Hannibal

For other uses, see Hannibal (disambiguation).

sar, Scipio, and Pyrrhus of Epirus. Plutarch states that

Hannibal was questioned by Scipio as to who was the
greatest general, and Hannibal replied either Alexander
or Pyrrhus, then himself,[6] or, according to another version of the event, Pyrrhus, Scipio, then himself.[7] Military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge called Hannibal
the father of strategy,[8] because his greatest enemy,
Rome, came to adopt elements of his military tactics in its
own strategic arsenal. This praise has earned him a strong
reputation in the modern world, and he was regarded as
a great strategist by Napoleon Bonaparte and others.

Hannibal (247 between 183 and 181 BC),[n 1] fully

Hannibal Barca, was a Punic military commander from
Carthage, generally considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. His father Hamilcar Barca
was the leading Carthaginian commander during the
First Punic War. His younger brothers were Mago and
Hasdrubal, and he was brother-in-law to Hasdrubal the
Fair.
Hannibal lived during a period of great tension in the
Mediterranean, when the Roman Republic established
its supremacy over other great powers such as Carthage
and the Hellenistic kingdoms of Macedon, Syracuse, and
the Seleucid Empire. One of his most famous achievements was at the outbreak of the Second Punic War,
when he marched an army which included war elephants
from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps into Italy.
In his rst few years in Italy, he won three dramatic
victoriesTrebia, Trasimene, and Cannae, in which he
distinguished himself for his ability to determine his and
his opponents strengths and weaknesses, and to play the
battle to his strengths and the enemys weaknessesand
won over many allies of Rome. Hannibal occupied much
of Italy for 15 years, but a Roman counter-invasion of
North Africa forced him to return to Carthage, where
he was decisively defeated by Scipio Africanus at the
Battle of Zama. Scipio had studied Hannibals tactics and
brilliantly devised some of his own, and nally defeated
Romes nemesis at Zama, having previously driven Hannibals brother Hasdrubal out of the Iberian Peninsula.

1 Name
The English form of the name is derived from the Latin.
Greek historians rendered the name as Annbas Brkas
( ).
Hannibal was his given name. Hannibals name was
recorded in Carthaginian sources as NBL (
).
Its precise vocalization remains a matter of debate. Suggested readings include annibal or annibaal,[9][10]
meaning grace of Ba'al",[9] Ba'al is gracious, or Ba'al
has been gracious";[10][11] or annobaal, with the same
meaning.[12]
Barca (
, BRQ) was the surname of his aristocratic
family, meaning shining or lightning.[13] It is thus
equivalent to the Arabic name Barq or the Hebrew
name Barak or the Greek epithet keraunos, commonly
given to military commanders in the Hellenistic period.[14] In English, his clan are sometimes collectively
known as the Barcids. As with Greek and Roman practice, patronymics were a common part of Carthaginian
nomenclature, so that Hannibal would also have been
known as Hannibal son of Hamilcar.[15]

After the war, Hannibal successfully ran for the oce of

suete. He enacted political and nancial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome;
however, Hannibals reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and in Rome, and
he ed into voluntary exile. During this time, he lived
at the Seleucid court, where he acted as military advisor to Antiochus III in his war against Rome. Antiochus
met defeat at the Battle of Magnesia and was forced to
accept Romes terms, and Hannibal ed again, making a
stop in Armenia. His ight ended in the court of Bithynia,
where he achieved an outstanding naval victory against a
eet from Pergamon. He was afterwards betrayed to the
Romans and committed suicide by poisoning himself.

2 Background and early career

Hannibal was one of the sons of Hamilcar Barca, a

Carthaginian leader. He had several sisters and two
brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago. His brothers-in-law were
Hasdrubal the Fair and the Numidian king Naravas. He
was still a child when his sisters married, and his brothersHannibal is often regarded as one of the greatest military in-law were close associates during his fathers struggles
strategists in history and one of the greatest generals of in the Mercenary War and the Punic conquest of Iberia.
antiquity, together with Alexander the Great, Julius Cae- In light of Hamilcar Barcas cognomen, historians refer to
Hamilcars family as the Barcids. However, there is de1

bate as to whether the cognomen Barca (meaning thunderbolt) was applied to Hamilcar alone or was hereditary within his family. If the latter, then Hannibal and his
brothers also bore the name 'Barca'.[16]
After Carthages defeat in the First Punic War, Hamilcar
set out to improve his familys and Carthages fortunes.
With that in mind and supported by Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula.
Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that its navy
was unable to transport his army to Iberia (Hispania); instead, Hamilcar had to march it towards the Pillars of
Hercules and transport it across the Strait of Gibraltar.
According to Polybius, Hannibal much later said that
when he came upon his father and begged to go with him,
Hamilcar agreed and demanded that he swear that as long
as he lived he would never be a friend of Rome. There is
even an account of him at a very young age begging his
father to take him to an overseas war. In the story, Hannibals father took him up and brought him to a sacricial
chamber. Hamilcar held Hannibal over the re roaring
in the chamber and made him swear that he would never
be a friend of Rome. Other sources report that Hannibal told his father, I swear so soon as age will permit...I
will use re and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome.[8][17]
According to the tradition, Hannibals oath took place in
the town of Pescola, today part of the community of
Valencia, Spain.[18]

SECOND PUNIC WAR IN ITALY (218204 BC)

and brought Punic power close to the River Tagus. His

following campaign in 220 was against the Vaccaei to
the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of
Helmantice and Arbucala. On his return home, laden
with many spoils, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by
the Carpetani, attacked, and Hannibal won his rst major battleeld success and showed o his tactical skills at
the battle of the River Tagus.[22] However, Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an
alliance with the city of Saguntum, which lay a considerable distance south of the River Ebro and claimed the city
as its protectorate. Hannibal not only perceived this as a
breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal, but as he was
already planning an attack on Rome, this was his way to
start the war. So he laid siege to the city, which fell after
eight months. Rome reacted to this apparent violation of
the treaty and demanded justice from Carthage. In view
of Hannibals great popularity, the Carthaginian government did not repudiate Hannibals actions, and the war he
sought was declared at the end of the year. Hannibal was
now determined to carry the war into the heart of Italy by
a rapid march through Hispania and southern Gaul.

3 Second Punic War in Italy (218

204 BC)

Hannibals father went about the conquest of Hispania. Main article: Second Punic War
When his father drowned[19] in battle, Hannibals brotherin-law Hasdrubal succeeded to his command of the army
with Hannibal serving as an ocer under him. Hasdrubal
pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthages Iberian 3.1 Overland journey to Italy
interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby
Carthage would not expand north of the Ebro River, so Main article: Hannibals crossing of the Alps
long as Rome did not expand south of it. Hasdrubal also
This journey was originally planned by Hannibals
endeavoured to consolidate Carthaginian power through
diplomatic relationships with native tribes.
Upon the assassination of Hasdrubal in 221 BC, Hannibal was proclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and
conrmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. Livy, a Roman scholar, gives a depiction of the
young Carthaginian:
No sooner had he arrived...the old soldiers
fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given
back to them; the same bright look; the same
re in his eye, the same trick of countenance
and features. Never was one and the same spirit
more skillful to meet opposition, to obey, or to
command...[20]
After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years
consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest
of Hispania, south of the Ebro.[21] In his rst campaign,
Hannibal attacked and stormed the Olcades' strongest
centre, Alithia, which promptly led to their surrender,

Hannibals route of invasion given by the Department of History,

United States Military Academy. There is a mistake in the scale.

brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair, who became a

Carthaginian general in Iberia in 229 BC. He maintained
this post for eight years until 221 BC. Soon the Romans became aware of an alliance between Carthage and

