Design and Engineering - Ramachandran S

DESIGN AND
ENGINEERING
(For B.E. / B.Tech. Mechanical Engineering Students)
(As per Leading Technological Universities Syllabus)
Dr. S.Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

Professor and Research Head
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Sathyabama University
Prof. YVS. Karthick
Prof. Vijaya Lakshmi
Chennai - 600 119
AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

(Near All India Radio)
80, Karneeshwarar Koil Street
Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004.
Ph.: 2466 1909, 94440 81904
Email: aishram2006@gmail.com,
airwalk800@gmail.com
www.airwalkpublications.com
First Edition: 25th January 2016
ISBN : 978-93-84893-67-5
Course Plan
Module
Sem.
Hrs. Exam
Contents
Marks
Design
and
its
objectives;
Design
L2
constraints, Design functions, Design means

and Design form; Role of science,
Engineering and Technology in design;
Engineering as a business proposition;
Functional and strength Designs. Design
form, function and strength
How to initiate creative designs? Initiating
the thinking process for designing a product
L3
of daily use. Need identification; Problem

statement; Market survey - customer
requirements;
Design
Objectives;
Ideation;
attributes
and
Brain
storming
approaches; Arriving at solutions; Closing

on to the Design needs.
An Exercise in the process of design P4
initiation. A simple problem is to be taken
up to examine different solutions Ceiling
fan? Group Presentation and discussion
15%
II
Design process- Different stages in design

and their significance; Defining the design
L2
15%
space; Analogies and "thinking outside of

the
box";
Quality
function
deployment-meeting what the customer
wants;Evaluation and choosing of a design.
Design Communication; Realization of the
L3
concept into a configuration, drawing and

model. Concept of "Complex is simple".
Design for function and strength. Design
detailingMaterial
selection,
Design
visualisation- Solid modelling; Detailed 2D
drawings; Tolerancing Use of standard
items in design; Research needs in design;
Energy needs of the design, both in its
realization and in the applications.
An exercise in the detailed design of two
products (Stapler/door/clock)
P4
First Internal Exam

III
Prototyping - rapid prototyping; testing and

evaluation of design; Design modifications;
Freezing the design; Cost analysis.
Engineering the design - From prototype to
product. Planning; Scheduling; Supply
L2
L3
chains; inventory; handling; manufacturing/

construction operations; storage; packaging;
shipping; marketing; feed-back on design.
List out the standard organizations.
Prepare a list of standard items used in
any engineering specialization. Develop any
design with over 50% standard items as
parts.
P4
15%
IV
Design for "X", covering quality, reliability,

safety
manufacturing/construction,
L4
15%
assembly, maintenance, logistics, handling;

disassembly; recycling; re-engineering etc.
List out the design requirements(x) for
designing a rocket shell of 3 meter
diameter and 8 meter length
Design mineral water bottles that could be
packed compactly for transportation.
P4
Second Internal Exam

V
Product centered and user centered design.
L2
Product centered attributes and user

centered attributes. Bringing the two closer.
Example: Smart phone. Aesthetics and
ergonomics
Value engineering, Concurrent engineering,
Reverse engineering in design; Culture
L4
based design; Architectural designs; Motifs

and cultural background; Tradition and
design
Study the
evolution
of
Wet
grinders;
Printed motifs; Role of colours in Design.

Make sharp corners and change them to
smooth
curves-check
the
acceptance.
Examine the possibility of value addition
for an existing product.
P6
20%
VI
Modular Design, Design Optimization: L3

Intelligent and autonomous products: User
Interfaces:
Communication
between
products: autonomous products: Internet of
things: Human Psychology
advanced products.
and
the
Design as a marketing tool: Intellectual

Property Rights - Trade secret: Patent:
copyright: Trademarks: Product liability.
Group presentation of any such products P6
covering all aspects that could make or mar
it
End Semester Exam
20%
Contents C.1
Contents
1. DESIGN AND ITS OBJECTIVES
1.1 Design .......... .....................................................................
1.1
1.2 Design Constraints...........................................................
1.4
1.2.1 Functional Constraints ....................................
1.4
1.2.2 Safety constraints .............................................
1.5
1.2.3 Quality constraints...........................................
1.6
1.2.4 Manufacturing constraints ..............................
1.6
1.2.5 Time constraints...............................................
1.6
1.2.6 Economical constraints ....................................
1.6
1.2.7 Ecological constraints ......................................
1.7
1.2.8 Legal and Ethical Constraints .......................
1.7
1.2.9 Ergonomical and Aesthetic constraints .........
1.7
1.3 Design Functions.. ...........................................................
1.8
1.3.1 Research function .............................................
1.9
1.3.2 Engineering functions ......................................
1.9
1.3.3 Manufacturing functions .................................
1.9
1.3.4 Quality control functions.................................
1.9
1.3.5 Commercial functions ...................................... 1.10

1.4 Role of Science in the Design Process ......................... 1.10
1.5 Engineering as a Business Proposition ........................ 1.11
1.6 Functional Design ........................................................... 1.12
1.7 Design Form ..................................................................... 1.13
1.8 How to Initiate Creative Designs.................................. 1.14
1.9 Initiating the thinking Process for designing a
Product of Daily Use . ........................................................... 1.17
1.10 Need Identification......................................................... 1.19
1.11 Problem Statement ........................................................ 1.22
1.12. Market Survey............................................................... 1.23
C.2 Design and Engineering
1.12.1 Interviews with the Customers ..................... 1.24

1.12.2 Customer complaints...................................... 1.24
1.12.3 Constructing a Survey Instrument .............. 1.24
1.12.4 Evaluating customer surveys ........................ 1.25
1.12.5 Ethnographic studies ..................................... 1.26
1.13 Customers Requirements .............................................. 1.26
1.13.1 Maslows Theory of Hierarchy of Needs ..... 1.27
1.13.2 Expectations of a customer ........................... 1.30
1.14 Design Attributes ........................................................... 1.33
1.15 Ideation...... ..................................................................... 1.34
1.16 Brainstorming . ............................................................... 1.37
1.17 Arriving at a Solution and Closing on to the
Design Needs..... ..................................................................... 1.39
2. DESIGN PROCESS
2.1 Design .......... .....................................................................
2.1
2.2 Design Process.. ...............................................................
2.2
2.3 Different Stages in Design Process...............................
2.3
2.3.1 Research.............................................................
2.3
2.3.2 Feasibility ........................................................
2.4
2.3.3 Conceptualization..............................................
2.4
2.3.6 Detailed design .................................................
2.6
2.3.7 Production planning and tool design............
2.6
2.3.8 Production .........................................................
2.7
2.4 Defining the Design Space .............................................
2.7
2.5 Analogies ..... .....................................................................
2.9
2.5.1 Direct analogy...................................................
2.9
2.5.2 Fantasy analogy ............................................... 2.10

2.5.3 Personal analogy .............................................. 2.10
2.5.4 Symbolic Analogy ............................................. 2.11
Contents C.3
2.6 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) ............................ 2.12

2.6.1 House of Quality .............................................. 2.15
2.6.2 Description of House of Quality..................... 2.15
2.6.3 Building the House of Quality and QFD
Process ... ..................................................................... 2.16
2.6.4 QFD Process ..................................................... 2.28
2.6.5 Benefits of QFD................................................ 2.31
2.7 Evaluation Methods ......................................................... 2.32
2.8 Design Communication.................................................... 2.37
2.9 Design Visualization ........................................................ 2.38
2.10 Design for Function ....................................................... 2.39
2.11 Design for Strength ....................................................... 2.41
2.12 Solid Modelling............................................................... 2.42
2.12.1 CSG.................................................................. 2.42
2.12.2 B-rep ................................................................ 2.44
2.12.3 Advantages of Solid Modelling .................... 2.44
2.13 Detailed Design .. ........................................................... 2.45
2.14 Material Selection Process............................................ 2.49
2.14.1 Material selection for a new design ............ 2.49
2.14.2 Material change in an existing design ....... 2.50
2.15 Tolerancing ..................................................................... 2.50
2.15.1 Tolerance Allocation....................................... 2.52
2.15.2 Geometric Tolerances ..................................... 2.52
2.15.3 Guidelines for tolerance design .................... 2.53
2.16 Design Standards ........................................................... 2.54
2.17 Research in Design........................................................ 2.56
3. PROTOTYPE TO PRODUCT
3.1 Prototyping .. .....................................................................
3.1
3.1.1 Need for prototyping ........................................
3.3
3.1.2 Types of prototypes ..........................................
3.5
3.1.3. Advantages of prototyping..............................
3.6
3.1.4 Disadvantages of Prototyping .........................
3.6
3.1.5 Rapid prototyping.............................................
3.7
3.1.6 Basic Methodology of Rapid Prototyping......
3.8
3.1.7 Rapid Prototyping Methods or Techniques... 3.10

3.1.7.1 Stereo Lithography ...................................... 3.10
3.1.7.2 Selective Laser Sintering(SLS) .................. 3.12
3.1.7.3 Laminated Object Manufacturing ............. 3.13
3.1.7.4 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) ........... 3.15
3.1.7.5 Three Dimensional Printing (3DP)........... 3.16
3.1.8 Applications of Rapid Prototyping................. 3.18

3.2 Testing And Evaluation of Design ................................ 3.19
3.3 Design Modifications........................................................ 3.21
3.4 Freezing The Design ....................................................... 3.22
3.5 Cost Analysis .... ............................................................... 3.23
3.6 Engineering The Design ................................................. 3.30
3.7 Planning ...... ..................................................................... 3.36
3.8. Scheduling .. ..................................................................... 3.38
3.9 Supply Chains .. ............................................................... 3.43
3.10 Inventory . ..................................................................... 3.45
3.11 Material Handlings ........................................................ 3.47
3.12 Manufacturing Operations ............................................ 3.48
3.13 Storage....... ..................................................................... 3.50
3.14 Packaging .. ..................................................................... 3.52
3.15 Shipping..... ..................................................................... 3.52
Contents C.5
3.16 Marketing .. ..................................................................... 3.53

3.17 Feedback on Design....................................................... 3.54
3.18 Standardization............................................................... 3.54
4. DESIGN FOR "X"

4.1 Design for X (DFX) .........................................................
4.1
4.2 Design for Quality ...........................................................
4.3
4.2.1 The Main Objectives of the Design for

Quality ... .....................................................................
4.3
4.2.2 Benefits of Design for Quality (DFQ) ...........
4.3
4.2.3 Techniques to implement Design for

Quality ... .....................................................................
4.4
4.3 Design for Reliability ......................................................
4.6
4.4 Design for Safety . ...........................................................
4.9
4.5 Design for Manufacturing / Construction..................... 4.11

4.6 Design for Assembly........................................................ 4.14
4.7 Design for Maintainability.............................................. 4.17
4.8. Design for Logistics ........................................................ 4.23
4.9 Design for Handling ........................................................ 4.26
4.10 Design for Disassembly................................................. 4.28
4.11 Design for Recycling ...................................................... 4.31
4.12 Design for Reengineering.............................................. 4.34
5. VALUE ENGINEERING
5.1 Product Centered and User Centered Design .............
5.1
5.2 Product Centered and User Centered Attributes .......
5.5
5.3 Value Engineering ........................................................... 5.10

5.4 Sequential Engineering ................................................... 5.12
5.5 Concurrent Engineering .................................................. 5.13
5.6 Reverse Engineering In Design ..................................... 5.16
5.7 Architectural Designs ...................................................... 5.20
5.8 Culture Based Design ..................................................... 5.22

5.9 Motifs And Cultural Background .................................. 5.27
5.10 Tradition And Design .................................................... 5.29
5.11 Evolution of Wet Grinders ........................................... 5.30
5.12 Evolution of Printed Motifs.......................................... 5.32
5.13 Role of Colours in Design ............................................ 5.33
6. MODULAR DESIGN
6.1 Modular Design ...............................................................
6.1
6.2 Design Optimization ........................................................
6.5
6.3 Intelligent And Autonomous Products ..........................
6.9
6.4 User Interface... ............................................................... 6.14

6.5 Communication Between Products ................................ 6.17
6.6 Autonomous Products ...................................................... 6.20
6.7 Internet of Things ........................................................... 6.21
6.8 Human Psychology and Advanced Products ................ 6.29
6.9 Design as A Marketing Tool.......................................... 6.31
6.10 Intellectual Property Rights ......................................... 6.32
6.11 Trade Secrets.. ............................................................... 6.34
6.12 Patent ........ ..................................................................... 6.36
6.13 Copyrights . ..................................................................... 6.39
6.14 Trade Mark..... ............................................................... 6.42
6.15 Product Liability ........................................................... 6.44
Chapter 1
DESIGN AND ITS OBJECTIVES

Design and its objectives; Design constraints, Design
functions, Design means and Design form; Role of science,
Engineering and Technology in design; Engineering as a business
proposition; Functional and strength Designs. Design form,
function and strength - How to initiate creative designs? Initiating
the thinking process for designing a product of daily use. Need
identification; Problem statement; Market survey - customer
requirements; Design attributes and Objectives; Ideation; Brain
storming approaches; Arriving at solutions; Closing on to the
Design needs.
1.1 DESIGN
Engineering design can be defined as the process of
designing a system, component or process to meet the
desired needs. It is often an iterative decision making
process which uses basic sciences, mathematics and other
essential data to convert resources to meet a stated
objective. Based on the difficulty of the design process, it
can be classified into three types:
1. Adaptive design
It is usually the most easiest types of a design
process. It deals with creation of a design process based on
an existing similar process. Since the resources are readily
available, adaptive designs could be performed in a short
period of time. That is, the existing design can be adopted
for new design with some modifications. Example: Design
process for an elevator has been technically and
conceptually the same for a long period of time. Hence, the
1.2 Design and Engineering
problems related to its design could be solved by a designer

with an ordinary technical training.
2. Development Design
A development design is considerably complex in
nature. The designer may start from an existing design,
but the final outcome may vary significantly from the initial
product. Example: Design of a continuous variable
transmission system (CVT) is developed from a manual
gear box transmission type.
Hence, a development design process requires a
considerable amount of scientific training as well as a
better designing ability.
3. New design
A new design often attributes to the creativity of the
designer. It is not inherited from any of the existing
designs. This is possibly the most difficult design process
as generating a new concept involves mastering design and
engineering knowledge, in addition to creativity and
imagination. Some common new designs include the initial
development of computers, cars, flights, engines etc. Any
product which is the first of its kind may be regarded as
an outcome of a new design process.
An Engineering design process involves various
attributes like preliminary research, need identification,
design of components prototyping and testing, mass
production, marketing and sales, Quality control etc. By
drafting a complete engineering design of a component, it
is much easier to compute the feasibility of the processes
with respect to the availability of the resources. The design
processes of different components can be drastically
Design and its Objectives 1.3
different. However, the processes aim to attain a set of

generic goals and design objectives.
Some generic objectives of design are:
To identify the need of the user
To do research and know about the various

possibilities of problem solving.
To fix and formulate a working principle of the

solution.
To complete the product design within the affixed

time period.
To reduce the cost of the design process.
To reduce the complexity of the component.
To increase the efficiency of the component.
To increase the ergonomic features of the designs

there by making it more user friendly.
To increase the safeness of the component under

various static and dynamic conditions.
To make an eco-friendly material
To create a self-sustainable component.
Note: The above mentioned objectives are in par with a

generic design process. Most objectives totally depend upon
the manufacturability, end product and the end-user.
Example: A refrigerator and a heat pump work under
a common goal of transferring heat. However, the primary
objective of a refrigerator is to cool the system, whereas a
heat pump is used to heat up the system. Hence, the
designs and objectives vary depending upon the purpose of
a component.
1.2 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

