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5.1.
Aggregate tests
Aggregates are obtained from different sources and consequently differ considerably in their
constitutions; inevitably they differ also with regard to their engineering properties. The
properties of aggregate that are important for road construction include its gradation,
resistance to crushing and abrasion, durability, specific gravity, water absorption, propensity
to polish, and the size and shape of the aggregate particles. Aggregate tests are necessary to
determine the suitability of the material for a specific use and to make sure that the required
properties are consistently within specification limits. The following sub-sections discuss
important tests of aggregates and their significance of application; detailed test procedures can
be found in manuals of material testing standards.
Gradation test. Gradation is the characteristic of aggregates on which perhaps the greatest
stress is placed in specifications for highway bases, cement concretes, and asphalt mixes.
Hence, gradation test, also called sieve analysis, screen analysis or mechanical analysis, is the
most common test performed on aggregates to evaluate the suitability of the aggregate
materials with respect to their grain size distribution for a specific use. Gradation is
determined by separating the aggregates into portions, which are retained on a number of
sieves or screens having specified openings, which are suitably graded from coarse to fine.
The results obtained may be expressed either as total percentage passing or retained on each
sieve or as the percentages retained between successive sieves.
The theoretical maximum density of aggregates is obtained when the grain size distribution
follow the Fuller maximum density equation of the form
d
p 100
D
in which, p is the percent passing sieve size "d", "D' represents the maximum sieve size in
the material, and n is a constant which varies between 0. 45 and 0.5. The assumption in this
relationship is that the voids between the larger particles are filled with still smaller particles,
until the smallest voids are filled with a small amount of fines. Strength, or resistance to shear
failure, in road bases and other aggregate layers that carry load is increased greatly if the
mixture is dense graded. The larger particles are in contact with each other, developing
frictional resistance to shearing failure, and tightly bound together due to the interlocking
effect of the smaller particles. When aggregate particles are to be bound together by cement or
bitumen, a variation in the grading of an aggregate will result in a change in the amount of
binder required to produce a material of given stability and quality. Proper aggregate grading
contributes to the uniformity, workability and plasticity of the material as it is mixed.
Often the fines content must be limited, because they are relatively weak, and require an
excessive amount of binder to cover them. If fines are present as dust on larger particles, they
weaken the bond between the cement and those particles. Fines in highway bases may lead to
drainage and frost- heaving problems. Also, excessive amounts of fines (or smaller sizes of
aggregates) may result in weak mixtures, as the large particles are not in contact with each
other. The strength of the mixture would then depend only on friction between the small
particles, which is much less than between large particles. In practice, the required gradation
is not found naturally, particularly, if the aggregates are pit-run materials. In such cases,
combining two or more aggregates of different sources satisfies the gradation requirement for
a specific use.
Aggregate Crushing Test. Aggregate crushing test evaluates the resistance of aggregates
against the gradually applied load. The test is used to evaluate the crushing strength of
available supplies of rock, and in construction, to make sure that minimum specified values
are maintained. The test is undertaken using a metal plunger to apply gradually a standard 40
tonnes load to a sample of the aggregate (10 14 mm) contained in a standard test mould.
The amount of material passing 2.36 mm sieve in percentage of the total weight of the sample
is referred to as the Aggregate Crushing value (ACV). Over the range of normal road making
aggregates, ACVs vary from 5 percent for hard aggregates to 30 percent for weaker
aggregates. For weaker aggregates than this, the same apparatus is used to evaluate the Ten
Percent Fines value i.e. the load which produces 10 percent of fines passing 2.36 mm sieve.
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The value is obtained by interpolating of the percentage of fines produced over a range of test
loads.
Aggregate Impact Test. This test is a means of evaluating the resistance of aggregates to
sudden impact loading. It is carried out by filling a steel test mould with a sample of
aggregate (10 14 mm) and then the impact load applied is by dropping hammer at a height
of 380 mm. The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) is the percentage of fines passing 2.36 mm
sieve after 15 blows. This test produces results that are normally about 105 per cent of the
ACV and it can be used for the same purposes. Both tests give results which are sufficiently
repeatable and reproducible for contract specifications.