3.2

Battle of Trebia

the Celts of the Po River valley in Northern Italy. The

Celts were amassing forces to invade farther south in
Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing. Therefore,
the Romans preemptively invaded the Po region in 225
BC. By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as
Gallia Cisalpina.[23] Hasdrubal was assassinated around
the same time (221 BC), bringing Hannibal to the fore.
It seems that the Romans lulled themselves into a false
sense of security, having dealt with the threat of a GalloCarthaginian invasion, and perhaps knowing that the original Carthaginian commander had been killed.
Hannibal departed New Carthage in late spring of 218
BC.[24] He fought his way through the northern tribes
to the foothills of the Pyrenees, subduing the tribes
through clever mountain tactics and stubborn ghting.
He left a detachment of 20,000 troops to garrison the
newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he released
11,000 Iberian troops who showed reluctance to leave
their homeland. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with
40,000 foot soldiers and 12,000 horsemen.[25]
Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the
Pyrenees, the Alps, and many signicant rivers.[26] Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from
the Gauls, whose territory he passed through. Starting
in the spring of 218 BC, he crossed the Pyrenees and
reached the River Rhne, by conciliating the Gaulish
chiefs along his passage, before the Romans could take
any measures to bar his advance, arriving at the Rhne in
September. Hannibals army numbered 38,000 infantry,
8,000 cavalry, and 38 elephants, almost none of which
would survive the harsh conditions of the Alps.[27]

3
from the Mediterranean coast by turning inland up the
valley of the Rhne. His exact route over the Alps has
been the source of scholarly dispute ever since. (Polybius,
the surviving ancient account closest in time to Hannibals
campaign, reports that the route was already debated.)
The most inuential modern theories favor either a march
up the valley of the Drme and a crossing of the main
range to the south of the modern highway over the Col
de Montgenvre or a march farther north up the valleys of
the Isre and Arc crossing the main range near the present
Col de Mont Cenis or the Little St Bernard Pass.[28] Recent numismatic evidence suggests that Hannibals army
may have passed within sight of the Matterhorn.[29]
By Livys account, the crossing was accomplished in the
face of huge diculties.[30] These Hannibal surmounted
with ingenuity, such as when he used vinegar and re to
break through a rockfall.[31] According to Polybius, he arrived in Italy accompanied by 20,000 foot soldiers, 4,000
horsemen, and only a few elephants. The red rockfall
event is mentioned only by Livy; Polybius is mute on the
subject and there is no evidence[32] of carbonized rock
at the only two-tier rockfall in the Western Alps, located
below the Col de la Traversette (Mahaney, 2008). If
Polybius is correct in his gure for the number of troops
that he commanded after the crossing of the Rhne, this
would suggest that he had lost almost half of his force.
Historians such as Serge Lancell have questioned the reliability of the gures for the number of troops that he
had when he left Hispania.[33] From the start, he seems to
have calculated that he would have to operate without aid
from Hispania.
Hannibals vision of military aairs was derived partly
from the teaching of his Greek tutors and partly from experience gained alongside his father, and it stretched over
most of the Hellenistic World of his time. Indeed, the
breadth of his vision gave rise to his grand strategy of
conquering Rome by opening a northern front and subduing allied city-states on the peninsula, rather than by
attacking Rome directly. Historical events which led to
the defeat of Carthage during the First Punic War when
his father commanded the Carthaginian Army also led
Hannibal to plan the invasion of Italy by land across the
Alps.
The task was daunting, to say the least. It involved
the mobilization of between 60,000 and 100,000 troops
(see Proctor, 1971) and the training of a war-elephant
corps, all of which had to be provisioned along the way.
The alpine invasion of Italy was a military operation that
would shake the Mediterranean World of 218 BC with
repercussions for more than two decades.

3.2 Battle of Trebia

Hannibal and his men crossing the Alps.

Main article: Battle of the Trebia

Hannibal outmaneuvered the natives who had tried to pre- Hannibals perilous march brought him into the Roman
vent his crossing, then evaded a Roman force marching territory and frustrated the attempts of the enemy to ght

SECOND PUNIC WAR IN ITALY (218204 BC)

the anks.

3.3 Battle of Lake Trasimene

Main article: Battle of Lake Trasimene

A diagram depicting the tactics used in the Battle of Trebia

out the main issue on foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls of the Po Valley, moreover,
enabled him to detach those tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans before the Romans could take
steps to check the rebellion. Publius Cornelius Scipio
was the consul who commanded the Roman force sent
to intercept Hannibal (he was also Scipio Africanus father). He had not expected Hannibal to make an attempt
to cross the Alps, since the Romans were prepared to
ght the war in Iberia. With a small detachment still
positioned in Gaul, Scipio made an attempt to intercept
Hannibal. He succeeded, through prompt decision and
speedy movement, in transporting his army to Italy by
sea in time to meet Hannibal. Hannibals forces moved
through the Po Valley and were engaged in a large scale
skirmish at Ticinus. Here, Hannibal forced the Romans
to evacuate the plain of Lombardy, by virtue of his superior cavalry.[34] The victory was minor, but it encouraged
the Gauls and Ligurians to join the Carthaginian cause,
whose troops bolstered his army back to around 40,000
men. Scipio was severely injured, his life only saved by
the bravery of his son who rode back onto the eld to rescue his fallen father. Scipio retreated across the river Trebia to camp at Placentia with his army mostly intact.[34]
The other Roman consular army was rushed to the
Po Valley. Even before news of the defeat at Ticinus had reached Rome, the Senate had ordered Consul
Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily
to meet Scipio and face Hannibal. Hannibal, by skillful
maneuvers, was in position to head him o, for he lay
on the direct road between Placentia and Arminum, by
which Sempronius would have to march to reinforce Scipio. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew
large amounts of supplies for his men. But this gain
was not without loss, as Sempronius avoided Hannibals
watchfulness, slipped around his ank, and joined his colleague in his camp near the Trebia River near Placentia.
There Hannibal had an opportunity to show his masterful
military skill at Trebia in December of the same year, after wearing down the superior Roman infantry, when he
cut it to pieces with a surprise attack and ambush from

Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter with the

Gauls, whose support for him had abated. In the spring
of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to nd a more reliable
base of operations farther south. Gnaeus Servilius and
Gaius Flaminius (the new consuls of Rome) were expecting Hannibal to advance on Rome, and they took their
armies to block the eastern and western routes that Hannibal could use.[35]

Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 BC.

From the Department of History, United States Military Academy

The only alternative route to central Italy lay at the mouth

of the Arno. This area was practically one huge marsh,
and happened to be overowing more than usual during
this particular season. Hannibal knew that this route was
full of diculties, but it remained the surest and certainly
the quickest way to central Italy. Polybius claims that
Hannibals men marched for four days and three nights,
through a land that was under water, suering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep. He crossed
without opposition over both the Apennines (during
which he lost his right eye[36] because of conjunctivitis)
and the seemingly impassable Arno, but he lost a large
part of his force in the marshy lowlands of the Arno.[37]
He arrived in Etruria in the spring of 217 BC and decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into
a pitched battle by devastating the region that Flaminius
had been sent to protect. As Polybius recounts, he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made
a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for
fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the
devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him... and give him opportunities for attack.[38] At
the same time, Hannibal tried to break the allegiance of

3.4

Battle of Cannae

Romes allies by proving that Flaminius was powerless to

protect them. Despite this, Flaminius remained passively
encamped at Arretium. Hannibal marched boldly around
Flaminius left ank, unable to draw him into battle by
mere devastation, and eectively cut him o from Rome
(thus executing the rst recorded turning movement in
military history). He then advanced through the uplands
of Etruria, provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit and
catching him in a dele on the shore of Lake Trasimenus.
There Hannibal destroyed Flaminius army in the waters
or on the adjoining slopes, killing Flaminius as well (see
Battle of Lake Trasimene). This was the most costly ambush that the Romans ever sustained until the Battle of
Carrhae against the Parthians.
Hannibal had now disposed of the only eld force that
could check his advance upon Rome, but he realized that,
without siege engines, he could not hope to take the capital. He preferred to exploit his victory by entering into
central and southern Italy and encouraging a general revolt against the sovereign power.[39]
The Romans appointed Fabius Maximus as their dictator. Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius
adopted the strategy named after him, avoiding open battle while placing several Roman armies in Hannibals
vicinity in order to watch and limit his movements.

