscientists virtually step into the subsurface and
explore what is there.
Non-conventional World Oil Resources

Ref: http://energy.ihs.com (2007)
37
8.9.2014
The Stone Age did not end for

lack of stone, and the Oil Age
will end long before the world
runs out of oil.
Sheikh Zaki Yamani
Former Petroleum Minister of Saudi Arabia
Source: The End of the Oil Age The Economist, 25 October 2003.
(JPT-Supplement:Uncovering the Middle East and North Africa, Jan. 2013)
38
Increasing Cost
8.9.2014
(JPT-Supplement:Uncovering the Middle East and North Africa, Jan. 2013)
COAL
39
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Coal reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios, Years
Total reserve: 892 (lignite: 456) billion tonnes, R/P ratio: 113 years
(BP, 2013)
Distribution of proved coal reserves in

1993, 2003 and 2013, %
1 039 trillion tonnes
892 billion tonnes
Coal reserves are decreasing in years!

(BP, 2013)
40
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Coal production/consumption by region
3.88 billion tonnes oil equivalent in 2013
3.83 billion tonnes oil equivalent in 2013
3.88 billion toe 7.8 billion tonnes of total coal (hard coal, lignite and others) by mass
(BP, 2013)
Coal consumption per capita

Tonnes oil equivalent
(BP, 2013)
41
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Producers, net exporters and net importers of coal
iea(2013)
Lignite Producers of Coal (2010), million ton
Dnya Linyit retimi = 1.04 milyar ton
(Coal Information IEA, 2011)
42
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NUCLEAR ENERGY
Key nuclear power statistics by region, end-2010
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
43
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Producers of nuclear electricity
iea(2013)
Turkey: -
Nuclear energy consumption by region

Million tonnes oil equivalent
563 Mtoe/year 2 584 TWh of

gross generation of electricity,
converted on the basis of thermal
equivalence assuming 38%
conversion efficiency in a modern
thermal power plant
12 TWh = 109 kWh 1 Mtoe

2 584 TWh = (2 584/12)/0.38 =
563 Mtoe
563 million tonnes oil equivalent/year or

2 584 TWh of gross generation of electricity/year
(BP, 2013)
44
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Nuclear Power Plants
Work best at constant power

Excellent for baseload power
Power output range of 40 to
2000 MW
Current designs are 600 to
1200 MW
443 licensed plants operating in
31 countries
Produce about 16% of global
electrical energy
Uranium resources are widely
distributed around the world,
with large known volumes in
Australia, Canada & Kazakhstan
Cooling Towers
Core of Nuclear Reactor
HYDROELECTRICITY
45
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Hydroelectricity consumption by region

Million tonnes oil equvalent
856 Mtoe/year 3 900 TWh of

gross generation of electricity,
converted on the basis of thermal
equivalence assuming 38%
conversion efficiency in a modern
thermal power plant
12 TWh = 109 kWh 1 Mtoe

3 900 TWh = (3 900/12)/0.38 =
856 Mtoe
856 million tonnes oil equivalent/year or

3 900 TWh of gross generation of electricity/year
(BP, 2013)
Producers of hydro* electricity
iea(2013)
46
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Renewable energy
Renewable energy consumption/share of power generation by region
(BP, 2013)
47
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World biofuels production

Million tonnes oil equivalent
(BP, 2013)
SECONDARY ENERGY
ELECTRICITY
48
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22 126 TWh
World
Electricity
Generation*
by Fuel
from 1971
to 2011
iea(2013)
Electricity production from fossil fuels
iea(2013)
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Producers, net exporters and net importers of electricity
iea(2010)
TOTAL FINAL ENERGY

CONSUMPTION
WORLD
50
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8 918 Mtoe
Total Final
Consumption
by Fuel from
1971 to
2011 by fuel
(Mtoe)
iea(2013)
3 633 Mtoe
Oil:
Total Final
Consumption
from 1971 to
2011 by
Sector (Mtoe)
iea(2013)
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1 380 Mtoe
Natural Gas:
Total Final
Consumption
from 1971 to
2011 by
Sector (Mtoe)
iea(2013)
904 Mtoe
Coal:
Total Final
Consumption
from 1971 to
2011 by
Sector (Mtoe)
iea(2013)
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1 582 Mtoe
Electricity:
Total Final
Consumption
from 1971 to
2011 by
Sector (Mtoe)
EMISSIONS
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Fossil fuel CO2 emissions
(IHS Energy, 2014)
Natural gas when combusted it results in

the lowest CO2 emissions of any fossil fuel.
When used to generate electricity, natural
gas emits as much as 50% less CO2 than
coal. Natural gas use results in negligible
emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), mercury, and particulates
compared with other fuels.
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming
Wikipedia.org, Climate Change, Global Warming articles
54
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Carbon Capture & Storage

Capture and store emissions of carbon dioxide
Removed from the exhaust gases of the
power station
Stored so as not to enter the atmosphere
thus reducing global warming.
Carbon storage is not yet cost-effective
Required technologies are already proven
Similar technologies used commercially in food
and chemicals industry
109
Carbon Capture
Absorption (chemical and physical)

Adsorption (physical and chemical)
Low-temperature distillation
Gas separation membranes
Mineralization and biomineralization
Types of Carbon
Sequestration
Geologic Sequestration
Ocean Sequestration
Terrestrial Sequestration
Novel Sequestration Concepts
110
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Porous rock bodies surrounded by impermeable rock are ideal for CO2 storage
Oil and gas reservoirs: Inject CO2 to improve recovery
Coal bed methane: Inject CO2 into coal seams to extract methane
Inject into deep saline (salt) formations: No direct economic benefit
Geologic Sequestration
111
CO2 sequestration in underground formations
(Sprunt, 2006)
112
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World Primary Energy Demand and GDP Growth,

1971-2002
GDP:Gross Domestic Product
Regional Energy Intensity

(1000 Btu/2000$ GDP)
Energy Intensity = Energy Consumed/GDP
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Selected Energy Indicators for 2011
GDP: Gross Domestic Product

GDP (PPP): Gross Domestic Product (Purchasing Power Parity)
TPES: Total Primary Energy Suppy
(a) Gross production + imports exports - losses.
(b) CO2 emissions from fuel combustion only. Emissions are calculated using the IEAs energy
balances and the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines.
(c) TPES for world includes international aviation and marine bunkers as well as electricity and
heat trade.
(d) CO2 emissions for world include emissions from international aviation and international marine
bunkers.
iea(2013)
World Primary Energy

Demand Projections
58
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ENERGY PROJECTIONS TO 2035

HIGHLIGHTS
Global energy demand increases by 40-51% between 2009
and 2035 depending on scenarios assumed. Demand grows for
all energy sources.
The focus of growth in both energy demand and supply
switches away from the OECD. Nearly 90% of global energy
demand growth is in non-OECD countries.
Global investment in the energy infrastucture of $38 trillion
is required over the period 2011 and 2035.
Global energy-related CO2 emissions increase by 20%,
following a trajectory consistent with a long-term rise in the
average global temperature in excess of 3.5oC.
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
World primary energy demand by scenario
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
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Shares of energy sources in world primary energy demand by fuel

in the New Policies Scenario
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
Energy intensity in selected countries and regions in the New

Policies Scenario, 1990-2035
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
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World Primary Energy Demand
Fossil fuels will remain indispensable

All sources of energy will be needed
Global demand grows by about 40% between 2009-2035
(IEA, 2011)
Cumulative investment in energy-supply infrastructure by fuel in the

New Policies Scenario, 2011 and 2035 (in year-2010 dollars)
Total investment: $37.9 trillion
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
61
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Other Projections
Other Projections
(BP, 2011)
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WORLD ELECTRICITY MARKET

HIGHLIGHTS
*World electricity (net) demand in the New Policies Scenario is
projected to increase from 17 200 TWh in 2009 to over 31 700
TWh in 2035, an annual growth rate of 2.4%, driven by economic
and population growth.
Renewable energy technologies account for half of cumulative
additional capacity (5 900 GW) and 60% of the investment.
From 2009 to 2035, 44% of the increase in electricity generation
comes from renewables. Mainly driven by government policies,
generation from non-hydro renewables increases from 3% of the
total in 2009 to over 15% in 2035.
In the New Policies Scenario, over two-fifths of global investment
in the power sector goes to transmision and distribution (T&D) to
replace ageing infrastructure currrently in use.
The increased use of renewables and improved plant efficiency
reduce the CO2 intensity of the power sector by about 30% until
2035.
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
Share of world electricity generation by

fuel in the New Policies Scenario
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
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RENEWABLE ENERGY
You can choose clean renewable energy from wind,

128
solar, small hydropower and geothermal resources.
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Renewable energy
It is any energy resource that is naturally
regenerated over a short time scale and either
derived directly from solar energy (solar
thermal, photochemical, and photoelectric),
indirectly from the sun (wind, hyrdopower, and
photo-synthetic energy stored in biomass), or
from other natural energy flows (geothermal,
tidal, wave, and current energy).
Renewable resources can be converted to
nonrenewable resources if they are depleted or
degraded by humans faster than natural
processes renew them.
129
Renewable Energy
It is energy derived from natural processes that are replenished

constantly.
There are various forms of renewable energy, deriving directly or
indirectly from the sun, or heat generated deep within the earth.
They include energy generated from
* solar
* wind
* biomass
* geothermal
* hydropower and ocean resources
* solid biomass
* biogas
* liquid biofuels.
130
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Renewables classification into two groups

Renewables
Electricity-only
renewable sources
and technologies
Heat-only
renewable sources
and technologies
Hydro
Geothermal
Wind
Solar thermal
Geothermal
Biomass
(solid, gas,
Liquid)
Tide,wave,
ocean
Solar
photovoltaic
131
(REN21, 2011)
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(REN21, 2011)
(REN21, 2011)
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Sources of New Energy
135
Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)
Renewables - Biomass
Biomass is a collective term for all
organic substances of relatively recent
(non-geological) origin that can be used
for energy production, including
industrial, commercial, and agricultural
wood and plant residues; municipal organic
waste; animal manure; and crops directly
produced for energy purposes. Biomass
can be solid (e.g., wood, straw), liquid
(biofuels), or gaseous (biogases).
136
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Biomass Resources
Energy Crops
Woody crops
Corn
Agricultural crops
Waste Products
Wood residues
Temperate crop wastes
Tropical crop wastes
Animal wastes
Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW)
Commercial and industrial
wastes
Soybeans
Sugar Cane
Wood Chips
Municipal
Solid Waste
137
http://www.eere.energy.gov/RE/bio_resources.html
Biogas is produced from the decay or digestion of organic matter and is considered a renewable
resource. The organic matter can be plant or animal waste, such as that found in landfill, agricultural or
forestry waste, sewage, or energy crops, including possibly algae.
69
8.9.2014
Landfill Gasses
Renewables biofuels
Biofuels cover bioethanol, biodiesel, biomethanol,
biodimethylether, biooil.
Liquid biofuels are mainly biodiesel and bioethanol,
both are used as transport fuels. They can be
made from new or used vegetable oils and may be
blended with or replace petroleum-based fuels.
The natural plant feedstock includes soya,
sunflower and oil seed rape oils.
Biodiesel
Bus
70
8.9.2014
Renewables hydropower
Potential and kinetic energy of water are converted into
electricity in hydroelectric plants. It includes large as
well as small hydro, regardless of the size of the plants.
Electrical
Energy
Potential
Energy
Electricity
Kinetic
Energy
Mechanical
Energy
Renewables solar energy

It is the solar radiation exploited for hot water
production and electricity generation, by:
* Flat plate collectors, mainly of the thermosyphon
type, for domestic hot water or for the seasonal
heating of swimming pools.
Solar panels are devices for
* Photovoltaic cells.
capturing the energy in sunlight.
The term solar panel can be
* Solar thermal electric plants.
The Sun provides 1,400 watts/meter
at the distance of the Earth's orbit,
but less at ground level.
applied to either solar hot water

panels (usually used for
providing domestic hot water) or
solar photovoltaic panels
(providing electricity).
Solar Panel
71
8.9.2014
Solar PV Applications
International Space Station
View of the small yacht

at sea showing solar
panels (photovoltaic
arrays) deployed.
These can charge the
12V batteries at up to 9
Amps under full, direct
sunlight.
Spacecraft
Probably the most successful use of solar
panels is on spacecraft, including most
spacecraft that orbit the Earth and Mars,
and spacecraft going to other destinations
in the inner solar system. In the outer solar
system, the sunlight is too weak to produce
sufficient power and radioisotope thermal
generators are used.
Recreational Use (Sailboat)
Residential
Solar arrays can provide electricity and hot water to residences in
isolated, well-lighted areas
Solar Thermal Collectors
Focus the sun to create to create heat

Boil water
Heat liquid metals
Use heated fluid to turn a turbine
Solar Thermal Dish Collector
Generate
electricity
Schematic
10 megawatt
solar thermal
central
receiver
power plant,
Solar I.
72
8.9.2014
(REN21, 2011)
Solar water heating technologies

contribute significantly to hot
water production.
(REN21, 2011)
73
8.9.2014
Renewables Wind energy

It is the kinetic energy of wind
exploited for electricity
generation in wind turbines.
Wind power depends on the wind
speed raised to the third power
(wind speed cubed).
Wind farm
It is an array or system of
multiple wind turbines at a given
site, used to capture wind
energy for the production of
bulk electricity for a grid.
Wind Power Classification

Wind
Power
Class
Resource
Potential
Wind Power
Density at 50 m
W/m2
Wind Speed
at 50 m
m/s
Wind Speed
at 50 m
mph
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Poor
Marginal
Fair
Good
Excellent
Outstanding
Superb
0 200
200 300
300 400
400 500
500 600
600 800
> 800
0.0 5.9
5.9 6.7
6.7 7.4
7.4 7.9
7.9 8.4
8.4 9.3
> 9.3
0.0 13.2
13.2 15.0
15.0 16.6
16.6 17.7
17.7 18.8
18.8 20.8
> 20.8
Minimum Class 4 desired for utility-scale wind farm (>7 m/s at

hub height)
Capacity factor is typically 33% at a Class 4 wind site.
148 National Renewable Energy Laboratory
US DOE
74
8.9.2014
Wind Turbine Power Curve

2500
Vestas V80 2 MW Wind Turbine

2000
kW
1500
1000
500
mph
10
20
m/s
4.5
8.9
30
149
40
50
13.4
Turbines Constantly Improving

Larger turbines, Specialized blade design, Developed power electronics,
Computer modeling-produces more efficient design, Manufacturing
improvements
2006
5 MW
600
Offshore
Wind
Farms
Larger
Turbines
75
8.9.2014
Installed Wind Generation Capacity