Abrasion Test. Abrasion test is the test used to know how the aggregate is sufficiently hard to
resist the abrasive effect of traffic over its service life. The most widely used abrasion test is
the Los Angeles Abrasion Test which involves the use of a steel drum, revolving on
horizontal axis, into which the test sample of chippings is loaded together with steel balls of
46.8 mm diameter. The Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAV) is the percentage of fines passing
the 1.7 mm sieve after a specified number of revolutions of the drum at specified speed. The
drum is fitted with internal baffles causing the aggregate and the steel balls to be lifted and
then fall as the drum revolves. The test therefore gives an indication of the impact strength in
combination with the abrasion resistance of the aggregate. For bituminous surface dressings,
chippings with an ACV less than 30 are desirable and the stronger they are the more durable
will be the dressings. With premixed bituminous materials and with crushed stone bases, high
mechanical strength, though useful, is not always of paramount importance. The repeatability
and reproducibility of this test are satisfactory and appropriate for use in contract
specifications.
Soundness Test. This test procedure is useful in both survey and design for the evaluation of
aggregates to resist disintegration due to weathering. A sample of aggregate is saturated in a
solution of magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate, and then removed and dried in an oven.
This process is repeated for five cycles. On completion, the percentage lost gives the
durability of the material. The test is not suitable for providing a single criterion for the
susceptibility of aggregates to rapid weathering but it may find a place as part of the
evaluation procedure of aggregates suspected of containing minerals that are weakened by
chemical alteration.
Specific Gravity and Water Absorption. The tests are likely to be used both in surveys of
aggregate resources and in design, particularly in the interpretation of compaction tests and in
the design of bituminous mixtures. They may also be used as part of quality control during
construction, particularly when the survey has indicated that aggregate from the chosen source
is subject to variations in density. The test procedure is simple and the tests are repeatable and
reproducible.
Most rocks absorb less than one per cent by weight of water and, up to this level, water
absorption is of no great consequence. However, some rocks can absorb up to 4 percent of
water. This suggests that the rock may be of low mechanical strength and will be difficult to
dry and heat during processing to make bituminous mixtures. Inadequate drying will cause
difficulty in securing good adhesion between bitumen and stone, and in hot process mixtures,
where the stone must be heated to about 180oC, it causes a large waste of energy.
In the tests, a 4 kilogram sample of the crushed rock of specific nominal size chippings is
soaked in distilled water for 24 hours, weighed in water (WW), surface dried and weighed in
air (WS). It is then oven dried at 105oC for 24 hours and weighed again in air (WD). The
specific gravity and the water absorption are then obtained as follows:
Specific gravity
WD
WD Ww
WS WD
100
WD
Shape Tests. Three mechanical measures of particle shape which may be included in the
specifications for aggregates for road construction, are the flakiness index, elongation index
and angularity number. The flakiness index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of
particles whose least thickness is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension. The mean
dimension, as used in each instance, is the average of two adjacent sieve aperture sizes
between which the particle being measured is retained by sieving. The elongation index of an
aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest length is greater than 1.8
times their mean dimension. The angularity number of an aggregate is the amount, to the
nearest whole number, by which the percentage of voids exceeds 33 when an aggregate is
compacted in a specified manner in a standardized metal cylinder.
Use of the shape tests in specifications is based on the view that the shapes of the particles
influence both the strength of aggregate particles and internal friction that can be developed in
the aggregate mass. Since, other factors being equal, an aggregate composed of smooth
rounded particles of a certain gradation will contain less voids than one of the same grading
but composed of angular particles, the angularity of an aggregate can be reflected in terms of
the volume of contained voids when the aggregate is compacted. Measurements show that the
angularity number may range from zero for a material of highly rounded beach-gravel
particles to 10 or more for newly crushed rock aggregate.
5.1.3.
Blending aggregates
where, A and B are percentages from aggregates A and B to be blended for satisfying the
specification limits. a and b are the respective sieve analysis values for a given sieve X,
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expressed as a decimal fraction, and T is the sieve analysis value in the blended aggregate.
The equation can be used for gradation expressions
1. Percentage retained on a given sieve,
2. Percentage passing on a given sieve, and
3. Percentage retained on two or more sieves.
The result of this equation is used to proportion the 1st trial blend for the trial-and-error
method. The second and the subsequent blends are proportioned by observation until the
specification is satisfied. In the above illustration, the equation can be written for the No.10
sieve, % passing, as:
a p Ap b p B p T p
in which the subscript p indicates the percentage passing. The known variables here are ap =
0, bp = 1, and Tp = 48%, which implies that B = 48%. For percent retained, the equation can
be written as:
ar Ar br Br Tr
in which the subscript r indicates the percentage retained. The known variables here are ar =
1, br = 0, and Tr = 52%, which implies that A = 52%.
