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1. INTRODUCTION'
In linear active circuits, the active element most often
used is the operational amplifier (op-amp), whose main
function in the circuit is to create a virtual ground, i.e.,
a node with a zero (or constant) voltage at its input
terminal without sinking any current. Using op-amps with
MOS input transistors, the op-amp input current at low
frequencies can indeed be made extremely small; however,
the input voltage of a practical op-amp is usually significantly large (typically of the order of 1-10 mV), since
it is affected by several nonideal effects. These include
noise (most importantly, l / f and thermal noise), the inputreferred dc offset voltage, as well as the signal voltage
needed to generate the desired output voltage of the op-amp.
Normally, the thermal noise occupies a wide frequency
band, while the l / f noise, offset and input signal are
narrowband low-frequency signals.
Manuscript received April 18, 1996; rcviscd September 5 , 1996. G.
Temes's work was supported by U.S. National Science Foundation though
the NSF Center for the Design of Analog-Digital ICs (CDACIC).
C. C. Enz is with the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne (EPFL), Electronics Laboratory (LEG), ELB-Ecublens, CH-1015
Lausanne, Switzerland (e-mail: enz@leg.de.epfl.ch).
G. C. Temes is with the Department 0 1 Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 9733 1-321I USA
(e-mail: temesg@ece.oi-st.edu).
Publisher Item Identifier S OOlS-9219(96)0S690-2.
This work is dedicated to Prof. Karoly Simonyi on his 80th birthday.
'
S&H
SAR = Successive
Approximatioln
Register
(a)
Vret
(b)
Fig. 1. Basic autozeroed stages. (a) Analog offset control storage and (b) digital offset control
storage.
Voltages A
RC << TAz
Ts
(a)
Fig. 2.
(b)
(a) Basic AZ circuit and autozeroed signal (b) show\ voltage\ in (a)
A. Basic Principle
The basic idea of AZ is sampling the unwanted quantity
(noise and offset) and then subtracting it from the instantaneous value of the contaminated signal either at the input
or the output of the op-amp. This cancellation can also be
done at some intermediate node between the input and the
output of the op-amp, using an additional input port defined
as the nulling input and identified with the letter N in the
schematics of Fig. 1.
If the noise is constant over time (like a dc offset) it
will be cancelled, as needed in a high-precision amplifier
or high-resolution comparator. If the unwanted disturbance
ENZ AND TEMES: CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUClNG THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
1585
1.4
;+Aifferentiator
V."
0.0
0.5
1.5
1.0
f
Fig. 3.
2.0
2.5
3.0
Th
15x6
foldnver
where
n#O
(4)
I ~ ~ ( f ) 2i [~ d . sinc ( 7 r f ~ h ) I ~
for n # 0 and TAZ<< Th
(5)
Normalized PSD
N=4
I
\
n=-1
tl = +2
n=-2
n=-3
BE-
In=+l
(7)
The signal corresponding to (7) has no physical reality
since its power is infinite. The power is actually bounded by
the sinc (rfT,) function introduced by the hold operation.
The foldover component in the Nyquist range is then simply
derived from (7) by subtracting the original band ( n = 0)
and multiplying the remainder by the sinc (rfT,) function[:
= (2BTs- 1)sos i x 2 (rfT,).
(8)
SO
ip,
(f) df
Sfold-white(f)
SN-white
(9)
l+
( T ~ T , ) (11)
.
+ Sfold
IJvO(f)12SN(f)
(14)
2This selection reflects the requirement fcTs 2 5 needed for the full
settling of an SC stage [lo].
ENZ AND TEMES: CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUClNG THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
1587
nf,T,
16
- 1\r
14
n
v)
a
m
12
10
-8
.
I
5
=
Baseband
2
0
-1.o
0.0
-0.5
0.5
1.o
Fig. S. Effect of the AZ process on a first-order low-pass filtered white noise with a bandwidth
five times larger than the sampling frequency.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
-1.o
-0.5
0.5
f
1.o
Ts
Fig. 6. Effect of the AZ process on a first-order low-pass filtered l / f noise having a bandwidth
five times larger than the sampling frequency.
=SO{
( X f c T s - 1) + 2 f k T s [ l +1n($fcTs)]}
.sin2 ( n f ~ ~ ) .
