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Carbohydrate

chemistry
Dr. Naila Rasheed
Reference Books:
Lippincotts Illustrated reviews
Biochemistry (4th edition by Pamela
C.Champe, Richard A harvey, Denise R.
Ferrier).
Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry (Murray,
McGraw-Hill Medical).
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Objec8ves
Dene carbohydrates (CHO).
Classify them, give examples.
Men8on their nutri8onal importance,
requirements.
Describe CHO diges8on and absorp8on.

Deni&on of Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that
consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Structurally it is more accurate to view them
as polyhydroxy aldehydes (H-C=O) or ketones
(R-C=O).

Carbohydrates have the empirical formula
(CH2O)n.

Carbohydrate Classica&on
On the basis of simple sugar units, carbohydrates are
classied into three major classes:
(1) Monosaccharides: contain a single sugar unit.
(2) Diasaccharides: contain two sugar units.
(3) Oligosaccharides: contain two to ten sugar units.
(4) Polysaccharides: contain many sugar units.

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Polysaccharides

Glucose

Sucrose

Starch

Galactose

Maltose

Glycogen

Fructose

Lactose

Cellulose

Ribose
Glyceraldehyde

(1) Monosaccharides: cannot hydrolyzed to more simple forms


Aldoses contain an
Ketoses contain a
aldehyde group at
keto group at C2.
one end. For example
For example Fructose
Glucose

Classica&on of Important
monosaccharides

(2) Disaccharides: contain a glycosidic bond which can be hydrolyzed


into two monosaccharides.

Maltose, (14)

Sucrose, (12)

(Glusose+ glucose)

(Glucose+Fructose)

Lactose (14) (Galactose+ Glucose)

(3) Polysaccharides: contain many glycosidic bonds, which can be


hydrolyzed into many monosaccharide.

On the basis of types of saccharides units, polysaccharides are further


classied into three groups.

(i) Homopolysaccharides (composed of a single monosaccharide)


e.g. Starch, Glycogen, Inulin, Cellulose.
(ii) Heteropolysaccharides (composed of different monosaccharides)
e.g. Heparin, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate.
(iii) Complex carbohydrates
e.g. Mucopolysaccharides (Glycosaminoglycans) when attached to proteins,
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Nutri&onal
importance, requirements of carbohydrates

CHO are important structurally and metabolically.
Main source of energy: body 8ssues require a constant daily
supply of CHO in the form of glucose in all metabolic reac8ons.
Principle source of energy; 45-65% [4kcal/g]. CHO exert a
protein sparing ac8on. A person must eat a minimum of
100-125gm/day in order to spare the protein.
The presence of CHO is necessary for normal fat metabolism. If
there is insucient CHO, large amount of fat is used for energy,
which is dangerous due to release of ketone bodies which can
cause acidosis which if prolonged can result in brain failure.
Glucose is sole source of energy for the brain [It uses- 120g
glucose/day].
Act as energy storage in the body [glycogen].
Insoluble polymers form connec8ve 8ssues.

They are components of nucleic acids [pentose sugar].


Recogni8on elements in cell membrane [glycoprotein].
Forma8on of non-essen8al amino acids [Provide carbon
skeleton].
Complex CHO[whole grains, vegetables, fruits] are preferred
than simple sugars [sucrose, glucose].
Lactose remains in the intes8ne longer than other
dissaccharides and thus encourages the growth of benecial
bacteria. (these bacteria help in synthesis of certain vitamins:
B-complex and vit.K)
Cellulose and other closely related indiges8ble CHOs aid in
normal excre8on. They s8mulate the peristal8c movements of
the GI tract and absorb water to give bulk to the intes8nal
contents.

Dietary CHO includes:


1- Monosaccharides: Glucose [fruits, sweets, honey, candy, jam, desserts] ,
fructose [with glucose and in sucrose of honey, fruits and table sugar]
and galactose [from milk lactose].
2- Disaccharides: sucrose [table sugar], lactose [milk sugar ] and maltose
[ malt sugar].
3-Polysaccharides: They dont have sweety taste. Starch [plants like rice and
potato and grains] and glycogen [liver and muscle].
4- Fibres: Non-digestable complex polysaccharides [ skin and seeds of fruits
and vegetables].

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Requirements:


CHO are non- essen8al nutrients [glucose comes from amino
acids, but ketone bodies are produced and proteins are wasted as
in starva8on].
RDA (Reference Daily Intake) is 150-300g/ day, 45-65% of total
calories should come from CHO.

Simple sugars are harmful [dental caries, hyperglycemia], so use
complex CHO [high bers].
CHO intake obesity, hyperlipidemia, DM.
CHO intake Marasmus (malnutri8on),
ketoacidosis.
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Digestion & Absorption of Carbohydrates


A. Digestion of carbohydrates begins in
the mouth
In the mouth, amyl ase in saliva breaks
polysaccharides into oligosaccharides.
No carbohydrate digestion occurs in the
Glucose
stomach.
B. Further digestion of carbohydrates by
Glycolysis
pancreatic enzymes occurs in the small
intestine
Undigested polysaccharide were digested
Pyruvate
by pancreatic amylase.
C. Final carbohydrate digestion by
enzymes synthesized by the intestinal
mucosal cells
The remaining enzymes involved in
Acetyl-CoA
carbohydrate digestion are membrane bound.
Disaccharidases--sucrase, maltase,
lactase--break the corresponding
disaccharides into monosaccharides that are
Citric
absorbed into the blood stream.
Insoluble fibre forms are eliminated
acid
through excretion.
cycle

ATP

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Entry of glucose into cells:


By simple facilitated diffusion through glucose transporter [GLUT-1, GLUT-2 ,
GLUT 3 or GLUT-5]
Insulin stimulates GLUT-4
Active transport through SGLT1

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