In real-time environment, creating a perfect design as
per the necessity is a tedious process. The design process
faces a number of hurdles and resistances on its way,
before reaching the end result. These are also known as
constraints and the term design constraints can be defined
as the limits posed on a design process, thereby causing
significant changes in the end product of a process. Hence,
it is highly necessary to consider a number of technical,
economical, social, environmental and political constraints
when a product is being designed.
Some common constraints which affect the end result
of a process are:
1.2.1 Functional Constraints
These contraints pose a limit on the proposed working
principle of a product. Some common functional constraints
are
(i) Overall
geometry: Dimensions,
volume,
space
requirement of the product and its orientation in the
coordinate system, should be satisfied by the system to
prevent the functional constraint due to the products
Geometry. Example: The diameter of a shaft cannot be
smaller than that of the bearing. Hence, it is adjusted
accordingly.
(ii) Kinematics involved: These involve the type forces
and the direction of the forces acting on the product. The
end product should not fail under the applied loads.
Example: Checking of dynamic loads can often determine
the forces acting on a material, thereby giving space to alter
the design accordingly.
(iii) Energy Requirement: The input energy needed to

perform a specific task, may vary based on the product.
Use of appropriate transducers and amplifiers can benefit
the effective functioning of the product, thereby preventing
this constraint.
(iv) Materials used: The type of material used for the
product needs to be in par with the strength required by
the product. Some basic constraints faced in choosing a
material are availability of material, cost effectiveness,
machinability, weldability, strength offered by it etc.
(v) Control system: A control system plays a main role
in the functioning of a product as it transfers signals and
energies from one part of the product to another. It employs
various electronic and mechanical components to achieve
this. Some constraints on a control system are positioning
of devices like sensors and other fragile components, proper
functioning of pneumatic and hydraulic components even
under the high pressure limits of the product etc.
(vi) Information flow: These involve the numerical and
graphical data based on the inputs and the outputs of the
product. The main constraints are calibration of devices,
errors in measurements, errors in display units etc.
1.2.2 Safety constraints
These constraints, if unattended could pose a direct
threat to either the product or to the user. Every component
should have a factor of safety limit, based on which the
design should be done. Safety constraints can further be
classified into operational safety constraints, environmental
constraints, and constraints due to inevitable human errors
during operations.
1.2.3 Quality constraints

These involve the constraints faced in delivering
product of higher quality. The product should pass through
several regulations and testing, before reaching the market.
Also, for prolonged use and sufficient design life, the design
might have to be altered accordingly. Thus, quality
constraints could pose a threat on the overall geometry of
a design.
1.2.4 Manufacturing constraints
The direct production limitations are due to
equipment deficiency, methods involved in manufacturing,
amount of wastage and unused by-products produced
machine time, labour shortage etc. Other external
limitations include quality and reliability of raw materials,
total quality management, assembly constraints due to
installation and logistical impracticalities.
1.2.5 Time constraints
Proper allocation of time for different processes of a
cycle is extremely important. A stringent timeline may not
allow enough time for the research process, and could lead
to mediocre designs. Design and development stages are
usually allocated enough buffer time to get the best product
as the result. The need for the product at different
demographical regions also put a time constraint on the
logistics involved. The urge to complete the product within
the restricted timeline often takes a compromise on the
quality or the functionality of the product.
1.2.6 Economical constraints
The whole point of designing is irrelevant if it is not
economically feasible. Most constraints on a product are
often due to cost ineffectiveness. Some factors influencing

economic constraints are:
Demand for the product
Design costs
Development costs
Manufacturing costs
Distribution costs
Availability of resources
1.2.7 Ecological constraints

It is morally necessary for a product to have a positive
impact on the natural and social resources of its
surroundings. Either the method of production or the end
product could itself cause damage to the ecology. Hence,
the design of the product is altered to eliminate its toxic
nature or to suit an ecologically friendly method of
production on both. Usually the exhausts and the
by-products are harmful to the environment. Hence, the
process should be altered accordingly.
1.2.8 Legal and Ethical Constraints
The end product should be approved by various
organizations, to ensure its quality and safety. Hence, the
design process should have allowances for these constraints.
These constraints also accommodate public health, safety,
welfare and integrity. Also patents and copyrights should
be dealt with, even before the design process to eliminate
legal constraints and plagiarism.
1.2.9 Ergonomical and Aesthetic constraints
An ergonomical design could often hinder the basic
functional design of a product, as it is more concerned
about the ease of interactions between the user and the

product. Hence, an overall change in the geometry of a
product is also possible, thereby indirectly leading to a
functional constraints. Functional constraints are also
affected by the aesthetic nature of the product. A visually
pleasing product is bound to attract more customers than
its counterpart. Hence, these constraints play a major role
in the design process of a product.
1.3 DESIGN FUNCTIONS

A design process involves numerous functions based
on the type of the product. The design process starts
immediately after the incubation of an idea and it covers
the prototyping, manufacturing, marketing, quality control
and sales. Since it involves the overall role of the product
in every possible aspect, an extensive amount of time is
dedicated towards the research part of the product. Then
comes the engineering functions, which deals with the
R e se arch
En gine ering
Co mm e rcial
D e sign
Fu nctions
Q uality
M anufacturing
Fig:1.1 Broad Classificatio n of Engin eering

Design F un ctions
proposed technical functionality of the product. Likewise,

based on the steps involved in a design process. There are
five broad classification for an engineering design function
as shown in Fig.1.1.
1.3.1 Research function
This functions incorporates the time and resource
spent before the product design begins. These functions
involve identifying the need for the product, defining the
working principle, collection of data required for the
following processes, research on better alternates etc. This
process usually starts right after the incubation of the idea
and it is mainly used to enhance the idea.
1.3.2 Engineering functions
Engineering functions typically involve the main
product design. The product design is usually a 3D model
and it is developed using various designing software
packages. The process also incorporates cost estimation,
production design, concept design, simulation, analysis,
check for safety etc. This stage is directly responsible for
the proposed functioning of the product.
1.3.3 Manufacturing functions
These functions include elements of production such
as casting, forming, assembly, determination of tools, cost
controlling, obtaining labourers, purchasing of raw
materials etc. This step creates the physical end product
from a virtual design.
1.3.4 Quality control functions
These functions typically involve regulation of
products, as per the design, check for safety, check for
dimensioning, check for anticipated

auditing, energy auditing etc.
working,
design
1.3.5 Commercial functions

These deal with the cost and service related aspects
of a process. These include the relationship with the clients,
marketing, sales, logistics, warehousing, human resources
etc.
Note: A design for function is a design of a product to
meet its functional objective. It pays little regard to the
aesthetics and gives a minimalistic functional approach to
the design process.
1.4 ROLE OF SCIENCE IN THE DESIGN PROCESS

Science and design process go hand in hand. A design
process is usually formulated to convert an abstract
scientific hypothesis into reality. Advancements in science
have also created newer, easier and more efficient methods
of designing. Any new invention or modification of an
existing process involves a design stage. Likewise, any
design process, whatsoever, is aided by the scientific and
technological advancements. Normally, without a design
process, any scientific invention may take an enormous
amount of time to materialise. Since a design stage paves
a way to planning and recording of valuable information,
a process without a design stage predominantly relies upon
trial and errors, which could often lead to either a
prolonged period of time or workplace accidents or both.
Thus, advancements in science is questionable without the
design process and a design process without the role of
science is not possible and unsuccessful.
Science and technology plays a number of roles in the

designs process. They are:
Determining the function of a design
Defining the designs safety parameters.
Establishing rules and regulations to obtain a

universal solution.
Establishment of common units of measurements.
Technological advancements in the field of

computer science has made it easier for the
engineers to not only draft but to analyse and
simulate their products without the need for a
prototype.
Development of various software packages to aid

in designing and analysis.
Development of various Quality control tools to

precisely measure the variable factors of a
component.
Integration
of
design
process
with
the
manufacturing and other process through ERP
systems thereby allowing transparency between
departments.
Note: ERP means Enterprise Resource Planning which is

a business process management software that allows us to
use a system of applications to manage business and
functions related to technology, services and human
resources.
1.5 ENGINEERING AS A BUSINESS PROPOSITION

Engineering plays a vital role from a start of a
business or a company to its closure. Any business
proposition is initiated after defining the goals and

objectives of the business. After defining the same, one has
to decide what type of engineering and technology is needed
to achieve the same. As there are different kinds of
engineering, atleast any one type of it would be required
to satisfy the objective of every business. An automobile
company would involve automobile, mechanical, electrical
as well as production engineering. So once a business
proposal is set, it is almost impossible to achieve it without
engineering.
Hence, engineering as a business proposition is simply
the persuasion of a plan in context to a business, by which
the art of science and technology influences its goals and
objectives.
1.6 FUNCTIONAL DESIGN

Functional design is a combination of engineering and
geometric modelling which helps us to look the product
from a functional point of view. Functional design only
focusses on the function rather than appearance,
components, software/hardware, or anything else. Usually,
the functional design makes sure that the products
functionality is considered before building it. For the final
product to be fully functional, both the client and end user
should be consulted before the design process.
The functional design helps the engineers to eliminate
the mistakes at the early stage of the product design. For
example, the engineers use a software CAD which is useful
in designing various components. This software allows the
user to capture the functional requirements of the
components. Also it captures the real-world design
intelligence which will be useful to create an assembly from

individually created parts. Thus by a simple 3D model and
a functional analysis, the engineers are able to find the
problem if any, at the early stages of the design.
Functional design also allows the user with a
feedback system. That is indicating the user with a signal
whether the product is working or not. For example, in the
case of a car, if the doors are not closed properly, the driver
gets a signal through sensors. This could be made possible
only because of functional design. The designer should have
the vision of the function before designing the door. A
prototype could be used for transition of functional design
to such a system design.
1.7 DESIGN FORM

Form is defined as an area or mass to define objects
in space. Design form is a profile (or) shape or a
configuration of a product.
Forms are classified into two groups based on the
visual perception. They are:
A two dimensional form to specify a surface by

width and length.
Three dimensional form to specify depth, width

and length.
A three dimensional form design deals with three

major attributes. They are:
Positional continuity: It refers to the hard edge formed
when two surfaces intersect.
Tangential continuity: It refers to the circular arc

formed when there is a smooth transition between the two
intersecting surfaces. It is best visualized using the straight
line drawn along the edges of two circles (a tangent).
Curvature continuity: Curvature continuity gives the
smoothest possible continuity between two surfaces. The
forms following curvature continuity usually appear
homogeneous in nature. They do not have any distinct
break in the dimensions at any point on the surface.
Visually, in this type of form design, one cannot distinguish
where a plane ends and where another plane begins.
A form is created by deliberately shaping data into
information and then into the form of the product. A design
for form is usually carried out to emphasize the aesthetics
of the product. Positional continuity is employed when only
the functional design is needed. Functional designs
eliminate the need to make the product look aesthetically
pleasing. On the other hand, a curvature continuity form
design is used when the product is supposed to be of perfect
homogeneous form and with utmost aesthetic and
ergonomic nature.
However, a form is not simply the physical or
aesthetic properties of a product; it is all the things that
make up all aspects of a products character, including the
emotional and sentimental values of the culture to which
the product belongs.
1.8 HOW TO INITIATE CREATIVE DESIGNS

Initiating creative design is to simply generate as
many new ideas as possible. During early stages of design
work, every idea is supported and encouraged. In that way,
if there is an alternate idea, then it should be critically

reviewed in order to bring out new design. The following
are the Methods to initiate creative designs.
(i) Refinement and evaluation of ideas
The main objective of this method is to identify the
new creative ideas, feasible ideas and discover the ideas
which are in practice. Generally this process uses
convergent thinking method, in arriving at ideas. The first
step is to sort the ideas into three categories according to
their feasibility.
(i)
Ideas that are feasible (which are ready to work out)
(ii)
Ideas which could be applied after doing some

research on them.
(iii)
Ideas which are not feasible.
Before discarding the ideas which are not feasible,

asking some questions on that idea like why is this idea
not feasible ? What to be done to make this idea feasible?
would bring some new ideas which could add to the design
task. In the design process, checking the feasibility of new
concept is a challenge. It is difficult to eliminate a design
concept at the early stage of design process, as the team
members may not have enough time and information to
check its feasibility. In order to resolve this problem of
feasibility, many successful teams analyse the ideas and
bring out a set of reasons whether to accept them or not.
An alternative method used for classifying concepts is
grouping of ideas separately according to common
engineering characteristics. This will be similar to
brainstorming where it would discuss one concept at a time
and look to combine them into a developed solution. The
only difference is that, this process takes two or three times

more sessions than brainstorming.
(ii) Generating Design Concepts
A feasible design solution could be obtained from
creative idea generation from previous steps. However
generating a feasible design concept is different from
generating a creative idea from good concepts. This is
because the engineering system designs are a complex
process and it may require problem solving at any point.
Also the designer or engineer should be ready to bring out
an alternative concept for a small portion of an overall
work.
Another way of generating design concepts is the
systematic way. This method enables the designer with a
standard model of design process and allows to generate a
design concept by comparing the idea with it. Also, it
directly applies the strategies used in the past to create an
alternate design solution. One of the important idea in
design is that in order to generate a new design concept,
the alternative designs are subjected to different approaches
until we get the desired design.
(iii) Systematic methods for designs
This method is called as systematic method because
the design solutions are created by using a structured
process. Some of the systematic methods are discussed here.
(a) Functional analysis
This method is used to analyse the changes between
initial and final state of a system. New concepts are created
in a system only by studying its function. So this method
of analyzing function in terms of physical behaviour helps
in logical breakdown of a product and leads to a creative

concept.
(b) Morphological approach
This method provides an understanding about the
structure of a component part to generate an alternative
design. The main objective of this method is to bring out
all the feasible solutions to a design problem. But this
method is usually used along with the functional analysis
method.
(c) Design optimization
The design optimization method is very useful in
analyzing potential design and also it treats the design as
an engineering science problem. Some of the optimization
techniques to design are single objective, single variable
models to multi objective, multi-variable model etc. These
methods are conditional, determined and sometimes
combinations of both.
(d) Decision based design
This method is an advanced way of thinking on
design. Unlike the way of past designs this method solves
the problem in two ways. First is to understand the
customer needs and second is to assess good designs from
the design outcomes.
1.9 INITIATING THE THINKING PROCESS FOR