Destruction of the Roman army (red), courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy.

In the spring of 216 BC, Hannibal took the initiative and

seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian
plain. By capturing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial sources of
supply.[41] Once the Roman Senate resumed their consular elections in 216 BC, they appointed Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as consuls. In
the meantime, the Romans hoped to gain success through
sheer strength and weight of numbers, and they raised a
new army of unprecedented size, estimated by some to
be as large as 100,000 men, but more likely around 5080,000.[42]

Hannibal ravaged Apulia but was unable to bring Fabius

to battle, so he decided to march through Samnium to
Campania, one of the richest and most fertile provinces
of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius
into battle. Fabius closely followed Hannibals path of
destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn out The Romans and allied legions resolved to confront Hanof the defensive. This strategy was unpopular with many nibal and marched southward to Apulia. They eventually found him on the left bank of the Audus River,
Romans, who believed that it was a form of cowardice.
and encamped six miles (10 km) away. On this occaHannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in
sion, the two armies were combined into one, the conthe already devastated lowlands of Campania, but Fabius
suls having to alternate their command on a daily basis.
had ensured that all the passes were blocked out of CamVarro was in command on the rst day, a man of reckpania. To avoid this, Hannibal deceived the Romans
less and hubristic nature (according to Livy) and deterinto thinking that the Carthaginian army was going to esmined to defeat Hannibal.[42] Hannibal capitalized on the
cape through the woods. As the Romans moved o toeagerness of Varro and drew him into a trap by using an
wards the woods, Hannibals army occupied the pass, and
envelopment tactic. This eliminated the Roman numerthen made their way through the pass unopposed. Fabius
ical advantage by shrinking the combat area. Hannibal
was within striking distance but in this case his caution
drew up his least reliable infantry in a semicircle in the
worked against him. Smelling a stratagem (rightly), he
center with the wings composed of the Gallic and Numidstayed put. For the winter, Hannibal found comfortable
ian horse.[42] The Roman legions forced their way through
quarters in the Apulian plain. What Hannibal achieved
Hannibals weak center, but the Libyan mercenaries on
in extricating his army was, as Adrian Goldsworthy puts
the wings, swung around by the movement, menaced their
it, a classic of ancient generalship, nding its way into
anks. The onslaught of Hannibals cavalry was irrenearly every historical narrative of the war and being used
sistible. Hannibals chief cavalry commander Maharbal
by later military manuals.[40] This was a severe blow to
led the mobile Numidian cavalry on the right, and they
Fabius prestige and soon after this his period of dictatoshattered the Roman cavalry opposing them. Hannibals
rial power ended.
Iberian and Gallic heavy cavalry, led by Hanno on the
left, defeated the Roman heavy cavalry, and then both the
Carthaginian heavy cavalry and the Numidians attacked
3.4 Battle of Cannae
the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman army
was hemmed in with no means of escape.
Main article: Battle of Cannae
Due to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal managed to sur-

6
round and destroy all but a small remnant of his enemy,
despite his own inferior numbers. Depending upon the
source, it is estimated that 50,000-70,000 Romans were
killed or captured.[8] Among the dead were Roman Consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, as well as two consuls for
the preceding year, two quaestors, twenty-nine out of the
forty-eight military tribunes, and an additional eighty senators (at a time when the Roman Senate was composed of
no more than 300 men, this constituted 25%30% of the
governing body). This makes the battle one of the most
catastrophic defeats in the history of Ancient Rome, and
one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in
terms of the number of lives lost within a single day).[42]
After Cannae, the Romans were very hesitant to confront
Hannibal in pitched battle, preferring instead to weaken
him by attrition, relying on their advantages of interior
lines, supply, and manpower. As a result, Hannibal fought
no more major battles in Italy for the rest of the war.
It is believed that his refusal to bring the war to Rome
itself was due to a lack of commitment from Carthage
of men, money, and materiel principally siege equipment. Whatever the reason, the choice prompted Maharbal to say, Hannibal, you know how to gain a victory,
but not how to use one.[43]

SECOND PUNIC WAR IN ITALY (218204 BC)

As a result of this victory, many parts of Italy joined Hannibals cause.[44] As Polybius notes, How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those that preceded
it can be seen by the behavior of Romes allies; before
that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it
began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired
of Roman Power.[45] During that same year, the Greek
cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while Macedonian King Philip V pledged
his support to Hannibal thus initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed Hieronymus of Syracuse. It
is often argued that, if Hannibal had received proper material reinforcements from Carthage, he might have succeeded with a direct attack upon Rome. Instead, he had
to content himself with subduing the fortresses that still
held out against him, and the only other notable event of
216 BC was the defection of certain Italian territories,
including Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which
Hannibal made his new base. However, only a few of the
Italian city-states defected to him that he had expected to
gain as allies.

3.5 Stalemate
The war in Italy settled into a strategic stalemate. The Romans used the attritional strategy that Fabius had taught
them, and which, they nally realized, was the only feasible means of defeating Hannibal.[46] Indeed, Fabius received the surname Cunctator (the Delayer) because
of his policy of not meeting Hannibal in open battle but
through guerilla, scorched earth tactics.[47] The Romans
deprived Hannibal of a large-scale battle and instead assaulted his weakening army with multiple smaller armies
in an attempt to both weary him and create unrest in his
troops.[8] For the next few years, Hannibal was forced
to sustain a scorched earth policy and obtain local provisions for protracted and ineectual operations throughout
southern Italy. His immediate objectives were reduced
to minor operations centered mainly round the cities of
Campania.

Hannibal counting the signet rings of Roman nobles killed during

the battle, statue by Sbastien Slodtz, 1704, Louvre.

The forces detached to his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government
nor his new ally Philip V of Macedon helped to make up
his losses. His position in southern Italy, therefore, became increasingly dicult and his chance of ultimately
conquering Rome grew ever more remote. Hannibal still
won a number of notable victories: completely destroying two Roman armies in 212 BC, and killing two consuls (including the famed Marcus Claudius Marcellus) in
a battle in 208 BC. However, Hannibal slowly began losing groundinadequately supported by his Italian allies,
abandoned by his government (either because of jealousy
or simply because Carthage was overstretched), and unable to match Romes resources. He was never able to
bring about another grand decisive victory that could produce a lasting strategic change.

7
Carthaginian political will was embodied in the ruling oligarchy. There was a Carthaginian Senate, but the real
power was with the inner "Council of 30 Nobles" and
the board of judges from ruling families known as the
"Hundred and Four". These two bodies came from the
wealthy, commercial families of Carthage. Two political
factions operated in Carthage: the war party, also known
as the "Barcids" (Hannibals family name); and the peace
party led by Hanno II the Great. Hanno had been instrumental in denying Hannibals requested reinforcements
following the battle at Cannae.
Hannibal started the war without the full backing of
Carthaginian oligarchy. His attack of Saguntum had presented the oligarchy with a choice of war with Rome or
loss of prestige in Iberia. The oligarchy, not Hannibal,
controlled the strategic resources of Carthage. Hannibal constantly sought reinforcements from either Iberia or
North Africa. Hannibals troops who were lost in combat
were replaced with less well-trained and motivated mercenaries from Italy or Gaul. The commercial interests
of the Carthaginian oligarchy dictated the reinforcement
and supply of Iberia rather than Hannibal throughout the
campaign.