Example 5- 1. Three aggregates are to be blended to meet a specification. The aggregates,
gradations, and the specification are given in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2. Aggregate gradation and specification for Example 5- 1
Sieve size
Passing 12.5 mm
9.5 mm
4.75 mm
2.36 mm
1.18 mm
600 m
300 m
150 m
75 m
Aggregate
A
100
62
8
2
0
Aggregate
B
Aggregate
C
100
91
73
51
24
4
1
100
78
52
36
29
24
20
18
Specification
Spec.
Mid-point
100
72-88
45-65
30-60
25-55
16-40
8-25
4-12
3-6
100
80
55
45
40
28
16.5
8
4.5
Combined
gradation
(1st trial)
100
79
46
34
25
18
11
6
5
Solution. Most of coarse aggregate will come from aggregate A and most of the fines will be
obtained from aggregate C. To obtain a mixture that is approximately in the middle of the
specification, we first use the equation and continue with more trials. The equation can be
written to blend aggregate A, B, and C for retained on 9.5 mm sieve and passing 75 m sieve
as follows:
aA bB cC T
For retained materials on 9.5 mm sieve, the known variables are ar = 0.38, br = 0, cr = 0 and
Tr = 20%, which implies that A = 53%. Similarly, for passing 75 m, the known variables are
ap = 0, bp = 0, cp = 0.18 and Tp = 4.5%, which results C = 25%, and B = 100 53 25 = 22.
The first trial blend as seen in Table 5-2 is within the specification limit, but on the coarse side.
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Reducing the contribution of aggregate A and increasing B, or C or both for the second and
the subsequent trials can result a blend more close to the middle of the specification.
5.2.
Unbound base and subbase courses in pavement structures are granular materials from sand or
gravel deposits or crushed rock from quarries without admixtures. The required properties of
these materials vary with the type of pavement and the depth of the material in the pavement
structure. Materials in the subbase layer should mainly satisfy gradation requirements to
prevent the intrusion of fine particles, and improve the subsurface drainage. Load-bearing
capacity is also important, particularly when the layer is used as a construction platform. In a
base layer, load-carrying capacity is of primary importance particularly when it is constructed
over subbase layer. If it is constructed directly over the subgrade, material properties should
in addition satisfy what is normally required of the subbase layer.
Different standard methods of design specify materials of construction differently considering
the traffic load, locally available materials, and environmental conditions. The following
describes the different unbound pavement materials for base and subbase courses as specified
in Road Note 31 (TRL) and adapted in the design manual drafted by ERA (2001).
5.2.1.
Base course
Graded crushed aggregate. This material is produced by crushing fresh, quarried rock usually
termed a 'crusher-run', or alternatively the material may be separated by screening and
recombined to produce a desired particle size distribution, as per the specifications. The rock
used for crushed aggregates should be hard and durable. Laboratory and field experiences
have shown that crushed particles have, in general, more stability than rounded materials due
to primarily to added grain interlock. In addition, crushed materials possess high coefficient of
permeability. Alternate gradation limits, depending on the local conditions for a particular
project, are shown in Table 5-3. After crushing, the material should be angular in shape with a
Flakiness Index of less than 35%, and preferably of less than 30%. In constructing a crushed
stone base course, the aim should be to achieve maximum impermeability compatible with
good compaction and high stability under traffic.
Table 5-3. Grading limits for graded crushed stone base course materials
Test sieve (mm)
50
37.5
28
20
10
5
2.36
0.425
0.075 1
To ensure that the materials are sufficiently durable, they should satisfy the criteria given in
Table 5-4.These are a minimum Ten Per Cent Fines Value (TFV) and limits on the maximum
loss in strength following a period of 24 hours of soaking in water. Alternatively, if
requirements expressed in terms of the results of the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) are
used, the ACV should preferably be less than 25 and in any case less than 29. Other simpler
tests e.g. the Aggregate Impact Test may be used in quality control testing provided a
relationship between the results of the chosen test and the TFV has been determined. Unique
relationships do not exist between the results of the various tests but good correlations can be
established for individual material types and these need to be determined locally.
The in situ dry density of the placed material should be a minimum of 98% of the maximum
dry density obtained in the Heavy Compaction. The compacted thickness of each layer should
not exceed 200 mm. Crushed stone base materials described above should have CBR values
well in excess of 100 per cent, and fines passing 0.425 mm sieve should be nonplastic.