DESIGNING A PRODUCT OF DAILY USE
Designing a product is an iterative process, involving
a number of process from incubation of idea to the end
result. The following steps could initiate thinking process
to design a product of daily use.
Identify need - A solution is arrived with a need

which creates a purpose for the solution. Need
identification can be done by deep thinking
process.
Developing problem statement - A problem

statement should be defined to identify the need
in a designers point of view and to finalize the
goals and the objectives of the design process.
Compare existing analogical situations - Similar

existing solutions or situations could be more
useful for arriving at an idea. Applying the
methodology
from
an
analogical
problem
statement is often effective in fulfilling the design
needs.
Customer requirement - The problem statement is

modified to cater the needs of the customers.
Defining attributes and objectives - The final

problem statement is used to derive relevant
information for the actual design process. This
information is classified into objectives and
attributes.
Ideation -The technique of generating a variety of

ideas for a given problem statement is known as
ideation. Brainstorming - is a technique to corner
down on an idea based on expert opinions and
user needs. It is a session which takes place
among a number of people and it is also used in
the ideation processes.
End solution - is the final ideas entering the part

design section. The different ideas are evaluated
and the appropriate solution obtained from this

session is to be used in the design process.
1.10 NEED IDENTIFICATION

Identifying customer needs has been of great focus,
due to the increasing competitions around the world. There
are some questions like Who are customers What does
a customer want How can a customer be satisfied? which
generally arise in the minds of engineers and business
people. The general definition of a customer is One that
purchases a product (or) service . This will suit for the
people or organizations who buy the products simply
because they are going to use it. Another simple definition
is that, customers are end users. But in order to be most
effective, the engineers and business people need to widen
their vision on definition of customers. For example, take
the case of a parent who is buying a toy for his child.
Clearly, parent is not the end user here but he has the
input needed for product development. So, to find the needs
of customer, a new product should be developed by
consulting both the customers and the one influencing
them.
(i) Preliminary Research on customer needs
There are many methods which are used by large
companies for the research on customer needs. Usually, the
marketing department or a team of marketing and design
professionals carry out the ground work. The marketing
professional will concentrate on the buyers, whereas the
designers concentrate on the needs that are not satisfied
in the market. Also they focus on similar products, ways
to meet the needs and technological approaches to
understand the development of similar products. The

development team can identify the needs in two ways. One
is by analysing the needs of current products in their area
of interest and the other is by finding the needs that a
new product should possess. This will be done by the
development team because they are also the end users of
the product that they are designing. The best idea
generation for this process which can be used at this point
is BRAINSTORMING.
(ii) Gathering information from customers
The customers are the one responsible for the
development of the product. So, some information must be
gathered from customers on what they need. This could be
done in many number of ways. Some of the ways of
gathering information from customers are given here.
(a) Interviews
Interviews are one-to-one meeting with the customer
for a particular duration of time. The interviews could be
done by marketing and sales peoples or account teams
whose work is to identify the problems of key customer by
visiting them on their own environment. Meeting at their
place will make them comfortable to explain the problem
or may be there is a chance to see them in action. The
important questions to be asked during the interview are
what do you like or dislike about the product? Why do you
purchase this product? and What are the improvements
that you need on this product?.
(b) Focus groups
This
customers
is an expanded interview in which

are involved with an interviewer.
8-12
The
interviewer will come up with questions for the customers

to discuss about the product. Every interview should be
recorded in order to listen to the customers response in
their own words. A trained interviewer will pursue any
surprise answer with follow up questions until he
understands the customers response and uncovers the
needs which they were not aware off.
(c) Customer complaints
Customer complaints is a sure way to know about the
customer needs. The customer can make a complaint
through telephone, letter or email to the service centre,
customer information department, etc. Nowadays, third
party internet websites act as a source for customer
complaint for a product. Other than this, the purchasing
sites provide the tool for customer rating, comments, etc.
(d) Warranty data
Another way of gathering information is by using the
warranty data. The products that are claimed for warranty
will directly pinpoint to the defects. There are cases where
the products are returned eventhough there is no major
defect but it surely reflects the customers dissatisfaction
towards the product.
(e) Surveys
Surveys are the best ways to prioritize or identify the
major problems about the product that most people face.
Also, it is done to ensure whether the implemented solution
to a problem is successful or not. A survey could be
conducted through e-mail, telephone or in person.
1.11 PROBLEM STATEMENT

A problem statement provides the necessary
information for the design team to solve the problem
successfully. However, there must be some time, duration
to be spent for analysing the problem before arriving at
any solution. This could be done in the following ways:
Problem analysis
Problem clarification
(i) Problem analysis

The first step is to analyse the design task, which
helps in determining whether the problem presented in
problem statement is a true design problem or not.
Otherwise, the problem analysis could be carried out by
simply asking and answering some questions. The design
team should have answer for the questions like Why does
the problem occur? When does it occurs? Under what
situations does it occur? How does it occur? etc. If the
design team gets clear answers for these questions, they
might get an idea on the problem to be solved. But, these
are all general questions and could be applied to any
problem. Because of it, the answer they get might be
repetitive and in some cases not so applicable.
(ii) Problem clarification
The second step is the problem clarification which is
used for further analysis of problem. This method uses a
black-box modelling design to analyse the problem. A black
box model is a representation of energy, material and signal
inputs, outputs of an engineering system. The black-box
model of an engineering system is shown in the Fig.1.2
The figure shows the functional relationship between

inputs & outputs of an engineering system.
Understanding
the
En erg y
En erg y
problem clearly is the main
goal of problem clarification
M aterial
M aterial
D esign
step. So, the overall problem
Pro blem
Signal
Signal
represented by the black-box
should be brought down to
smaller sub-problems. This
Fig:1.2 Black Box M odel
method of breaking down
major problems into sub
problems is helpful in arriving at solutions for a number
of complex design engineering problems. Also it allows the
design team to focus on the sub problems separately and
find out which is critical to the success. A design is created
after mapping the sub-problems as sub-functions. The
desired system solution could be achieved by combining all
the design of the sub functions to form an overall designed
function. But these black-box diagrams are very general
and the design team should not apply any technological
principles to it. The energy, material and signal flows are
not always defined at the early stage of a design process.
In such cases, listing the customer needs alone may suffice
the problem clarification.
1.12. MARKET SURVEY

To start the development of a product, a designer
should have the vision of what the customers need. Market
surveys are useful in realising the needs of a customer. It
can be done in a number of ways. They are:
1.12.1 Interviews with the Customers:

In interviews with customers, information on product
strength and weakness are noted, which helps in product
upgrades. Marketing surveys should meet the current and
potential customers continuously. The key questions to ask
the customers are what factors do they consider while
buying a product? What additional improvement would they
like to add to the product? What do they like or dislike
about the product?
These feedbacks are noted and relayed to the design
team, who plan the product accordingly.
1.12.2 Customer complaints:
An easy way to learn about the needs for product
improvement is through customer feed back. The
communication between the customer (via telephone, or
email) are recorded by customer information department,
service center or the warranty department. Purchasing in
online often includes customer rating information, which
helps to know if the customer is satisfied with a product
or not. Marketing department also monitors the product
information from Internet and about the competing
products.
From product service centers and warranty
departments, the information is collected about the quality
of the product. Statistics on warranty claims can pinpoint
design defects. The designs are altered accordingly.
1.12.3 Constructing a Survey Instrument:
The method used for gaining information from the
customers leads to the development of survey instruments.
1.
The purpose of a survey should be clear, and what

will be done with the results of it should be
pre-planned.
2.
The data collected from interviews of the targeted

customers are compiled.
3.
Every question should focus directly on one specific

topic and it should be clear and easy to understand.
4.
It should contain a simple use of language.
5.
Design the survey form so that tabulating and

analysing of data is easier.
6.
Always include open ended questions which will

bring down the unexpected answer.
7.
The number of questions should be minimum, and

also they should not take more than 15 minutes to
answer.
Questions can have multiple choice answers making

sure that each question could be answered easily
8.
Yes - No - Dont know
Rank Order
Unordered choices - Choose (b) over (a) (or) (c)

and (d)
Like rating responses of (a) strongly disagree,

(b) disagree, (c) strongly agree, (d) agree,
(e) neutral.
Group the questions by topic and arrange them in
order.
1.12.4 Evaluating customer surveys

The customer responses are evaluated from the
surveys. From the number of responses, rating is given to
each questions. The questions with the highest ratings

represent the aspects of the product that are ranked highest
in the minds of the customers.
The recordings of the face-to-face interviews are
reviewed in depth and understood how the customers are
satisfied with the product and what are the improvement
that are needed on the product. Some of the responses may
not be so important. Hence neglecting those responses and
focusing on the factors that are important like safety and
durability of the product is essential. Only the questions
having more than the average ratings are considered.
1.12.5 Ethnographic studies:
The ethnographic studies are needed to find out how
customers are interacting with a product.
Ethnography is a process of investigation of the
behaviour of a specific group under particular conditions.
In this method, the close observation of customer with the
product in their regular environment is studied. This type
of study is done by the product development team to
observe, how the actual end users are interacting with the
product in their regular condition. Team members collect
photographs, sketches, videos and interviews during
Ethonographic study. A detailed interview with a few end
users are more useful.
1.13 CUSTOMERS REQUIREMENTS

Customer requirements can vary drastically over a
time. A number of factors like money, leisure, dignity, cost
etc., affects the requirement of customers. Information
gathered from customers and surveys from the market
place gives, an insight of customer needs and wants. If a

certain feature is given for a product (eg. remote control
for AC), it is still a need, but the customer may forget to
mention it. Hence it is important to understand the needs
of a customer before launching a design process .
From a global point of view, the hierarchy of human
needs in general are:
Physiological needs
Safety and security needs
Social needs
Self esteem and self respect
1.13.1 Maslows Theory of Hierarchy of Needs:

People go to work in order to satisfy their needs and
aspirations. These needs are not constant but change
according to circumstances, status, environment, society,
groups and so forth. From Prof.A.H.Maslow (1943) we have
a theory of motivation where he identified a hierarchy of
needs as shown in Fig.1.3.
Maslow argued that as ones need is met, then the
individual moves on to the next need.
First of all, the individual has the basic
physiological needs such as food, shelter and clothing and
he works in order to satisfy these needs. Once these needs
are satisfied, the individual moves to a higher plane of
needs.
Secondly, an individual has safety needs such as
security and protection-the need to provide a safe and
secure physical and emotional environment, an environment
that is free from threats to continued existence.
Security: A threat of losing ones job certainly does not

enhance motivation. Level 2 is not limited to job security.
It also includes having privacy on the job such as being
able to lock ones office door (or) having lockable storage for
personal items as well as having safe work environment that
may include ergonomic adjustable furniture.
Self-Actualisation
Esteem
G ro w th
Social
Physiological
B elo ng ing
Safety
A ccepta nce
S ecurity
S ocial L ife
H unger
P ro tection
Thirst
form D a ng er
Friend ship
G E N E R AL EX AM PL E S
S tatus
Friend ship
S tab ility
Food
A ccom plish me nt
A chieve me nt
P erson al
S tatus
D evelo pm e nt
R ecogn itio n
a nd love
S lee p
A chieve me nt
S elf - R esp ect
O R G A N IZATIO N A L E XA M P LE S
S elfa ctu alizatio n
n ee ds
C halle ngin g job

Job title
E ste em need
B elo ng ingn ess n eeds
Friend s at w ork
S ecurity ne ed s
P hysiolog ical nee ds
Fig. 1.3 M aslo ws H ierarch y of Needs
P ensio n plan
B ase sa lary
Once these needs are met, the individual moves on to

satisfy the third type of needs called social needs or
belongingness needs. These needs relate to ones desire
for social acceptance and friendship.
Social: Since we are all social animals, Level 3 (social)
relates to our need to belong. Cutting someone out of the
group is an effective punishment. Giving an individual the
opportunity to be part of the group by feeling important and
needed will motivate that person.
The fourth type of needs is self-respect and
self-esteem. The esteem needs focus on ones desire to have
a positive image to receive recognition, attention and
appreciation from others for ones contribution.
Esteem: Everyone, regardless of position (or) job
assignment, wants to be recognised as a person of value to
the organisation. Wherever possible, employees should be
given offices (or) personal spaces. Business cards, workspace
size, and office protocols also provide employees with a
certain level of self esteem within an organisation.
The last types of needs are those of self-fulfillment and
self-actualisation for realising the fullest stature. People who
have become self-actualised are self-fulfilled and have
realized their full potential. Self-actualisation is an
individuals motivation to transform the perception of self
into reality.
Self-actualisation says that individuals must be given
the opportunity to go on as far as their abilities take them.
Many organisations have a policy of promoting from within.
Once the hierarchy of basic needs are satisfied, then

the needs shift to next level.
1.13.2 Expectations of a customer
From a cstomers point of view, the marketability of
a product depends on these factors.
Product performance
Time to reach the market
Cost of product
Quality of product
Performance of a product
Performance is measured from the primary operating
characteristics of a product. A better performing product
speaks about its intended functionality and attracts more
customers
Time to reach the Market
Time factors include all the time spent on designing
the product. A product should not take more time, to reach
the market. The efforts are being given to reduce the
product development cycle time, also known as time to
reach the product on market. Customers usually prefer the
products which reach the market at their time of need.
Cost
Cost of a product is the main aspect that should be
considered while designing. Cost determines, the buying
decision of a customer so it should not be high.
Quality
Quality of a product is another aspect which
influences the marketability. A product should satisfy the
customer needs by not only providing them with a long

term product but also with a good service.
The Design team uses the following eight basic
dimensions of quality in a product to fulfill the customer
requirements.
1. Performance
Performance is measured by the primary operating
characteristics of a product. Performance is one of the most
important parameter which define the marketability of a
product. Example. An automobile, performance is defined
by
its
torque
and
brake
power
and
computers
performance is based on RAM and processor speed.