3.6

Hannibals retreat in Italy

In 212 BC, Hannibal captured Tarentum but he failed to

obtain control of its harbour. The tide was slowly turning Scipio Africanus
against him, and in favor of Rome.
The Romans then mounted two sieges of Capua, which
fell in 211 BC, and completed their conquest of Syracuse and destruction of the Carthaginian army in Sicily.
Shortly thereafter, the Romans pacied Sicily and entered into an alliance with the Aetolian League to counter
Phillip V. Philip, who attempted to exploit Romes preoccupation in Italy to conquer Illyria, now found himself
under attack from several sides at once and was quickly
subdued by Rome and her Greek allies. Meanwhile, Hannibal had defeated Fulvius at the battle of Herdonia in
Apulia, but lost Tarentum the following year.
In 210 BC, Hannibal again proved his superiority in tactics by inicting a severe defeat at Herdonia (modern
Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army and, in 208
BC, destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of
Locri Epizephyri. But with the loss of Tarentum in
209 BC and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of
Samnium and Lucania, his hold on south Italy was almost
lost. In 207 BC, he succeeded in making his way again
into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures for a
combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal
Barca. On hearing, however, of his brothers defeat and
death at the Metaurus he retired into Bruttium, where he
maintained himself for the ensuing years. His brothers
head had been cut o, carried across Italy, and tossed
over the palisade of Hannibals camp as a cold message
of the iron-clad will of the Roman Republic. The com-

bination of these events marked the end to Hannibals

success in Italy. With the failure of his brother Mago
Barca in Liguria (205203 BC) and of his own negotiations with Philip V of Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. In 203 BC,
after nearly fteen years of ghting in Italy, and with
the military fortunes of Carthage rapidly declining, Hannibal was recalled to Carthage to direct the defense of
his native country against a Roman invasion under Scipio
Africanus.

4 Conclusion of the Second Punic

War (203201 BC)
4.1 Return to Carthage
In 203 BC, Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war
party in Carthage. After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in Punic and Greek upon bronze tablets
in the temple of Juno at Crotona, he sailed back to
Africa.[48] His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, which placed him in command of
a combined force of African levies and his mercenaries
from Italy. In 202 BC, Hannibal met Scipio in a fruitless peace conference. Despite mutual admiration, nego-

LATER CAREER

Final act of the second punic war with the battle of Zama (202
B.C.).

tiations oundered due to Roman allegations of Punic

Faith, referring to the breach of protocols that ended the
First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum,
and a Carthaginan attack on a stranded Roman eet. Scipio and Carthage had worked out a peace plan, which
was approved by Rome. The terms of the treaty were
quite modest, but the war had been long for the Romans.
Carthage could keep its African territory but would lose
its overseas empire, a fait accompli. Masinissa (Numidia)
was to be independent. Also, Carthage was to reduce its
eet and pay a war indemnity. But Carthage then made a
terrible blunder. Its long-suering citizens had captured
a stranded Roman eet in the Gulf of Tunis (Tunisia) and
stripped it of supplies, an action that aggravated the faltering negotiations. Meanwhile, Hannibal, recalled from
Italy by the Carthaginian Senate, had returned with his
army. Fortied by both Hannibal and the supplies, the
Carthaginians rebued the treaty and Roman protests.
The decisive battle at Zama soon followed; the defeat removed Hannibals air of invincibility.

4.2

Engraving of the Battle of Zama by Cornelis Cort, 1567.

Note that the elephants shown are Asian, rather than the very
small North African elephants used by Carthage.

ers suggest that it was actually a tactical retreat planned

by Hannibal.[49] Whatever the truth, the battle remained
closely fought. At one point, it seemed that Hannibal was
on the verge of victory, but Scipio was able to rally his
men, and his cavalry, having routed the Carthaginian cavalry, attacked Hannibals rear. This two-pronged attack
caused the Carthaginian formation to collapse.
With their foremost general defeated, the Carthaginians
had no choice but to surrender. Carthage lost approximately 20,000 troops with an additional 15,000 wounded.
In contrast, the Romans suered only 2,500 casualties.
The last major battle of the Second Punic War resulted
in a loss of respect for Hannibal by his fellow Carthaginians. The conditions of defeat were such that Carthage
could no longer battle for Mediterranean supremacy.

Battle of Zama

Main article: Battle of Zama

5 Later career

Unlike most battles of the Second Punic War, at Zama,

the Romans were superior in cavalry and the Carthaginians had the edge in infantry. This Roman cavalry superiority was due to the betrayal of Masinissa, who had earlier assisted Carthage in Iberia, but changed sides in 206
BC with the promise of land and due to his personal conicts with Syphax, a Carthaginian ally. Although the aging Hannibal was suering from mental exhaustion and
deteriorating health after years of campaigning in Italy,
the Carthaginians still had the advantage in numbers and
were boosted by the presence of 80 war elephants.

5.1 Peacetime Carthage (200196 BC)

The Roman cavalry won an early victory by swiftly routing the Carthaginian horse, and standard Roman tactics
for limiting the eectiveness of the Carthaginian war
elephants were successful, including playing trumpets to
frighten the elephants into running into the Carthaginian
lines. Some historians say that the elephants routed the
Carthaginian cavalry and not the Romans, whilst oth-

Hannibal was still only 43 and soon showed that he could

be a statesman as well as a soldier. Following the conclusion of a peace that left Carthage stripped of its formerly mighty empire, Hannibal prepared to take a back
seat for a time. However, the blatant corruption of the
oligarchy gave Hannibal a chance to re-emerge and he was
elected as suete or chief magistrate. The oce had become rather insignicant, but Hannibal restored its power
and authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had
even charged him with having betrayed the interests of
his country while in Italy, for neglecting to take Rome
when he might have done so. So eectively did Hannibal
reform abuses that the heavy tribute imposed by Rome
could be paid by installments without additional and extraordinary taxation. He also reformed the Hundred and
Four, stipulating that its membership be chosen by direct

5.3

Death (183 x 181 BC)

election rather than co-option. He also used citizen sup- 5.3 Death (183 x 181 BC)
port to change the term of oce in the Hundred and Four
Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal was deterfrom life to a year, with a term limit of two years.
mined not to fall into his enemys' hands. The precise
year and cause of Hannibals death is unknown. Pausanias wrote that Hannibals death occurred upon when
5.2 Exile (after 195 BC)
mounting his horse, his nger becoming wounded by his
drawn sword resulted in a fever and then his death three
[54]
Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, days later. Juvenal asserts that his death was at Libyssa
alarmed by Carthages renewed prosperity, demanded on the eastern shore of the Sea of Marmara, after havHannibals surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into vol- ing taken poison, which, it was said, he had long carried
[55]
untary exile. He journeyed to Tyre, the mother city of about with him in a ring. Before dying, he left behind
Carthage, and then to Ephesus, where he was honorably a letter declaring, Let us relieve the Romans from the
received by Antiochus III of Syria, who was preparing anxiety they have so long experienced, since they think
for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the kings it tries their patience too much to wait for an old mans
[56]
army was no match for the Romans. He advised equip- death.
ping a eet and landing a body of troops in the south of In his Annales, Titus Pomponius Atticus reports it
Italy, oering to take command himself. But he could occurred in 183 BC,[57] and Livy implies the same.
not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened Polybius, who wrote nearest the event, gives 182 BC.
to his courtiers and would not entrust Hannibal with any Sulpicius Blitho[58] records it under 181 BC.[57]
important oce. According to Cicero, while at the court
of Antiochus, Hannibal attended a lecture by Phormio,
a philosopher, that ranged through many topics. When
6 Legacy to the ancient world
Phormio nished a discourse on the duties of a general,
Hannibal was asked his opinion. He replied, I have
seen during my life many old fools; but this one beats Hannibal caused great distress to many in Roman society.
them all. Another story according to Aulus Gellius is It has been said that for generations, Roman housekeepthat when Antiochus III showed o the gigantic and elab- ers would tell their children brutal tales of Hannibal when
orately equipped army he had created to invade Greece to they misbehaved. In fact, Hannibal became such a gure
Hannibal, he asked him if they would be enough for the of terror that whenever disaster struck, the Roman SenaRoman Republic, to which Hannibal replied, I think all tors would exclaim "Hannibal ante portas" (Hannibal is
this will be enough, yes, quite enough, for the Romans, at the gates!") to express their fear or anxiety. This faeven though they are most avaricious.[50] In 191 BC, the mous Latin phrase became a common expression that is
through the door or
Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio routed Antiochus often still used when a client arrives
[59]
when
one
is
faced
with
calamity.
at Thermopylae and obliged him to withdraw to Asia. The
Romans followed up their success by attacking Antiochus The works of Roman writers such as Livy, Frontinus,
in Anatolia, and the Seleucids were decisively defeated at and Juvenal show a grudging admiration for Hannibal.
Magnesia ad Sipylum in 190 BC by Scipio Asiaticus.
The Romans even built statues of the Carthaginian in the
to advertise their defeat of such a
In 190 BC, he was placed in command of a Seleucid very streets of Rome
[60]
worthy
adversary.
It
is plausible to suggest that Haneet but was defeated in a battle o the Eurymedon
nibal
engendered
the
greatest
fear Rome had towards an
River. According to Strabo and Plutarch, Hannibal also
enemy.
Nevertheless,
they
grimly
refused to admit the
received hospitality at the Armenian court of Artaxias
possibility
of
defeat
and
rejected
all
overtures for peace;
I. The authors add an apocryphal story of how Hannithey
even
refused
to
accept
the
ransom
of prisoners after
bal planned and supervised the building of the new royal
[61]
[51]
Cannae.
capital Artaxata.
When Antiochus seemed prepared
to surrender him to the Romans, Hannibal ed to Crete,
but he soon went back to Asia Minor and sought refuge
with Prusias I of Bithynia, who was engaged in warfare
with Romes ally, King Eumenes II of Pergamon. Hannibal went on to serve Prusias in this war. During one
of the naval victories he gained over Eumenes, Hannibal had large pots lled with venomous snakes thrown
onto Eumenes ships.[52] Hannibal also went on to defeat Eumenes in two other battles on land until the Romans interfered and threatened Bithynia into giving up
Hannibal.[53] Hannibal also visited Tyre, the home of his
forefathers. However the Romans were determined to
hunt him down, and they insisted on his surrender .