Table 5-4. Mechanical strength requirements for crushed stone base defined by TFV
Typical annual rainfall
(Mm)
>500
<500
Minimum 10%
fines values (kN)
110
110
Minimum ratio
wet/dry Test (%)
75
60
Normal requirements for natural gravels and weathered rocks. A wide range of materials
including lateritic, calcareous and quartzitic gravels, river gravels, boulders and other
transported gravels, or granular materials resulting from the weathering of rocks can be used
successfully as base course materials. Table 5-5 contains three recommended particle size
distributions for suitable materials corresponding to maximum nominal sizes of 37.5 mm, 20
mm and 10 mm. When the traffic is in excess of 1.5x106 ESA, only the two larger sizes
should be considered.
Table 5-5. Recommended particle size distributions for base course material
Test sieve (mm)
50
37.5
20
10
5
2.36
0.425
0.075
For materials whose stability decreases with breakdown, an aggregate hardness based on a
minimum soaked TFV of 50 kN may be specified. The fines of these materials should
preferably be nonplastic but should normally never exceed a PI of 6. If the PI approaches the
upper limit of 6, it is desirable that the fines content be restricted to the lower end of the
range. To ensure this, a maximum Plasticity Product (PP) of 60 is recommended or
alternatively a maximum Plasticity Modulus (PM) of 90 where:
PP = PI x (percentage passing the 0.075 mm sieve)
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The sub-base is an important load spreading layer which enables traffic stresses to be reduced
to acceptable levels on the subgrade. It also acts as a working platform for the construction of
the upper pavement layers separating the subgrade and base course. Under special
circumstances, it may serve as a filter or as a drainage layer. The selection of sub-base
materials depends on the design function of the layer and the anticipated moisture regime,
both in service and at construction.
Bearing capacity. A minimum CBR of 30 per cent is required at the highest anticipated
moisture content when compacted to the specified field density, usually a minimum of 95 per
cent of the maximum dry density achieved in the Heavy Compaction. Under conditions of
good drainage and when the water table is not near the ground surface the field moisture
content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture (Light
Compaction). In such conditions, the sub-base material should be tested in the laboratory in
an unsaturated state. If saturation of the sub-base is likely, the bearing capacity should be
determined on samples soaked in water for a period of four days. Materials which meet the
recommendations of Table 5-6 and Table 5-7 will usually be found to have adequate bearing
capacity.
Use as a construction platform. In many circumstances the requirements of a sub-base are
governed by its ability to support construction traffic without excessive deformation or
ravelling. A high quality sub-base is therefore required where loading or climatic conditions
during construction are severe. Suitable material should possess properties similar to those of
a good surfacing material for unpaved roads. The material should be well graded and have a
plasticity index at the lower end of the appropriate range for an ideal unpaved road wearing
course under the prevailing climatic conditions. These considerations form the basis of the
criteria given in Table 5-6 and Table 5-7. Material meeting the requirements for severe
conditions will usually be of higher quality than the standard sub-base material.
In the construction of low-volume roads, where cost savings at construction are particularly
important, local experience is often invaluable and a wider range of materials may often be
found to be acceptable. In Ethiopia, laterite is one of the widely available materials and can be
used as a sub-base material. Laterite meeting the gradation requirements of Table 5-7 can be
used for traffic levels up to 3x106 ESA provided the following criteria is satisfied:
Plasticity Index (%)
Plasticity Modulus (PM)
CBR (%)
< 25
< 500
> 30
Typical Annual
Rainfall
>500mm
>500mm
<500mm
Liquid
Limit
<35
<45
<55
Plasticity
Index
<6
<12
<20
Linear
Shrinkage
<3
<6
<10
Filter or separating layer. This may be required to protect a drainage layer from blockage by
a finer material or to prevent migration of fines and the mixing of two layers. The two
functions are similar except that for use as a filter the material needs to be capable of allowing
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drainage to take place and therefore the amount of material passing the 0.075 mm sieve must
be restricted.
The following criteria should be used to evaluate a subbase as a separating or filter layer:
a)
where D15 is the sieve size through which 15% by weight of the material passes and D85 is
the sieve size through which 85% passes.
b)
For a filter to possess the required drainage characteristics a further requirement is:
c)
These criteria may be applied to the materials at both the base course/sub-base and the subbase/subgrade interfaces.