2. Features:
Features are those additives which are used to make
a product more appealing. They however do not perform or
affect the primary function of a product. Features on the
product should be upto
date to attract the customer and
it should be unique. Eg. parking assist in a car is an

appealing
feature,
and
could
be
an
unique
selling
proposition. Cell phones, compatible to adopt modern apps

are additional features.
3. Reliability:
It may be defined as the probability that a product
does not fail over a given time period. A product is
considered to be more reliable, if it works well for a
predefined period of time.
4. Durability:
Durability is the measure of a products life. It is the
amount of use one gets from a product before it breaks.
Customers are more likely to purchase a durable product.
5. Serviceability:
A failed component of a product should be easier to
repair or replace, which is called as serviceability. A better
serviceability implies quicker service time and availability
of components in market at all times. Hence universally
recognized standard components are often employed.
6. Conformance:
It can be defined as the degree to which a products
design and operating characteristics meet the customers
expectations and the
International standards. These
standards include Industrial standards, safety and
environmental standards. A product should not only fulfill
the needs and its own primary objectives, but should also
find its way to conform with several International
standards.
7. Aesthetics:
Aesthetics deals with the beauty, artistic impact and
the appearance of a product. A product which attracts the
person by its appearance, smell, taste or sound is said to
be aesthetically acceptable. The customer response in this
dimension is a matter of individual preference and personal
judgement.
8. Perceived quality:
The marketability of a product also relies upon the
reputation of the firm. Additional factors like advertising
and marketing often influence the customers point of view
of a product. It also depends on the success of the previous

product launched by the firm.
These are the eight set of basic rules which are often
employed by a designer to deliver a quality product. The
design team should combine all the gathered information
about the product from the customers, and establish a
quality product.
1.14 DESIGN ATTRIBUTES

Attributes are those factors of a design which an user
finds it to be appealing. From a customers point of view,
attributes are those properties of a design which they can
experience and evaluate directly. A few attributes are
ergonomics, efficiency, ease of use, aesthetics etc.
Evaluating these attributes do not require any specific skill
set. For example, in a users point of view, the efficiency
of a car is defined by the fuel economy, whereas in a
designers point of view, it is defined by the overall
mechanical efficiency. Hence, there arises a conflict of
opinions between the user and the designer. The designer
can not proceed further without translating these attributes
into valuable design information. These information are the
properties of the design and these properties are known as
design characteristics.
Example: Translation of efficiency into fuel economy,
translation of ease of use into small force of actuation etc.,
are few examples of design characteristics.
Hence, it is evident that a designer cannot work on
a design attribute unless the design characteristics are
defined.
Yet, another problem faced by the designers is the

subjectiveness of the design characteristics. A direct and
obvious property is easy to work upon than a complex
property.
Example: If the need is to reduce the weight of the design,
the designers could directly focus on making the product
lighter. This could be achieved by the appropriate usage of
materials by altering the design accordingly. However, if
the design characteristics are to reduce the cost on
maintenance and repairs, a more subjective approach is
needed. Such approaches are acceptable but they need to
be defined for all the design characteristics that relate to
the main design attributes.
Design characteristics can be further classified into
those objectives which are needed to be altered in
magnitude and which needed to conform to a set of
constraints. Either way, a direct approach (or) a subjective
approach, based on the characteristics of the design is
employed by the designer to arrive at the solution.
Subjective approaches often require the designers to
create new ideas. These are discussed in the following
topics.
1.15 IDEATION
Ideation is the process which allows to evaluate
current ideas, create new ideas and improve an idea with
other benefits. This process is very important in the process
of concept development, innovation and creativity. The
major goal of ideation should not be developing lots of idea,
but the goal should be to develop a single idea with a best
solution to satisfy the customer needs.
Brainstorming is the best idea generation technique

useful in arriving at new ideas. But other than
brainstorming, there are other techniques which are also
useful in developing new ideas.
For example, in a business, the following are the
techniques normally used for generating business ideas.
(i) Involve everyone
A business organization can include more employees.
Involving everyone helps in arriving at a better idea
generation because each one would have some input
regarding the customer requirements on the new product.
Also,
it
should
be
necessary
for
the
manager/Hr/Finance/technical person to spend 20% of their
time on knowing the current customers requirements before
attending a new product development programme.
(ii) Involving customers
We have already discussed about focus groups. The
customers who participated in focus groups would have
posted certain ideas on product development. Those ideas
could provide some insight on how the organisation should
approach on a new product.
(iii) Customer interaction in new ways
Interacting with customers outside of the field could
give a new way of thinking and ideas. This way of involving
new customers from other fields helps in generating new
ideas which are often employed by the automobile,
electronic manufacturers, etc.
(iv) Worst idea

This is a technique where lots of ideas are generated
in a focus group (or) brainstorming session. Many ideas are
created because they all are silly, funny and possibly
irrelevant. But considering a worst idea with a thought that
it has some value, may allow us to generate a good idea.
(v) Benchmarking
Benchmarking is the process of gathering, analyzing
and evaluating the ideas outside of your organisation and
comparing it with your own. The concept of benchmarking
is shown in Fig.1.4.
W h at are oth ers
D e sign C o ncep t ?
H o w did th ey do it ?
W h at is ou r
D e sign C o ncep t ?
H o w do w e d o it ?
C re ative
ide as
Bre akth rough D esign C on ce pt

Fig:1.4 Benchmarking Con cept
Benchmarking measures the concepts of best-in-class

organisations, determines how the best in class achieve
those concepts and uses that information as the basis for
new idea generation and break-though design. The
organisation must put someone in charge to benchmark all
the ideation methods and improve the focus regularly. The
best idea could be generated by properly implementing this

method.
1.16 BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is a group creativity technique in
which a group of people are allowed to discuss about a
problem and to find a solution and conclusion for the
problem in a limited period of time. Brainstorming is a
carefully exhibited process.
This approach was first initiated in industries to solve
the problems and to implement new and creative ideas on
a system.
To stimulate various ideas, the people are divided into
groups. All groups come up with different ideas to solve
the problem. The facilitator collects the ideas from the
groups and conducts voting on each idea among the groups.
After the voting is done, the top ranked ideas are discussed
among the group members.
In brainstorming, if there is a criticism for any idea
then that idea is put on hold.
The brainstorming group keeps a target for time and
with some pressure to attain the large number of ideas.
The participants are awarded with incentives for their
unique ideas.
The ideas are collected and also recorded so that they
can be reused to design alternate procedures to meet the
objectives.
1.16.1 Guidelines
storming session
to
be
followed
during
Brain
Designate a leader, so that the judgments are

prevented and the participation of all is ensured.
The leader should not contribute directly, instead
he (or) she should direct the participants and
record their creative ideas.
Groups formed in a Brainstorming session should

consist of 5-15 members. Less than 5 members
could result in insufficient ideas and group with
more than 15 members might result in arguments
or multiple conversations.
Do not divide (or) designate any position to the

members of the same groups. Bosses, Supervisors
and Managers should be included in the groups.
A perfect brain storming session lasts for 30-45

minutes. The first 20 minutes are allowed for the
brief explanation of the problem and the
familiarities. In the next 20-25 minutes of the
session one could encounter a sharp increase in
the
amount
of
ideas relating to
the problem and
its
solutions,
S p arkling
followed
by
a
id ea s in last
stagnant
region
1 0 m in u tes
and then a sharp
S ta g na tio n
o f id e as
decrease.
But
during the last 10
Tim e
Fig:1.5 G raph represen ts the flo w
minutes, an abrupt
of ideas Vs tim e
increase in the
is a brainstorm ing sessio n
Id ea s
amount of ideas could occur which should be

encouraged by the leader. But sometimes,
stagnation of ideas could also happen quickly,
depending on the creativity of the participants. It
is studied in the form of graph as shown in
Fig.1.5.
The Groups formed in brainstorming should not

be confined of experts in the area. Instead
introduction of people with new knowledge and
experimental backgrounds will enhance the result
of the solution and ideas to the problem.
1.16.2 Advantages of Brain storming

1. It is highly motivating
2. It promotes spontaneity and creativity
3. It increases focus on the task
4. It is sufficient and productive
5. It provides a developing solution to the problem.
1.17 ARRIVING AT A SOLUTION AND CLOSING ON

TO THE DESIGN NEEDS
Before the designing process, it is required to know
which product could appeal to a larger crowd. To know this,
several ideation process like brainstorming, group
discussion, demand forecasting, survey etc are employed. If
a group is unable to get to a conclusion through brain
storming, other above mentioned methods are employed. At
times, even after getting a lot of ideas, converging into a
particular solution could be a tedious task. Several factors
like needs of the customer, demand for the product on a
longer scale, cost effectiveness in production, resource

availability etc are used to arrive at the perfect solution.
A perfect solution is obtained by various evaluation
methods. It is a decision making process in which every
idea is compared with others in order to choose the best.
Also evaluation is the final process in conceptual design in
arriving at the solution. There are two comparison methods
in evaluating process. One is by comparing the concept
directly with some standard concept called absolute
comparison and the other is comparison of concepts with
one another called relative comparison. The following are
the evaluation methods used in arriving the solutions for
a design.
(i) Evaluation based on feasibility of the design
In this method, the feasibility of each concept (or) idea
is evaluated and are divided into three categories. (a) Not
feasible (b) conditional (c) feasible.
(a) Not feasible: If an idea is in this category, then it is
discarded because it will never work. But before doing
that,the question Why is it not feasible? should be
answered
(b) Conditional: In this case, the idea might work, if
some additional function is added to it like development of
a technology, availability of a component which might
enhance the function of the product. etc.
(c) Feasible: This is the case where the idea seems to
work. It will be taken for further development.
(ii) Evaluation based on availability of technology

This method ensures that the proposed idea or concept
of a design, covers the technology which is available to finish
the product design. Also it should ensure that there is no
additional research required in the product design. Some of
the questions to be asked in this evaluation method are,
(i) Is the technology available in practice?
(ii) Can the technology be developed with known
sources?
(iii) Are the functional parameters identified?
(iii) Evaluation based on customer requirements
The final step in arriving at a solution is the customer
requirements. The requirements of the customers are
compiled into questions and are addressed to each
ideas/concepts. The concepts which clear the above two
evaluation methods are only evaluated in this method. It
is used to eliminate concepts which are unable to meet the
customer requirements.
Evaluating each and every concepts in this way helps
to eliminate the concepts which do not satisfy the
requirements and also, arrive at a solution which is needed
for the product design.
Now that the concept is chosen, it is necessary to
examine the concept for its own flaws and pros. Comparing
it with the other concepts, developments are brought into
the chosen concept to reduce its flaws. After several
possible improvisations and alterations, the concept is
finally best suited to fulfill the needs of the user. Once the
idea is finalized, the design for the part and the product
is carried out.
Chapter 2
DESIGN PROCESS
Design process- Different stages in design and their
significance; Defining the design space; Analogies and "thinking
outside of the box"; Quality function deployment-meeting what the
customer wants;Evaluation and choosing of a design.
Design Communication; Realization of the concept into a
configuration, drawing and model. Concept of "Complex is simple".
Design for function and strength. Design detailing- Material
selection, Design visualisation- Solid modelling; Detailed 2D
drawings; Tolerancing Use of standard items in design; Research
needs in design; Energy needs of the design, both in its realization
and in the applications.
2.1 DESIGN
The
word
Design
represents
the
meaning
definitional challenges. Design is difficult in its own aspect
as it requires multiple number of iterations and rarely used
on the optimal process. There are few design domains that
are described by formal mathematical languages and some
by computational complexity.
The other way of thinking about design quality is to
identify the defects that will arise in the design process.
However, a large number of human problem solving is not
the really good design. In the other way, design hardly
represents the faithful execution of plan with the
application of remarkable skill and craft.
2.2 DESIGN PROCESS

In many process, the
user is positioned at the
start of the design process.
The word user refers to the
professional practices. The
most design efforts are
shown in Fig.2.1
The major designing
process steps are
(i) Sense Gap
G ap
Se nse G ap
D e sign
D e fine P rob lem
Explore
Alternatives
(ii) Define problem

(iii) Explore Alternatives
(iv) Select plan
Se lect Plan
Plan
Fig. 2.1
(i) Sense gap

Design begins with a perception of a gap in the users
experience. There is no motivation for design without a gap.
The gap can be perceived by user themselves or by the
observer.
(ii) Define problem
When the user experiences a gap, it is the duty of
the designer to identify the problem. This diagnosis can be
an identification of user needs that are not being met in
the current state.
Problem definition is the major criteria for many
design efforts, particularly when user themselves design.
Design Process 2.3
(iii) Explore alternatives

It is necessary for the designer to always explore
alternatives for the given problem. Exploration involves
consuming resources to develop and evaluate alternatives
that will be abandoned. Practical design problems can
rarely be solved effectively without exploration.
(iv) Select plan
Exploration typically exposes more than one solution,
so design needs some sort of evaluation and selection from
among alternatives. When selecting a plan, the designer
must consider many alternatives.
2.3 DIFFERENT STAGES IN DESIGN PROCESS

The common stages in engineering design process are
listed here.
1. Research
2. Feasibility
3. Conceptualization
4. Design requirements
5. Preliminary design
6. Detailed design
7. Production planning and tool design
8. Production
2.3.1 Research
Research requires the significant amount of time for
locating information. It involves in the analysis of existing
application literature, problems and successes associated
with existing solutions, costs and market place needs.
Considering the existing solution, the source of

information should be relevant. The best source of
information techniques is Reverse engineering which gives
the solutions that are available in the market. The other
source of information includes the internet, local libraries,
available government documents, personal organisations,
trade journals, vendor catalogs and individual experts
available.
2.3.2 Feasibility
The feasibility study is an evaluation and analysis of
the potential of the proposed project to support the process
of decision making. It is the alternative of achieving the
desired outcome.
The feasibility assessment determines whether the
project can proceed into the design phase. The two basic
criteriae are project needs on an achievable idea and it
should be within the cost constraint.
The feasibility study should be performed by the
experienced engineer who has good judgement on the
portion of feasible study. The feasibility study provides the
narrow scope on the project.
2.3.3 Conceptualization
Feasibility study is followed by the concept study
which
is
also
called
as
conceptualization.
The
conceptualization is a phase in the design process which
involves in the process planning that includes ideas and
considering the ideas for implementation.
The purpose of conceptualization is to minimize the
error, manage costs, risks and the barriers. The most
common techniques involved in the conceptualization are
Design Process 2.5
(i) Morphological chart

(ii) Synectics
(iii) Brainstorming
It is a chart which contains independent design
characteristics along with the different engineering
solutions proposed for each problem. Morphological charts
are accompanied by sketch and short report.
(ii) Synectics
It is an unconventional method of thinking which
finds the solution to the problem at hand. Synectics is the
vital aspect of conceptualization. It is a process which uses
the concept and arrange them in proper order.
(iii) Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a popular method which involves in
thinking of different ideas. The ideas will be framed by the
small group and those ideas will be adopted for finding the
solution for the problem.
2.3.4 Design requirements
The important element in the design process is the
design requirements. The design requirement is the task
which is performed parallely during feasibility analysis. The
entire designing process is controlled by the design
requirements. The design requirements include hardware
and software parameters, maintainability, availability and
testability.
2.3.5 Preliminary design
It is the high level design which bridges the gap
between the design concept and the detailed design phase.
In preliminary design, the overall system configuration is
defined along with the schematics diagrams and layouts of

the project. The parameters of the part being created will
change during the detailed design and optimization but on
the other hand the preliminary design focuses on the
creation of the general framework to build the project.
2.3.6 Detailed design
The preliminary design is followed by the detailed
design which contains procurement. The detailed design
includes certain specification which are:
Parameters considered for operation
Environmental
non-operating
Test requirements
External dimensions
Reliability requirements
Design life
Maintenance
Testability provisions
Materials requirement
Packaging requirements
External marketing
situation
for
operating
and
Normally detailed design is more efficient with the

help of the computer aided design. The reason for choosing
CAD for detailed design is that it provides optimization and
reduces the volume without hindering the parts quality.
2.3.7 Production planning and tool design
The production planning and the tool design
concentrates on the mass production. This process involves
Design Process 2.7
in testing a working prototype to ensure that the created

part meets qualification standards.
This process involves in the determination of the
sequence of operations and selection of tools, such as jigs,
fixtures, metal cutting and metal forming tools.
2.3.8 Production
The engineering design process is finalized only after
the completion of qualification testing and protype testing.
The manufactured part and the machines should be
inspected regularly to make sure that they do not break
down and slow the production.
2.4 DEFINING THE DESIGN SPACE