(15)
AL
control
(a)
C. Residiml Offset
Next, the effectiveness of the stages of Fig. 1 in eliminat-.
ing the effects of V,, will be discussed. Since the additional
input used in the amplifiers of Fig. 1 for nulling the offset
can either be a voltage or a current, it will generally be
denoted as a control variable zc. Changing this input when
the amplifier is in the sampling phase, as shown in Fig. 1,
allows the zeroing of the output voltage for a particular
value of the control variable.
Let the input-referred offset Kos be defined as the output
voltage during the offset sampling phase divided by the
differential gain of the amplifier in the amplification mode.
The relation between this input-referred offset and the
control variable is schematically plotted in Fig. 8, and is
first assumed to be linear (see the continuous straight line
in Fig. 8). Assume that the amplifier has an initial offset as
shown in Fig. 8(a). The appropriate feedback configuration
or the dedicated algorithm will have to bring this offset very
close to zero. When the loop has settled or the algorithm
is completed, the control information is stored. During the
storage process, there might be some error As, introduced
into the control variable, due for example to charge injection by the sampling switch, or to the quantization error
of the A/D converter, that leads to a residual offset Kos-lin
or K o s - depending
~~
if the compensation characteristic is
linear or not. It is important to notice that the characteristics
control
control errors
I initial offset
(b)
Fig. 8. Input-referred offset versus nulling control variable: (a)
large initial offset and (b) small initial offset.
ENZ AND TEMES CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EbFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
15x9
L.
1 2 3 4 5
Vin"i
Lff
n+ff
Lff
v~s+vN
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 10. Waveforms appearing along the chopper amplifier for a dc input and an amplifier
bandwidth limited to twice the chopper frequency.
10
.-
1.0 ;
..................
/chopper
input PSD
..................................................................................................................................
--_
-.-
IO
0.2 -
n=-3
.......................................
..
J+,
-1 .o
-0.5
..
0.0
0.5
1.o
fT
Fig. 14. Chopper output PSD for a l / f noise
vn.
vn).
ENZ AND TEMES: CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOK REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
n odd
1591
Rl
-_-
-=99
R2
R,
10"
'
99
without chappar
qg'
.z
loa
*.
-P
101
1
'
'
'
"""'
' """'
'
' """'
lo2
10
Frequency
'
lo3
'
'
'
Lo
10
[Hz]
(b)
Fig. 15. Experimental chopper amplifier. (a) Experimental chopper amplifier schematic. The
chopper frequency has been set to the amplifier corner frequency fchuil = fk = 1 kHz. (OAl
and OA2 are, respectively, a CA3420 and / r A 741 and the switches are MC14016.) (b) Measured
input referred PSD without and with the chopper
+vspikew
a,
?2+
infinite bandwidth
]- ideal low-pass
spike spectrum
/ /
-vspike
ia)
ib)
Fig. 16. Spike signal appearing at the input of the amplifier and causing residual offsct. (a) Spike
signal a1 the amplifier input and (b) spike signal and chopper-modulated signal spectra with amplifier
bandwidth characteristics.
First harmonic
Third harmonic
chopper
T
, ,.,','
%
- 4 A o Q Vin
*\";'
ampl,fier,
3l
,' .
'~~'"...
.....__..
.'.
.._
I
output
amplifier
output
Fig. 17. Effect of the phase shift introduced by a second-order low-pass selective amplifier on
the first and third harmonics.
+ 0.8525fkT)
Sc,y(,f) E So(1
forifTl
5 0.5andfcT >> 1.
(21)
ENZ AND TEMES: ClKCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
1593
1594
on
P
off
cP
c,
= Ch
(C)
Fig. 19. First-order charge injection cancellation techniques: (a) large !,hunt capacitor and slow
clock transition time, (b) symmetrical capacitances ( C , = C',, ) with half-sized dummy switches,
(c) short clock tranrition time with half-sized dummy switches, and (d) fully differential structure.
ENZ AND TEMES: CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES E'OK REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
1595
Vout
SO
Vout
ib)
(b)
Fig. 23.
input
NUL- O-RM3
o NUL+
(b)
Fig. 24. Rcaliration of the nulling input port using an additional differential pair connected in
parallel with the main pair: (a) principle and (b) complete A Z scheme.
