3 groups of earthquakes

Shallow focus earthquake occur within the depth of the continental crust, w/c is from the
surface down to 70 km deep.
Intermediate focus earthquake occur in the upper mantle, 70 to 350 km deep.
Deep focus earthquake occur in the upper mantle.
Two approaches to identify areas in w/c faulting and future earthquakes can be expected to
occur.
o seismologic approach
o geologic approach

Magnitude of earthquakes

Richter scale- gives an absolute measure of the energy released by calculating the energy of
seismic waves at a standard distance.
Mercalli scale describes the severity of an earthquake by its observed effects of damage to
lives and properties
Tsunamis huge waves generated when the energy release of a quake occurs in the vicinity
of or beneath the ocean flr.

Earthquake prediction

Prediction based on the centuries old ideas that animals sense various underground changes
prior to an earthquake and behave abnormally.

Volcanism

Magma melted rock containing dissolved water and other gases formed deep below the
earths surface
Lava erupted material that consists largely of molten rock
Volcano a hill or mountain formed by the extrusion of lava or rock fragments from the
magma below.
Vent- an opening through w/c n eruption takes place.
Crater of a volcano- basin-like depression over a vent at the summit of the cone.

Types of volcano

Shield- broad, gently sloping cones constructed of solidified lava flows. Ex. Hawaiian
volcanoes.
Cinder- constructed of cinders, rock fragments usually w/ sharp edges.
Composite- also called startovolcano: built up of alternating layers of cinders, ash and lava
flows Ex. Mayon volcano, Mt. Fuji

Intrusive igneous rocks

Magma that cooled and solidified below the ground

o Batholith
o Stock
o Dike
o Sill
o Laccolith

Weathering
refers to all the changes that result from the exposure of rock materials to the atmosphere.

Types of weathering

Mechanical weathering (ice or frost wedging, and sheeting)

Chemical weathering (Carbonation, Ovidation, and Hydration)

Mechanical Weathering

Ice wedging freezing water expand in cracks or bedding planes and wedges the rocks apart
Sheeting or unloading a series of fractures is produced by expansion of the rock body
itself, as a result of the removal of overlying material by erosion

Mechanical Weathering

thermal expansion of rocks

exfoliation
activity of the plants and animals

Chemical weathering

a complex process that alters the internal structures of minerals by removing and adding
elements

Chemical agents of chemical weathering

o Water
o Carbon dioxide
o Oxygen

Chemical weathering

Carbonation- process by w/c carbon dioxide unites with other elements

Oxidation the union of oxygen with iron, or any other substance
Hydration- the reaction between water and some minerals resulting in the formation of new
minerals

Soil

a product of weathering materials

loose weathered materials
a mixture of unconsolidated weathered earth materials and decay-resistant organic matter
called humus

Soil

humus
bedrock
loam
topsoil
subsoil

Soil horizons
A horizon- the zone containing the most humus

B horizon has an accumulation of the materials leached down ward from the A horizon above.
C horizon- consists of incompletely weathered parent material.

Soils and climate

Climate affects soil character

Types of soil that form in diff. climates

o Pedalfer
o Pedocals
o Laterites

Erosion
- The process by w/c weathered matrerials are moved or carried away by natural agents

Agents of erosion

gravity

running water

wind

glaciers

Mass movement
- The movement of materials caused by gravity

Criteria for classification of mass movement

o type of material moved
o the rate of the movement
o type of movement

Mass movements

fall
slip
Landslide
flow

Earths waters
Hydrosphere
Includes the oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, springs, subsurface waters, ice caps, glaciers, atmospheric
moisture
Fresh water- earths water that is fit for human consumption and agriculture

Basic source of freshwater is precipitation (rain, snow)

Rain
- More than 2/3 of rain returns to the atmosphere. Remaining amount becomes

Runoff- water moving across the surface

Groundwater- water that soaks into the ground

Stream a small body of running water, any body of water that is moving across the land
Intermittent stream- one which the source of groundwater is in low supply and flow only part
of the time

Rain
Factors

that determine the amount of rainfall that becomes runoff or groundwater

type of soil on the surface
how dry the soil is
the amount and type of vegetation slope of the land
if the rainfall is a long, gentle one or a cloudburst

Surface waters
Watershed- also called the streams drainage basin, the land area drained by a stream
Divide a line that separates two adjacent watersheds.
o Continental Divide- separates river systems that drain into opposite sides of a
continent.

Surface Water
- The water of stream, ponds, lakes and reservoirs,

pond- a smaller body of standing water

lake- a much larger body of standing water
reservoir- a natural pond or lake created by building a dam
o

Uses of reservoir

water storage
flood control
generating electricity

Groundwater

Groundwater- precipitation (rain or snow) that sinks into the ground

Two factors that determine the amount of precipitation that becomes groundwater
o Porosity of the sediment
o Permeability of sediment

Porosity the total amount of pore spaces in a given sample of sediment

Permeability the ability of a given sample of sediment to permit water to pass through
them.