The set of all possible and feasible designs created in
response to the articulation of a design task is said as
problem space or a design space. The space has a boundary
which will cover the feasible design.
Fig. 2.2 shows the
design
space
in
the
n-dimensional side. In other
way design space is referred
as all possible design in the
n-dimensional hyperspace.
The parameters like
cost, performance, weight,
size,
etc.,
are
some
characteristics which has
more than three dimensions.
The design space of solution
is the dominant model of
A rtic ulate d
D e sign
H id d en
D e sign
B o un da ry
o n F ea sible
D e sign
Fig:2.2 D es ign Sp ace in n -dim en sion
problem solving in both the artificial intelligence and

psychological fields. The job of the designer is to find the
best of the all available design.
Finding a design space is a complicated job, by the
fact that the feasible design differs in many ways. There
is no specific co-ordinate system to pinpoint the design
space.
For example, assume that for a certain problem one
feasible solution is found, another feasible design is close
to the first feasible design but it may vary on few
engineering characteristics. Once the designer finds a
feasible, then the designer searches the nearby design space
by making small changes to one or more of the designs
engineering characteristics.
That is good if the first design is close to the best
design, but this will not help the designers test sample
different parts of the design space to find a set of very
different designs. Inventive or creative idea generation
methods will help the design team to find designs in
different areas of the space but are not as reliable as
engineering design requirements.
Systematic design method helps the designers
considering wide range of possible set of feasible conceptual
designs for a given task. These methods are much easier
to understand when they are explained using model of a
design. In certain situations, these methods make the
search through the design space more efficient. Still other
systematic design methods provide operations that allow a
designer to travel from one design in the space to the next
closest design.
Design Process 2.9
The important idea to remember in design is that it

is beneficial in almost every situation to develop a number
of alternative designs that rely on different means to
accomplish a desired behaviour.
2.5 ANALOGIES
Analogy is an inventive method of problem solving in
everyday life. It is the duty of the designer to recognize the
similarity between the design under study and a previously
solved problem.
Analogy is a creative solution which depends on the
degree to which the analogy leads to a new and different
designs. In one type of solution, analogy recognizes the
similarity between an existing product and its design
specification of the product which is under study.
There are four different types of analogies to generate
ideas about an existing problem. The four types of analogies
are listed below
1. Direct analogy
2. Fantasy analogy
3. Personal analogy
4. Symbolic analogy
2.5.1 Direct analogy
Direct analogy is the common approach that is used
by every one at a time or another. The analogy is direct
because in each system there are matched physical objects
behaving the same way. A direct analogy may take the form
of a similarity in physical behaviour, similar in geometrical
configuration, or in function.
Bio-inspired design is a specific type of analogy that

is under increased research in the past decade. Bio-inspired
design is based on the similarity between biological systems
and engineering systems.
2.5.2 Fantasy analogy
In fantasy analogy, the designer avoids all problems,
limitations and laws of nature. The designer imagines or
wishes perfect solution for the problem. These analogies are
far-fetched ideas but they contain potential.
Example for fantasy analogy
If our car enters a large parking lot on a cold, windy
and on a rainy day, it may be forgotten where our car is
parked. We could wish our car to come in front of us or to
turn itself on and drive to where we are standing when we
call it. Many cars have a chip in their key ring that flashes
the car light when activated, to send us a locator signal.
This is fantasy and the design team uses some aspects of
fantasy analogy to solve the lost car problem.
2.5.3 Personal analogy
It is a type of analogy in which the designers imagine
themselves as a device being designed, associating their
body with the device or process under consideration.
Example for personal analogy
When designing a high-quality industrial vacuum
cleaner, the designer imagines himself as the cleaner. They
imagine that when they suck up dirt through a hose like
drinking through a straw. They can pickup dirt and debris
by running their hands across a smooth surface or by
combing their fingers through a thick and fibrous material.
They can also lick the surface clean using moisture, friction
Design Process 2.11
and an absorbent material like we do when they lick

frosting off a cupcake.
2.5.4 Symbolic Analogy
This approach is the least intuitive of all the
approaches. In this analogy, the designer replaces the
specifics of the problem with symbols and then uses
manipulation of the symbols to discover solutions to the
original problem.
Example for symbolic analogy
There are some mathematical problems that are
mapped (converted) from one symbolic domain to another
for easier processing. The example for this method is
laplace transformation.
In some problems, explaining the problem in
paragraph or by words is a difficult technique. In certain
conditions, the easiest and correct way of explaining is
graphical method.
Another form of symbolism is to use poetic metaphors
and smiles, in which one thing is identified with another
as in the mouth of a river or a tree of discussion to suggest
ideas.
2.6 QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD)

The concept of Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
was developed by Yogi Akao and Shiguru Mageno at
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, Japan, in 1970. This
concept was adopted by Japanese auto industries, by Toyota
in 1977. This concept was introduced in USA by John
Hausa and Dan Clausing of MIT in the year 1980.
Nowadays, QFD approach is used all over the world to any
manufacturing or service industry.
Quality function Deployment may be defined as a
system for translating customer requirements into
appropriate requirements at every stage, from research
through product design and development, to manufacture,
distribution, marketing sales and sericve.
The Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a TQM
tool which ensures that customers requirements are met
throughout the design process and also in the production
systems. QFD is basically a philosophy and a set of
planning and communication tool that focuses on customer
requirements in coordinating the design, manufacturing
and marketing of goods.
QFD provides a means of translating customer
requirements into the appropriate technical requirements
for each stage of product development and production. The
customers requirement is known as the voice of the
customer. These requirements are the collection of
customer needs, including all dissatisfiers, satisfiers and
exciters/delighters.
Note: There are three classes of customer needs
Design Process 2.13
1. Dissatisfiers: are the needs that are expected in a

product (or) service. In a car, safety measures and
cushioning seats are known as dissatisfiers. These
features are generally not stated by customers but assumed
as given. If they are not present, then the customer will
be dissatisfied.
2. Satisfiers: are the needs that customers say they want.
Air-conditioning and Compact Disc player in a car are
the examples of satisfiers. Fulfilling these needs creates
satisfaction.
3. Exciters/delighters: are new (or) innovative features
that customer do not expect. Antilock brakes and
collision avoidance systems are known as examples of
exciters/delighters. The pressure of such unexpected
features leads to high perceptions of quality.
While satisfiers are relatively easy to determine
through routine marketing research, it takes special effort
to elicit customer preceptions about dissatisfiers and
exciters/delighters. In course of time, exciters/delighters
become satisfiers as customers become used to them and
eventually satisfiers become dissatisfiers. Thus, companies
should continually innovate and study customer perceptions
to ensure that needs are being met.
The customer requirements - voice of the customer also referred to as customer attributes. Under QFD, all
operations of a company are driven by the voice of the
customer, rather than discretion of top management (or)
the opinions (or) desires of design engineers.
Technical features, also called counter part
characteristics, are the translation of the voice of the
customer into technical language. QFD is employed to

translate customer expectations, in terms of specific
requirements, into directions and actions, in terms of
engineering (or) technical characteristics, that can be
deployed through.
Product Planning
Part development
Process planning
Production planning
Service industries
Organisations today use market research to decide
what to produce to satisfy customer requirements. Some
customers may not be able to explain their expectations.
Confusion and misinterpretation are also a problem while
a product moves from marketing to design to engineering
- to manufacturing. In this way, the voice of customer is
lost and the voice of the organisation adversely enters the
product design. Eventually, instead of working on what the
customer expects, work is concentrated on what the customer
does not want. It is important that it is not advisable to
improve something the customer did not want initially. By
implementing QFD, an organisation will implement the
voice of the customer in the final product (or) service.
Hence, QFD enables the design phase to concentrate
on the customer requirements, thereby spending less time
on redesign and modifications. This saved time reduces the
developmental cost and also the additional income because
the product enters the market sooner.
Design Process 2.15
2.6.1 House of Quality
Interrelationships
betw ee n
Technical D escriptors
C o un te rpart C ha racte ristics
(Tech nica l D escriptors)
(Voice of the O rganisation )
Vo ice of the
C u stom er
( C ustom er
R e qu ire m en ts)
Priority of
C u stom er
R e qu ire m en ts
Priorities of Tech nica l

D e scripto rs
Co mpe titive
Evalution
Fig. 2.3. H ouse of Quality.
The primary planning tool used in QFD is the House

of Quality. House of Quality is a set of matrix used to
translate the voice of the customers into technical design
requirements that meet specific target values and
characteristics of the final product. The customer
requirement planning matrix is the basis for the QFD
concept. Because of its structure as shown in Fig. 2.3 it is
referred to as the House of Quality.
2.6.2 Description of House of Quality
On the left side is a listing of voice of the

customer (or) customer requirements.
On the right side are the priority of customer

requirements and competitive products evaluation.
The ceiling
descriptors
The interior walls of the house are the

relationships between customer requirements and
technical descriptors. Customer expectations are
translated
into
engineering
characteristics
(technical descriptors).
The roof of the house is the interrelationships

between technical descriptors.
The foundation of the house is the listing of

priorities of technical descriptors.
of
the
house
contains
technical
2.6.3 Building the House of Quality and QFD Process

Building the House of Quality consists of six steps.
1.
Identify
voice
requirements)
of
the
customer
(customer
2.
Identify technical descriptors.
3.
Relate the customer requirements to the technical

descriptors.
4.
Conduct an evaluation of competing products.
5.
Evaluate technical descriptors and develop targets.
6.
Determine which technical descriptors to deploy in

the remainder of the production process.
Note: Deploy means bring into effective action.

Step 1: Identify customer requirements
Market research plays an important role in

determining what features are important to
customers.
Design Process 2.17
Questions such as
What does the customer expect from the product?

and Why does he buy the product? are important means
of identifying customer requirements.
Besides market research, information on customer

needs comes from other sources also.
Sales people have first-hand knowledge of customers

needs, desires and comments about products. Technicians
who repair products understand the reasons for product
failure and hear the comments of customers. Other
techniques such as focus groups can be used to learn
about customer needs.
Example: To
illustrate
the
development
of
House
of
Quality and QFD Process, we can use the design and

development of a new text book - Design and Engineering by the publisher - Air Walk Publications.
The text book should meet the instructional needs and

should enhance student ability to learn. The above two are
the primary customer attributes. Such descriptions are not
technical specifications but they represent the voice of the
customer, the professor who recommends the book and the
student who uses it.
It is important that these attributes are the real
needs of the customer and they should not be developed
from the opinions of editors and authors. It is more
important to hear the voice of real customers, and not
rely on second-hand opinions in determining customer
needs.
While writing a text book, authors must consider the
needs of both professors and students. It is not advisable
to solicit more information from professors and less

information from students, because students are the
end-users of text books.
E nh an ces stu dent ab ility to learn M eets in stru ctio nal n ee ds
For medical representative, the primary customer is

patient, not a doctor. Similar way, for text book
publisher, the primary customer is student, not a professor.
Because professor may recommend standard books with
knowledge point of view, while the students-the real end
users-expect local author books with exam point of view.
C overs sub je ct
G oo d
d ispilin e
Top ical
C overa ge U p-to-date
R eal-w orld
a pp lica tions
E xercises S ufficie nt
Q ua ntity
D ifficulty
C ost
L ow co st
E asy to rea d
Fre e fro m N o con ten t

o missions
e rrors
N o typo graphical
e rrors
Fig. 2.4 (a)
Design Process 2.19
Customer requirements are normally expanded into

secondary and tertiary requirements as shown in
Fig.2.4(a). The figure shows the voice of the customer in
the House of Quality
For a text book, the primary customer requirement is
to meet instructional needs. The secondary customer
requirement is Good topical coverage, appropriate level for
the course and good exercises. Good exercises may be
further expanded into sufficient quantity and range of
difficulty. These are the customer attributes that are
used as inputs to the QFD process.
Step 2: Identify technical descriptors (Design attributes)
The technical descriptors are design attributes
expressed in the language of designer and engineer. They
represent the technical characteristics that should be
deployed throughout the design, manufacturing and service
processes
The author and publisher of a textbook have a variety
of technical characteristics including
the amount of research literature to cite,
the amount of popular literature for reference
the number of numerical exercises
the number of discussion exercises
figures and tables etc.
The roof of the House of Quality is interrelationships

between any pair of technical descriptors. Various symbols
are used for denoting these relationships.
- Solid circle denotes a very strong relationship.
O - Circle denotes for a strong relationship.
- Triangle denotes for a weak relationship.
For example, increasing popular literature improves

the number of discussion exercises included in the book.
M eets instructional needs
G ood
topical
coverage
C overs sub ject

discipline
U p-to -date
R eal-w orld
applications
Exercises Sufficient
quantity
D ifficulty
C ost
Low cost
Easy to rea d
Exam p les
illustrate the ory
Free from N o content
errors
om issions
N o typo grap hical
errors
Fig. 2.4 (b)
U se of figures and tables

C olo r
Subsections
Boxed e xa m ples
C orrectness of gram m ar
Size
R esearch lite rature cove rage

Popu lar literature coverag e
Am o unt of m athem atics
Very st r ong relatio nship

S tr ong relationship
W e ak rela tio nsh ip
Design Process 2.21
However, it will increase the size of the book. Thus, a

strong relationships exist among these characteristics. The
roof and first floor of House of Quality shows these
information as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b).
Step 3: Develop a relationship matrix between
customer requirement and technical descriptors
We know that customer requirements are listed in the
left column while technical characteristics are listed at the top.
Various symbols are used to indicate the degree of
relationship in a manner similar to that used in the roof
of the House of Quality.The lack of a strong relationship
between a customer requirement and any technical
characteristics shows that the final products will have
difficulty in meeting customer needs.
For example, the amount of research literature
reffered for in a textbook would have a strong relationship
to the customer requirements namely
covers subject matter
upto date, easy to read
No content omissions as shown in the Fig. 2.4 (c)
Step 4: Competitive Evaluation
The customer competitive assessment is marked in
the right side of the relationship matrix in the House of
Quality. The numbers 1 through 5 are listed in the
competitive evaluation column to indicate a rating of 1 for
worst and 5 for best. Competitive evaluation helps to
highlight the strength and weaknesses of our product when
comparing with the competitive products. This step enables
designers to seek opportunities for improvements. The
En ha nces stu dent ability to le arn M e e ts instruction al ne e ds
G oo d
to pica l
coverag e
C o ve rs sub je ct
d isciplin e
U p -to -date
R e al-w orld
a pplica tio ns
E xercise s S ufficie nt
q uantity
D ifficu lty
C o st
L ow co st
E asy to rea d
E xam p les
illustrate the ory
Fre e from N o con ten t
e rrors
o m issio ns
N o typograp hica l
e rrors
Fig. 2.4 (c)
U se of figu res a nd ta bles

C o lo r
Su b sectio ns
B oxed e xam ples
C o rre ctne ss of g ra m m a r
Size
Very storng re latio nship