ENZ AND TEMES: CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDIJCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
lis97
2 t-o
NUL+
M~
NUL-
'I
(d)
Fig. 25. Realization of the nulling input port using a degenerated current mirror: (a) principle, (b) adjustable current mirror,
( c ) equivalent schcmatic of (b), and (d) nulling current transfer
charactcristic.
negative feedback
main amplifier
"in
I
Fig. 27. Uncompensated SC voltage amplifier
where A2
gm2R,5. The residual input-referred offset
can thus be made small by choosing the loop gain A2A3,
sufficiently large. Equation (30) ignores the charge injection
occurring at the end of the AZ phase when switch SI opens.
The input-referred residual offset voltage including charge
injection of switch S1 is given by
vo,-,,,s2
-
vos
A2 4inj
A2A3 Ai CI,
Vos . ~ m 2qinj
A2A3 gwLl Ch '
qinj
~
ch
Vos-ma,
~-
A2A3
< .qmlVo,S-ve,S-maX.
< -A2
Ai
qtnj
c h
(34)
(35)
(31)
(32)
ENZ AND TEMES. CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
159')
out
I
I
I
out
(a)
Fig. 28.
n-1
$1 4 2
c2
61
unparenthesized
clock phases
*t/T
c
A
Vos-VoUt'A
T L
rl
L1
parenthesized
clock phases
vi,(n)
c2
(a)
(b)
Fig. 30. Offset- and finite-gain compensated SC amplifier: (a) an offset and finite-gain compensated
SC amplifier and (b) clock and signal waveforms
= Am(V+-V--Vm)
+A,,%
Vault
(37)
V Z= An (V+-V-- V , T - n , ) - A r LVc1
A, ( V+ - V-) -a,, V,,-, -A:) A K.1
(38)
VOS-Tn.
A n,
X1,S-K
+ *.
(39)
Here it was assumed that the gain A,A:,, from the input
(V+-I/- ) through the nulling amplifier to the output ( Vout)
is much larger than the gain A , of the main amplifier alone.
When switch S a opens at the end of phase $ 2 , the output
voltage will change by an amount AV,,,, = Ai,AV,,,
where the control voltage change AV,, is due to charge
injection, sampled noise and leakage current on capacitor
C,, and is given by (24) with Ch replaced by C2. The
AV9
G ( 1 ) =Vos(2)
- ___ani
__ OmVos-m
+ qnvos-n + -AV,,
--
An
an
AV".
(40)
Q1m
ENZ AND TEMES CIRCIJIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
1601
0.3
0.15
0.2
s 0.2
L
-.--circuit of Fig. 32
.E
$1
Y.l
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.25
Relative frequency f / f,
Fig. 32.
I602
v15-,j
v.
l+A
SRHD: 63.ldB
.-.
- .-. .
.-.
.:.
I I I I I
dB
. . . . .
-150
-.
1
01
10
20
30
frequency - MHz
40
50
-3
-20
-10
10
I
20
(a)
/I
SRHD: 81.7dB
-100
-1 50
10
20
30
frequency - MHz
40
50
(b)
Fig. 34. Output spectra of SC amplifiers using nonlinear
op-amps. The op-amp offset assumed was 5 mV, and the SC
amplifier voltage gain was -2: (a) offset-compensated SC amplifier
(Fig. 28) and (b) wideband compenuted SC amplifier (Fig. 32).
Fig. 36.
ENZ AND TEMES CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS O F OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
1603
$2
"out
CO
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38. Experimentally observed output voltages for offset-compensated SC buffers with a triangle-wave input at high
clock rates. Top curve: buffer of Fig. 37; bottom curve: buffer
of Fig. 29.
A'!
As (42) demonstrates, the error term in the denominator
of the transfer function is now proportional to AP2, rather
I604
CI
Vin
Vout
br
Fig. 40. Offsct-compensated SC voltage amplifier using a low-sensitivity auxiliary input
$2
$2
C1
..
c;
'.
9
1
y'f
c3=c1
Fig. 41. Offset- and gain-cornpenhated SC integrator.
ENZ AND TEMES CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFbCT!i OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
I605
Vi n
c2
-OVout
C,;
4) auxiliary input signal is established during reset;
then it compensates for slowly varying noise effects
(offset, l / f noise, clock feedthrough); see Fig. 40.
6,
ib)
Fig. 47. Thc dc equivalent circuits: (a) dc equivalent circuit of a
low-Q biquad and (b) dc equivalent circuit of a VLT biquad using
T-cells.
ENZ AND TEMES CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
I607
CA
i
3
-20
3
Q
2
.-
.c.
-40
m
Fig. 48. T-cell integrator with offset compensation.
-60
-80
0
10
15
20
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. SO.
GO(.S)
Fig. 49.