During the war there are no reports of revolutions among

the Roman citizens, no factions with the Senate desiring peace, no pro-Carthaginian Roman turncoats, no
coups.[62][63] Indeed, throughout the war Roman aristocrats ferociously competed with each other for positions
of command to ght against Romes most dangerous enemy. Hannibals military genius was not enough to really
disturb the Roman political process and the collective political and military capacity of the Roman people. As
Lazenby states,
It says volumes, too, for their political
maturity and respect for constitutional forms

10

7
that the complicated machinery of government
continued to function even amidst disaster
there are few states in the ancient world in
which a general who had lost a battle like
Cannae would have dared to remain, let alone
would have continued to be treated respectfully
as head of state.[64]

LEGACY

tributed to Polybius, however, is more troublesome, since

he was clearly sympathetic towards Hannibal. Nevertheless, Polybius spent a long period as a hostage in Italy
and relied heavily on Roman sources, so there remains
the possibility that he reproduced elements of Roman
propaganda.

According to the historian Livy, the Romans feared Han- 7 Legacy

nibals military genius, and during Hannibals march
against Rome in 211 BC[65] a messenger who had trav- 7.1 Military history
elled from Fregellae for a day and a night without stopping created great alarm in Rome, and the excitement was
increased by people running about the City with wildly
exaggerated accounts of the news he had brought. The
wailing cry of the matrons was heard everywhere, not
only in private houses but even in the temples. Here they
knelt and swept the temple-oors with their dishevelled
hair and lifted up their hands to heaven in piteous entreaty
to the gods that they would deliver the City of Rome out
of the hands of the enemy and preserve its mothers and
children from injury and outrage.[65] In the Senate the
news was received with varying feelings as mens temperaments diered,[65] so it was decided to keep Capua
under siege, but to send 15,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry The material of legend: in Snow-storm: Hannibal and his Army
as reinforcements to Rome.[65]
Crossing the Alps, J.M.W. Turner envelops Hannibals crossing
According to Livy, the land occupied by Hannibals army of the Alps in Romantic atmosphere.
outside Rome in 211 BC was sold at the very time of
its occupation and for the same price.[66] This may not Hannibal is generally regarded as one of the best milibe true but as Lazenby states, could well be, exemplify- tary strategists and tacticians of all time, the double ening as it does not only the supreme condence felt by the velopment at Cannae an enduring legacy of tactical brilRomans in ultimate victory, but also the way in which liance. According to Appian, several years after the Secsomething like normal life continued.[67] After Cannae ond Punic War, Hannibal served as a political advisor
the Romans showed a considerable steadfastness in ad- in the Seleucid Kingdom and Scipio was sent there on
versity. An undeniable proof of Romes condence is a diplomatic mission from Rome.
demonstrated by the fact that after the Cannae disaster she was left virtually defenseless, but the Senate still
It is said that at one of their meetings in
chose not to withdraw a single garrison from an overseas
the gymnasium Scipio and Hannibal had a conprovince to strengthen the city. In fact, they were reinversation on the subject of generalship, in the
forced and the campaigns there maintained until victory
presence of a number of bystanders, and that
was secured; beginning rst in Sicily under the direction
Scipio asked Hannibal whom he considered the
of Claudius Marcellus, and later in Hispania under Scipio
greatest general, to which the latter replied,
Africanus.[68][69] Although the long-term consequences
"Alexander of Macedonia".
of Hannibals war are debatable, this war was undeniably
To this Scipio assented since he also
Romes nest hour.[70][71]
yielded the rst place to Alexander. Then he
Most of the sources available to historians about Hannibal are from Romans. They considered him the greatest
enemy Rome had ever faced. Livy gives us the idea that
he was extremely cruel. Even Cicero, when he talked
of Rome and its two great enemies, spoke of the honourable Pyrrhus and the cruel Hannibal. Yet a dierent picture is sometimes revealed. When Hannibals successes had brought about the death of two Roman consuls, he vainly searched for the body of Gaius Flaminius
Nepos on the shores of Lake Trasimene, held ceremonial
rituals in recognition of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, and sent
Marcellus' ashes back to his family in Rome. Any bias at-

asked Hannibal whom he placed next, and he

replied, "Pyrrhus of Epirus", because he considered boldness the rst qualication of a general; for it would not be possible, he said, to
nd two kings more enterprising than these.
Scipio was rather nettled by this, but nevertheless he asked Hannibal to whom he would
give the third place, expecting that at least the
third would be assigned to him; but Hannibal
replied, to myself; for when I was a young
man I conquered Hispania and crossed the Alps
with an army, the rst after Hercules.

7.1

Military history
As Scipio saw that he was likely to prolong
his self-laudation he said, laughing, where
would you place yourself, Hannibal, if you
had not been defeated by me?" Hannibal, now
perceiving his jealousy, replied, in that case
I should have put myself before Alexander.
Thus Hannibal continued his self-laudation,
but attered Scipio in an indirect manner by
suggesting that he had conquered one who was
the superior of Alexander.
At the end of this conversation Hannibal invited Scipio to be his guest, and Scipio
replied that he would be so gladly if Hannibal
were not living with Antiochus, who was held
in suspicion by the Romans. Thus did they,
in a manner worthy of great commanders, cast
aside their enmity at the end of their wars.[72]

Military academies all over the world continue to study

Hannibals exploits (especially his victory at Cannae).

11
Africans, Iberians and Gauls. Again, all we
know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated him
so much that they could not do him justice.
Livy speaks of his great qualities, but he adds
that his vices were equally great, among which
he singles out his more than Punic perdy and
an inhuman cruelty. For the rst there would
seem to be no further justication than that he
was consummately skillful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe,
no more ground than that at certain crises he
acted in the general spirit of ancient warfare.
Sometimes he contrasts most favorably with his
enemy. No such brutality stains his name as
that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that
he was accused of cruelty by the Romans and
of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed
bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous
struggle against destiny. For steadfastness of
purpose, for organizing capacity and a mastery
of military science he has perhaps never had an
equal.[73]
Even the Roman chroniclers acknowledged Hannibals
supreme military leadership, writing that, he never required others to do what he could and would not do
himself.[74] According to Polybius 23, 13, p. 423:

Hannibals celebrated feat in crossing the Alps with war elephants

passed into European legend: detail of a fresco by Jacopo Ripanda, ca. 1510, Capitoline Museums, Rome.