(REN21, 2011)
It is the mechanical energy derived from tidal movement, wave

motion or ocean current and exploited for electricity
generation.
Waves contain large amounts of energy and various effords
have been made in recent years to take advantage of this,
though in general the technology is still at the research and
development stage.
Renewables
tide/wave/
ocean
energy
152
Tidal Turbine Farms
76
8.9.2014
Renewables hydrogen
Hydrogen is like electricity in that it is an energy carrier,
not a primary source-it is derived from the conversion of
some other form of energy. It can be manufactured from
a variety of sources, including natural gas, coal, nuclear
energy and all forms of renewable energy.
When used as a fuel in combustion processes or in fuel
cells, hydrogen has minimal emissions relative to
conventional fuels.
Potential end uses of hydrogen include fuel cell vehicle
technology as well as stationary power generation.
As a potential complement to electricity as one of the two
primary long-term energy carriers, hydrogen ultimately
could offer a transition from todays energy mix that is as
significant as that from wood to coal, or coal to oil.
Hydrogen-Powered
Vehicles
Hydrogen powered passenger aircraft

with cryogenic tanks along spine of
fuselage. Hydrogen fuel requires about 4
times the volume of standard jet fuel
(kerosene).
Renewables hydrogen
Although hydrogen has about three times the energy
density of gasoline per kilogram, making it ideal as a
rocket fuel, it has a very low energy density on a
volumetric basis.
This poses significant economic and technical challenges
to the transmission and storage of hydrogen.
Hydrogen vs. Methane
Units Hydrogen Methane
Density
kg/m3
0.0887
0.707
Gravimetric Energy
MJ/kg
142.0
55.6
Volumetric Energy
MJ/m3
12.7
40.0
77
8.9.2014
Advantages of a Hydrogen Economy
Waste product of burning H2 is water

Elimination of fossil fuel pollution
Elimination of greenhouse gases
Elimination of economic dependence
Distributed production
Disadvantages of Hydrogen
Low energy densities
Difficulty in handling, storage, transport
Requires an entirely new infrastructure
Creates CO2 if made from fossil fuels
Low net energy yields: Much energy needed to create hydrogen
Possible environmental problems: Ozone depletion (not proven at this

point)
155
Renewables geothermal
Geothermal energy is the energy in the form of
natural heat flowing outward from within the
earth and contained in rocks, water, brines, or
steam. This heat is poduced mainly by the decay
of naturally occuring radioactive isotops of
thorium, potassium, and uranium in the earths
core.
It is exploited at suitable sites:
* For electricity generation usuing dry steam or
high enthalpy brine after flashing
* Directly as heat for district heating,
agriculture, etc.
156
78
8.9.2014
Heat flow outward from Earths interior. The crust insulates us from
Earths interior heat. The mantle is semi-molten, the outer core is liquid
157
and the inner core is solid.
Earth Core
It is the central region of the earth, originating at a depth
of about 2900 km, outside of which are the mantle and the
crust.
It is thought to consist of a molten outer core and a solid
inner core; the temperature of the inner core is not known
but has been estimated at 5000-7000oC.
Crust
It is the outermost region of the earth, from the surface
itself to a depth of about 70 km beneath land surfaces
(continental crust) and 10 km below ocean surfaces (oceanic
crust).
158
79
8.9.2014
Heat from the Earths Center
Earth's core maintains temperatures in excess of 5000 C

Heat is produced by the radioactive decay of elements
Heat energy continuously flows from hot core
Conductive heat flow
Convective flows of molten mantle beneath the crust.
Mean heat flux at earth's surface
16 kilowatts of heat energy per square kilometer
Dissipates to the atmosphere and space.
Tends to be strongest along tectonic plate boundaries
Volcanic activity transports hot material to near the surface
Only a small fraction of molten rock actually reaches
surface.
Most is left at depths of 5-20 km beneath the surface,
Hydrological convection forms high temperature geothermal
systems at shallow depths of 200-3000 m.
159
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
Geothermal reservoir:
It is a subsurface system consisting of a large volume of hot
water and steam trapped in porous and fractured hot rock
underneath a layer of impermeable rock; some reservoirs can
be commercially developed as an energy source.
Geothermal system:
It is a localized geological environment in which circulating
steam or hot water carries some of the earths natural
internal heat flow close enough to the surface to be employed
for productive human use. It describes the total hydrological
system consisting of the reservoir and its natural recharge
and discharge parts.
160
80
8.9.2014
When the rising hot water and steam is trapped in

permeable and porous rocks under a layer of
161
impermeable rock, it can form
a geothermal reservoir.
Methods of Heat Extraction
162
http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html
81
8.9.2014
Worldwide capacity ~ 12 000 MWe
163
Natural steam from the production wells power the turbine generator.
The steam is condensed by evaporation in the cooling tower and pumped down
an injection well to sustain production.164
82
8.9.2014
Enhanced (Engineered) Geothermal Systems

(Hot Dry Rock) Technology
Fenton Hill plant
Wells drilled 3-6

km into crust
Hot crystalline
rock
formations
Water pumped
into formations
Water flows
through natural
fissures picking up
heat
Hot water/steam
returns to surface
Steam used to
generate power
165
http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/
Geothermal power could serve 100% of the electrical needs of 39

166
countries in Africa, Central/ South
America and the Pacific.
83
8.9.2014
Worldwide capacity > 51 000 MWt
Producing electricity is a relatively new use of geothermal

energy. People have used Earth's natural hot water directly
since the dawn of humankind. 167
Since Roman times, we have piped the hot water into pools to better control
the temperature. These are photos of outdoor and indoor pool and spa bathing
in Turkey, Japan, the US, and Europe.168
84
8.9.2014
This small greenhouse is heated with geothermal water.

Plants grow faster and larger when they have additional
169
heat available.
Hot water from one or more geothermal wells is piped through a heat
exchanger plant to heat city water in separate pipes. Hot city water is
piped to heat exchangers in buildings
170to warm the air.
85
8.9.2014
Realities About Energy-1

Petroleum, natural gas and coal will remain
indispensable to meeting total projected energy
demand growth.
The world is not running out of energy sources, but
there are accumulating risks to continuing expansion
of petroleum and natural gas production from the
conventional sources relied upon historically.
To mitigate these risks, expansion of all economic
energy sources will be required, including coal,
nuclear, biomass, other renewables, and
unconventional petroleum and natural gas. Each of
these sources faces significant challenges including
safety, environmental, political, or economic hurdles,
and imposes infrastructure requirements for
development and delivery.
NPC/USA, 2007; NPC:National Petroleum Council
Realities About Energy-2

Energy Independence should not be confused with
strengthening energy security. The concept of energy
independence is not realistic in the foreseeable
future, whereas energy security can be enhanced by
moderating demand, expanding and diversifying
domestic energy supplies, and strengthening global
energy trade and investment.
The energy sector workforce, including skilled
scientists and engineers, must be replenished and
trained.
Policies aimed at curbing carbon dioxide emissions will
alter the energy mix, increase energy-related costs,
and require reductions in demand growth.
NPC/USA, 2007
86
8.9.2014
Suggested Core Strategies

About Energy-1
Moderate demand by increasing energy
efficiency
Expand and diversify energy supply
Stengthen global and national energy
security
Reinforce capabilities to meet new
challenges
Address carbon constraints
There is no single, easy solution
NPC/USA, 2007

About Energy-2
Moderate demand by increasing energy
efficiency
- Improve transportation (car, truck, etc.)
fuel economy standards
- Improve efficieny in residential and
commercial sectors by encouraging to
implement and enforce more aggressive
energy efficiency building codes
- Improve efficieny in industrial sector by
conducting and promoting research,
development, demonstration and deployment
of industrial efficiency technologies and best
practices.
NPC/USA, 2007
87
8.9.2014

About Energy-3
Expand and diversify energy supply
Reduce declines in national conventional oil and
natural gas production
Increase access for new energy development
Diversify long-term energy production
* Accelerate development of energy from biomass
and other renewable energies
* Enable the long-term environmental viability of
coal for power, fuel, and feedstock
* Expand nuclear capability.
NPC/USA, 2007

About Energy-4
Stengthen global and national energy security
- Integrate energy policy into trade, economic,
environmental, security, and foreign policies.
- Continue to develop the international energy
marketplace by expanding the energy dialog with
major producing and consuming nations.
- Promote an effective global energy marketplace by
sustaining efforts to encourage global adoption of
transparent, market-based approaches.
- Assist and encourage global adoption of energy
efficiency technologies through technology transfer
programs.
NPC/USA, 2007
88
8.9.2014

About Energy-5
Reinforce capabilities to meet new challenges
- Rebuild national science and engineering
capabilities.
- Create research and development
opportunities.
- Improve the quality of energy data and
information.
- Develop a comprehensive forecast of national
infrastructure requirements.
NPC/USA, 2007

About Energy-6
Address carbon constraints
- Develop legal and regulatory
framework to enable carbon capture and
sequestration.
NPC/USA, 2007
89
8.9.2014
Turkey
ENERGY STATISTICS
Primary Energy Consumption World & Turkey (2012)
BRNCL ENERJ TKETM (2012)

Enerji Tketiminde Yllk Art:~ %2 !
12.5 Milyar toe
DNYA
DER
%13
D. GAZ
%24
KMR
%30
Enerji Tketiminde Yllk Art: ~%4.5 !

121 Milyon toe
TRKYE
DER
%14
D. GAZ
%31
PETROL
%33
KMR
%31
PETROL
%26
DNYADA VE TRKYEDE PETROL VE DOAL GAZA

% 57 BAIMLILIK !
(BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2013)
(ETKB, 2013)
90
8.9.2014
Primary Energy TRKYE

Consumption Turkey (2012)
+121
2012
1970-2012 Eimi (Yllk %4.5 Art !)
Reasons Why Energy Demand Grows in Turkey
Trkiyede enerji talebinin

artmasnn nedenleri:
Nfus art
Hayat kolaylatran fakat ek enerji
talep eden yeni teknolojiler ve
tketici rnlerinin artmas (hayat
standartn ykseltme abalar)
ehirleme
Sanayileme
-
Growth in Population
Better Living Standards
Urbanization
Industrialization
91
8.9.2014
Population Growth, World & Turkey

TRKiYE VE DNYA NFUSU
Kaynak: Birlesmis Milletler, http://esa.un.org/unpp
100.0
%0.34
10000
98.95 milyon
9.19 milyar
%0.95
%0.50
8000
TRKiYE
%1.9
60.0
%0.98
2005
%1.6
40.0
2030
DNYA
4000
%1.9
2.535 milyar
21.48 milyon
20.0
%2.6
6000
Nfus, milyon
Nfus, milyon
80.0
1975
http://esa.un.org/unpp (2007)
2000
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
YIL
Share of Imports in Energy Consumption
92
8.9.2014
6.9 milyon toe
+
Hidrolik Dier
Hidrolik
Kmr
OHBA*
%63
OHBA
Petrol
%8
Kmr
Hidrolik Dier
OHBA
Hidrolik
Kmr
Petrol
%26
34.5 milyon toe
Dier
Dier
Kmr
OHBA
D. Gaz
Petrol
%26
2012
1990
Enerji Kaynaklar retimi (%)
4.6 milyon toe
Kmr
Kmr
D. Gaz
%31
Petrol
%45
1970
Dier
Hidrolik
OHBA
Kmr
OHBA
D. Gaz
Petrol
%42
1950
OHBA
%56
121 milyon toe
Enerji Kaynaklar Tketimi (%)
Hidrolik
Petrol
Hidrolik
OHBA
D. Gaz
Kmr
%55
Petrol
%7
Petrol
%0.4
*OHBA : Odun, Hayvan ve Bitki Artklar,
+Dier : Jeotermal, rzgar, gne, biyoyakt, asfaltit...
Energy Statistics: Comparison of

Selected Ratios, Turkey/World, %
Trkiye/Dnya Oran, %
Kii bana enerji ve
elektrik tketimi dnya
ortalamasndan dk!
Nfus: 1.1
Birincil Enerji Tketimi: 0.9
Elektrik Tketimi: 1.0
Fosil
Kaynaklar
Rezerv
retim
Tketim
Kmr
0.2
0.5
0.9
Petrol
0.02
0.03
0.8
Doalgaz
0.004
0.06
1.2
Kaynak
fakiriyiz
thalata
bamlyz
Primary energy and electricity consumption per capita for Turkey is lower
than the world average. Turkey is poor in reserves and production of fossil
fuels. Only the gas comsumption per capita is above the world average.
93
8.9.2014
Trkiyenin Enerji Grnm (2011-2013)

Energy Outlook in Turkey (2011-2013)
(TPAO, 2014)
Energy in Turkey Observations and Facts
Trkiyede Enerji Gzlemler & Gerekler

Enerji tketimi kaynak sralamasnda doal gaz lider durumundadr.
Enerji yatrmlarnda zel sektr arlk kazanmtr. Elektrik kurulu gte
zel sektr pay %63tr.
Yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarndan dorudan zel sektrn yatrm yapt
hidroelektrik, rzgar ve jeotermalde hzl gelimeler grlmektedir.
2013te enerji yatrmlarnn yarsn yenilenebilir kaynaklar oluturdu.
Hidroelektrik potansiyelinin %38i, rzgar potansiyelinin %6s, jeotermal
elektrik potansiyelinin %16s kurulu g olarak kullanlmaktadr.
Petrol ve doal gazda enerji koridoru ve kprs kapsamnda gelimeler
srmektedir. Avrupa ile Gney Koridoru Gaz Balants nem
kazanmaktadr.
nemli eyl gaz potansiyeli olduu sylenen Trkiyede, eyl gaznn
aranmas ve retimi iin byk yatrmlar ve ileri teknolojiler
gerekmektedir.
Petrol ve doal gazda yurtd yatrmlarnn ve ortaklklarnn nemi
gittike artmaktadr. Uluslararas dzeyde hareket edebilecek ve
uluslararas irketlerle rekabet edebilecek kurumlarn yaplandrlmas
gndemdedir. Petrol ve doal gaz zengini komu lkelere almn
hzlandrlmas sektr canlandracaktr.
94
8.9.2014
Petroleum in Turkey, 2013
Trkiyede Petrol 2013

Kefedilmi sahalarda kalan retilebilir
petrol rezervimiz ~45 milyon ton kadardr.
Yurtii yllk retimi 2.4 ve
(yurtii+yurtd) retimi 4.4 milyon
tondur.
TPAOnun yurtd projelerde ortakl
nemli katklar salamaktadr.
Yllk petrol tketimi ~31 milyon tondur.
Petroleum Production - Turkey, 2002-2013

Petrol retimi (2002-2013)
2,4
2,4
2012
2013
2013 ylnda gerekleen petrol retimi 2.4 milyon

ton, ortalama gnlk retim 46 bin varil olup,
retimin tketimi karlama oran %8dir.
(ETKB, 2014)
95
8.9.2014
Oil and Gas Production Regions in Turkey
Thrace Region & Black Sea

Shallow: Gas Production
Southeastern Anatolia:
Oil Production
Petroleum & Natural Gas Explorations in Turkey
(PGM, 2012)
96
8.9.2014
Seismic Explorations
(TPAO, 2014)
Types of Petroleum and Natural Gas Wells