S torn g relatio nship
W e ak re latio n sh ip
R esearch lite rature cove rag e

Po p ular literature cove ra ge
Am o unt o f m ath em atics
customer competitive assessment also contains an appraisal

of where an organisation stands relative to its major
competitors in terms of each customer requirement.
Design Process 2.23
This step links QFD to a companys strategic vision

and allows priorities to be set in the design process. For
example, if an attribute receives a low evaluation on a
competitors products, then focusing on this attribute can
help to gain a competitive advantage. Such attributes
become a key selling points
and help to establish
promotion strategies.
In designing a text book, the author and the publisher
find that two competing text books A and B receive low
evaluation 3 in easy to read. We know that this is an
highly desirable attribute by the students. Hence, by
focusing on the attribute and using it as a key selling
point, a competitive advantage can be gained. Competitive
evaluation matrix is shown in the right side of House of
Quality as shown in Fig. 2.4 (d).
Step 5: Technical Competitive Assessment
This Technical Competitive Assessment matrix is
shown beneath the relationship matrix as shown in Fig.
2.4 (e)
Similar to the customer competitive assessment, the
test data are converted to the numbers 1 through 5; 1 for
worst and 5 for best. These rankings can then be entered
below each technical descriptor using the same numbers as
used in the customer competitive assessment.
The technical competitive assessment is very much
useful for uncovering gaps in engineering judgement. If an
organisations technical assessment shows its product to be
superior to the competition, then the customer assessment
should show a superior assessment. If it is not so, then
B S p ro du ct
Targ et
value
D ifficulty
L ow co st
E a sy to rea d
C o ve rs sub je ct
d isciplin e
G oo d
to pica l
U p -to -da te
coverag e
R e al-w orld
a pp lica tio ns
E xercise s S u fficie nt
q ua ntity
C o st
C o stum er
com p etitive
e va lu atio n
AS p rod uct
U se of fig ure s an d ta bles

C o lo r
S u bs e ction s
B o xed e xa m ple s
C o rrectn ess o f g ram m ar
S ize
* 1 Fo r w o rst
5 Fo r be st
O ur pro d uct
M e ets instru ctio na l ne ed s
Ve ry sto rng re la tio nsh ip

W e ak re la tion sh ip
R e sea rch lite rature c ove rag e

P o pu la r lite rature cove rag e
A m o un t o f m a the m atics
there is a mistake in engineering judgement which should

be corrected.
Fre e fro m N o con te nt

e rrors
o m ission s
Fig. 2.4 (d )
AS produ ct
B S p rodu ct
D ifficulty
L ow cost
Ea sy to rea d
Fre e from N o conte nt

e rrors
o mission s
Techn ica l
C o stum er
com p etitive
e va lu atio n
Target
value
C o vers sub ject

d iscipline
G ood
topica l
U p -to -da te
coverage
R e al-w orld
a pp licatio ns
Exercise s Su fficient
q ua ntity
C o st
* 1 Fo r w orst
5 Fo r best
O u r prod uct
M eets in structional n eeds
Very sto rng re lationship

W e ak re lation sh ip
R esearch lite rature coverage

P opu la r lite rature cove rag e
A m o un t of m a the m atics
N um ber of nu m erica l exercises
N um ber of discu ssio n exe rcises
U se of figure s an d tables
C olo r
S ubsection s
B oxed e xam ple s
C orrectness of g ram m ar
S ize
Design Process 2.25
O ur prod uct
AS product
BS p rod uct
4 3 4 4 4 2 3 2 3 5 3
3 4 3 4 5 3 3 2 4 5 4
5 2 3 3 4 3 4 4 2 5 4
* 1 Fo r w orst
5 Fo r b est
Fig. 2.4. (e)
Target value:
The target value column is used by the QFD team to
decide whether they want to keep their product unchanged,
improve the product (or) make the product better than the
competition.
Step 6: Determine
requirements
the
priorities
of
customer
In this step, the matrix of priorities of customer

requirements are listed in the extreme right side of House
of Quality. These prioritised customer requirements contain
columns for importance to customer and sales point.
Importance to Customer
The QFD team ranks each customer requirement by
assigning it a rating. Numbers 1 to 10 are used for ranking in
which 1 is for least important and 10 is for most
important. i.e., the more important the customer
requirement, the higher the rating as shown in Fig.
2.4 (f).
Covers subject discipline has ranking 8,
Low cost has ranking 9, and
Easy to read has ranking 10. These are the key
customer requirements which should be given importance.
Sales point: Sales point is a value in between 1 and 2
with 2 being the highest. The sales point indicates the
QFD team how well a customer requirement will sell. The
objective here is to promote the best customer requirement
and remaining customer requirements that will help in the
sale of the product.
Design Process 2.27
Step 7: Determine priorities of Technical Descriptors:
* 1 F or w orst
5 Fo r best
1.5
D ifficu lty
Low cost
E a sy to rea d
1.5
E xam ple s
illu strate theo ry
F ree from N o content
errors
om issions
Tech nical
O ur product
4 3 4 4 4 2 3 2 3 5 3
AS p ro duct
3 4 3 4 5 3 3 2 4 5 4
B S pro duct
5 2 3 3 4 3 4 4 2 5 4
* 1 For w orst
5F or best
Fig. 2.4. (f)
S a les point
Im portan ce
to costum er
B S product
Target
valu e
C overs sub ject

discip line
G ood
top ical
U p-to-da te
cove ra ge
R ea l-w orld
app lications
S
Exercises u fficient
qua ntity
C ost
P riorities
of
custom er
requirem en ts
C ostum er
com pe titive
evaluation
AS p ro duct
M ee ts instructiona l ne eds
Very storng re lationship

S torng relatio nsh ip
W ea k relatio nship
U se of figures and tables

C olo r
S ub sections
B oxed exam ples
C orre ctn ess of g ra m m ar
S ize
Ou r p ro duct
P op ular lite ra ture co ve rag e

A m o unt o f m ath em atics
These prioritised technical descriptors contain degree

of technical difficulty and target value. The QFD team
identifies technical descriptors that are most needed to
fulfill customer requirements and need improvement. These
prioritised technical descriptors make up a block of rows

corresponding to each technical descriptor in the house of
quality below the technical competitive assessment.
2.6.4 QFD Process
The House of Quality provides marketing with an
important tool to understand customer needs and it gives
C om po ne nt
C haracteristics
Technica l
characteristics
C ustom e r
A ttribute s
Technical
C haracteristics
Q ua lity
C ontrol Pla n
P rocess
O pe rations
C om po nen t
C hara cteristic s
P ro cess
O pe rations
Fig. 2.5 The Fou r Ho uses of Q uality
Design Process 2.29
top management strategic decision. However, it is only the

first step in QFD process. The size of the customer must
be carried throughout the production process by using three
other Houses of Quality.
There are three other Houses of Quality which are
used to deploy the voice of the customer to
Component part characteristics
Process operations
Quality control plan
as shown in Fig. 2.5

The text book production process can be expressed
with following stages.
Stage
Functions
Acquisition
Proposal
Review
Contracting
Writing
Editing
Galleys
Proofs
Page make up
Cover design
Printing
Development
Preproduction
Production
The text book production process begins with

proposal in which the author sends a manuscript to the
publisher. After simultaneous reviews by eminent
professors in that field, the author is given green signal to
proceed with writing stage. After further reviews and
editing, the text goes into the preproduction stages of
galleys, proofs, page layout and cover page design.
Galleys are used to check whether wordings, citations

and other details are correct. Proofs provide a check on
the final typesetting process. Page layout involves addition
of pictures, figures and complex tables. Cover page design
involves the design of attractive cover. Finally the
production of text book starts. In this stage, various
processes such as
Film making
Plate exposing
Offset printing
Cutting
Folding of forms
Composing
Perfect binding
Cutting and then
Packing
The concept of QFD is to ensure that the voice of

the customer is carried through out each stage.
The second house is similar to the first house but
applies to subsystems and components. The technical
characteristics from the first house are related to detailed
characteristics of subsystem and components.
In the third house, the process plan is developed
relating the component characteristics to key process
operations. It represents the transition from planning to
execution.
In the fourth house, Quality control plans are
developed and executed. In this house, the appropriate level
Design Process 2.31
of quality is achieved by using proper control methods,

sample sizes and so on. In this preproduction stage,
statistical process controls are taken by the printer and
binder to ensure that a quality product is produced.
2.6.5 Benefits of QFD
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) - House of
Quality - is an effective management tool to drive the
design process and production process with the main aim
of satisfying the customer needs.
The benefits of QFD are:
1.
A systematic way of obtaining information and

presenting them.
2.
Shorter product development cycle.
3.
Considerably reduced start-up costs.
4.
Fewer engineering changes
5.
Reduced chance of mistakes during design process.
6.
An environment of team work.
7.
Consensus decision
8.
Everything is preserved in writing.
9.
It facilitates identification of the causes of customer

complaints and makes it easier to take prompt
remedial action.
10.
It is a useful tool for improving product Quality.
11.
It is a useful tool for competitive analysis of product

quality.
12.
It stabilises quality.
13.
It cuts down on rejects and rework at the production

site.
14.
It decreases claims substantially.
15.
Marketing benefits are obtained by identifying sales

point.
QFD makes the entire organisation to constantly be

aware of the customer requirements. Every QFD chart
i.e., House of Quality is a result of the original customer
requirements.
The main
Satisfaction.
benefit
of
QFD
is
the
Customer
2.7 EVALUATION METHODS

Evaluation is a type of decision making in which
alternatives are first compared before making the decision
C o ncep t G e n era tio n
Ev aluation Ph as es
A b so lu te C riteria
G o - N o n go S c re en in g
P u gh C o nce pt S election
B e st C o ncep t
Fig:2.7 Steps involved in E valua tio n
Design Process 2.33
as to which is best. Evaluation involves comparison followed

by decision making. To make a valid comparison the
concepts must exist at the same level of abstraction.
Fig. 2.7 shows the steps involved in the evaluation
phases. It should be noted that evaluation steps are not
limited to the conceptual design phases of the design
process.
1. Absolute criteria
Absolute criteria involves
(i) Evaluation of Feasibility of the design
In the evaluation of feasibility of the design, there are
three categories in which the overall evaluation of the
design team will be placed.
(a) It is not feasible
Before dropping an idea, ask why is it not feasible?.
If judged not feasible, will it provide new insight into the
problem?
(b) It is conditional
It is a condition in which something else happen
which results in the development of critical element of
technology
(c) It will work
This is a concept which is worth in developing further.
(ii) Evaluation
readiness
on
assessment
of
technology
This evaluation relay on technology used in the

design. The technology must be mature enough that it can
be used in the product design with out additional effort.
2. Evaluation on go / non-go screening

Each customer requirement must be transformed into
a question to be addressed to each concept. The questions
should be answerable as either yes (go),may be (go), or
no(non-go). It is needed that the design concept must satisfy
the needs of the customers. The weak areas in the concept
may be able to be fixed by borrowing ideas from another
concept. Sometimes the process of doing go / non-go analysis
may result in new idea.
3. Pugh concept selection method
Pugh concept selection method is the most promising
design concept. This method compares each concept relative
to a reference or datum concept and for each criterion, it
determines whether the concept in question is better than
the reference concept. Pugh concept selection method proved
that individual is best in creating ideas but a small group
is better at selecting ideas. The steps in concept selection
method are listed below.
1. Concept will be evaluated by the choice of criteria.
2. Formulate the decision matrix.
3. Clarify the design concepts.
4. Choose the datum concept.
5. Run the matrix
6. Evaluate the ratings
7. Establish a new datum and return the matrix
8. The selected concept for improvement
opportunities are examined.
Design Process 2.35
1. Concept evaluation by choice of criteria

If the generated concept is satisfied then the criteria
will be based on the engineering characteristics listed in
house of quality. A good way to arrive at the criteria is to
ask each team member to create a list of 15 to 20 criteria
based on the QFD and functional analysis.
A criterion may be very important, but if every design
concept satisfies it well, it will not help to select the final
concept. Therefore, this criterion should be left out of the
concept selection matrix.
2. Formulate the decision matrix
The criteria selected are entered into the matrix in
row heading where the concepts are column heading of
matrix. If the concept can be represented by a simple
sketch then it can be used in the column heading.
3. Clarify the design concepts
The main aim of this concept is to bring all the
members of the team to the common level of understanding
the concept. This is needed as it is important, because of
individual concept remains associated with different team
members.
A good team discussion regarding the concept is a
creative experience.
4. Choose the datum concept
The reference concept
concepts and selected by the
the selection of the better
datum would cause all the
is compared with all other

team as a datum. In making
concepts, the poor choice of
concepts to be positive and
would unnecessarily delay in arriving solution. The column

chosen as datum is marked accordingly DATUM.
5. Run Matrix
Comparative evaluation is a phase in which the
concept is compared with the datum for each criterion. In
solving the run matrix, the first criterion is applied to each
concept, then the second criterion and so on.
It is always evaluated that for better concept (+) and
worse (-) or for same (=) as the datum and the appropriate
symbol is placed in the cell of the matrix.
6. Evaluate the ratings
If the comparison matrix is completed, the sum of +,and = ratings are determined for each concept. On the other
hand, least rated concepts can be neglected. The few
positive features in the concept may really be "gems" that
could be picked up and used in another concept. The highly
rated concepts determine what their strengths are.
7. Establish a new datum and return the matrix
In this phase, a new datum level will be established
for receiving the concepts from 1st round, then the lowest
rating concepts can be eliminated in the second round. The
use of a different datum will give a different perspective
at each comparison that will help clarify the relative
strengths and weaknesses of the concept.
8. The selected concepts for improvement
opportunities are examined.
Once the best of all concepts is identified, consider
each criterion that performed worse than the datum. If new
concepts emerge, then the negative scores can change to
Design Process 2.37
positive scores. Once every thing gets finalized, it can be

moved for designing of parts and subsystems.
An example for pugh selection chart is shown in
Table 2.1
Table 2.1
Row
Criteria
Concept
A
Cost
Comfort
Weight
Aesthetics
Availability of materials
Ease of manufacturing
Pluses
Minuses
4. Best Concept
Once all the criteria are satisfied for the required
level, then that Best concept will be proceeded for other
operation. This is how evaluation takes place.
2.8 DESIGN COMMUNICATION

Design communication is the mixed discipline between
the design and information department involving printed,
crafter, electronic media or presentations communicating
with people. Communication design can also refer to a
systems-based approach in which media and messages with

in organization are designed as a single process.
Design communication seeks to attract, inspire, create
desires and motivate the people to respond to messages
with a view of making a favourable designs related to
communication.
Design communication includes
Visual communication
Information architecture
Editing
Typography
Illustration
Web design
Animation
Advertising
Ambient media
Visual design
Performing arts
Graphic designer
Industrial designer
2.9 DESIGN VISUALIZATION