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, in his article in the

1911 Encyclopdia Britannica, praises Hannibal in these
words:
As to the transcendent military genius of
Hannibal there cannot be two opinions. The
man who for fteen years could hold his ground
in a hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able generals
must have been a commander and a tactician
of supreme capacity. In the use of strategies and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all
other generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his
achievements were, we must marvel the more
when we take into account the grudging support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize fresh
levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny
in his army, composed though it was of North

It is a remarkable and very cogent proof of

Hannibals having been by nature a real leader
and far superior to anyone else in statesmanship, that though he spent seventeen years in
the eld, passed through so many barbarous
countries, and employed to aid him in desperate and extraordinary enterprises numbers of
men of dierent nations and languages, no one
ever dreamt of conspiring against him, nor was
he ever deserted by those who had once joined
him or submitted to him.
Count Alfred von Schlieen developed his eponymously
titled "Schlieen Plan" (1905/1906) from his military
studies, with a particularly heavy emphasis on the envelopment technique which Hannibal employed to surround and destroy the Roman army at Cannae.[75][76]
George S. Patton believed himself a reincarnation of
Hannibal as well as of many other people, including a Roman legionary and a Napoleonic soldier.[77][78] Norman
Schwarzkopf, the commander of the Coalition Forces in
the Gulf War of 1990-1991, claimed: The technology of
war may change, the sophistication of weapons certainly
changes. But those same principles of war that applied to
the days of Hannibal apply today.[79]
According to the military historian Theodore Ayrault
Dodge,

12

7
Hannibal excelled as a tactician. No battle in history is a ner sample of tactics than
Cannae. But he was yet greater in logistics and
strategy. No captain ever marched to and fro
among so many armies of troops superior to
his own numbers and material as fearlessly and
skillfully as he. No man ever held his own so
long or so ably against such odds. Constantly
overmatched by better soldiers, led by generals
always respectable, often of great ability, he yet
deed all their eorts to drive him from Italy,
for half a generation. Excepting in the case of
Alexander, and some few isolated instances, all
wars up to the Second Punic War, had been decided largely, if not entirely, by battle-tactics.
Strategic ability had been comprehended only
on a minor scale. Armies had marched towards
each other, had fought in parallel order, and
the conqueror had imposed terms on his opponent. Any variation from this rule consisted
in ambuscades or other stratagems. That war
could be waged by avoiding in lieu of seeking battle; that the results of a victory could be
earned by attacks upon the enemys communications, by ank-maneuvers, by seizing positions from which safely to threaten him in case
he moved, and by other devices of strategy, was
not understood... [However] For the rst time
in the history of war, we see two contending
generals avoiding each other, occupying impregnable camps on heights, marching about
each others anks to seize cities or supplies
in their rear, harassing each other with smallwar, and rarely venturing on a battle which
might prove a fatal disasterall with a wellconceived purpose of placing his opponent at a
strategic disadvantage... That it did so was due
to the teaching of Hannibal.[8]

7.2

Hannibal in literature

Hannibals name occurs commonly in later art and popular culture, an objective measure of his considerable inuence on Western history.
As with other military leaders, Hannibals victories
against superior forces in an ultimately losing cause won
him enduring fame that outlasted his native North Africa.
His crossing of the Alps remains one of the most monumental military feats of ancient warfare[80] and has since
captured the imagination of the world (romanticized by
several artworks).
List of derivative works (novels unless otherwise noted):
29 to 19 BC: Upon her death in Virgil's epic poem
the Aeneid, Dido, Queen of Carthage, warns of a
Carthaginian who will avenge her. By almost all

LEGACY

A ca. 1817 French Empire mantel clock depicting Hannibal by

Denire et Matelin. Currently displayed in the Blue Room of the
White House.

critical accounts, this predicts the wars of Hannibal

against Rome.
written 1308-1321, Dantes Divine Comedy, poem,
Inferno XXXI.97-132, 115-124 (Battle of Zama)
and Paradiso VI
1726, Gullivers Travels, satirical work
1862, Gustave Flaubert's Salammb, set in Carthage
at the time of Hamilcar Barca. Hannibal appears as
a child.
1887, G. A. Henty's The Young Carthaginian
tells the story of Hannibal and the Second Punic
War from the perspective of the ctional character
Malchus, a cousin of Hannibal.
1996, Elisabeth Craft, A Spy for Hannibal: A Novel
of Carthage, 091015533X
19962000, Ross Leckie, Carthage trilogy, source
of the 2008 lm (1996, Hannibal: A Novel, ISBN 089526-443-9 ; 1999, Scipio, a Novel, ISBN 0-34911238-X ; Carthage, 2000, ISBN 0-86241-944-1)
2002, John Maddox Roberts, Hannibals Children,
ISBN 0-441-00933-6, an alternate history. In the
opening, Hannibal conquers Rome in 215 BC and
exiles the Romans from Italy. In 100 BC, Romans
visit Carthage, where the descendants of Hannibal
operate as hereditary rulers, using the title shofet.
2005, Terry McCarthy, The Sword of Hannibal,
ISBN 0-446-61517-X
2006, David Anthony Durham, Pride of Carthage:
A Novel of Hannibal, ISBN 0-385-72249-4

7.4

Hannibal in lm and on television

13

2006, Esther Friesner, First, Catch Your 7.4 Hannibal in lm and on television
Elephant, in Alternate Generals III, edited by
Harry Turtledove. This is a Monty Python-style 7.5 Comics
spoof replete with humorous anachronisms.
Hannibal (indulging) in (one) of those speeches
which are usually attributed by classical historians.
2006, Angela Render, Forged By Lightning: A Novel
(Gilbert Abbott Beckett)
of Hannibal and Scipio, ISBN 1-4116-8002-2
2008, Bill Mahaney, 'The WarmakerHannibals
Invasion of Italia and the Aftermath' ISBN 978-0595-48101-9
2011, Ben Kane, Hannibal: Enemy of Rome, Preface Publishing: London. Hannibal appears frequently in this novel set during the Second Punic
War and told from the points-of-view of two young
men, one Roman, one Carthaginian. Covers the
siege of Saguntum, the crossing of the Alps by Hannibals forces and the Battle of the Trebia.
2011, William Kelso, The Shield of Rome, 216
BC. The novel is set in the aftermath of Hannibals
stunning victory at Cannae and Romes heroic response.
In Poul Anderson's time travel story Delenda Est,
two adventurers from the future join Hannibals
army, use modern weapons to help him defeat the
Romans, but then assassinate Hannibal and take
over Carthage.

Hannibal crossing the Alps.

Hannibals Vow.
Hannibal whilst even yet a child swears eternal hatred to the Romans.
The webcomic Hannibal Goes to Rome serializes
Hannibals voyage in a humorous fashion.
In the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero comic by
Devils Due, Hannibal is genetically re-created by
Doctor Mindbender and becomes a member of The
Coil.
In Kouta Hirano's new Work Drifters he appears
as an old man alongside his Roman adversary
Africanus helping the Octo-brist against the Oscourings.
The comedian Hannibal Buress was named after
Hannibal.[81]
Mihachi Kaganos ongoing manga series Ad Astra Scipio to Hannibal depicts the rise of Hannibal and
his adversary Scipio.

One of the episodes in Erich Kstner's satire fantasy

The 35th of May, or Conrads Ride to the South Seas
depicts Hannibal in his afterlife being engaged in a 8 Timeline
erce war with General Wallenstein of the Thirty
Years war and emphasizes both generals callous Timeline of Hannibals life (248 BCc. 183 BC)
disregard for the lives of their soldiers - underlining
Kstners pacist views.