Drilled, Turkey, 1934-2012
Delinen Petrol ve Doal Gaz Kuyularnn

Trlerine Gre Dalm, 1934-2012
Others(Injection, etc);
789
Exploration;
1770
Production;
1703
TOTAL # of WELLS : 4262 - ~7.9 million m drilled depth
(PGM, 2013)
97
8.9.2014
Number of Fields Discovered (1934-2012)
Total Number of Oil and Gas Fields Discovered (1934-2012) = 175

(PGM, 2013)
Petroleum Reserve, Turkey, 2011

(PGM, 2012)
Oil in Place
Producible
Reserve
Cumulative
Production
Remaining
Producible
Reserve
About 18% of the oil in place is estimated to be recoverable, Recovery Factor=18%
98
8.9.2014
Reserve Characteristics of TPAO Oil Fields in

Southeastern Anatolia by API Gravity (Density), 2009
TPAO Gneydou Anadolu Blgesi Petrol Sahalar (2009)
retilebilir
Petrol
Miktar
(milyon varil)
Kurtarm
API
Yerinde
Petrol
Miktar
(milyar
varil)
Oran
(RF,
%)
Toplam
Petrol
retimi
(milyon
varil)
Kalan
retilebilir
Petrol Miktar
(milyon varil)
API < 18
2.64
215
8.1
119
97
18 < API <

26
1.20
260
21.7
181
79
26 < API
0.84
247
29.4
211
35
15.4
511
TPAO
API Gravity
4.68
Oil in Place
(billion barrel)
722
Producible
Reserve
(million barrel)
Recovery Cumulative
Factor, % Production
(million barrel)
Note: If API<20, oil is classified as heavy oil.
211
Remaining
Producible
Reserve
(million barrel)
(TPAO, 2009)
Installed Refinery Capacities and Refinery Utilization
99
8.9.2014
Countries From Which Turkey Imports Crude Oil

(PGM, 2012)
51% is imported from Iran, 17% from Iraq, 12% from Russia, and 2% from Saudi Arabia.
Some Statistics on Wells, Fields and Oil Produced

Trkiyede En Derin Kuyu: 2007 ylnda Burdurda delinen Yuvaky-1
arama kuyusunun sondaj 7 216 m derinlikte tamamlanmtr. Kuyunun
maliyeti 50 milyon $dr.
En Yksek retim Yapan Petrol Sahas: 1961 ylnda kefedilen Bat
Raman sahasdr. Sahada halen 241 kuyudan gnlk 6 454 varil retim
yaplmaktadr.
En Yksek Gnlk Ham Petrol retimi Yapan Kuyu: Diyarbakrda
Ergani ilesinde Karacan-5 kuyusundan gnlk 698 varil retim
yaplmaktadr.
En Az Gnlk Ham Petrol retimi Yapan Kuyu: 1984 ylnda delinen
Diyarbakrdaki ahaban-2 kuyusundan gnlk 1 varil retim
yaplmaktadr.
Ham petrol sahalarnn retim derinlii 1500-3000 m arasnda
deimektedir.
En Yksek Graviteli Ham Petrol Sahas: 2009 ylnda Diyarbakrda
delinen Beyazeme-1 kuyusundan retilen ham petroln gravitesi 41.1
oAPIdr.
En Dk Graviteli Ham Petrol Sahas: Adyamanda Kahta-1
kuyusundan retilen ham petroln gravitesi 11 oAPIdr.
(PGM, 2012)
100
8.9.2014
Natural Gas in Turkey, 2013
Trkiyede Doalgaz 2013

Yllk doalgaz talebi 1989-2010 dneminde ylda
%14 artt. (Dnyada yllk art %3.3)
Yllk doalgaz retimi 555 milyon m3 oldu.
(~%50 TPAO ve %50 dierleri).
Tketim ise 47 milyar m3 olarak gerekleti.
Kefedilmi sahalarda kalan retilebilir
doalgaz rezervi yaklak 7 milyar m3tr.
72 ile doalgaz iletimi gerekleti. 7 ile iletim
hatt yapm ve 2 ile proje aamasndadr.
Natural Gas Consumption, billion m3
101
8.9.2014
Natural Gas Consumption by Sector in 2010, %

Trkiyede 2010 yl sektrel doal gaz tketimi
Dier; %5.5
Others; 5.5%
Residential; 18.5%
Industry; 20%
Power Generation;
56%
(EPDK, 2011)
Natural Gas Production, million m3
102
8.9.2014
Natural Gas Reserve, Turkey, 2011

(PGM, 2012)
Gas in Place
Producible
Reserve
Cumulative
Production
Remaining
Producible
Reserve
About 78% of the gas in place is estimated to be recoverable, Recovery Factor=78%
Some Statistics on Wells, Fields and Natural Gas

Produced
En Yksek retim Yapan Doal Gaz Sahas:
2006 ylnda kefedilen Dzce/Akakoca sahasnda
3 kuyudan gnde 360 bin m3 doal gaz
retilmektedir.
En Yksek Gnlk Doal Gaz retimi Yapan
Kuyu: Akakoca-3 kuyusundan gnlk 250 bin m3
doal gaz retimi yaplmaktadr.
En Az Gnlk Doal Gaz retimi Yapan Kuyu:
1975 ylnda delinen Krklarelindeki Kavakdere-1
kuyusundan gnlk 98 m3 retim yaplmaktadr.
Doal gaz sahalarnn retim derinlii 225-3300
m arasnda deimektedir.
103
8.9.2014
Countries From Which Turkey Imports Natural Gas, 2010
2010 yl lkelere gre doal gaz ithalatnn yzde pay

46% is imported from Russia, 21% from Iran, 12% from Azerbaijan, 10% from Algeria,
and 3% from Nigeria.
(EPDK, 2011)
104
8.9.2014
(National Pipelines)
(Fatih Aydn, Haz. 2012)
Natural gas supply-demand projections for EU (Eurogas, 2007)
105
8.9.2014
Natural Gas Supply to Europe through Turkey and Advantages of Europe

Advantages: Security of supply, price competition, diversification of supply routes,
improves international relations,..
Trkiyeden Avrupaya doalgaz ve Avrupann kazanlar (BOTA, 2009)
Geopolitical Importance of Turkey

Russian Federation: Oil &
Gas Rich Country and wants
to control export routes
Europian Union: Energy

Importing Countries
Middle East & Eurasia:

Oil & Gas Rich Region
106
8.9.2014
Existing Planned)
Planned
International Natural Gas Pipeline Projects (Existing,
Planlanan
Mevcut + Planlanan)
Uluslararas Doal Gaz Boru Hatt Projeleri (Mevcut
(BOTA, 2013)
Natural Gas Pipelines, LNG Terminals, and Natural

Gas Underground Storage Facilities in Turkey
107
8.9.2014
International Oil and Natural Gas Pipelines and

LNG Terminals in Turkey
Enerji Kprs Trkiye
Energy Bridge - Turkey
Ceyhan Energy Center
Turkey is a natural bridge between oil

and gas producing and consuming
countries
(TPAO, 2012)
AIMS in INTERNATIONAL PIPELINE PROJECTS
Transit and
Trade Income
Cheaper Oil and

Gas Import
Security and
Diversification
of Supply
108
8.9.2014
International and National Crude Oil Pipeline

Projects and Their Capacities - Turkey
About 5% of Daily World Oil Consumption is transported thru Turkey!
Major Straits and Canals Considered to be Supply

Choke Points for Transportation of Crude Oil and LNG
109
8.9.2014
Nakil Darboazlar World Oil Supply Choke Points

(Share in Daily World Oil Consumption, %)
(2)
(3%)
(20%)
(0.8%)
(5%)
(18%)
(4%)
(About 5% of Daily World Oil Consumption is transported thru Turkey!)

(TPAO, 2012)
Dnyada Yeralt Gaz Deposu Olanaklar
Underground Gas Storage Facilities - World

lke
(2008)
Yllk
Tketim,
109 m3
Depo
Says
Depolama
Kapasitesi,
109 m3
Depolama
Kapasitesi/Yllk
Tketim, %
Depolama
Kapasitesi/Konutsal
Tketim, %
ABD
657
417
110
17
48
Rusya
420
23
90
21
61
Ukrayna
60
13
34
57
109
Almanya
82
41
19
23
105
Fransa
44
15
12
27
52
talya
78
10
12
15
65
Trkiye
~38
1.6
18
110
8.9.2014
Underground Gas Storage Facilities and LNG Terminals Storage Capacities
Doal Gaz Piyasas Kanununa (# 4646) gre yllk tketilen gazn

%10unun depolanma zorunluluu vardr.
According to the Natural Gas Market Law (# 4646), 10% of
the annual natural gas consumption is required to be stored.
First and only Existing Underground Gas Storage Facility in Turkey:

Silivri Underground Gas Storage Facility and the Northern Marmara
Offshore Gas Field in which gas is stored
Trkiyenin
lk ve Tek
Yeralt
Doal Gaz
Depolama
Tesisi:
TPAO Silivri
DGYDT
Kuzey
Marmara
Doal Gaz
Sahas
(TPAO, 2012)
111
8.9.2014
Development Project to Increase the Storage Capacity

Faz-III K. Marmara Sahas Depolama Tevsi almalar
New Offshore Wells

to be Drilled
(TPAO, 2012)
Underground Gas Storage: Injection Capacity (million m3/day),

Withdrawal Capacity (million m3/day), Storage Capacity (billion m3)
(TPAO, 2014)
112
8.9.2014
Coal in Turkey
Trkiyede Kmr
Linyit rezervi ~14 milyar ton ve takmr rezervi 1.3
milyar ton kadardr. ETKBna gre son 5 yl iinde 3.2
milyar ton ek linyit rezervi tespit edilmitir.
2012 ylnda yerli kmr retimi linyit iin 77 ve ta
kmr iin 2.3 milyon ton ve ta kmr ithalat 23
milyon ton oldu.
Linyitten elektrik retim potansiyeli toplam 120 milyar
kWh/yldr. Not: Bu potansiyel 8.3 milyar ton linyit
rezervi iin geerliydi. Yeni rezerve (14 milyar ton)
gre potansiyel yeniden hesaplanmal!
Linyitlerimizin sl deeri dktr (toplam rezervin
%66snn sl deeri=1000-2000 Kcal/kg).
(ETKB, 2013)
113
8.9.2014
AID : Alt Isl Deer
(MTA, TK, EA, MGEM, 2013)
2013 Yl Trkiye
Linyit Rezervleri
~14 milyar ton
114
8.9.2014
1.3 milyar ton
2013 Trkiye Asfaltit Rezervleri
~105 milyon ton
(ETKB, 2013)
115
8.9.2014
Electricity - Turkey
Annual Electricity Production - Turkey
116
8.9.2014
Trkiyede Elektrik (2013)

- 2013 ylnda 245 milyar kWh elektrik retiminin %44
doalgaz, %25i kmr ve %25i hidrolik santrallarndan

salanmtr.
- 64 bin MW* kurulu gcn kaynaklara gre dalm:%35
hidroelektrik, %32 doalgaz ve LNG, %19 kmr, %9 sv
yaktlar, %4 rzgar ve %1 dier kaynaklar.
- Toplam kurulu g iinde zel sektrn pay %63tr.
* Temmuz 2014
itibariyle kurulu
g 67.4 bin MW
oldu.
(DEKTMK, 2011)
Electricity Generation Potential

From Domestic Energy Resources
Bugn iin kullanlmaya hazr birincil kaynaklarmzdan

345.5 milyar kWh elektrik retmek mmkndr.
117
8.9.2014
Trkiye Rzgar Enerjisi Potansiyel Atlas (REPA)
* Rzgar Hz > 7.5 m/s iin
Kurulu G*, MW
KARA
DENZ
TOPLAM
47 849
10 464
~58 Bin
As of July 2014, installed power capacity for wind is 3 424 MW.

(EE Genel Mdrl, 2007)
Yllk Ortalama Gnelenme Sresi = 2740 Saat

Yatay Yzeye Gelen Ortalama Radyasyon = 4.17 kWh/m2-gn
Trkiye Gne Enerjisi Potansiyel Atlas (GEPA)

Yllk Gne Enerjisi potansiyeli ~ 380 milyar kWh
(EE Genel Mdrl, 2008)
(= ~56 bin MWlk bir doal gaz santralnn rettii enerji)
Parabolik
Aynal Sistem
PV Sistem
118
8.9.2014
Geothermal Areas in Turkey
II
I
NAFZ
III
V
EAFZ
VI
VI
IV
IV
20 oC
20 - 45 oC
45 - 75 oC
75 - 100 oC
T> 100 oC
__
Faults
I
Aegean Geothermal Region
Western Anatolia
II
Ankara Geothermal Region
III Kayseri Geothermal Region
Central Anatolia
VI Amanos Geothermal Region
V
Erzurum Geothermal Region
VI Diyarbakr Geothermal Region Eastern Anatolia
NAFZ Northern Anatolian Fault Zone
EAFZ Eastern Anatolian Fault Zone
Trkiyede Jeotermal Alanlar
(Bael vd., 2014)
Jeotermal Enerji Kullanm, Trkiye

* 87 000 konut stmas
* Kaplca turizmi: 12 Milyon kii/yl
* 1.2 milyar kWh elektrik retimi.
* 3 000 dnm sera stmas

* 120 000 ton/yl CO2 retimi
(Aksoy, 2013)
Trkiyenin toplam elektrik retimi, EA (2013)- 245 milyar kWh
%6.5- 7.5 /yl
Geothermal Energy Use in Turkey
119
8.9.2014
Trkiye 1000 m Yeralt Scaklk Dalm Haritas

(T PDGMB)
#
: Gen Volkanlar
__: Faylar
Scaklk Aral, oC
25.2-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
90-100
100-120
120-150
150-278.4
Underground Temperature Distribution Map for 1000 m Depth - Turkey
Geothermal Energy in Turkey: Capacity and Potential (2014)
Trkiyede Jeotermal Enerji: Kapasite ve Potansiyel (2014)

Dorudan Kullanm Kurulu Kapasitesi
2 705 MWt
Elektrik Kurulu Kapasite
310 MWe(~6200MWt)
Kullanlan Toplam Jeotermal Kapasite
~ 9 000 MWt
Tanmlanm Kapasite (290 alan)
~10 000 MWt
Elektrik Potansiyeli (38 saha, T>100 oC, Tref:100 oC)

(Bael vd., 2013)
min: 1 673 MWe

max: 3 140 MWe
Isl Potansiyel (97 saha, T<100 oC, Tref:15 oC)