Industrial design also called as product design, is
concerned with the visual appearance of the product and
the way it interfaces with the customer. The terminology
is not precise in this area. However, in todays highly
competitive market place, performance alone may not be
sufficient to sell a product. The design for aesthetics and
Design Process 2.39
human usability has been appreciated for many years for

consumer products, but today it is being given greater
emphasis in technically oriented industries also.
Industrial design deals mainly with the aspects of a
product that relate to the user. First and foremost is the
aesthetic appeal. Aesthetics deals with the interaction of
the product with the human senses like how it looks, feels,
smells or sounds. For most products, design visualization
is most important. Proper attention to aesthetics in design
are still a pride of ownership and a feeling of quality and
prestige in a product. Appropriate styling details can be
used to achieve product differentiation in a line of similar
products. Proper attention to industrial design is needed to
develop and communicate to the public, a corporate image
about the products that it makes and sells. Many
companies have developed a corporate style that embodies
their products, advertising, letter heads etc.,
Aesthetics relate to our emotions. Visual aesthetic
values can be considered as a hierarchy of human response
to visual stimuli. These values are derived from our needs
to recognize and understand objects. The second level of
aesthetics is concerned with recognition of the functionality
or utility of the design. Reducing the number of design
elements and dumping them into more compact shapes aids
recognition.
2.10 DESIGN FOR FUNCTION

Generally Design for function involves in strength or
stiffness, but they can include issues such as reliability,
safety in operation, ease of use, maintainability,
repairability etc., Certain design for functions are discussed

here.
Strength
Strength defines whether the designed part with
dimension can keep the stresses below yield levels and
withstand the maximum forces acting on it.
Fatigue
Fatigue refers that if cyclic load apply on the part,
the part must withstand stresses and it should be below
fatigue limit.
Stress concentrations
Local stress concentration should be kept low, in the
part which is designed.
Buckling
In order to prevent from buckling, the part should
withstand compressive loads.
Shock loading
The material should have
toughness to withstand shock.
sufficient
fracture
Vibration
Design incorporated should withstand vibrations.
The above mentioned are functionality factors, often
called design for performance factors, deal with technical
issues that can be addressed though analysis based on
mechanics of materials, its strength issue, fluid flow or heat
transfer. More detailed analysis of critical components is
carried out in the parametric design step.
Design Process 2.41
2.11 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH

There are several strategies concerning design for
strength that must be selected in proper perspective.
1. Infinite life design
2. Safe-life design
3. Fail-life design
4. Damage-tolerant design
1. Infinite life design
Infinite life design criterion is based on keeping the
stresses below some fraction of fatigue limit of the material.
If parts are subjected to very large cycles of uniform stress,
it is a valid design criterion.
2. Safe life design
It is based on the assumption that the parts are
initially free from flaws and has a finite life to develop a
critical crack. In this perspective, the design should
concentrate on fatigue life at a constant stress. Safe-life
design is common on pressure vessel and jet engine design.
3. Fail safe design
Fail safe design structure is designed so that the
cracks will not lead to failure before they can be detected
and repaired. This design is mostly used in aircraft
industry, where the weight penalty of using large safety
factor could not be tolerated but danger to life from very
small safety factors cannot be allowed.
4. Damage tolerant design
In damage tolerant design, the assumption is that
fatigue cracks will exist in an engineering structure. This
technique of fracture mechanics are used to determine
whether the cracks will grow large enough to cause failure

before they are sure to be detected during periodic
inspection.
2.12 SOLID MODELLING

Solid modelling is a type of geometric modeling.
Geometric modelling is a mathematical description that
allows the image of the object to be displayed and
manipulated on the computer screen and also it can be
stored in the memory and retrieved back and displaced on
the computer screen whenever required.
Solid modeling is the most powerful 3D modelling
technique.
There are more number of methods available to
generate solid models out of which two basic approaches
are
1. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
2. Boundary Representation (B-rep)
2.12.1 CSG
A solid modeler has a library of set of basic element
shapes known as primitives like cuboid, cylinder, sphere,
cone, wedge, torus etc.,
Sp he re
C o ne
Torus
C ylinder
Fig:2.9 Basic 3-D Shap es
C u bo id
Design Process 2.43
In this approach, the physical objects are modelled by

combining these primitives by a set of Boolean operations.
The type of Boolean operations used in CSG are union
( ), Difference () and intersection ( )
Binary tree scheme is used to store the model in the
data structure. The general form of the tree type data
structure used in CSG approach is shown in Fig 2.10.
R
K=3
R o ot M od e
L
L
L
Le af M od e
L
K
L
T ree h eigh t
Fig. 2.10
The root mode (R) has no parent and leaf mode (L)
has no children.
Advantages of CSG
1. Since the data to be stored are less, memory
required will be less.
2. Create fully valid geometrical solid model
3. Less skill is enough
Disadvantages of CSG
1.
More computational effort and time are required

whenever the model is to be displaced in the screen.
2.
Getting fillet, chamfer and taperness in the model

is very difficult.
2.12.2 B-rep
This approach is widely used in most of solid
modellers.
The solid model created by using B-rep technique may
be stored in graph based on data structure.
Advantages of B-rep
1.
Combining
possible.
wireframe
and
surface
model
are
2.
It is particularly suitable for modelling part having

internal symmetry.
3.
Complex engineering objects can be modelled very

easily compared with CSG.
Disadvantages of B-rep
1.
The data to be stored is more and it requires more

memory.
2.
Sometimes
possible.
geometrically
valid
solids
are
not
2.12.3 Advantages of Solid Modelling

1.
Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, centre

of gravity and moment of inertia of physical model
can be calculated quickly.
2.
It is very much useful in FEA (Finite Element

Analysis).
3.
They can help to produce NC machining instructions

automatically.
4.
Aesthetic look of finished object can be visualized in

the computer screen itself with colour shading,
Design Process 2.45
highlighting,
modellers.
5.
and
facilities
available
in
solid
Different views of object can be viewed as given

below.
(i) Isometric view
(ii) Perspective view
(iii) Orthogonal view
2.13 DETAILED DESIGN

In many engineering organizations, it is no longer
correct to say that detailed design is the phase of design
where all the dimensions, tolerances and details are
finalized. As the detailed design implies, it is the phase
where all of the details are brought together and all
decisions are finalized. Complete activities in detailed
design are shown in Fig. 2.11.
Decision
Once, in a project, the design of all components and
the drawings are finalized, then the meetings are held on
deciding whether to make a component in house or to buy
it from the external supplier. The final decision will be
based on the cost and manufacturing capacity with due
consideration given to issues of quality and reliability of
delivering the component. The main reason for making this
decision is to bring the supplier into the design effort as
an extended team member.
Selection and sizing of components
Most of the selection and sizing of components occur
in embodiment design. The standard components will be
purchased from external suppliers or routine standard
D ecision
S ele ctio n a nd Sizing of C o m po ne nts
E ngine ering D ra w in gs
B ill of M ate ria ls
P ro duct D e sign S pecification
P ro totype Testin g
C ost E stim atio n
P ro ject R e po rt
P ro ject R e view
D esign to M an ufactu rin g

Fig:2.11 Detailed Design
parts, for some of the critical components. If any change in

the selection and sizing of component at the last minitue
will truly affect performance, safety, or cost.
Engineering drawings
Engineering design is the major task in the detailed
design phase. Drawing of individual parts are usually called
detailed drawings. These diagrams will show the geometric
Design Process 2.47
features, dimensions and tolerances of the parts. Even some

times the drawings will include special treatments like heat
treating or finishing steps. Finally assembly drawings show
how the parts are put together to create the product or
system.
Bill of Materials (BOM)
Bill of materials (BOM) are nothing but the list of
individual components in the product. BOM is used for
manufacturing and in determining the product cost.
Product Design specification
Product design specification is the document for the
design team which gains more knowledge about the design
of the product. Product design specification will be updated
to include all current requirements that the design must
meet.
The specification contains information on the technical
performance of the part, its dimensions, test requirements,
material requirements, reliability requirement, design life,
packaging requirement and marking for shipment.
Prototype testing
If the design is finalized, then the prototype will be
built and verification test will be performed in order to
check whether the designed prototype meet the needs of
product design specification that it is safe and reliable.
Before product launch, actual products from the production
line will be tested. Based on the complexity of the product,
the verification testing will run the product during an
expected duty cycle and under overload conditions.
Cost Estimation
The detailed drawing gives clear sketch on the final
cost estimation, since knowledge of the material, the
dimensions, tolerances and finish of each part are needed
to determine manufacturing cost. Cost analysis requires
specific information about the particular machines and
process steps that will be used to make each part.
Project report
The detailed project report is written at the conclusion
of the project to describe the tasks undertaken and to
discuss the design in detail. The project report is an
important document if the products become involved in
either production or in patent.
Design Review
Design review will include initial product concept
meeting to begin the establishment of the product design
specification, a review at the end of the conceptual design
to decide whether to proceed with full scale product
development. Detailed reviews in the meeting will discuss
important issues like design for manufacturing, quality
issues, reliability, safety or preliminary cost estimates.
Final design review is the most structured and
comprehensive of the reviews.
Design for manufacturing
Design for manufacturing is the main activity of the
design personnel on that product. Manufacturing moves
ahead to develop tooling while design works on an
accelerated schedule to fix some design deficiencies. Design
input does not necessarily stop once manufacturing takes
over, because technical expertise is needed in such areas
Design Process 2.49
as quality assurance, warranty issues and deciding on

maintenance requirements.
2.14 MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS

The steps involved in material selection process are
listed here.
1. Analysis of the materials requirements: Determine
the conditions of service and environment that the product
must withstand. Translate them into the material
properties.
2. Screening for candidate materials: Comparison is
needed for properties with a large material property
database to select a few materials that look promising for
the application. Usually step 1 and 2 are conceptual phase
of design.
3. Analysis of candidate materials in terms of product
performance, cost and manufacturability and availability to
select the best material for the application. This is done in
the embodiment phase of design.
4. Development of design data for critical systems or
components. Determine experimentally the key material
properties for the selected material to obtain statistically
reliable measures of the material performance under the
specific conditions expected to be encountered in service. It
is not necessary to carry out this step, but it is usually a
part of the detailed design phase.
2.14.1 Material selection for a new design
1.
Define the functions that the design must perform

The important facts that come under consideration
are stiffness, strength and corrosive resistance.
2.
The manufacturing parameters should be defined as

the number of parts to be produced, the size and
complexity of the part, its required tolerance and
surface finish of the material.
3.
Compare the needed properties and parameters

against a large material property database to select
few materials that look promising for the
application.
4.
Environmental impact, including ability to recycle

the material.
5.
Cost of material selection at the best available price.
2.14.2 Material change in an existing design

1.
Characterize the materials currently used in terms

of performance, manufacturing requirements & cost.
2.
Analyze the existing material and identify which

property of material must be enhanced.
3.
Find for alternative material.
4.
Compare all possible materials for alteration.
5.
Evaluate the results of step.4, Define the critical

properties with specifications or testing.
2.15 TOLERANCING
A tolerance is the permissible variation from the
specified dimensions. The designer should decide how much
variation is allowable from the basic dimension of the
component to accomplish the desired function.
The design objective is to make the tolerance no
tighter than necessary. Since smaller tolerances increase
manufacturing cost and make assembly more difficult.
Design Process 2.51
On the other hand, the tolerance is the difference

between the upper and lower allowable limits of the basic
size dimensions. The basic size is the theoretical dimension,
often a calculated size for a component. Basic size is not
necessarily the same as nominal size.
The three basic ways of expressing tolerance is
Bilateral tolerance
Unilateral tolerance
Direct
Bilateral tolerance
The variation occurs in
both directions from the
basic dimension. That is, the
upper limit exceeds the
basic value and the lower
limit falls below it
9 .975
0.005
sha ft
1 0.007
0.00 7
h ole
(i.e.) value
Fig:2.15 Bilateral To lerance
Presentation
The basic dimension is
taken as one of the limits
and variation is in only one
direction.
sha ft
9 .98
-0.01
1 0.000
+0.014
h ole
Fig:2.16 To lerance Presentation

of Unilateral
Direct tolerance
The
maximum
and
minimum acceptable values
for the dimensions will be
given
sha ft
9 .98
9 .97
1 0.014
1 0.000
h ole
Fig:2.17 To leran ce Presentatio n

on Direct tolerance
2.15.1 Tolerance Allocation

The Dimensioned drawing should be ensured that the
component must be fully defined and particular care must
be taken to ensure that it is not over-dimensioned. It
should be always noted that only minimum number of
dimensions are shown, if not, this may cause confusion
particularly when tolerances are involved.
The tolerance on the dependent dimension is equal to
the sum of the tolerances on all dimensions that affect the
dependent dimensions.
Tolerance can affect both the cost and function of the
component. or otherwise, good design could be ruined by
poorly allocated tolerances. To be successful, design needs
attention in detail, especially in allocation of tolerances.
2.15.2 Geometric Tolerances
A dimensional tolerance defines the difference
between the upper and lower limits of a dimension, but it
ignores any departure from true form like roundness,
straightness. Geometric tolerance refers the maximum
Design Process 2.53
variation of form or position of a feature by defining a

tolerance zone within which the feature is to be contained.
Tolerance frame
The tolerance frame is connected to the toleranced
feature
by
a
leader
line
A
0 .5
terminating in an
bo l for
D a tum iden tification
Tolera nce
arrow.
The C Sym
h ara cteristic
if nee de d
Value
position of the
Fig. 2.18 Tolerance Fram e
arrow defines the
feature.
Geometric Tolerance
Geometric tolerances can be defined for the following
characteristics of geometric features.
Form - Flatness, Straightness, Circularity, Cylindricity
Profile - Line or surface
Orientation - Parallelism, angularity
Location - Position, Concentricity
Runout - Circular runout or total runout
The increase in the tolerance zone with size of the
feature is usually called a bonus tolerance because it allows
extra flexibility in manufacturing.
2.15.3 Guidelines for tolerance design
Certain guidelines for tolerance design are listed
below
1.
Focus on the critical to quality dimensions that

mostly affect fit and function. This is where we must
spend most of our efforts on tolerance analysis.
2.
For noncritical dimensions, use a commercial

tolerance recommended for the production process of
the components.
3.
A possible alternative for handling a difficult

tolerance problem might be to redesign a component
to move it to the non-critical classification.
4.
Tighter tolerance results in less chance for vibration

in moving parts.
5.
Larger tolerances reduce the cost of manufacturing

and make it easier to assemble components, but
often at the expense of system performance.
6.
Smaller (i.e.) Tighter tolerances are achieved at an

increased cost of manufacture.
2.16 DESIGN STANDARDS

A standard is an agreed set of procedures, criteria,
dimensions, materials or parts. Engineering standards may
describe the dimensions and sizes of small parts like screws
and bearings, the minimum required properties of
materials, or an agreed procedure to measure a property
like fracture toughness
Design standards fall into three categories.
Performance
Test methods
Codes of practice
The performance standards are used for

products such as seat belts and auto parts so on.
many
Design Process 2.55
Test method standards standardize methods for

measuring properties such as yield strength, thermal
conductivity or electrical resistivity. These are developed by
American Society for Testing & Materials (ASTM) codes of
practice. The detailed design methods for many technical
problems such as the design of piping, heat exchanger and
pressure vessels are developed by American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American Nuclear society,
and the society of Automotive engineers.
The types of standards include
(i) National standard
(ii) International standard
(iii) Company standards
(i) National standards
Many Industrial countries create their own national
standards like
BS: British Standards
ANSI: American National Standards Institution
JIS: Japanese Industry Standards
IIRS: Irish Institution of Research and Standards
The British standards covers series of divisions on
specialised areas, e.g auto, aerospace and general. Similarly
under the heading of ANSI, we have ASTM (American
society for Testing and Materials) and, SAE (Society of
Automobile Engineers).
(ii) International standards
International standards have been created in order to
expand world trade that has generated a need for standards
to cross national boundaries. International standard
organization was created to address such a need. It has
created a number of ISO standards in most case by

adopting a suitable nation standards.
Standards are often prepared by individual companies
for their own proprietary use. They address things like
tolerances, forms, manufacturing processes and finishes.
The greater the variety of different components that have
to be handled, stored etc., the more difficult it is for a
company to keep its costs under control.
Many manufacturing organisations recognizes this
and have produced their own system for standardizing on
components. Such system includes official manuals and
complicated part numbering procedures.
2.17 RESEARCH IN DESIGN