7.3

Hannibal in theatre and opera

In Hector Berlioz's 1858 opera Les Troyens (itself a

re-imagining of Virgil's Aeneid, above), he appears
in a vision to Dido just before she dies.
In Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical The Phantom of the Opera and its 2004 lm adaption, the
Paris Opera Populaire is in rehearsal for an opera by
the ctional composer Chalumeau about Hannibal
starring the humorous opera stars Piangi and Carlotta. This opera features the aria Think of Me,
sung by the character Elissa. Carlotta was supposed
to play Elissa; however, the Phantoms intimidation
of Carlotta causes her to forfeit the role in favor of
Christine Daa.

9 See also
Military of Carthage

10 Notes
[1] See death above.

11 References
[1] Lancel, Serge (1995) Hannibal cover: Roman bust of
Hannibal. Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Naples
[2] Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000) The Fall of Carthage cover:
Hannibal in later life

14

[3] Goldsworthy, Adrian (2001) Cannae p. 24: a bust, which

may be a representation of Hannibal in later life, although
there are no denite images of him
[4] Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003) The Complete Roman Army
p. 41: a bust that purports to show Hannibal in later life
[5] Matyszak, Philip (2003) Chronicle of the Roman Republic
p. 95: bust, thought to be of Hannibal, found in Capua
[6] Plutarch, and when asked what his choices would be if he
had beaten Scipio, he replied that he would be the best of
them all Life of Titus Flamininus 21.3-4.
[7] Plutarch, Life of Pyrrhus 8.2.
[8] Ayrault Dodge, Theodore (1995). Hannibal: A History
of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans
Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 BC. Da Capo Press.
[9] Benz, Franz L. 1982. Personal Names in the Phoenician
and Punic Inscriptions. P.313-314

11

REFERENCES

[26] Mahaney, W.C., 2008. Hannibals odyssey: Environmental Background to the Alpine Invasion of Italia.
Gorgias Press, Piscataway, N.J., 221 pp. ISBN 978-159333-951-7
[27] Lancel, Serge, Hannibal, p. 60
[28] Montgenvre: Peter Connolly, Hannibal and the Enemies
of Rome (1978); (extensive summary); Col de la Traversette: Gavin de Beer, Alps and Elephants and Napoleon
III; Mahaney 2008, Hannibals Odyssey; Environmental
Background to the Alpine Invasion of Italia"; Mont Cenis: Denis Proctor, Hannibals March in History. Other
theories include the Col de Clapier (Serge Lancel, Hannibal (1995) and the Col du Petit Saint Bernard (Barthold
Niebuhr).
[29] McMenamin, M. (2012). Depiction of the Alps on Punic
coins from Campania, Italy. Numismatics International
Bulletin 41 (1-2): 3033.
[30] Livy History of Rome book21,36

[10] Baier, Thomas. 2004. Studien zu Plautus Poenulus.

P.174

[31] Livy History of Rome, Book 21 sections 32-36

[11] Friedrich, Johannes, Wolfgang Rllig, Maria Giulia

Amadasi, and Werner R. Mayer. 1999. PhnizischPunische Grammatik. P.53.

[32] Mahaney, W.C., et al., 2009. The Traversette rockfall:

geomorphological reconstruction and importance in interpreting classical history. Archaeometry, v. 52, no. 1, p.
156-172.

[12] Brown, John Pairman. 2000. Israel and Hellas: Sacred

institutions with Roman counterparts. P.126128

[33] S. Lancel, Hannibal (1995; English translation 1999) page

60.

[13] Sullivan, Robert Joseph, A Dictionary of the English Language, p. 489.

[34] Dodge, Theodore. Hannibal. Cambridge Massachusetts:

De Capo Press, 1891 ISBN 0-306-81362-9

[14] S. Lancel, Hannibal p.6.

[35] Polybius, Histories, Book III, 77

[15] Ameling, Walter Karthago: Studien zu Militr, Staat und

Gesellschaft pp. 812
[16] Lancel, S. Hannibal p.6.

[36] John Selby Watson; Marcus Junianus; Justinus, Cornelius;

Nepos, Eutropius (1853). Justin, Cornelius Nepos, and
Eutropius: Literally Translated, with Notes. H. G. Bohn.
p. 420. Retrieved 23 July 2008.

[17] Reverse Spins Patton, the Second Coming of Hannibal.

[37] Polybius, Histories, Book III, p74

[18] Hilowitz, Beverley (1974). A Horizon guide: great historic

places of Europe. American Heritage Pub. Co., p. 119.
ISBN 0-07-028915-8

[38] Liddell Hart, B. H., Strategy, New York City, New York,
Penguin Group, 1967

[19] Hamilcar Barca. Retrieved 6 June 2011.

[39] USAWC Comparing Strategies of the 2nd Punic War by

James Parker. View as HTML

[20] The History of Rome: Vol III, by Livy

[21] Dodge, Theodore Ayrault, Hannibal: A History of the Art
of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the
Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C, p. 143
[22] Hoyos, D. Hannibals Dynasty: Power and Politics in the
Western Mediterranean, 247-183 BC, p.89-91, 2003
[23] Fagan, Garret G. The History of Ancient Rome. Lecture 13: The Second Punic War. Teaching Company,
Great Courses series.

[40] Goldsworthy, Adrian K. The Roman Army at War 100 BC

AD 200, New York
[41] Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.
[42] Cottrell, Leonard, Enemy of Rome, Evans Bros, 1965,
ISBN 0-237-44320-1
[43] Prevas, John, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. xv
[44] Chaplin, Jane Dunbar, Livys Exemplary History, p. 66

[24] Lancel, Serge, Hannibal, p. 225

[45] Polybius, The Histories of Polybius, 2 Vols., trans. Evelyn

S. Shuckburgh (London: Macmillan, 1889), I. 264-275.

[25] Prevas, John, Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of

Italy and the Second Punic War, p. 86

[46] Prevas, John, Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of

Italy and the Second Punic War, p. 200

15

[47] Pliny, tr. by Mary Beagon, The Elder Pliny on the Human
Animal, p 361
[48] 28.46. Gutenberg.org. 11 June 2004. Retrieved 6 June
2013.
[49] Scullard, H.H. Scipio Africanus: Soldier and Politician,
p.150, 1970. Gabriel, Richard. Scipio Africanus: Romes
Greatest General, p.192, 2008
[50] Aulus Gellius. "Noctes Atticae". Book V. v. 5. Satis,
plane satis esse credo Romanis haec omnia, etiamsi
avarissimi sunt.
[51] Bournoutian, George A. (2006). A Concise History of
the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present.
Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, p. 29. ISBN 1-56859-141-1.
[52] Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 10 and 11.

[74] Hannibal at CarpeNoctem.tv

[75] Daly, Gregory, Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the
Second Punic War, p. x
[76] Cottrell, Leonard, Hannibal: Enemy of Rome, p. 134
[77] Any man who thinks he is the reincarnation of Hannibal or some such isn't quite possessed of all his buttons,
quoted by D'Este, Carlo, in Patton: A Genius For War, p.
815
[78] Hirshson, Stanley, General Patton: A Soldiers Life, p. 163
[79] Carlton, James, The Military Quotation Book, New York
City, New York, Thomas Dunne Books, 2002
[80] Hannibal, Carthaginian general, The Columbia Encyclopedia Archived 15 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine.

[53] Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 12.