(Bael vd., 2013)
min: 5 600 MWt

max: 11 400 MWt
Kurulu Kapasite-Potansiyel Oran, %

Dorudan Kullanm
25-50 (97 Saha, T<100 oC)
Elektrik
10-19 (38 Saha, T>100 oC)
Yukardaki sonular mevcut tanmlanm hidrotermal sahalar iindir. Yeralt

s pompalar ve EGS teknolojilerinin kullanlmas ve kefedilmemi
sahalarn katklaryla kapasite ve potansiyel ok daha yksek olacaktr.
120
8.9.2014
Hydroelectricity in Turkey, 2013
Hidroelektrik
Teorik Potansiyel: 442 milyar kWh
Teknik Potansiyel: 237 milyar kWh
Teknik-Ekonomik Potansiyel: 216 milyar kWh*
Kurulu G: 22.3 bin MW (2013)
retilen Elektrik: ~ 60 milyar kWh (2013)
Kapasite Kullanm: %32 (2013)
* Kaynak: DS(2014)
CONCLUSIONS-1
SONULAR-1
Trkiye birincil enerji kaynaklar tketiminde
stratejik enerji kaynaklar olan fosil kaynaklarn
pay %88dir.
Trkiye kiibana enerji tketiminde dnya
ortalamasnn altnda olup, fosil kaynak
rezervlerinde fakir saylabilir, ithalat bamls
bir lkedir.
121
8.9.2014
CONCLUSIONS-2
SONULAR-2
Trkiye, 2020 ylna kadarki 6 yllk dnemde bugnk
elektrik retim kapasitesini %60-70 artrmak
durumundadr.
Rzgar dahil tm yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklar ve
yerli konvansiyonel enerji kaynaklarmzn tamam
kullanlsa dahi, talebin karlanmas olanakl
grlmemektedir.
Enerjide da bamll azaltmak iin Trkiyenin
enerji yatrm portfynde enerji tr
eitlendirilmesi asndan mmkn olan her enerji
trnn yer almas zorunludur.
Rezerv ve potansiyel deerleri statik deildirler,
rakamlar gncellenmelidir.
Energy
Terms & Definitions

Units & Conversion Factors
122
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Energy
It is defined classically as the capacity to do work.
It is used to perform useful functions for humans,
such as heating or cooling buildings, powering
vehicles and machinary, lighting, coolking foods, and
so on.
Forms of energy: Potential energy, kinetic energy,
thermal energy, nuclear energy, electromagnetic
energy, and gravitational energy.
Energy can be transformed from one form to
another. For example, a steam turbine converts
thermal energy to mechanical energy.
A form of matter that can transport energy from
one point to another, e.g., electricity, hydrogen. So
they are called energy carriers.
Energy
The scientific concept of energy serves to reveal the common

features in processes such as burning fuels, propelling machines
or charging batteries.
Work is simply the application of a force over a distance. Work
is energy that has been used. When you do work, you use
energy. Work and energy are closely related. The units of work
are the same as the units of energy.
Power is a measure of how quickly work can be done. It is the
rate at which energy is converted from one form to another, or
transferred from one place to another.
To change the motion of any object, a force is needed.
Whenever a force is moving something, it must be providing
energy.
Force (N, newton) = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)
Power (W, watt) = Force (N) x Speed (m/s)
Energy (J, joules) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
246
123
8.9.2014
Energy
Mass is defined as the measure of how much matter an object or

body contains the total number of subatomic particles (electrons,
protons and neutrons) in the object. If you multiply your mass by
the pull of Earths gravity, you get your weight.
When you step on a bathroom scale, you exert a force on the
scale. If your mass is 60 kg, the force (weight) you exert is:
Force = 60 kg x 9.81 m/s2 = 589 N = 60 kg
since 1 N =
0.102 kg- force
If the power of an electric heater is 1 kW, and it runs for an
hour, we say that it consumed one kilowatt-hour (kWh) of energy.
If the power is 10 kW, it consumes 1 kWh in just six minutes.
1 kW = 1000 W = 1000 J/s,
1 kWh = 3.6x106 Joules =
3.6 MJ
Energy is also often measured simply in terms of quantities of fuel,
such as tonnes of coal or oil. Energy statistics often use the unit
million tonnes of oil equivalent ( 1 Mtoe = 41.9 PJ ).
P = peta = 1015
247
Forms of Energy
Potential energy is awating to be converted into power. The

potential energy (PE) (in joules) stored in raising an object of
mass m (in kilograms) to a height h (in meters) is:
PE (J) = force (N) x distance (m) = weight x height = mxgxh
Kinetic energy (KE) is energy of motion. This is equal to half
the mass of the object times the square of its speed:
KE (J) = x mass (kg) x speed2 [(m/s)2] = x m x v2
Thermal energy, or heat, is the name given to the kinetic
energy associated with rapid random motion of atoms of a
material.
Chemical energy of an object is the energy which may
potentailly be liberated as a result of transformations of
chemical substances it is composed of. When atoms come
together to form molecules or solid materials, the distribution
of electrons is changed, often with dramatic effect. When a
fuel is burned, the chemical energy it contains is converted
into heat energy.
Nuclear energy provides the energy released from nuclear
fission and nuclear fussion processes.
Electromagnetic energy is a type of electrical energy carried
by electromagnetic radiation.
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Energy Density, Intensity, and Efficiency
Energy density: It is a statement of the energy content

of a fuel or energy storage device per unit mass or
volume.
Energy intensity: It is amount of energy required to

produce a given economic product or service, e.g., the
amount of energy used to heat or cool a certain living
space, or transport a person over a certain distance. The
energy/GDP (Gross Domestic Product or national income) is
a common indicator of the energy intensity of an entire
economy.
Energy efficiency: It describes a reduction in the quantity

of energy used per unit service provided, e.g., a reduction
in the quantity of motor gasoline used per kilometer
driven.
Energy Conversion and Efficiency
When we convert energy from one form to another, the useful

output is never as much as the input. The ratio of the useful
output to the required input (usually expressed as a
percentage) is called the efficiency of the process.
It can be as high as 90% in a water turbine or well-run
electric motor, around 35-40% in a coal-fired power station
(if the waste heat is not put to use), and as low as 10-20% in
a typical internal combustion engine.
The difference between the high and low conversion
efficiencies is because the low conversion efficiency involve
the conversion of heat into mechanical or electrical energy.
Heat is the kinetic energy of randomly-moving particles, an
essentially chaotic form of energy. No machine can convert
this chaos completely into the ordered state associated with
mechanical or electrical energy.
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8.9.2014
Liquid fuel schematic
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
Definitions of different types of lquid fuels
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
126
8.9.2014
Classification
and definition
of coal types
(IEA;WEO, 2011)
Uluslararas Genel Kmr Snflamas
Classification and definition of coal types
127
8.9.2014
Fuel
Any substance burned as a source of heat
or power. The heat is derived from the
combustion process in which carbon and
hydrogen in the fuel substance combine
with oxygen and release heat.
The provision of energy as heat or power in
either mechanical or electrical form is the
major reason for burning fuel.
Primary and secondary energy

commodities
Energy commodities are:

- either extracted or captured directly from natural
resources and are termed primary such as crude oil, hard
coal, natural gas,
- or are produced from primary commodities and are
termed secondary commodities.
Secondary energy comes from the transformation of
primary energy.
- The generation of electricity (secondary) from coal
(primary)
Petroleum products (secondary) from crude oil
(primary)
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8.9.2014
Primary and secondary energy

commodities
Both electricity and heat may be produced in a primary
or secondary form.
Primary electricity is obtained from natural sources such
as hydro, wind, solar, tide and wave power. Secondary
electricity is produced from the geothermal heat and by
burning primary combustible fuels such as coal, natural
gas, oil and renewables.
Primary heat is the capture of heat from natural
sources (solar panels, geothermal reservoirs) and
represents the arrival of new energy into the supplies
of energy commodities. Secondary heat is derived from
the use of energy commodities already captured or
produced (heat from a combined heat and power plant,
for instance).
Terminology for energy commodities

Primary
Secondary
Petrolum products
Manufactured
solid
fuels and gases
Biofuels
Any fuels derived

from renewables
Heat and electricity
Renewables
Heat and nonthermal

electricity
Non
Renewables
Nuclear
Combustible
Coals
Crude oil
NGLs
Natural gas
Oil shale
Wastes
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Fossil fuels - renewable energy

Fossil fuels are taken from natural
resources which were from from biomass
in the geological past.
Renewable energy is obtained directly or
indirectly from current or recent flows of
constantly available solar and gravitational
energy. For example, the energy value of
biomass is derived from the sunlight used
by plants during their growth.
Measuring quantities and heating values

Mass units for solid fuels (kilograms or tonnes)
Volume units for liquids and gases ( litres or cubic
meters)
Electrical energy is measured in an energy unit,
kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Conversion from volume to mass requires the
densities of the liquids.
Once it is expressed in its energy unit, a fuel
quantity may be converted into another unit. Use
of energy units also permits the summing of the
energy content of different fuels in different
physical states.
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Conventional energy
It describes energy sources that have been
widely used in the industrial world for an
extended period of time, such as petroleum,
natural gas, or coal, as opposed to alternative
sources such as wind or solar energy. Large scale
hydropower and nuclear power generation are
usually also considered conventional forms of
energy.
Conventional oil and gas
It is a term for oil and gas obtained by
traditional production methods (e.g., well drilling)
from deep-lying geologic formations, rather than
from unconventional sources such as shale, tar
sands, coalbed methane, biofuels, and so on.
Nonrenewable energy
It describes the energy source formed
and accumulated over a very long period
of time in the past, such as a fossil
fuel, whose rate of formation is many
orders of magnitude slower than the rate
of its use, so that it will be depleted in
a finite time period at the current rate
of consumption.
It is not renewed at a rate comparable
with human use; likely to be effectively
depleted or exhausted at some future
date.
262
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Units to express renewables

Solid products like wood are often measured in mass
(tones) and volume (cubic meters) units.
Biogases can be measured on a volume basis (cubic
meters) and on an energy content basis (kilowatthours or therms), and bioliquids in terms of volume
(liters), mass (tones) and/or energy content (joules
or megajoules)
Electricity-only renewable sources and technologies
like hydro, solar-photovoltaic, tide, wave, ocean and
wind can be measured in terms of electricity output
(usually kilo-, mega- or gigawatt-hours).
263
Units to express renewables

Electricity production is expressed in
gigawatt-hours (GWh) and generating
capacity in megawatts (MWe).
Heat production and generation are
expressed in terajoules (TJ).
Energy values for most fuels are reported in
terajoules (TJ) except for charcoal and
liquid biofuels which are reported by mass
(in thousand tones).
264
132
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Units and conversion equivalents

The most common units employed to express
quantities of fuels and energy are those relating to
volume, mass and energy. The actual units employed
vary according to country and local conditions and
reflect historical practice in the country.
The internationally recognized units which cover
almost all of the measurements of fuel and energy
quantities are the cubic meter, tonne (metric ton)
and joule. They are derived from the meter,
kilogram and second included in the Systeme
International dUnits (SI) and serve as an
international basis for science, technology and
commerce. These are the SI units.
Units of volume ( cubic meter in SI) and

conversion equivalents
To:
From:
gal U.S.
gal U.K.
bbl
ft3
m3
multiply by:
U.S. gallon (gal)
0.8327
0.02381
0.1337
3.785
0.0038
U.K. gallon (gal)
1.201
0.02859
0.1605
4.546
0.0045
Barrel (bbl)
42.0
34.97
5.615
159.0
0.159
Cubic foot (ft3)
7.48
6.229
0.1781
28.3
0.0283
Liter (l)
0.2642
0.220
0.0063
0.0353
0.001
Cubic meter (m3)
264.2
220.0
6.289
35.3147
1 000.0
266
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Units of mass ( kilogram in SI) and

To:
From:
kg
lt
st
lb
multiply by:
Kilogram (kg)
0.001
9.84x10-4 1.102x10-3
2.2046
Tonne (t)
1000
0.984
1.1023
2204.6
Long ton (lt)
1016
1.016
1.120
2240.0
Short ton (st)
907.2
0.9072
0.893
2000.0
Pound (lb)
0.454
4.54x10-4
4.46x10-4
5.0x10-4
267
Energy units ( joule (J) in SI) and

To:
From:
TJ
Gcal
Mtoe
MBtu
GWh
multiply by:
Terajoule (TJ)
238.8
2.388x10-
947.8
0.2778
Gigacalorie
4.1868x10-3
10-7
3.968
1.163x10-3
Mtoe*
4.1868x104
107
3.968x107
11630
Million Btu
1.0551x10-3
0.252
2.52x10-8
2.931x10-4
Gigawatt-hour
3.6
860
8.6x10-5
3412
* Million tons of oil equivalent.
268
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Units of Measure
Pressure
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton / square meter
100 kPa = ~ 1 atmosphere = ~14.5 psi
1 MPa = ~10 atmospheres = ~145 psi
Temperature
Celsius (C); Fahrenheit (F); Kelvin (K)
0 C = 32 F = 273 K
100 C = 212 F = 373 K
269
Approximate conversion factors

To
tonnes
(metric)
Crude oil*
From
Tonnes (metric)
1
Kilolitres
0.8581
Barrels
0.1364
US gallons
0.00325
Barrels per day
*Based on worldwide average gravity.
Products
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
Gasoline
Kerosene
Gas oil/diesel
Fuel oil
kilolitres
1.165
1
0.159
0.0038
To convert
barrels
tonnes
to tonnes
to barrels
Multiply by
0.086
11.6
0.118
8.5
0.128
7.8
0.133
7.5
0.149
6.7
US
barrels
gallons
Multiply by
7.33
307.86
6.2898
264.17
1
42
0.0238
1
kilolitres
to tonnes
tonnes
to kilolitres
0.542
0.740
0.806
0.839
0.939
1.844
1.351
1.240
1.192
1.065
tonnes
per year
BP, 2009
49.8
To
Natural gas and
Liquefied natural gas
From
1 billion cubic metres NG
1 billion cubic feet NG
1 million tonnes oil equivalent
1 million tonnes LNG
1 trillion British thermal units
1 million barrels oil equivalent
billion cubic billion cubic million tonnes million tonnes trillion British million barrels
metres NG
feet NG oil equivalent
LNG
thermal units oil equivalent
Multiply by
1
35.3
0.90
0.73
36
6.29
0.028
1
0.026
0.021
1.03
0.18
1.111
39.2
1
0.805
40.4
7.33
1.38
48.7
1.23
1
52.0
8.68
0.028
0.98
0.025
0.02
1
0.17
0.16
5.61
0.14
0.12
5.8
1
270
135
8.9.2014
Units
1 metric tonne = 2204.62 lb = 1.1023 short tons
1 kilolitre = 6.2898 barrels = 1 cubic metre
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.187 kJ =3.968 Btu
1 kilojoule (kJ) = 0.239 kcal = 0.948 Btu
1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 0.252 kcal = 1.055 kJ
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 860 kcal = 3600 kJ = 3412 Btu
BP, 2009
Calorific equivalents
One tonne of oil equivalent (Toe) equals approximately:
Heat units
Solid fuels
Gaseous fuels
Electricity
10 million kilocalories = 42 gigajoules = 40

million British thermal units
1.5 tonnes of hardcoal = 3 tonnes of
lignite
See Natural gas and Liquefied natural gas table
12 megawatt-hours
One million tonnes of oil produces about 4500 gigawatt-hours (= 4.5

terawatt-hours) of electricity in a modern power station with a 37.5%
conversion efficiency.
271
Units and Conversions

Power
Rate
1 kW
1 GW
Joules
per hour
3.6 MJ
3.6 TJ
per year
31.54 GJ
31.54 PJ
Kilowatt-hours
per year
8760
8.76x109
Oil equivalent
per year
0.75 toe
0.75 Mtoe
Coal equivalent
per year
1.1 tce
1.1 Mte
Other Quantities
Quantity
Mass
Length
Speed
Area
Volume
Energy
Power
Unit
1 lb (pound)
1 t (tonne)
1 ft (foot)
1 yd (yard)
1 mi (mile)
1 km hr-1 (kph)
1 mi hr-1 (mph)
1 knot
1 acre
1 ha (hectare)
1 litre
1 gal (UK)
1 gal (US)
1 eV (electron-volt)
1 HP (horse power)
SI equivalent
= 0.4536 kg
= 1000 kg
= 0.3048 m
= 0.9144 m
= 1609 m
= 0.2778 m s-1
= 0.447 m s-1
= 0.5144 m s-1
= 4047 m2
= 104 m2
= 10-3 m3
= 4.546x10-3 m3
= 3.785x10-3 m3
= 1.602x10-19 J
= 745.7 W
Inverse
1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 kg = 10-3 t
1 m = 3.281 ft
1 m = 1.094 yd
1 m = 6.214x10-4 mi
1 m s-1 = 3.6 kph
1 m s-1 = 2.237 mph
1 m s-1 = 1.944 knots
1 m2 = 2.471x10-4 acre
1 m2 = 10-4 ha
1 m3 = 1000 litre
1 m3 = 220.0 gal (UK)
1 m3 = 264.2 gal (US)
1 J = 6.242x1018 eV
1 W = 1.341x10-3 HP
272
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Most common multiple and sub-multiple

prefixes
Multiple
101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
Sub-Multiple
deca (da)
hecto (h)
kilo (k)
mega (M)
giga (G)
tera (T)
peta (P)
exa (E)
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
deci (d)
centi (c)
milli (m)
micro ()
nano (n)
pico (p)
femto (f)
atto (a)
273
INTRODUCTION TO
PETROLEUM & NATURAL GAS
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PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS ENGINEERS
Looking for An Exciting Future?