Groundwater

Factor that determine the amount of groundwater in a given place

o
o
o

Present and past climate

Slope of the land
Porosity and permeability of the sediments beneath the surface

Groundwater

Zone of saturation zone in w/c groundwater collects in all available spaces

Water table- the surface of the boundary between the zone of saturation and the zone above.

Aquifer a layer of sand, gravel, sandstone, or other highly permeable material beneath the surface
that is cpable of producing water.
Artesian aquifer- groundwater that is under a confining pressure

Water pollution- any alteration in the original quality of the water, brought about by the
introduction of organic substances or a change in the temperature in water.
Alterations in the quality of water that lead to the water pollution include chemical or physical
condition or biological content of the water.

Sediments- most extensive pollutant of surface water

Wastes arising out of human activity- most dangerous water pollutants

Seawater

Seawater 70% of the earths surface

Average depth of the ocean 4 km
Average seawater- consist of dissolved mineral salts
Salinity of average seawater 35ppt (equiv. to 3.5%)

Seawater

Source of food and minerals

Can provide fresh water and new energy sources in the future
Deposits of phosphates (important fertilizer in agriculture and manganese nodules (source of
manganese, iron , copper, cobalt, and nickel) on the ocean bottom

Oceans and seas

Ocean- the body of saltwater that covers the earths surface.

o Principal oceans Atlantic, Indian, Pacific
Sea a smaller part of the ocean

Pacific Ocean- largest of the three principal regions

o Surface Area 180 million square km

o Circled by a rim of fire volcanoes associated with converging plates
Atlantic Ocean
o Surface Area 107 million square km
o Ave. depth 3.3 km
o Has islands such as the Azores and Iceland
o Seas of the Atlantic Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico

Indian Ocean smallest surface area

o 74 million square km
o Average depth 3.8 km

Nature of seawater

Almost all of the chemical elements are found in sea water

Most abundant ions chlorine and sodium
Salinity of seawater is increased by
o Evaporation
o Formation of the sea ice

Salinity
o
o
o

Reasons why the ocean basin has not become filled in the continuous supply of sediments and
dissolved materials.
o
o

of seawater is decreased by
Heavy precipitation
Melting of ice
Addition of freshwater by a large river

Accumulated sediments have been recycled to the earths interior through plate
tectonics
Dissolved materials are removed by natural processes

Movement of Seawater

Two types of motion of seawater

o Waves- produced by some disturbance, such as the wind
o Currents- move water from one place to another

Waves

Wave- a moving disturbance that travels across the surface of the ocean.
o Crest ridge or mound of the ocean
o Trough- a depression
o Produced by strong winds
o Created by earthquakes or by tides
Tsunamis- giant destructive waves cause by movement of the earths crust or underwater
landslides
Tidal currents reversing currents, moving up the bay with the rising tide and out to sea with
the falling tide.

Ocean Currents

Ocean currents stream of water that stays in about the same path as they move through
other seawater over large distances.
Produced by:
o Density differences in seawater
o Winds that blow persistently in the same direction

Density Currents
The change n the density of water results in density current.
The density of seawater is influenced by:
o Water temperature
o Salinity

Suspended sediments

Surface Currents

The friction of the prevailing winds on the seawater drives the ocean currents.
Modified by:
o Rotation of the earth
o Shape of the ocean basins

Gyre a great system of moving water that is centered in the mid- latitudes

The Ocean Floor

Instruments that can study the ocean floor

o Echo sounders
o Side scan sonar images
o Magnetometers
o Seismic reflection profiles

Seismic Reflection Profiles

Involves emitting pulses of sound from ship that are subsequently reflected back from the
seafloor

Oceanic Ridge

Most pronounced tectonic feature on earth

A broad fractured swell, with peaks rising as much as 3 km above the surrounding ocean floor
Extends as a continuous feature around the entire globe
The greatest mountain system on earth

The Abyssal Floor

Abyssal Floor broad, relatively smooth surfaces of the deep ocean

Two sections
o Abyssal hills 75 to 900 m above the ocean floor
o Abyssal plains flat areas of the ocean floor

Trenches

Trench a subduction zone, where two plates converge and one slab of lithosphere plunges
down into the mantle
May reach 11,000 m below sea level
Deepest part of the ocean

Continental shelf--------Continental slope----------Oceanic ridge---------Oceanic trench---------Abyssal plain

Algae and other producers need lots of sunlight. Most ocean algae would be found in the water.

Islands and Sea Mounts

Seamounts submarine volcanoes that remain submerged.

Islands- Submarine volcanoes that rise above the sea level

Continental Margins

Part of the seafloor that is covered by the ocean but are not part of the oceanic crust.
3 major sections:
o Continental shelf
o Continental slope
o Continental rise

Continental shelf a submerged part of the shield, or stable platform, can be as

much as 1,500 km wide: depth ranges from 20 to 550 m at its outer edge.
Continental slope descends from the outer edge of the continental shelf as a long
continuous slope.

Submarine Canyons

Submarine canyons are common along the continental slope

o Have a V-shaped profile and a system of tributaries.
o Resemble the great canyons cut by rivers on the continents
o Some canyons are 6,000 m below sea level,
o Turbidity currents flowing from the continental shelf to the abyssal floor usually
cut submarine canyons