[54] Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.11.11. Perseus
Digital Library. Retrieved 10 April 2016. |rst1= missing
|last1= in Authors list (help)

[81] http://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/
April-2014/Hannibal-Buress-Comedian/

Sources

[55] Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 12.5; Juvenal, Satires X.164

[56] Mellor, Ronald (1999). The Roman historians. Routledge, p.70. ISBN 0-415-11773-9
[57] Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 13.1
[58] Otherwise unknown author; see The Fragments of the Roman Historians, vol. I, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
2014, p. 429
[59] Alan Emrich, Practical Latin
[60] Holland, Rome and her Enemies 8
[61] Livy, The War With Hannibal 22.61
[62] Lazenby, Hannibals War 237-8
[63] Goldsworthy, The Fall of Carthage 315

This article incorporates text from a publication

now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911). "Hannibal (general)". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

12 Further reading
Baker, George P. (1929). Hannibal. New York:
Dodd, Mead.
Bickerman, Elias J. (1952). Hannibals Covenant.
American Journal of Philology 73 (1): 123.
doi:10.2307/292232.

[64] J. F. Lazenby, The Hannibalic War, 254

Bradford, Ernle; Scullard, H.H. (1981). Hannibal.

New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-007064-4.

[65] Livys History of Rome. Mcadams.posc.mu.edu. Retrieved 6 June 2013.

Cary, M. (1975). A history of Rome down to the

reign of Constantine (3rd ed.). London: Macmillan.

[66] Livy, The War with Hannibal, 26.11

Caven, Brian (1980). The Punic Wars. New York:

St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-65580-0.

[67] J.F. Lazenby, The Hannibalic War, p. 254

[68] Bagnall, The Punic Wars 203
[69] Lazenby, Hannibals War 235
[70] Lazenby Hannibals War 254
[71] Goldsworthy The Fall of Carthage 366-7)
[72] Appian, History of the Syrian Wars, 10 and 11 at
Livius.org
[73]

Caspari, M.O.B. (1911). "Hannibal (general)". In

Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press.

Cottrell, Leonard (1992). Hannibal : enemy of

Rome. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-30680498-0.
Daly, Gregory (2002). Cannae : the experience of
battle in the second Punic War. London: Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-32743-1.
De Beer, Gavin (1969). Hannibal: Challenging
Romes Supremacy. New York: Viking Press.
Garland, Robert (2010). Hannibal. London: Bristol
Classical Press. ISBN 978-1-85399-725-9.

16

13

Delbrck, Hans (1990). Warfare in antiquity. Walter J. Renfroe, trans. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska
Press. ISBN 0-8032-9199-X.
Dodge, Theodore Ayrault (1891).
Boston: Houghton Miin.

Hannibal.

Hoyos, Dexter (2003). Hannibals dynasty power

and politics in the western Mediterranean, 247-183
BC. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-41782-8.
Hoyos, Dexter (2008). Hannibal : Romes greatest
enemy. Exeter: Bristol Phoenix Press. ISBN 1904675-46-8.
Lamb, Harold (1958). Hannibal: one man against
Rome. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Lancel, Serge Lancel (1999). Hannibal. Antonia
Nevill, trans. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-63121848-3.
Livy (1972). Radice, Betty, ed. The war with Hannibal : books XXI-XXX of the History of Rome from
its foundation. Aubrey De Slincourt, trans. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044145-X.
Livy (2006). Hannibals war : books twenty-one to
thirty. J. C. Yardley, trans. Oxford: Oxford Univ.
Press. ISBN 0-19-283159-3.
MacDonald, Eve. Hannibal: A Hellenistic Life (Yale
UP, 2015) online review
Mahaney, William (2008). Hannibals odyssey: environmental background to the alpine invasion of
Italia. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN 9781-59333-951-7.
Prevas, John (2001). Hannibal crosses the Alps : the
invasion of Italy and the Punic Wars. Cambridge,
MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81070-0.
Sinnigen, William G.; Boak, Arthur E. (1977). A
history of Rome to A.D. 565 (6th ed.). New York:
Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-410800-6.
Starr, Chester G. (1971). The ancient Romans.
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19501455-3.
Talbert, Richard J.A., ed. (1985). Atlas of classical
history. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-03463-9.
Toynbee, Arnold (1965). Hannibals Legacy. London: Oxford University Press.
Nado, Greg (1984). Greenhaven Encyclopedia of
Ancient Rome. San Diego: Greenhaven Publishing
Inc.
Mark, Joshua. The Price of Greed: Hannibals Betrayal by Carthage. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Retrieved 20 December 2011.

EXTERNAL LINKS

13 External links
History Blog: Hannibal at Tips.FM
The Biography of Hannibal
Hannibal by Jacob Abbott
Hannibals life by Cornelius Nepos, Latin transcription and translation to German
The History of Hannibal
Hannibal at FactBehindFiction.com
Hannibal Barca (Character) at the Internet Movie
Database

17

14
14.1

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Agnichuck, Valetude, HistoryAddict2000, Grgman13, UserUserUser33333, Nickwalton 12, Erikwesley, Vieque, TheEpicChefWhoBakesDemCookies, Jim Carter, Davidking018d, Thedarknight rises, Sango360, Hejligan, Raulalbertopenaranda, KH-1, RegistryKey, Cnmcrile, Mitchell893, Jonathan Marko, Beastmodebiso12, BossManMatt, Thetruthhurts101, Bronze2018, Muzz4000, Jack Alex Barras
Stephenson, Tounsimentounes, KasparBot, Cristiano64, Luke1358, IOHANNVSVERVS, JJMC89, Torster2, ChemicalGash, Dilidor,
Muskal79, Kanjuzi, Susanne44, Hfyfjfyhfhhg, TheCreatorOfImage, Luke Is My Penguin7, Qzd, Liquidsnake007, Thebestestaround,
Pppppppeeeeeeoooooooooooooppppppp;;;;;;;;;;weeeeeeeeeeeeeee and Anonymous: 1583

14.2

Images

File:Battle_cannae_destruction.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Battle_cannae_destruction.png License: Public domain Contributors: The Department of History, United States Military Academy [1] Original artist: Frank Martini. Cartographer, Department of History, United States Military Academy
File:Battle_of_lake_trasimene.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Battle_of_lake_trasimene.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: The Department of History, United States Military Academy [1] Original artist: Frank Martini.
Cartographer, Department of History, United States Military Academy
File:Battle_trebia.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Battle_trebia-en.png License: Public domain Contributors: The Department of History, United States Military Academy Department of History, United States Military Academy. Original
artist: Frank Martini. Cartographer, Department of History, United States Military Academy
File:Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_202_aC.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Campagna_
africana_di_Scipione_202_aC.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cristiano64
File:DenireetMatelin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Deni%C3%A9reetMatelin.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Gurin_ne_racontant__Didon_les_malheurs_de_la_ville_de_Troie_Louvre_5184.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Gu%C3%A9rin_%C3%89n%C3%A9e_racontant_%C3%A0_Didon_les_malheurs_de_la_ville_de_
Troie_Louvre_5184.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei, DVD-ROM, 2002,
ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH (permission). Image renamed from Image:Pierre-Narcisse Gurin
001.jpg Original artist: Pierre-Narcisse Gurin
File:Hannibal3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Hannibal3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/
HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Source: antmoose, June 4 2005 Released to Creative
Commons by the photographer Original artist: user:Liftarn

14.3

Content license

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File:Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093.jpg Source:
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Louvre_MR2093.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Sbastien Slodtz (French, 16551726)
File:Hannibal_route_of_invasion.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Hannibal_route_of_invasion.gif
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: The Department of History, United States Military Academy [1] Original artist: Frank Martini.
Cartographer, Department of History, United States Military Academy
File:Isis_priest01_pushkin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Isis_priest01_pushkin.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:shakko
File:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_081.jpg Source:
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William_Turner_081.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002.
ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: J. M. W. Turner
File:Mommsen_p265.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Mommsen_p265.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Rmische Geschichte, gekrzte Ausgabe (1932) Original artist: 1932 by Phaidon Verlag (Wien-Leipzig)
File:Slaget_ved_Zama_-_Cornelis_Cort,_1567.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Slaget_ved_
Zama_-_Cornelis_Cort%2C_1567.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.hunterian.gla.ac.uk/whatson/whatsOnItem.php?
item=275 Original artist: Cornelis Cort
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

14.3

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