Become a Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineer
Petroleum and natural gas engineers work all

around the world, on land and offshore, to find
oil and gas supplies. They keep the energy
flowing to light and heat our homes, fuel our
transportaion systems, and keep our industries
operating.
They spark the creation of thousands of
products, from medicines to plastics to textiles
and cosmetics. Petroleum and natural gas
engineers work in an industry that is both rich in
history and the excitement of discovery and on
the cutting edge of todays technologies.
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The right education for a career in petroleum and natural gas
engineering requires taking courses on earth science, science
(chemistry, physics and math), basic engineering courses (fluid
mechanics, thermodynamics, statistics, etc), and specialized courses in
petroleum and natural gas engineering (geology, formation evaluation,
drilling, reservoir properties, and production).
Because the oil and gas industry is international in scope, foreign
languages are encouraged. Since it is a high-tech industry, computer
skills are fundamental.
Entry-level salaries for graduates are among the highest of any
engineering field.
Graduates move to field, district, area, staff and chief engineering
positions. They may prefer to advance through such management posts
as supervisor, manager and president. The route you follow depends on
the type of career you want to make for your self. Once you have
acquired some experience, you might decide to become a consultant or
enter the oil and gas business on your own.

They are involved in drilling and petroleum and natural gas-producing
operations. Many different specialties are available, each with its own
unique challenges and rewards.
They work thorough studies of geologic and engineering data in order to
predict maximum oil and gas recovery as well as ultimate production and
production rates.
You can be a drilling engineer, working with geologists and contractors in
designing and supervising drilling operations. The job is to implement a
procedure to drill the well as economically as possible. These operations
are conducted to protect the safety of the drilling crew and under the
guidelines of national rules and regulations. It is also important that the
well be drilled so that the formations of interest can be evaluated as to
its commercial value to the oil company.
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You can work as a production engineer, developing processes and
equipment to optimize oil and gas production. The job is to analyze,
interpret, and optimize the performance of individual wells. The
production engineer is responsible for determining how to bring
hydrocarbons to the surface. The production engineer will determine the
most efficient means to develop the field considering the viscosity of
the oil, the gas-oil ratio, the depth and type of formation. The engineer
is also responsible for the developing a system of surface equipment
that will separate the oil, gas, and water.
You can become a reservoir engineer and help determine ideal recovery
processes, estimate the number of wells that can be economically drilled,
and simulate future performance using sophisticated computer models.
Reservoir engineers determine the fluid and pressure distributions
throughout the reservoir, the natural energy sources available, and the
methods most useful in recovering the maximum amount of oil or gas
from the reservoir. Because of the nature of the work, they must
assume great individual responsibilities. They are often directly involved
in costly operations and must make decisions concerning the expenditure
of great budget.
Petroleum
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What is PETROLEUM or CRUDE OIL?

What is NATURAL GAS?
It is a mixture of hydrocarbons, that is,
molecules containg hydrogen and carbon, that
exists sometimes as a liquid (crude oil) and
sometimes as a vapor (natural gas).
Petras
Oleum
Rock
Oil
Crude Oil
Raw oil
Natural Gas
CH4
Why do we need PETROLEUM?
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What is
Petroleum?
Crude Oil
Natural Gas
Crude oil : The word petroleum means rock-oil. The word comes from
the Greek words petras meaning rock and oleum meaning oil. Petroleum is
basically made of lots of hydrogen and carbon molecules. The oil that we
find in the ground is not exactly the same as the oil or gasoline you put in
your car. We call raw oil from the ground crude oil. Crude oil can be
straw-colored, black, dark green, brown, or red. It can be very thick like
honey to very thin
Natural Gas : Petroleum can also be gas. We call petroleum gas Natural
Gas. Natural gas is primarily methane, CH4.
Natural Gas
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Why do we need petroleum?

Energy/Electricity
You may not know that the electricity that
powers your home may actually be the result
of petroleum too. Power Companies often use
natural gas to generate electricity. We use
this electricity to run our air-conditioners,
heaters, TVs, Computers, hot-water heaters,
stoves, ovens, dishwashers.
More Than Fuel:

Petroleum is a Part of Your Everyday Life
Asphalt
Antifreeze
Fuel
Refrigerants
Synthetic Rubber
Each item shown here either
1) was made from a petroleum product,
2) was manufactured with machines that Paint
used fossil energy for heat or power, or
3) used a petroleum as energy to move
Food Preservatives
Wire Coatings
Dyes
Vitamin
capsules
Gasoline
Plastics
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Where does PETROLEUM and

NATURAL GAS come from?
Petroleum was forming way

before dinosaurs lived
Where do PETROLEUM and

NATURAL GAS come from?
Fossil fuels were forming way before

dinosaurs lived
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Petroleum
(Organic Theory to explain the origin of oil)
It assumes that both the hydrogen and carbon that make up petroleum
which is an organic substance derived from the remains of plants and animals
living on land and in the sea .
Millions of years ago, rains washed prehistoric plant and animal remains into
the seas along with sand and silt, and layer upon layer piled up on the sea
bottom. The layers of organic material were compressed under the weight of
these sediments, and the increasing presure and temperature changed the
mud, sand and silt into rock and the organic matter into petroleum. This rock
is refered to as source rock.
Formation of Petroleum Reservoirs
In the beginning
Earth started out as a
mass of molten rock
Surface cooled and
formed a hard crust
With time the earth
shrank and the crust
buckled and formed hills
and valleys
Water condensed to
form oceans
Convection currents within
the earths mantle caused
the crust to move
Mountains built and
destroyed
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Erosion Deposition Cycle
Mountains (rocks) are continuously eroded by

Weather (wind, rain)
Temperature changes
Roots of plants
Eroded material (rock pieces) transported away by water or wind
(Silts and organic material) Deposited in completely different
locations
Nile Delta
Formation of Beds
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Rock
Compaction
Sandstone consists primarily
of quartz (SiO2).
Rock
Compaction
Carbonates are formed from animals

and plants. The principle carbonates
are limestone. Limestone consists
primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
which is slightly soluble in water.
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Petroleum Formation
Organic Theory
Rivers carried both rock sediments and organic materials
Materials covered by sand and silt isolated from oxygen and decay
Over time, pressure, temperature and bacteria converted organic
material to petroleum
Petroleum Reservoirs
Over time stresses in the

earths crust compacted the
sediments and bent, twisted
and broke the beds that
were originally horizontal
Loose sediments were
cemented into rock
Over time petroleum migrated from source rock into

adjacent sands and limestones
Eventually petroleum was lost at the surface or became
trapped in underground structures
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Geologic Types of Reservoirs

Reservoir: Underground traps of oil and gas. Reservoirs contain porous rocks
that allow fluids to flow through the pore spaces, that are permeable. They
can take various geological shapes.
Anticline reservoir is formed by
folding of the rock layers or strata.
The trap is filled by upward
migration or movement of oil and
gas coming from the source rock to
the location of the trap. A
nonporous /impermeable cap rock
(such as shale) at the top of the
reservoir or other barriers (faults)
stops the further movement of
the fluids.
Anticline
Water
Fault
Stratigraphic
Salt Dome
Lenses in
sand/limestone
Oil and
Gas Solution Gas Water
Cap
Rock
Gas
(Gas Cap)
Gas Oil Contact
Oil
Water
(Aquifer)
Oil Water Contact
Cross-section of a anticline reservoir

containing gas, oil, and water
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Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Oil and gas reservoirs represent rock

structures where the pore space is filled with
oil and gas.
Virtually all hydrocarbon reservoirs contain
water and are often associated with an
aquifer.
An aquifer is a porous rock structure that contains

water that is in pressure communication with a
hydrocarbon reservoir
Requirements for a
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
A source: material from which hydrocarbon is
formed: carbon and hydrogen, the remains of land
and sea life that was buried in the mud and silt of
ancient seas or bodies of water.
Porous and permeable beds in which hydrocarbons
may migrate and accumulate after being formed.
A trap: subsurface condition restricting further
movement of hydrocarbons such that it may
accumulate in commercial quantities.
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Water Influx
If the pressure in the oil (or gas) reservoir is
reduced below the pressure in the aquifer,
water will flow from the aquifer into the oil
reservoir.
If producing wells are drilled and completed
in the oil-bearing zone, the pressure in the oil
reservoir decreases as oil is produced.
Water influx displaces oil to the producing
wells and helps to maintain the reservoir
pressure.
Natural Water Drive
Summary
We may define a reservoir as an
accumulation of hydrocarbon in porous
permeable sedimentary rocks.
A reservoir is a combination of physical
conditions that will cause hydrocarbon
liquids and/or gases and water to
accumulate in porous and permeable
rock and prevent them from escaping
either laterally or vertically.
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Summary
A reservoir consists of an impervious
cover or cap rock overlying a porous and
permeable rock.
The density differences between the
oil, gas and water phases can result in
boundary regions between them known
as fluid contacts (oil-water and gas-oil
contacts).
Where Does Petroleum Come From?
Petroleum
comes from
underground
Petroleum
Traps or
from
petroleum
reservoirs.
304
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Where Does Petroleum Come From?
Oil Becomes Trapped in Pores

Dont be confused petroleum is not a pool of liquid underground. Petroleum
fills the pores of rock.kind of like wet sand on a beach.
305
(NOT FROM UNDERGROUND
LAKES!)
The 5 Steps of Petroleum
1.Finding
&Drilling
4. Refining
2. Pumping
3. Transporting
5. Selling Products
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How do we find PETROLEUM and

NATURAL GAS?
The search for oil and gas beneath the earths
surface is a risky undertaking.
Geoscientists use several scientific and technical
procedures to predict whether these conditions
may have combined to create an oil or gas field,
but the results are never guaranteed.
It may take 5 to 10 exploration wells to achieve
one successful producing well.
It may take as many as 50 to 100 exploration
wells to discover a significant new oil field.
The average cost of drilling a new well onshore is
nearly $1 million assuming well depth of 1000 m.
How do we find PETROLEUM and

NATURAL GAS?
Geoscientists (geologists, geophysicists) The Finders
-Study the Earth to search for clues to where oil and natural gas
might be hidden
-Analyze minerals, soil, and rock samples
-Evaluate underground geologic structures to find oil and gas fields
Petroleum engineers The Movers
-Determine best drilling methods to find oil and gas deep in the Earth
-Manage production when oil and gas are drained from underground
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The Search for Petroleum
Exploration - Team Effort

Large, high-risk investment to initiate the
search
Geologists, Paleontologists
Study large areas searching for the right
conditions for petroleum formation
Outcrop studies; fossils
Geophysicists
Seismic studies to map the subsurface structure
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Geology:
Geology is the study of the composition of the

earths crust, which consists of many layers of sediments deposited
over millions of years. These layers have since been forced into
various shapes or structures by the movement of continental plates,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and salt flows.
By studying these sedimentary beds in ourcrops or other surface
features, geologists can infer where the underground porous
reservoirs and impermeable traps might lie.
Geophysics:
The science of geophysics is used to understand

the shapes of the sedimentary rock layers by using various methods.
A modern geopysical method is described as seismic. Sound waves
are sent into the ground at one point. These waves are reflected
off the layers of rock and are measured by lines of detectors on
the surface (geophones). The data obtained are fed into computers
for processing to yield a seismic section. Geophysicists interpret
these results to gain an understanding of the shapes and sizes of
the rock layers, or stratigraphy.
Subsurface Mapping
Sound waves are sent into the ground at one point. These waves are
reflected off the layers of rock and are measured by lines of detectors on
the surface (geophones).
Sound
Laser
waves
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How do we find petroleum?
Geophysical Study
Seismic Activity
Seismic
Modern-day oil prospectors use sound waves to locate oil. In one technique,
(1) a signal is sent into the rock by a vibrator truck, (2) the reflected waves
are received by geophones, and (3) the data is transmitted to a laboratory
truck.
Geophysical
Study
Seismic Maps
Eastern Black Sea

Cross Section
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Geophysical Study in Sea
View of A Reservoir
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Exploration
Geologists and
Geophysicists generate
subsurface contour maps
identify possible traps.
Contour lines join points at
the same subsurface depth.
Using contour maps at top

and bottom of sand, can
generate isopach (rock
thickness) maps
Exploration (Contd)
Drilling Engineer
Geologists and Geophysicists can only identify

potential traps in an area with the potential of
containing hydrocarbons. They cannot tell whether
these traps contain oil.
Must drill into the trap to confirm the presence of
oil or gas
Reservoir Engineer
Must estimate the volume of hydrocarbon present

and whether it can be economically produced.
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Getting to it (Drilling)
After we have an idea of where
petroleum is located we have to get to it.
Many times petroleum is very deep within
the ground. To get to petroleum we drill
a hole anywhere from 13 to 4 in
diameter into the ground. (Drilling Rig)
How do we get to it?
Drilling Activity
Offshore
Platform
Onshore
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Types of Drilling
Conventional
Directional
Horizontal
Not all wells are straight and vertical. Horizontal drilling has
become a very profitable way to increase production by having the
wellbore contacting more of the formation.
Drilling
for Oil
322
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Onshore Drilling Activity
Offshore Drilling Activity
Industry has moved from fixed to floating structures

to develop oil and gas in deeper water
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Offshore platforms
Drilling Activity
The parts of a conventional
drilling rig
The schematic of the oil

and gas reservoir
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Drilling Operation Components

