CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is the study of thermal energy transport within a medium or among neighbouring
media by molecular interaction, fluid motion, and electro-magnetic waves, resulting from a
spatial variation in temperature. This variation in temperature is governed by the principle of
energy conservation, which when applied to a control volume or a control mass, states that the
sum of the flow of energy and heat across the system, the work done on the system, and the
energy stored and converted within the system, is zero.
Heat transfer finds application in many important areas, namely design of thermal and nuclear
power plants including heat engines, steam generators, condensers and other heat exchange
equipment, catalytic convertors, heat shields for space vehicles, furnaces, electronic equipment,
internal combustion engines, refrigeration and air conditioning units, design of cooling systems
for electric motors generators and transformers, heating and cooling of fluids, in chemical
operations, construction of dams and structures, minimization of building heat losses using
improved insulation techniques, thermal control of space vehicles, heat treatment of metals,
dispersion of atmospheric pollutants.
A thermal system contains matter or substance and this substance may change by transformation
or by exchange of mass with the surroundings. To perform a thermal analysis of a system, we
need to use thermodynamics, which allows for quantitative description of the substance. This is
done by defining the boundaries of the system, applying the conservation principles, and
examining how the system participates in thermal energy exchange and conversion.

1.2 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer generally takes place by three modes such as conduction, convection and radiation.
Heat transmission, in majority of real situations, occurs because of combinations of these modes
of heat transfer.
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between neighbouring molecules in a substance due
to a temperature gradient. It always takes place from a region of higher temperature to a region

of lower temperature, and acts to equalize temperature differences. Conduction needs matter and
does not require any bulk motion of matter. Conduction takes place in all forms of matter such as
solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons. In gases and liquids, conduction
is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
Convection occurs when a system becomes unstable and begins to mix by the movement of
mass. A common observation of convection is of thermal convection in a pot of boiling water, in
which the hot and less-dense water on the bottom layer moves upwards in plumes, and the cool
and denser water near the top of the pot likewise sinks. Convection more likely occurs with a
greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives
the convection through the convecting medium.
Radiation describes any process in which energy emitted by one-body travels through a medium
or through space absorbed by another body. Radiation occurs in nuclear weapons, nuclear
reactors, radioactive radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X-rays
substances.

1.3 IC ENGINES:
The internal combustion engine is a rich source of examples of almost every conceivable type of
heat transfer. There are a wide range of temperatures and heat fluxes in the various components
of the internal combustion engine. Internal combustion engines come in many sizes, from small
model airplane engines with a 0.25 "(6 mm) bore and stroke to large stationary engines with a
12"(300 mm). About 25 % of the air/fuel mixture energy is converted to work, and the remaining
75% must be transferred from the engine to the environment.

1.4 COOLING SYSTEMS

A system, which controls the engine temperature, is known as a cooling system.

NECESSITY OF COOLING SYSTEM:

The cooling system is provided in the IC engine for the following reasons:
The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder reaches up to 1500 to 2000C, which
is above the melting point of the material of the cylinder body and head of the engine. (Platinum,

a metal that has one of the highest melting points, melts at 1750 C, iron at 1530C and
aluminium at 657C.) Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in the failure of the
cylinder material.
Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil will get oxidized, thus producing
carbon deposits on the surface. This will result in piston seizure. Due to overheating, large
temperature differences may lead to a distortion of the engine components due to the thermal
stresses set up. This makes it necessary for, the temperature variation to be kept to a minimum.
Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

REQUIREMENTS OF EFFICIENT COOLING SYSTEM:

The two main requirements of an efficient cooling system are:
1. It must be capable of removing only about 30% of the heat generated in the combustion
chamber. Too much removal of heat lowers the thermal efficiency of the engine.
2. It should remove heat at a fast rate when the engine is hot. During the starting of the engine,
the cooling should be very slow so that the different working parts reach their operating
temperatures in a short time.

1.5 TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEM

There are two types of cooling systems:
(i) Air cooling system and (ii) Water-cooling system.

AIR COOLING SYSTEM:

In this type of cooling system, the heat, which is conducted to the outer parts of the engine, is
radiated and conducted away by the stream of air, which is obtained from the atmosphere. In
order to have efficient cooling by means of air, providing fins around the cylinder and cylinder
head increases the contact area. The fins are metallic ridges, which are formed during the casting
of the cylinder and cylinder head. The amount of heat carried off by the air-cooling depends
upon the following factors:

The total area of the fin surfaces,

The velocity and amount of the cooling air and

The temperature of the fins and of the cooling air.

Air-cooling is mostly tractors of less horsepower, motorcycles, scooters, small cars and small
aircraft engines where the forward motion of the machine gives good velocity to cool the
engine. Air-cooling is also provided in some small industrial engines. In this system, individual
cylinders are generally employed to provide ample cooling area by providing fins. A blower is
used to provide air.

Advantages of Air Cooled Engines:

1. Its design of air-cooled engine is simple.
2. It is lighter in weight than water-cooled engines due to the absence of water jackets, radiator,
circulating pump and the weight of the cooling water.
3. It is cheaper to manufacture.
4. It needs less care and maintenance.
5. This system of cooling is particularly advantageous where there are extreme climatic
conditions in the arctic or where there is scarcity of water as in deserts.
6. No risk of damage from frost, such as cracking of cylinder jackets or radiator water tubes.

Disadvantages of air cooled system:

1. Comparatively it is less efficient.
2. Cooling is not uniform.

3.

Engines are subjected to high working temperature.

WATER COOLING SYSTEM:

It serves two purposes in the working of an engine:
1. It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and saves it from overheating.
2. It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient and economical working.

CHAPTER 2
FINS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the study of heat transfer, fins are surfaces that extend from an object to increase the rate of
heat transfer to or from the environment by increasing convection.

The amount

of conduction, convection, or radiation of an object determines the amount of heat it transfers.

Increasing the temperature gradient between the object and the environment, increasing the
convection heat transfer coefficient, or increasing the surface area of the object increases the heat
transfer. Sometimes it is not feasible or economical to change the first two options. Thus, adding
a fin to an object increases the surface area and can sometimes be an economical solution to heat
transfer problems. Fins are manufactured in different geometries, depending upon the practical
application. The fins may be of uniform or variable cross section.

2.2 TYPES OF FINS

In practice all kinds of shapes and sizes of fins are employed in different applications of fins,
some common types of fin configurations are shown in the above fig.
a) Rectangular fin
b) Triangular fin
c) Radial fins(splines)
d) Annular fin
e) Internal and external longitudinal fin of rectangular profile
f) Tapered fin

The

boundary

conditions of

the

generally

depend on the

physical

situation of the

fins

problem. A few of typical cases are

Case 1: The fin is very long and thus the temperature at the end of the fin is same as that of the
ambient fluid.
Case 2: The fin is of finite length and loses heat from its end by convection.
Case 3: The end of the fin is insulated.

2.2

APPLICATIONS OF FINS

There are many different practical applications of fins. Such as

1. Economisers for steam power plant;
2. Convectors for steam and hot-water heating systems;
3. Radiators of automobiles
4. Air-cooled engine cylinder heads;
5. Cooling coils and condensing coils in refrigerators and air conditioners;
6. Small capacity compressors;
7. Electric motor bodies;
8. Transformers and electronic equipment etc.