VI. A MICROPOWER
LOW-NOISECHOPPERAMPLIFIER
USINGTHE CHOPPERSTABILIZATION
TECHNIQUE
c:
~
T2
A,,,,,
~
+ s/w,
(43)
offset compensation
A
low-pass output
L
7
3+
band-pass output
input stage
resonator
output stage
(4
input stage
output stage
internal offset
compensation
resonator
(b)
Fig. 51. Second-order g,, - C continuous-time band-pass filter used to realize the selective
amplifier: (a) principle and (b) implementation.
SIN?^ = --4ytkTRwLn
8
AND TEMES ClRCUlT TECMNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECT!; OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
1609
60
[ dBv I
-70
50
[pVIm?]
-90
-0
F,
3
P,
a,
v)
40
(D
.-+3
&
(D
30
r"
(D
20
10
0.4
-110
U
-
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Frequency [ Hz ]
+90
10
40
Frequency [kHz]
(a)
57
+60
53
+30
ECD
a, 49
U
3
I
.-
o ? i
CD
45
30
5n,
41
-60
37
10
100
1000
Frequency [Hz]
(b)
1610
where
If~/fcklop-lI
represents the tuning error
between the resonance: frequency f o and the chopper frequency fcklop.
It can easily be shown that the product
AqR,, is independent of the switch width W and is
minimum for a minimum channel length. Equations (44)
and (45) show that there is a trade-off between the noise and
the offset with respect to the chopper frequency: according
to (45), the chopper frequency should be chosen as small
as possible, but nevertheless equal to or larger than the
amplifier's comer frequency. In the case where both offset
and noise have to be minimized, it is useful to define a total
noise power as the sum V2s+ y<Ttn,
where T/;yi7,, is the total
input-referred noise mis voltage. An optimum value of the
chopper frequency can be found such that this total noise
power is minimum for a given signal bandwidth [8].
The linear dependence of the input-referred offset on
small tuning errors as indicated by (454, has been verified experimentally and is presented in Fig. 55. An inputreferred offset as small as 0.5 pV and a sensitivity to the
tuning error of 0.47 k'V per percent of mistuning has been
measured.
In case the source resistance Rs is much larger than the
switch on-resistance h!,n, the input offset is still given by
(45) but R,, has to be replaced by Rs.Hence, the input offset increases quadratically with the source resistance which
is in accordance with 1.he experimental results presented in
Fig. 56.
The offset voltage drift could not be measured, but other
chopper-stabilized amplifier have reported extremely good
stability.
PROCEEDINGS Ob T H E IEhh, VOL 84, NO I I . NOVEMBER 1996
2.0
0
measured
I .V
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0 2.5
40
45/
0 measured
-quadratic fit
VOS
-5
0
50
= 0.5- 0.03*Rs +
I
I
I
I
1
1
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 4510 500
VII. CONCLUSIONS
A detailed comparison of the relative advantages and
disadvantages of the CHS technique versus CDS was given
earlier [7], [8]. These are the main points.
ENZ A N D TEMES: CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
I61 1
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
AUTOZEROED
NOISEANALYSIS
The autozeroed voltage 7 1 * ~ ( shown
t)
in Fig. 2 can be
approximated by
+m
h(t - V L T , ) [ U N
-(
~nr(mT,)]
~)
(46)
W A Z ( ~=
)
m=-m
h ( t )=
(47)
[ I ] E. A. Vittoz, Dynamic analog techniques, in Design of MOSVLSI Circuits f o r Telecommuniccitions, Y. P. Tsividis and P.
Antognetti, Eds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985.
Dynamic analog techniqucs, i n Design of VLSI Circuits
for Telecommunications and Signal Processing, J. F. Franca
and Y. P. Tsividis, Eds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1994.
[3] M. Degrauwe, E. Vittoz, andI. Verbauwhede, A micropower
CMOS instrumentation amplifier, in Pruc. Europe. Solid-State
Circ. Conf, Sept. 1984, pp. 31-34.
[4] _ _ , A micropower CMOS instrumentation amplifier, IEEE
J . Solid-State Circ., vol. SC-20, pp. 805-807, June 1985.
[ 5 ] B. Razavi and B. A. Wooley, Design techniques for highspeed, high-resolution comparators, IEEE J. Solid-State Circ.,
vol. 27, pp. 1916-1926, Dec. 1992.
161 B. Razavi, Principles ofDatu Conversion System Design. New
York: IEEE Press, 1995.