Wellbore/borehole: A hole drilled to aid in the exploration and recovery
of oil, gas or water.
Casing: Various diameter steel pipe that is lowered into the wellbore
and cemented in place. Its functions are to structurally stabilize the
wellbore, prevent the cross-flow of formation fluids and drilling mud as
well as securing of the well head (blowout preventer connects there).
Casing diameter decreases as the depth of the hole increases (due to
higher pressure conditions, well design and extraction needs).
Drilling mud: A heavy, viscous fluid mixture of clays, chemicals and
water which is pumped down through the drill pipe to lubricate and cool
the drilling bit, to flush out the cuttings, to strengthen the sides of the
borehole, and (by its weight) keep a pressure balance against the
formation pressure.
Blowout preventer: It is used to shut off the well in case the formation
pressure overcomes the drilling mud pressure and the well is in danger
to explode.
Drill string/pipe: A pipe made of lenghts of steel tubing, attached to
the drilling tool and rotates during drilling to form a hole. The drilling
mud flows through this pipe.
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Glossary/Terms
Bottom hole pressure: This is the pressure at the bottom of the
wellbore at or near the depth of the oil producing formation rock and
it is usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi). This pressure is
imposed on the walls of the wellbore. It is the sum of all pressures
imposed, including hydrostatic column pressure, annular pressure (due
to drilling mud going up the annular space carrying rock cuttings), and
pressure imposed by the rotating drill bit.
Formation pressure: It is the pressure of the formation fluid within
the pore spaces (the pores are the spaces between the grains of the
rock) of the formation rock.
Fracture gradient or formation fracture pressure: Pressure above
which injection of fluids (drilling mud) will cause the rock formation to
fracture hydraulically.
Porosity: It is ratio of the formation rocks pore volume to its total
volume.
Permeability: It is the property of rocks that is an indication of the
ability for gases or fluids to flow through rocks.
Drilling Activity
1.
2.
3.
4.
Place the drill bit, collar and drill pipe in the hole.
Attach the rotary table and begin drilling.
As drilling progresses, circulate mud through the pipe.
Add new sections (joints) of drill pipes as the hole gets deeper.
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Wellbore or
borehole
Drilling Operation Components

and Wellbore or Borehole
Well Drilling Operation and Drilling Mud Circulation
Drilling fluid, also called drilling mud, is used: (1) to lubricate the bit so it
doesnt get stuck and (2) to flush the rock pieces (cuttings) to the surface.
These cuttings are examined by a mud logger, who looks for signs of oil and gas.
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Drill
Bit
Rotary Table
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Wellbore description for circulation
Lost Circulation
If the bottom hole pressure
of the mud column in the
wellbore exceeds the
formation pressure of the
rock, the drilling mud will
infiltrate the formation.
Well Kick
If the bottom hole pressure
falls below the formation
pressure a gas/oil kick from
the formation into the
wellbore occurs. If the kick is
not controlled, it can lead to
a blow-out, which represents
one of the most severe
threats associated with oil
and gas exploration.
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Surging and Swabbing
Surging is caused by the drill string being lowered into the hole at a fast rate
pushing drilling mud ahead of it which will surge against the formation rock at a
bottom hole and may cause the drilling mud to infiltrate the formation.
Swabbing is caused by removing the drill string from the wellbore which causes
formation fluid to infiltrate into the volume previously displaced by the drill string.
A sample of the fluid from the

formation is collected
Fluid from the formation is allowed

to flow freely into well
A drill stem test (DST) is performed in order to determine bottom hole

pressure, permeability and productive capacity of the oil well. The
formation to be tested is isolated from the rest of the well using packers
and then the fluid in the formation is allowed to flow up the drill string in
order for a sample to be collected.
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Well Logging Unit (Truck)
Once a well has been drilled, a logging tool is lowered down the well on
electrical wire. Logging tools are special sensors that measure properties of
the rock surrounding the borehole, with results recorded.
Well Logging
Many different kinds of well logs have been developed. The Gamma Ray tool
shows rock layer boundaries and shale content. The Neutron Log is a porosity
measurement tool. Since salty water conducts electricity while oil and gas do
not, electrical resistivity logs can be used to detect the presence of oil and gas
in the pore spaces.
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Core Sampling
By studying the rocks (either outcrops or core samples from

the wells), and by interpreting the seismic data and well log
data, scientists and engineers can reasonably predict how big
the reservoir is and how much oil it contains, and how easy or
difficult it will be to produce the oil.
Typical Well Design and Cementing
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Well Treatment
Wells often may be treated to improve the natural
drainage pattern, or to remove barriers within the
production fluid (oil, gas or geothermal water)-bearing
formation which prevent easy passage of fluids into the
well bore.
Opening up new channels in the rock for the oil and gas
to flow through is called stimulation. Two stimulation
treatments are commonly used: (1) hydraulic fracturing
to split the rock and prop it open with proppants, (2)
injection of acid to partially dissolve the rock, (3) or use
of other special chemicals such as injecting chemicals to
break emulsions (mixture of oil and water forming a very
thick mass which impairs flow of fluids to the well bore).
Hydraulic Fracturing
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Macro- and micro-size fractures in a rock
Vertical vs.
Horizontal
Formation
Exposure and
Fracturing
Stages
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Conventional Propped Hydraulic Fracture

~ 1 cm
Proppants (bridging material such as sand or similar type of small particles

of material) are introduced into the fractures to keep the fracture open.
Horizontal Well Completion Stages
(AllConsulting, 2012)
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Frac Equipment
(Trucks, tanks, engines,...)
Acidizing
Acid
Acidizing is a process by which acids are

applied to the producing formation to enlarge
existing fractures and the pores of the
formation to increase the flow capacity of
the reservoir.
The chemical reaction between the
hydrochloric acid and the carbonate rock:
2 + 3
Hydrochloric
Acid
Calcium
Carbonate,
Limestone
2 + 2 + 2
Calcium
Chloride
Water
Carbon
Dioxide
* 1000 gallons of 15 weight% HCl

( HCL concentration diluted in water) will dissolve
~10.8 cuft (1840 lb) of limestone.
1 gallon = 3.79 liter, 35 cuft=1 m3, 1 lb=450 gm
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Producing it/Getting to it
After we reach the petroleum we have to get it to
the surface of the earth. Sometimes when oil, gas,
and water underground are under a lot of pressure at
first, it naturally flows to the surface. If not, we
have to pump it or find other ways to make it flow to
the surface.
Sometimes gas is injected at the bottom of the well,
and as it expands, it lifts the oil up to the surface.
This is called gas lift.
Flowing Oil Production / Facilities
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Types of Production Process
(API, 1979)
The energy in the gas or salt water (brine) occuring under high pressures with the oil
that creates the force to drive or displace the oil through and from the pores of the
reservoir into the wells.
Oil has dissolved gas that
emerges and expands as the
reservoir pressure is reduced.
Gas drives oil through the
reservoir toward the wells and
assists in lifting it to the surface.
Dissolved-gas drive
Some reservoirs have free gas in

the form of a cap of gas over the
oil. As production of oil and gas
proceeds and the reservoir
pressure is lowered, the gas cap
expands and drives/displaces oil.
Gas-cap drive
Water existing in the surrounding

parts of the oil reservoir occur
under pressure and provide an
energy to aid in producing oil and
gas. As the pressure is lowered,
water expands and drives the oil
and gas.
Water drive
Effect of Dissolved Gas (CO2) in

Liquid (Cola) on Production
Consider a sealed
bottle of Cola with a
straw as shown.
Remove the seal.
What happens?
Seal
Straw
Pepsi
Cola
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Cola and gas spout
out of the straw.
Why?
Expansion of free
gas
Evolution of dissolved
gas
Flow of mixture of
gas and liquid up
straw
Cola and
Pepsi
and
Gas
Gas
Expands
Gas
Evolves

Amount of Cola that is removed through the
straw depends on
Amount of dissolved CO2, and the way it changes

with pressure
The manner in which gas volume changes with
pressure
The viscosity of the Cola-CO2 mixture; (the ease
with which it flows)
The density of the produced mixture; (how easy it
is to lift up the straw)
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Analogy with Petroleum

Reservoir crude oil is a mixture of
hydrocarbons that are formed when organic
matter is subjected to great heat and
pressure over long periods of time.
The mixture behavior is similar to that of gas
dissolved in liquid under pressure.
Petroleum recovery (and flow through the
reservoir and pipelines) is critically dependent
on fluid properties.
Visual conception of the phase change of initially

crude oil at high pressure as the pressure decreases
A cylinder
containing
crude oil
under
pressure
PA
PA
P
Poi
Crude Oil
1.31BBL
PB
Free Gas
676 ft3
Free Gas
567 ft3
Crude Oil
1.04BBL
Crude Oil
1.00BBL
Free Gas
2.99 ft3
Crude Oil
1.333BBL
Crude Oil
1.21BBL
PA=3500 psia
PB=2500 psia
P=1200 psia
PA=14.7 psia
PA=14.7 psia
T=160 oF
T=160 oF
T=160 oF
T=160 oF
T=60 oF
PA=Poi=initial pressure,
PB=pbp=bubble point pressure
Note: Bubble point pressure is the pressure at which the first bubble of the
gas leaves the liquid phase.
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How do we produce it?
Gas
Surface
Stock
Tank
Crude Oil
Water
Well
Oil, or
RESERVOIR
Oil+Gas, or
Oil+Gas+Water
A schematic view of flow path from an oil

reservoir to stock tank
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Gas
Condensate ?
Surface
Water
Well
Gas, or
Gas+Water
RESERVOIR
A schematic view of flow path from a gas reservoir to separator

* Condensate:A liquid resulting from condensation of a vapor phase. It is the liquid (crude oil)
obtained from hydrocarbon systems existing in the vapor phase in the reservoir.
How do we produce it?
Production Pump
(A conventional sucker rod pump)
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The Production Well
(API, 1979)
A production well is simply a pipe

line reaching from the top of the
ground to the oil- or gas-producing
formation. The well contains a
series of steel pipes called casing
and tubing.
Various
rock
formations
(sand,
clay,
sandstone,
shale,
limestone,
etc.)
Casing: It keeps the well stable and

protects the hole from the
underground water zones abd from
loose earth falling from the
surrounding formations. Usually two
or more strings of casing are
cemented in the hole.
Tubing: It is a string of pipe placed
in the well through which the oil (or
gas) is produced. It is called the
production pipe.
Packer: A mechanical device used
for isolation purposes.
Completion Methods of Preparing A Production Well
SANDSTONE
Open-Hole Completion:
When the oil-producing
zone is not loose, the
hole is left open; barefoot completion.
(API, 1979)
Completion With a Liner:

In loose, soft formations,
a slotted liner ( a section
of casing in which vertical
slots have been
cut/perforated) is
set.The liner acts a filter
and keeps the sand out of
the well.
Multiple Type Well

Completion:
Production from
different oil/gas
zones through the
same well bore
becomes possible.
Completion With a
Casing: Drilling a well
without a tubing. Casing
is used to conduct fluids
to surface; geothermal
well completion
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Pumping units produce oil from low-pressure reservoirs.
Drilling/Production in Residential Areas
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The Main Pieces of Production Equipment

(API, 1979)
Fluids that could be a mixture of oil

and gas from the reservoir (oil sand)
flows into the bore hole of the oil
well. Surface equipments (separators,
treaters, etc.) are used to separate
the fluids. Measuring devices are
used to determine the quantities of
each individual phases produced. Oil
goes through the pipelines into a
storage tank and gas flows from the
separator into the gas pipeline
through the gas outlet.
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Separators
Well fluids produced at the well
head may be a mixture of oil, gas,
and water. Thus they must be
separated into oil, gas, and water.
The equipment used to separate
the liquids from the gases is
referred to as a separator. An oil
and gas separator is a small tank in
which the force of gravity is used
to separate the oil and gas. Oil,
being heavy compared to the gas,
falls to the bottom of the tank
from which it goes into storage
tanks. Gas, being lighter, rises to
the top of the tank and goes from
there into a gas-gathering system.
Two forces acting to separate the

oil from the gas: (1) the effect og
gravity, (2) the whirling action.
A vertical oil and gas separator
Separators
(API, 1979)
(API, 1979)
In a horizontal separator, the oil and gas mixture enters at inlet A. The mixture hits
a baffle (B) where the heavier liquids fall to the bottom of the tank while the gas
and spray rise. The the wet gas passes through a chamber (C) and a mist extractor
(E) where liquid particles are removed from the gas.
The liquid moves along the bottom of the tank to the oil outlet (H) and the gas goes
through the top portion of the tank and into the gas outlet (F).
A horizontal oil and gas separator; gas flow follows the path
shown by the arrows, oil is withdrawn through the oil outlet H.
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Storage Tanks
Surface Production Units

(Separators, heater/treater, etc.)
Reservoir Engineering Activity

Reservoir engineer play an important role to
identify the oil and gas reservoir potential,
such as how much oil we can produce from
the field, what the reservoir and fluid
properties such as porosity, permeability,
production pay thickness, fluid flow
direction, etc. By using some numerical
techniques they produce reservoir models
and by the help of these modfels they
predict the future performance of the field.
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Well Testing
There are a large number of types of well tests, and each is conducted to obtain
certain information about the well, the reservoir, and the fluids produced. A list of
common well-tests:
Fluid Measurements
Oil flow rate: BBL/day, (m3/day or tonne/day)
Gas flow rate: MSCF/day or MMSCF/day (sm3/day)
Water flow rate: BBL/day, (m3/day or tonne/day)
Oil gravity, gas gravity, water salinity
M=103, MM=106
Pressure Measurements (psia or bar)

Flowing wellhead pressure, static (shut-in) wellhead pressure
Flowing bottom-hole pressure, static (shut-in) bottom-hole pressure
Temperature Measurements (oF or oC)
Wellhead temperature, bottom-hole temperature, stock-tank oil temperature
Well and Reservoir Performance Tests
Potential test
Bottom-hole pressure test
Productivity test
Fluid-level determination
Bottom-hole temperature determination
Well Testing
Potential Test
It is a measurement of the largest amount of oil and gas a well will produce in
a daily period under fixed conditions. This test is normally made on each
newly completed well and often during its production life. Producing
allowables (proper production rates) are determined according to the results
of the tests, and the results are used to design the proper size of the
surface production equipments.
Bottom-Hole Pressure Test