5.2.3.
These materials are often required to provide sufficient cover on weak subgrades. They are
used in the lower pavement layers as a substitute for a thick sub-base to reduce costs, and a
cost comparison should be conducted to assess their cost effectiveness.
The requirements are less strict than for sub-bases. A minimum CBR of 15 per cent is
specified at the highest anticipated moisture content measured on samples compacted in the
laboratory at the specified field density. This density is usually specified as a minimum of 95
per cent of the maximum dry density in the Heavy Compaction. Recommended gradings or
plasticity criteria are not given for these materials. However, it is desirable to select
reasonably homogeneous materials since overall pavement behavior is often enhanced by this.
The selection of materials which show the least change in bearing capacity from dry to wet is
also beneficial.
5.2.4.
Gravel surface roads are generally roads which are constructed and maintained at low cost using
locally available materials in the near vicinity of the site. Coarse well graded gravel is a very
satisfactory material for constructing cheap all-weather roads. This type of construction is designed for
AADT between 350 and 400 and when the weight of the individual vehicle is in the order of 10 ton.
Beyond these, they often become not economical. At higher traffic the following problems such as
surface pitting, the formation of transverse corrugation, high cost of replacing or grading, and dust
may occur.
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The general soil-aggregate mixture used for constructing gravel roads should be stable
(support the loads without detrimental deformation which is the function of particle size
distribution and particle shape, density, and internal friction and cohesion), abrasion resistant,
should shed a large portion of the rain which falls on the surface, posses capillarity properties
to replace the moisture lost by surface evaporation, and low-cost.
Type 1 (Table 5-8) is recommended for gravel wearing course material in the new
construction of roads having an AADT greater than 50 and for all routine and periodic
maintenance activities. According to the Tanzanian Design Manual (1999), gravel wearing
course for major roads require a minimum CBR of 25 %. Type 4 materials may be used in the
new construction of roads having an AADT less than 50. Minor gravel roads (AADTdesign less
than 20) which are normally community roads are usually unsurfaced (earth roads) and
constructed by labor-based methods. However, for subgrade CBR values less than 5% and
longitudinal gradients of greater than 6%, a gravel wearing course is recommended. Materials
for gravel wearing course shall comply with the requirements for Type 4 material for new
construction and Type 1 for maintenance activities. The CBR requirements may be reduced to
20% if other suitable material is not locally available.
Table 5-8. Gradation requirements for gravel wear course (ERA, 2001)
Test Sieve
Size(mm)
50
37.5
28
20
14
10
5
2.36
2
1
0.425
0.075
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Type 5
Type 6
100
80 - 100
55 - 100
40 - 60
30 - 50
15 - 30
5 - 15
100
95 - 100
80-100
65 - 100
45 - 85
30 - 65
25-55
18 - 45
12-32
100
95 - 100
85-100
65 - 100
55 - 100
35-90
22-75
18-60
15-50
10-40
100
80-100
60-80
45-65
30-50
20-40
10-25
5-15
100
80 - 100
60 -85
45-70
25-45
10-25
100
80-100
50-80
25-45
10-25
Type 1: The grading of the gravel after placing and compaction shall be a smooth curve
within and approximately parallel to the envelopes detailed in Table 5-8. The material shall
have a LAV of not more than 50 at 500 revolutions. The material shall be compacted to a
minimum in-situ density of 95% of the maximum dry density. The plasticity index should be
not greater than 15 and not less than 8 for wet climatic zones and should be not greater than
20 and not less than 10 for dry climatic zones. The linear Shrinkage should be in a range of 310%.
Type 2 & 3: These materials may be more rounded particles fulfilling the following: the
Plasticity Index lies in a range of 5-12% in wet areas, and in any case less than 16% in other
areas, a minimum crushing under traffic in percentage by weight of particles with at least one
fractured face of 40%, the CBR should be in excess of 20 after 4 days of soaking at 95% of
maximum dry density under Heavy Compaction. For very low traffic, the requirement may be
relaxed to a CBR of 15.
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Type 4: This material gradation allows for larger size material and corresponds to the
gradation of a base course material. The use of this gradation of materials is subject to the
local experience and shall be used with PIs in a range of 10-20.
Type 5 & 6: These materials gradations are recommended for smaller size particles. They may
be used if sanctioned by experience with plasticity characteristics as for material Type 1.
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