[7] C. Enz, Analysis of the low-frequency noise reduction by
autozero technique, Electron. Lett., vol. 20, pp. 959-960, Nov.
1984.
[8] ~,
High-precison CMOS amplifiers, Ph.D. dissertation,
Ecole Polytechnique FtdCrale de Lausanne, 1989.
(91 A. H. M. van Roermund, Noise and accuracy in switched
capacitor circuits, Ph.D. dissertation. Katholieke Universiteit
Liuven, June 1987.
1101 K. Martin and A. Sedra. Effects of the OD amu finite gain and
bandwidth on the performance of switched-capacitor~filters,.
IEEE Trans. Circ. Swt., vol. 28, pp. 822-829, Aug. 1981.
[I I ] H. W. Klein and W. L. Engl, Design techniques for low-noise
CMOS operational amplifiers, in Proc. Europe. Solid-State
Circ. Conj, Sept. 1984, pp. 27-30.
[12] C. C. Enr, E. A. Vittoz, and F. Krummenacher, A CMOS
chopper amplifier, IEEE J . Solid-State Circ., vol. 22, pp.
335-342, June 1987.
[I31 K. H. White, D.R. Lampe, F. C. Blaha, and I. A. Mack,
Characterization of surface channel CCD image arrays at low
light levels. IEEE J. Solid-State Circ., vol. 9, pp. 1-14, Feb.
1974.
[I41 R. W. Brodersen and S. P. Emmons, Noise in buried channel
charge-coupled devices, IEEE J. Solid-State Circ., vol. 11, pp.
147-156, Feb. 1976.
[15] R. J. Kansy, Response of a correlated double sampling circuit
Solid-State
.
Circ., vol. 15, pp. 373-375,
to 1/,f noise, IEEE .I
June 1980.
[I61 H. M. Wey and W. Guggenbuhl, Noise transfer characteristics
of a correlated double sampling circuit, IEEE Trans. Circ. Syst.,
vol. 33, pp. 1028-1030, Oct. 1986.
[I71 M. L. Liou and Y. L. Kuo, Exact analysis of switched capacitor
circuits with arbitrary inputs, IEEE Trans. Circ. Syst., vol. 28,
pp. 186-195, Mar. 1979.
[18] R. C. Yen and P. R. Gray, A MOS switched capacitor
instrumentation amplifier, IEEE J. Solid-State Circ., vol. 17,
pp. 1008-1013, Dec. 1982.
1191 K. C. Hsieh, P. R. Gray, D. Senderowicz, and D. G. Messerschmitt, A low-noise choppei-stabilized differential switchedcapacitor filtering technique, IEEE J. Solid-State Circ., vol.
16, pp. 708-715, Dec. 1981.
[20] F. Krummenacher, Micropower switched capacitor biquadratic
ccll, IEEE J. Solid-State Circ., vol. 17, pp. 507-5 12, June 1982.
[21] S. L. Wong and T. Salama, A switched differential op-amp
with low offset and reduced 1// noise, IEEE Trans. Circ. Sysf.,
vol. 33, pp. 1 1 19-1 127, Nov. 1986.
121 ~,
~ ~ =( d[p-JTndsinc
f )
( m d ) - e-jTdfT9sinc ( T d f ~ , ) ]
(49)
where cl Th/T, is the duty cycle. The / H , ( f )1 functions
are then readily obtained from (49) (see (50) at the top of
the page) with a = 27r dn. /3 = 27rdfTs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to F. Krummenacher from the
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Lausanne,
E. A. Vittoz of the Centre Suisse dElectronique et de Microtechnique (CSEM), P. Ferguson Jr. of Analog Devices,
Inc., as well as Y. Huang and H. Yoshizawa of Oregon State
University for critically reading the paper and suggesting
important changes. Several of the figures used in the paper
appear in the chapter Autozeroing and Correlated Double
Sampling Techniques, by G. C. Temes, in Analog Circuit
Design, J. H. Huising, R. J. van de Plaasche and W. M.
C. Sansen, Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996. The
1612
~~
1989.
ENZ AND TEMES: CIRCUIT TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING THE EFFECTS OF OP-AMP JMPERFECTlONS
1613
[74] Y. Huang, G. C. Temes, and P. Ferguson, Jr., Reduced nonlinear distortion in circuits with correlated double sampling, in
Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Circ. Syst., May 1996, pp. 155-159.
1614