It is a measure of the reservoir pressure of the well taken at a specific
depth, or at midpoint of the producing interval. Types of this tests:
Flowing bottom-hole pressure test: It is a measurement taken while the well
continues to flow.
Shut-in bottom-hole pressure test: It is a measurement taken after the well
has been shut in for a specified length of time. These tests give information
about the reservoir pressure and fluid levels in the shut-in well.
A series of bottom-hole presure tests conducted at scheduled intervals
through the production life of the reservoir provide valuable information
about the decline or depletion of the reservoir the well has been producing.
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Productivity Tests
Well Testing
Productivity tests are conducted on oil, gas, and geothermal wells, and
include both the potential test and the bottom-hole pressure test. The
purpose of this test is to determine the effects of different flow rates
on the pressure within the reservoir. The maximum potential rate of flow
can be calculated without risking possible damage to the well which might
occur if the well rate produced at its maximum possible flow rate.
+
How to Conduct The Test

First measure the shut-in bottom-hole
pressure (reservoir pressure) of the
well, then open the well and produce it at
several stabilized rates of flow. At each
rate of flow, the flowing bottom-hole
pressure is measured. These data
provide an estimate of the maximum flow
to be expected from the well.
Reservoir Drives
Natural Energy
What causes oil to flow from reservoirs?
-
Pressure difference between reservoir fluids
and the wellbore pressure

-
If reservoir pressure declines quickly,
recovery by natural flow will be small

-
If reservoir pressure remains at high levels
for long periods of time, recovery will be higher.
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Dissolved (Solution) Gas Drive
Initially undersaturated oil reservoir

Production Behavior
Reservoir pressure maintained by gas coming out of solution
Reservoir pressure declines rapidly and continuously
Gas-oil ratio constant above the bubble point, then rises to
a maximum, then drops
Wells require pumping at an early stage
Expected natural oil recovery between 5-30%
Water Drive
Production Behavior
Reservoir pressure remains high

Producing gas-oil ratio remains low
Water production starts early and increases throughout life
of reservoir
Wells flow naturally until water production becomes excessive
Oil Recoveries between 35 75%
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Primary Oil Recovery

Reservoir energy used to produce oil & gas
Average recovery about
Perforating
12-15% of OOIP
Hydraulic Fracturing
Well treatments by perforating, hydraulic fracturing and acidizing help to

improve the productivity of the wells and the recovery of reservoir fluids.
Secondary Oil Recovery

Energy given to reservoir by injection of water or gas
Recovers additional 15 to 20% OOIP over primary
Water Injection
Gas Injection
Water is injected into reservoirs for two reasons: (1) to increase the oil
recovery, (2) to dispose of salt water that is produced with oil. Gas is
injected into an oil reservoir to increase recovery of oil. Both water and gas
displace oil and force it to flow toward the production wells.
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Enhanced (Improved) Oil Recovery (EOR, IOR)

(Tertiary Oil Recovery)
Historically follows secondary recovery
Recovers additional 10 to 15% OOIP over secondary
Types of EOR
- Miscible (Chemical)
Flooding
- Thermal Flooding
The miscible flooding
method involves the
injection of a slug of
solvent (such as propane,
butane, surfactants, or
CO2 at high pressure),
capable of being mixed
with the reservoir oil. This
is followed by the injection
of a displacing fluid which
mixes with the solvent.
Enhanced (Improved) Oil Recovery (EOR, IOR)

(Tertiary Oil Recovery)
Thermal flooding techniques include
methods for supplementing heat
(energy) to increase ultimate
recovery from a reservoir.
Thermal processes are: (1) steam
injection, (2) in-situ combustion.
Steam Injection: Heat as steam is

directly injected into the oil
reservoir.
In-Situ Combustion: Heat is
generated by burning some of the oil
in a reservoir.
Heat injected or generated lowers
the viscosity and density of the oil
so that oil in the reservoir flows
easier towards into the production
wells.
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Steam-assisted
gravity drainage
(SAGD) process
for producing
heavy oil.
Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Main Properties of Reservoir Rock
POROSITY
PERMEABILITY
Main Properties of Reservoir Fluid

VISCOSITY
COMPRESSIBILITY
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Porosity
Porosity is
defined as the
ratio of the
pore volume
(the void space)
in a rock to the
bulk volume of
that rock.
The greater the
porosity, the
more fluid the
reservoir can
hold.
Porosity
Porosity is a measure of formation storage capacity. That is, if 100 ft3 of

this sandstone formation contains 25 ft3 of liquid, then the porosity of the
formation is 0.25 or 25%.
Typical porosities range from 0.05 for tight rocks to 0.30 for some
sandstone.
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SATURATION
Saturation of A Fluid in Porous Media =
Volume of the Fluid in Pores/Pore Volume
So, Sw, Sg : Oil, water and gas saturation,
respectively.
So=Volume of Oil/Pore Volume
So+Sw+Sg=1.0
If only oil and water exist in pores:
So+Sw=1.0
SH=Hydrocarbon saturation=So+Sg
Fluid Stored and Production Relationship

From the production point of view, it doesnt matter
how much oil and gas are in the reservoir unless they
can be produced and recovered.
To be recovered, the reservoir fluids must be able to
move (or flow) to a production well. The amount of
production possible would depend not only on the
porosity of the reservoir, but also on the ability of
the fluid to move from pore to pore and finally to
the production well.
The pores in the reservoir rock should be well
connected. So, we can expect that it would be easy
to produce fluid from the formation.
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Permeability
It is a measure of the rocks
capacity to transmit fluids.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction of a
fluid the resistance to flow.
Milk thin,
lower viscosity
Honey thick,
higher viscosity
Heavy oil sample
Oil viscosity: 0.25 cp* (light oil) - >1000 cp (heavy oil)

Water viscosity: 1 cp
*cp=centipoise (unit of viscosity)
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(Isothermal) Compressibility of Oil

Change in volume per unit volume related to a change
in pressure at a constant temperature:
co
1 V
V P T
Example
A sample of reservoir oil was placed in a PVT cell at
5000 psig and 220 oF. The volume was 59.55 cc.
Pressure was reduced to 4000 psig and the volume
increased to 60.37 cc. Calculate co.
Solution
co
1 59.55 60.37
13.76 106 psi-1
59.55 5000 4000
Fluid Compressibility
Relative change in fluid volume related to a change in
pressure Fluid Compressibility in a container of a
constant volume of 200 liter is schematically shown below.
An icrease of 150 bar on the inner pressure of

the container creates an increase of 4 liter on
the volume of the fluid stored in the container
due to fluid compressibility.
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Fluid Flow in Porous Media
Driving force is FLUID COMPRESSIBILITY

Compressed
Particles
Produced
Particles
Pore
t0 = 0, p0 = pres
t1 > t0, p1 < pres

t2 > t1, p2 < p1
t3 > t2, p3 < p2
The reservoir (pore) pressure declines as production proceeds. Fluid

particles expands due to decreasing reservoir pressure. More and more
particles move toward the well. Fluid compresibility is one of the driving
forces for fluid flow in porous media.
Gravity and Volumetric Units of Reservoir Fluids

Liquid specific gravity ( o ):The ratio of the density
of a liquid to the density of water at the same (P,T).
API gravity of crude oil:
141.5
API
131.5
o
Volumetric units of oil, gas, and water: The volume
unit of measurement in the industry is barrel (BBL),
stock tank barrel (STB), cubic feet (cu ft, ft3),
standard cubic feet (SCF), cubic meter cu m, m3),
standard cubic meter (sm3).
1 BBL = 5.615 cu ft = 0.159 cu m
1 STB = 1 BBL at stock tank conditions (60 oF and 14.7 psia or 15 oC
and 1 atm)
1 SCF = 1 cu ft at standard conditions of 60 oF and 14.7 psia)
1 sm3 = 1 cu m at 15 oC and 1 bar.
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Example
The density of a stock-tank oil at 60 oF is
51.25 lbm/cu.ft. Calculate the specific gravity
and API gravity.
o o
w
Specific Gravity
51.25
0.8217
62.37
API gravity
API
141.5
131.5
o
141.5
131.5 40.7 o API
0.8217
How do we get it to you?

Getting it to those who need it
After the petroleum reaches the surface we have to
find a way to get it to you. We use trucks,
tankers(ships), and pipelines to send the petroleum to
a refinery or gas plant. Refineries change the
petroleum into fuels and products. Gas plants process
natural gas and send the gas to your home through a
pipeline and/or to Power Plants that generate
electricity.
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How do we transport it?

Maritime routes
Terrestrial routes
Pipeline Transportation
Map showing principal

movement of oil
worldwide in 2003 (in
millions of tonnes)
MIDDLE EAST PIPELINES
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Why do
we
refine it?
How do we refine it?

Refineries change the petroleum
into fuels and products.
In a refinery,the crude oil is

heated and chemically treated
and then the liquid is separated
into different liquids and gases
in a distillation column.
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TERMINOLOGY
AND
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Petroleum
(Crude Oil)
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Petroleum (crude oil)

Petroleum is a complex mixture of liquid
hydrocarbons, chemical compounds containing
hydrogen and carbon, occuring naturally in
underground reservoirs in sedimentary rock.
Petroleum products such as motor gasoline,
lubricants and fuel oil are manufactured through
refining processes from crude oil.
Petroleum can also be used to obtain LNG and
NGL.
403

There are many varieties of crude oil, because it
contains a wide range of hydrocarbons, depending
on the location where it is found. The oil is
usually given the name of the region or place
where it comes from (North Sea oil, Texas
intermediate, Arabian light, Brent oil, ).
The hydrocarbons in crude oil vary from the
lightest to the heaviest, and these
characteristics of the individual crude oils may
determine the price. An example of a heavy crude
oil is the Mexican Maya oil, whereas the Nigerian
Bonny Light is considered as light.
404
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Heavy oil sample
High-viscosity heavy oil

acquired by wireline
sampling.
To evaluate a crude oil, several properties are analysed:

* relative density (provides for an indication of light
versus heavy fractions in the crude)
* viscosity (oils resistance to flowing)
* pour point (the lowest temperature at which a liquid
remains pourable)
* water content
* sulphur content
* paraffin and asphaltene content (wax)
* presence of contaminants and heavy metals.
The pricing of the oil depends largely on the above
properties, as they will influence the processing and product
output.
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Units used to express petroleum

Liquid fuels can be measured by their mass or
volume.
The most widely used unit of mass to measure oil is
the metric ton.
The original unit for most liquid and gaseous fuels is
volume. Liquids can be measured by the liter, the
barrel, or the cubic meter. A common example of
the use of volume as the unit of measurement is in
the price of oil, quoted in dollars per barrel.
As liquid fuels can be measured by their mass or
their volume, it is essential to be able to convert
one into the other. In order to make this
conversion, the specific gravity or density of the
407
liquid is needed.

Density is defined as mass per unit volume, i.e.
ton/barrel. The density of water is 1 g/cm3.
The specific gravity is the relative mass per unit
volume (or density) of a given substance compared to
that of water. Motor gasoline, for example, has a
lower density as it is much lighter for the same
volume. The specific gravity of motor gasoline is
therefore smaller than 1.
Since volume changes with changes in temperature,
data on specific gravity are reported with a reference
to a specific temperature. For petroleum, the
reference is usually 15 degrees Celcius.
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The term API gravity (a standard adopted by the American

Petroleum Institute) used to express the specific gravity of
petroleum.
API gravity is defined as:
API gravity = ( 141.5/specific gravity at 60oF) 131.5
The result is an arbitrary scale for measuring gravity,
expressed in degrees API, where the lighter a compound is,
the higher its degree of API gravity.
Crude oils having higher than 38 degrees API are considered
light crude oils whereas those with less than 22 degrees API
are labelled as heavy crude oil.
409

Because crude oil contains a wide range of
hydrocarbons from the lightest to the heaviest,
the characteristics, including the density, of
individual crude oils vary greatly. Similarly, the
density of the different petroleum products varies
substantially between the products.
The density can be used to classify petroleum
products from light to heavy, where for example
LPG is considered light at 520 kg/m3 while fuel oil
is a heavy product over 900 kg/m3.
410
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Note:
Many countries and organisations use
the ton of oil equivalent (toe) when
publishing energy balances. The toe
unit which is based on calorific
properties is used to compare oil with
other energy forms and should not be
confused with the mass measurement
in tones.
0.9 toe = 1000 m3 of natural gas
411
Simplified flow chart for crude oil

Power
generation
Transport
Associated gas
Industry
Treatment
Production of
crude oil and
associated gas
Separation
Crude oil
NGL
Refinery
Residential,
Commercial,
Agriculture
Petrochemical
industry
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Some oil products - LPG
LPG are derived from the refinery processing and natural

gas processing plants. They consist mainly of propane
(C3H8) and butane (C4H10) or a combination of two.
LPG are normally liquefied under pressure for
transportation and storage.
Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) are used for both energy
and non-energy purposes.
As a fuel for energy, they are often used in domestic or
residential heating and cooking, for agricultural purposes
and increasingly in the road transport sector for use in
internal combustion engines.
In terms of non-energy use, they serve as feedstock for
petrochemical processes, such as steam cracking.
Some oil products Motor gasoline

Motor gasoline is primarily used to fuel cars and
light trucks. Demand for motor gasoline has
increased very rapidly over the last few decades, in
line with the demand for cars.
However, environmental concerns have necessitated
improvements to be made to the composition of the
gasoline. For example, lead which was used to boost
the octane number of the gasoline has been largely
eliminated in many countries.
Moreover, to further reduce pollution, biofuels (e.g.
methanol produced from biomass or ethanol produced
from agricultural crops) are being developed to
either be blended with or replace motor gasoline.
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Some oil products Gas/diesel oil

Gas/diesel oil includes transport diesel, heating oil
and other gasoil. Transport diesel oil is used to
power diesel engines in buses, trucks, trains, cars
and other industrial machinary.
Heating oil is used to heat domestic/residential and
commercial building, as well as industrial boilers.
Gasoil is also used for power generation, although to
a much smaller extent than fuel oil. The main
difference between diesel and heating oil is the
sulphur content of the fuel for environmental
purposes, the specification of the sulphur content
for transport diesel is much lower than that of
heating oil.
Some oil products Fuel oil

Fuel oil is used by power generation utilities to
produce electricity and heat, by industrial
users for process heat and by the commercial
sector to provide heating fuel for their
buildings.
Demand for fuel oil for power generation has
dropped quite rapidly over the last thirty
years, as environmental concerns and the
necessity to move away from oil became
important.
Fuel oil is also the most important fuel for
international marine bunkers, to fuel the ships.
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Non-energy petroleum products

Petroleum products can also be used for non-fuel
purposes. Some examples are:
* LPG, motor gasoline for the petrochemical
industry
* White spirit used as a solvent for paints and
varnishes
* Lubricants for engines and machinary
* Bitumen for the construction of roads
* Paraffin waxes for candles, polishes, matches
* Petroleum coke for electrode manufacturing, for
carbon, graphite and chemical production.
Natural Gas
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Natural gas
Natural gas is a mixture of naturally occuring compounds

that are in a gaseous state at the conditions of
temperature and pressure at the earths surface.
These compounds are mostly simple molecules formed of
hydrogen and carbon (thus hydrocarbon). Methane, with
molecules formed from four atoms of hydrogen and one of
carbon, is the simplest form and generally is the most
common compound in the mixture.
Ethane, propane, butane, and pentane are slightly more
complex compounds with two, three, four, and five carbon
atoms respectively in each molecule. Other more complex
hydrocarbon compounds can also be part of the mixture.
Non-hydrocarbon compounds such as carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide are also present in natural
gas but in lesser amounts.
Natural gas
It comprises several gases, but consists mainly of
methane (CH4), or the simplest hydrocarbon chain.
It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and is lighter
than air.
It is gaseous at any temperature over -107.2oC and
its specific gravity of 0.6 is lower than air.
The quality and composition of natural gas varies
greatly depending on the reservoir, field or
formation from which is produced.
When natural gas is produced, it contains a number
of other components such as CO2, helium, hydrogen
sulphide, nitrogen, water vapor and other
contaminants which may be corrosive or toxic.
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Natural Gas
Typical Composition of Natural Gas
Methane
CH4
Ethane
C2H6
Propane
C3H8
Butane
C4H10
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
0-8%
Oxygen
O2
0-0.2%
Nitrogen
N2
0-5%
Hydrogen sulphide
H2S
0-5%
Rare gases
A, He, Ne, Xe
trace
70-90%
0-20%
Natural gas
Before natural gas can be used commercially, it needs to

undergo a process in order to remove undesirable components.
However, this removal process may not eliminate all
impurities, as the quantities of these included in the gas are
sometimes too small.
The value of natural gas is determined by the energy content,
which depends largely on the purity of the gas. An example of
a natural gas with a high calorific value is the gas from
Algerias largest gas field Hassi-RMel (around 42 000
kJ/m3=42 MJ/m3), whereas the gas from the Groningen field
in the Netherlands is of lower calorific value (around 35 000
kJ/m3).
It is considered a clean fuel, because pure methane is highly
flammable, it burns easily and almost completely, and it emits
very little air pollutants. Moreover it is sulphur-free; there is
therefore no sulphur dioxide (SO2) produced. With respect to
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and CO2 emissions, they are lower than
with other fossil fuels.
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Natural gas
Natural gas produced from an oil reservoir with oil is
called associated gas, whereas production from a gas
reservoir not associated with oil is non-associated
gas.
When a gas contains an appreciable quantity of
butane and heavier hydrocarbons (natural gas liquidsNGL), it is said to be a wet gas.
Dry gas consists mainly of methane with relatively
small amounts of ethane, propane, etc.
To facilitate transportation over long distances,
natural gas may be converted to liquid form by
reducing its temperature to -160oC under atmospheric
pressure. When gas is liquefied, it is called liquefied
natural gas (LNG).
423
Natural Gas Well,

Storage, Pipeline
424
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Natural gas liquids (NGL)

Natural gas liquids are liquids or liquefied
hydrocarbons recovered from natural gas in
separation facilities or gas processing plants.
The NGL include ethane, propane, butane
(normal and iso-), (iso)pentane and pentanes
plus.
The natural gas may be produced with crude
oil (associated gas) or from a gas field
without crude oil. The NGL may be removed
from the natural gas stream close to the
well-head or transported to a distant gas
425
processing plant.
Natural gas liquids are liquid hydrocarbon mixtures, which are

gaseous at reservoir temperatures and pressures, but are
recoverable by condensation and absorbtion.
NGL can be classified according to their vapor pressure; this is
the pressure exerted by a vapor escaping from a liquid it
quantifies the tendency of molecules to enter the gaseous
phase.
A natural gas liquid
* with a low vapor pressure is a condensate;
* with an intermediate pressure, it is a natural gasoline,
and
* with a high vapor pressure it is a liquid petroleum gas.
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Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is gaseous at
ambient temperature and pressure and
comprises propane and butane.
Natural gasoline includes pentanes plus and
heavier hydocarbons. It is liquid at ambient
temperature and pressure.
NGL include propane, butane, pentane,
hexane and heptane, but not methane and
ethane, since these hydrocarbons need
refrigeration to be liquefied.
427
Units used to express natural gas

Natural gas can be measured either in energy content
unit or volume unit.
Energy is measured using joules, calories, British
thermal units (Btu), or therms
Volume is measured using the cubic meter or the cubic
foot.
When using volume measurements, it is important to
know at which temperature and under which pressure
the gas has been measured.
- Normal conditions: measured at T of 0 oC and p of
760 mm mercury (Hg).
- Standard conditions: measured at T of 15 oC and p of
760 mm Hg.
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Conversion from volume to energy

(natural gas)
The most common method of metering and
accounting for gas is by volume (e.g. Mm3 =
million cubic meters). However, natural gas
prices are often determined on the basis of
the calorific content per volume basis, as gas
is purchased for its heating value.
The calorific value of natural gas is the
amount of heat released by the complete
combustion of a unit quantity of fuel under
specified conditions, e.g. Kcal/m3 or MJ/m3
(megajoule per cubic meter).
429
Conversion from volume to energy

(natural gas)
The calorific value of natural gas
may be quoted either gross or net.
The difference between gross and
net calorific value is the latent heat
of vaporization of the water vapor
produced during combustion of the
fuel.
For natural gas, the net calorific
value is on average 10% less than
the gross value.
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Simplified flow chart for natural gas

production
NGL
Crude oil
Production of
crude oil and
associated gas
Separation
*Gas flared
*Gas vented
*Gas injected
Removal of liquids
in natural gas
processing plants
Production of
non-associated
gas
Associated gas
Marketed
gas
Non-associated
gas
Removal of sulphur
and impurities
Colliery gas
Coal mines
431
Natural Gas: From Production to Consumption
216
8.9.2014
Natural gas
433
Gas storage facilities

Natural gas demand is very seasonal in most
countries; in the winter, demand for gas often
places strains on the transmission and distribution
systems. To limit the need for long-distance gas
transport, many countries have started to build
gas storage facilities. Additionally, strategic
reserves of gas improve the security of gas
supplies.
Storage of natural gas play an essential part in
satisfying demand when demand or supply changes
rapidly. The demand for gas increases dramatically
during cold weather and it becomes very economic
to meet some of the demand
from storage sites.
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217
8.9.2014

Gas storage facilities fall into two basic
categories, which define their characteristics:
seasonal or peak.
Seasonal storage sites, which may also serve a
strategic purpose, must be able to store huge
volumes of gas build up during low demand times
for slow release during periods of high demand.
Peak facilities store smaller quantities but must
be able to inject gas quickly into the
transmission network to meet surges in demand.
435
The storage facilities can be classified according to

physical type:
- Depleted gas fields
- Depleted oil fields
- Aquifers
- Salt caverns
- Mined caverns
- LNG peak-shaving units
Gas storage is to be distinguished from gas reserves. The
gas storage refers to gas already produced, but used for
strategic, seasonal or peak-shaving purposes. The term gas
reserves refers to estimated quantities of gas not yet
produced but assumed to be recoverable in future years.
436
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8.9.2014
Underground storage of natural gas is a growing industry that helps gas

suppliers meet fluctuating demand. Techniques for designing, constructing and
monitoring gas-storage facilities range from the latest in salt-mining ingenuity
to both established and cutting-edge oilfield technologies.
Underground storage systems constructed in salt (left),

abandoned mines (center) and porous rock (right).
438
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8.9.2014
Underground Gas-Storage Facilities

Now there are more than 600 underground gas-storage
facilities in operation worldwide. About two-thirds of
these are in the USA, and the majority of the rest are
in Europe.
Most storage is in porous rock systems-either depleted
oil and gas reservoirs that have been converted to gas
storage, or aquifers-but some cavern-style facilities
exist.
In Europe, salt-cavern facilities have proliferated
thanks to an abundance of naturally occurring salt
deposits and a history of salt mining.
Salt caverns are also used for storage in the USA,
especially near the Gulf of Mexico.
Storage facilities in abandoned mines or rock caverns
are less common.
From fields to market: flow chart for natural gas
220
8.9.2014
Porous-Rock Gas Storage

Most gas-storage facilities are in the porous
rock of depleted gas reservoirs that have been in
operation for decades. Depleted fields are less
expensive to develop than other types of
installations, because existing production wells
and gathering lines can be converted for storage
use. In many cases, depleted fields contain the
base (cushion) gas needed to operate a storage
facility. In general, porous-rock facilities are
appropriate for seasonal and strategic-reserve
storage. Limited production capacities and
deliverability constrain their use for supplying
energy during peak-load electricity generation.
Porous-rock gas storage

442
221
8.9.2014
Salt caverns
Caverns in salt deposits may exist naturally or be
formed by injecting water and removing the brine.
They are generally smaller than the reservoirs
provided by depleted oil and gas fields or aquifers
but offer very good withdrawal rates and are well
suited for peak-shaving requirements.
The amount of gas in a cavern is divided into two
parts; the recoverable (or working) gas and the
cushion gas.
The cushion (or base) gas is the volume which must
be present to maintain pressure and operability. It
cannot be withdrawn during the operating life of the
443
cavern.
Effects of relative
positions of
freshwater
injection and brine
withdrawal in
direct leaching
(left) and reverse
leaching (right).
More salt is
dissolved at the
level of water
injection, creating
a wider cavity at
that depth.
Injection and
withdrawal levels
can be modified to
control cavern
shape.
444
222
8.9.2014
The largest cavern in the

world measuring 400 m high
and 80 m across. The Eiffel
Tower in Paris, France would
fit inside.
Note: The construction cost
of a cavern facility consisting
of caverns about 250 m high
and 40 m across, including
drilling wells, leaching salt,
installing surface facilities
and injecting cushion gas,
totaled US $150 million.
445
Natural gas consumption

The consumption of natural gas occurs in
several sectors:
- In the power generation sector
- In the various sectors and branches of
final consumption (industry, transport,
residential, services, ...)
446
223
8.9.2014
Natural gas consumption in the power

generation sector
The natural gas is experiencing significant growth as a
fuel for power generation. Enhancement of gas turbine
technology has sunstantially improved the position of gas
in power generation, both for combined-cycle gas turbine
(CCGT) generators and combined heat and power (CHP)
plants.
Gas offers many advantages in this sector compared with
other fossil fuels: high efficiency, relatively low capital
costs, and clean.
In recent years, natural gas consumed for electricity
generation has accounted for almost 20% of global
electricity production (up from 13% in 1973), and
accounts for approximately half of the world production
of heat generated in CHP and heat plants.
447
Natural gas fueled turbines
224
8.9.2014
Coal fueled Combine Cycle PFBC (Pressurized

Fluidized Bed Combustion) Power Generator
Combined heat and power (CHP)

Combined heat and power (also known as
co-generation) units provide simultaneous
supplies of electricity and heat from one or
sometimes several items of generating
equipment.
When heat production from a CHP unit
ceases and it produces only electricity, it
becomes an electricity-only unit.
450
225
8.9.2014
Natural gas consumption in the various sectors

(transport, industry, residential and others)
In the transport sector, natural gas is used in a
compressed form (compressed natural gas or CNG) or in
liquefied form (LNG).
It can be used as feedstock in the chemical and
petrochemical industry. Methane in natural gas is an
important source of carbon and hydrogen for several
industrial processes in the chemical industry. The most
widely known use is for the manufacture of ammonia,
which is used for agricultural fertiliser production.
Methane is used as a fuel for petrochemical processes
such as steam cracking, ammonia production and
methanol production.
Natural gas is consumed for heating and as well as
cooking purposes in the residential
sector.
451
Compressed natural gas (CNG)

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used increasingly
as a clean fuel for road transport vehicles.
Natural gas is compressed to a high pressure
(typically 220 atmospheres) and stored in specially
designed containers for use in the vehicles. It
then occupies about 1/180th of the volume it
occupies at atmospheric pressure.
The costs of installation and inspection of CNG
containers in smaller road vehicles is rarely
economic when compared with conventional fuels.
However, CNG use is often economic in public
transport vehicles.
452
226
8.9.2014
Liquefied natural gas (LNG)

LNG is a natural gas which has been cooled to a
temperature (about -160oC or -260oF) at which
it becomes a liquid at atmospheric pressure. It
then occupies about 1/600th of the volume it
occupies at normal temperatures.
Liquefying natural gas reduces the costs of gas
transport over long distances and, following
recent reductions in costs in the liquefication,
storage and later regasification of LNG,
liquefaction has made increasingly economic the
exploitation of gas sorces remote from centers
of demand.
453
LNG chain and transport
The supply chain for LNG comprises four main stages:

* production of natural gas
* liquefaction and storage
* transport
* storage and regasification
The methods for storage of LNG at the liquefaction site and
the receiving terminals in destination countries comprise a
tank within a tank design. Two tank are separated by
thermal insulating materials.
Transport of LNG by ship is by means of vessels carrying
insulated tanks.
LNG is discharged from the ship into storage tanks at its
destination. The liquid is regasified by passing through pipes
which are heated. The gas is injected into the natural gas
transmission system for final use.
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8.9.2014
228

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8.9.

Energy is the ability to do work

Where does ENERGY come from ?

H/C Ratio Increasing

Historical Development of Energy

World H/C Ratio

(Aguilera, R.F., JPT, June 2009)

Time to Reach the Peak Oil

Energy sources are divided into two groups:

Supplies are limited,

Types of Primary Energy Resources

kilocalorie (kcal) = 4.187 kJ = 3.968 Btu

World Energy Resources 2013

GDP (PPP) (billion 2005 USD)

Natural Gas (bcm)

Total Electricity production (TWh)

Emissions, total CO2 (Gt)

World Energy Council 2013

(World Energy Council (WEC), 2013)

Primary (Commercial) Energy

Primary energy world consumption

Primary energy consumption per capita, toe

World Average = 1.57 toe per person

Fossil fuel reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios

Illumination at night over the WorldI

People without access to electricity by region, 2009 (million)

1.3 billion people are without electricity!

Total Energy Consumed,

Energy Consumption Will Grow Even More Rapidly

Total Energy Consumed

CRUDE OIL (PETROLEUM)

Oil reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios, Years

Distribution of proved oil reserves, %

147 billion tonnes

238 billion tonnes

Oil reserves are increasing in years!

Oil production/consumption by region, Million barrels daily

87 million barrels/day=4.1 billion tonnes/year

91 million barrels/day=4.2 billion tonnes/year

Oil consumption per capita, tonnes

World Average = 4.8 barrels or

Producers, net exporters and net importers of crude oil*

Production of unconventional tight oil (about an estimated 1.5 million barrels

Chart of crude oil prices since 1861

Adjusted for Inflation vs. Money of the Day

Taxes Are The Primary Reason for Difference

Major oil trade movements 2013

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum

World Active Wells Distribution

Average Wellhead Crude Oil Production (Barrel/Day)

Distribution of proved gas reserves

Natural gas reserves are increasing in years!

3.4 trillion m3/year

3.3 trillion m3/year

Gas consumption per capita 2013

World Average = 435 m3 or 0.40 toe per person

Major gas trade movements 2013

Total trade = 1036 billion m3

Producers, net exporters and net importers* of natural gas

The remaining reserves (BP, 2013)

Is the world running out

The largest reserves of

Oil and Natural gas will continue to