Most of the products that engineers developed today
are the result of new technology. Technology explosion
started with the invention of the digital computer and
transistor in 1940s and their subsequent development
through 1950s and 1960s. Combining the computer with
communication systems and protocols like optic fiber
communication gave us the internet cheap, and fast world
wide communications.
The three common ideas of Research are
Invention
Innovation
Diffusion
(i) Invention
It is the creative act where an idea is conceived,
articulated and recorded.
Design Process 2.57
(ii) Innovation
The process by which an invention or idea is brought
into successful practice and is utilized by the economy.
(iii) Diffusion
The successive and widespread implementation and
adoption of successful innovations is called diffusion.
Of these three stages, innovation is the most difficult
most time consuming and most important.
Chapter 3
PROTOTYPE TO PRODUCT
Prototyping - rapid prototyping; testing and evaluation of
design; Design modifications; Freezing the design; Cost analysis
-Engineering the design - From prototype to product. Planning;
Scheduling; Supply chains; inventory; handling; manufacturing/
construction operations; storage; packaging; shipping; marketing;
feed-back on design. - List out the standards organizations
3.1 PROTOTYPING
Prototyping is a way to develop and test the feasibility
of ideas to help us move from abstract to product in a safe
and controlled environment,
Once the design team has a consolidated idea of how
to answer a problem, prototyping provides an opportunity
for testing some of the proposed solutions without going to
the expense of full development. Prototyping engages a wide
range of stakeholders to generate and validate ideas and
awaken new possibilities. It follows the direction "Fail
earlier and often, to succeed sooner".
Prototyping can be defined as the process of quickly
putting together a working model (prototype) in order to
test the various aspects of a design, illustrate ideas or
features and gather early user feedback.
The word prototype comes from the Latin word proto,
meaning original, and types meaning form or model. A
prototype is the result of the prototyping process and
describes a crude version of the desired result. The role of
a prototype is to assure that the product will really function
the way it is expected to work. A prototype is a physical

model and not a computer model or a simulation of the
design. So, a prototype is the physical model of a product
that is tested in some way to validate the design decisions
that have been made up to that point in the design process.
Therefore prototype can be defined as a working model,
technically and visually complete, that is used to confirm
that the design meets all customer requirements and
performance criteria.
The purpose of the prototype is to test the design
solution under real conditions. So the prototypes should be
suitable for evaluation of design, performance and
production potential. Only after testing under all expected
and unusual operating conditions, the prototypes are
brought into full production. Almost every engineering
discipline uses prototypes in some way. Aerospace, civil,
computer
programming,
electrical,
electronics,
and
mechanical are few of the fields where prototyping plays
an important role. Prototypes serve multiple purposes,
including providing a demonstrative form of the final
project and feedback for revision and improvement within
the design process. Now, if the prototype does not meet the
design requirements, then an iteration has to be done.
Iteration is a process in which engineers try again and
again re-design, re-build and re-test. Engineers often iterate
many times before determining the final solution to a
problem; Once a successful prototype has been developed,
engineers can use it as a mock-up for full-scale production
Picture is worth a 1000 words
Prototype is worth a 1000 meetings
Prototype to Product 3.3
Model and Prototype: The term prototype is often

interchanged with the term model which causes confusion.
A model is used to demonstrate or explain how a product
will look or function, whereas, a prototype is used to test
different working aspects of a product before the design is
finalized. A prototype is much closer to the form, fit and
function of the final design than a model.
3.1.1 Need for prototyping
The engineering design process begins by defining the
engineering challenge, performing back ground research,
brainstorming potential solutions and evaluating several
alternatives. The next step is the synthesis of this product
information to begin the product manufacturing process.
But many times, something that works on paper proves to
be very difficult to build and there is great uncertainty as
to whether a new design will actually do what is desired.
Also, new designs have unexpected problems. Hence, to help
engineering teams assess the buildability of their new
design, prototyping is used.
Prototyping
A prototype allows engineers and designers to explore
design alternatives,test theories and confirm performance
prior to starting production commercially.
Prototyping
Helps us to find specific unknowns still present in

the intended design.
Allows evaluation and feed back.
Allows stakeholders to see, hold, interact with a

prototype more easily than a document or a
drawing.
Allows team members to communicate easily
Allows faster improvements as the person

responsible can intervene quickly and fix the
problem if any.
Helps to reduce cost as building full design is

expensive and time consuming, especially when
repeated several times.
Helps us find at an early stage whether the

product or the service is actually what the future
users really need.
Multiple iterations of prototypes are used to

progressively refine the design. A common strategy is to
design, test, evaluate and then modify the design based on
analysis of the prototype. Prototyping specialists are
employed in many product development organizations,
i.e,individuals with specialized skills and training who can
bridge between theoretical designs and the fabrication of
prototypes.
Prototype and Product: Prototypes differ from the final
product in three fundamental ways: Materials, processes
and fidelity.
Prototyping specialists attempt to substitute materials
with properties that simulate, the intended final material
to reduce high capital costs. Prototypes are made using
more variable processes to avoid expensive and time
consuming unique tooling required to fabricate custom
designs.
Prototypes have lower fidelity than a final product as

much manufacturing detail is generally unwarranted. So,
they are built with limited engineering detail as compared
to final production which often uses statistical process
controls and rigorous testing.
3.1.2 Types of prototypes
Different types of prototypes are used throughout the
design process from product concept to introduction to the
market.These are classified as follows.
Product-concept Prototypes: This prototype illustrates
the overall vision with respect to functionality, design,
structure and operational characteristics of the product. The
prototype should have the required look and feel of the final
product like when the consumer uses or experiences it.
Colour is not important but the size of full-scale or of
reduced-scale. This prototype is made by technical and
industrial designers.
Proof of concept (Principle) prototype: (in electronics,
breadboard). This prototype is used to serve the basic
function of showing how the product will work with less
concern for visual appearance, materials or intended
manufacturing methods. It proves that the product idea can
be reduced to practice and showcases the technical aspects
of the product design.
Alpha-prototype: (First version) Here the prototype is
made to the final design drawings with the same materials
as the product but the manufacturing processes are not
same as processes used for commercial production. These
prototypes are made in the model shop, equipped with
computer controlled and other precision machine tools.
Beta or proof of process prototype: Here the materials

and processes used are the same as the ones used in final
production. The tests on this prototype are used for
incorporating any further changes in the product.
Pre-Production Prototype: This prototype represents
the final version of the product in every way its
manufacturing
processes,
appearance,
packaging,
instructions, etc. This prototype may be expensive to
produce than the actual unit cost of the product in full
production but is valuable as it enables the producers to
go over every aspect of the product in fine detail. This
prototype is made by the manufacturing department.
3.1.3 Advantages of prototyping
The two main advantages of prototyping are
Reduced time and costs: Changes detected later in the
development stage would cost exponentially more to
implement, therefore early determination of what the user
really wants can result in faster and less expensive product.
Improved
and
increased
user
involvement:
Prototyping allows users to see and interact with a
prototype, so better and more complete feedback is
provided. Also, user interaction with prototype prevents
many misunderstandings and miscommunications that
occur between the user and the designer. Therefore, the
final product is more likely to satisfy the users desire for
look, feel and performance.
3.1.4 Disadvantages of Prototyping
Expense: The start up cost, for building a development
team focussed on prototyping may be high. Also, the
prototype cost may be substantially higher. Then the final
production cost varies due to inefficiencies in materials and

processes. The other factor for cost increase is the several
iterations needed until final design is approved.
Insufficient analysis: The focus on a prototype can
distract designers from properly analyzing the complete
project which results in preparation of incomplete
specification and overlooking better solutions. This leads to
conversion of prototypes into poorly engineered final
projects, that are hard to maintain.
Excessive Development time: When designers lose sight
of the fact that a key property of prototyping is that it is
to be done quickly, then they may try to develop a prototype
that is too complex. This may not yield a corresponding
increase in productivity. Also, sometimes users become
stuck in debates over details of prototype holding up the
design team and delaying the final product.
Limitations of Prototyping: A prototype may fail to
perform acceptably due to differences in materials,
processes and design fidelity whereas the production design
may be sound. Also, there are practical limitations to the
ability of a prototype to match the intended final
performance of the product. Hence, some allowances and
engineering judgement are often required before moving
forward with a production design.
3.1.5 Rapid prototyping
Computer-Aided Design or CAD has changed the
design process, as complex models and ideas can be
formulated on the computer. This allow the designers to
experiment with different forms without the use of a
physical model. However the major drawback of CAD
models is that the depth analysis is limited to the

representation on the screen. On the other hand, a physical
prototype is often useful for engineers to visualize complex
components. But, as studied earlier, building the full design
is often expensive and can be time consuming, especially
when repeated several times. Hence, rapid application
development techniques( or rapid prototyping ) are used
which allows designers and manufacturers to rapidly and
inexpensively test the parts of the design and then build
the full design.
Rapid Prototyping (RP) is a technology in which
complex three dimensional objects (prototypes) are
fabricated directly from a computer aided design (CAD)
models, often in a matter of hours. This is a fraction of the
time required for machining or modeling methods. Other
names for rapid prototyping are solid free form fabrications,
computer
automated
manufacturing
and
layered
manufacturing.
Rapid prototyping models can be used for
visualization for testing
& to create male models for
tooling. They are extensively used to check form, fit and
function but are not generally strong enough to be used as
prototypes where strength issues are important. Also,
highly convoluted shapes (included parts rested within
parts) can be produced by rapid prototyping. The materials
used in rapid prototyping may be polymers, metals or
ceramics.
3.1.6 Basic Methodology of Rapid Prototyping
The basic step in rapid prototyping, [Refer Fig 3.1]
can be summarized as follows

R P Ma chine
S olid
(C A D )
M od el
C onversion
to
S T L F ile
P ost P rocessing
P ro cess P lann er
(M ode l validity,
slicing, trajecto ry
p la nnin g)
A uto ma ted
Fabrication
Fig.3.1. Representation of Rapid Prototyping Pro cess.
Creation of CAD model: The CAD model is the

virtual prototype of the part. For rapid prototyping
the model should be a fully closed volume.
Conversion of CAD model to STL (Stereo

Lithography) file format: The software has the
capability to convert the CAD file to STL file.
Here, a process called testellation is used to
convert the surfaces of the part to very small
triangular faces.
Slicing of the STL file: After the STL file is

moved to the RP machine, its software slices the
model into many thin layers as most rapid
prototyping processes build the solid body layer by
layer.
Making the prototype: The RP machine uses

the sliced model to make the prototype. Not much
attention is required until the part is completely
done.
Post processing: After removal from the RP

machine, the support structures, if any, are
removed and the model is cleaned and finished.
Depending on the material used, the part may
require a treatment process (like infiltration with
polymer) to give it strength.
Provided that material properties, surface finish and

other needs are satisfied, rapid prototyping can produce
components of even very complex shapes in a single step.
Typically to make a model using RP may take 8 to 24
hours.
3.1.7 Rapid Prototyping Methods or Techniques
Rapid prototyping includes several methods separated
by production techniques, processes and the type and
nature of materials used. RP is an additive process,
combining layers of a material to create a solid object in
contrast to most machining processes which are subtractive,
i.e, processes that remove material from a solid block.
The rapid prototyping methods currently available in
the industry to add increased productivity in product
development includes
Stereo Lithography (SLA)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Three Dimensional Printing (3DP)
3.1.7.1 Stereo Lithography

This is based on selective polymerization of a
photosensitive resin using an ultraviolet laser beam. The
laser beam traces the shape of each layer and hardens the
photosensitive resin.
Process
The UV laser beam is focused on the top layer of

photosensitive resin contained in a vat.
The beam is positioned and moved along the

geometry of the cross section of the part to
polymerize the resin.
The cured layer of polymer lowered by a layer

thickness with the help of a vertically moving
platform, so that a fresh layer of liquid resin
covers the cured layer and the process is repeated.
Uncured resin is removed and the model is post

cured to fully cure the resin.
Advantages
Good accuracy and surface finish
U V Laser S ou rce
L iq uid P olym er
L iq uid
S urface
E levator
Form ed Pa rt
Vat
S upport
P latform
Fig. 3.2. S chem atic Illu stratio n o f Stereo Lithography Pro cess
Capable of high detail and thin walls
Disadvantages
Requires port curing
Limited materials (photo polymers)
Some warpage, shrinkage, and curl due to phase

change.
Support structures always needed.
3.1.7.2 Selective Laser Sintering(SLS)

Scan ner
Laser
Po w de r
R o lle r
Pa rt
Piston go es
up for ea ch
Layer
Piston m oves
dow n for
each Layer
Fig. 3.3. S ele ctive L aser Sinterin g.
In SLS, a thin layer of powder is spread and sintered

by the passage of a high energy laser beam. Sintering is
the process of tracing a concentrated heating beam over a
tightly compacted layer of fine heat fusible powder, without
melting it to the point of liquefaction to form a solid mass.
This process is mostly used with thermoset polymer
particles or metal particles coated with plastic.
Process
The powder is metered in precise amounts and is

spread by a counter-rotating roller on the table.
A laser beam is then traced over the surface of

this powder to selectively melt and bond it to form
a layer of the object.
The work platform is lowered through a distance

corresponding to the layer thickness and a new
layer of powder is spread and sintered over the
previously built layer.
The process is repeated layer by layer until the

part is complete.
Advantages
No post curing required
Faster build times
Variety of materials
Limited use of support structures
Disadvantages
Complex operation
Rough surface finish
Mechanical properties below molded objects.
3.1.7.3 Laminated Object Manufacturing

In LOM, layers of adhesive backed materials (like
paper) are fused or laminated together and then cut
individually into the desired shape with a computer
controlled layer or blade. A sheet material is unwound from
feed roll onto the stack and bonded to the previous layer
using a heated roller which melts the plastic coating on the
M irror
L aser
M ovin g op tics H ead
H e ate d R olle r
L ayer C on to ur
S heet
M aterial
P latform
Take up R oll
S upply R o ll
Fig. 3.4. L ayer Object Manufacturing.
bottom side of the sheet material to create the bond. The

process is illustrated in the Fig.3.4
Process
Adhesive coated sheet is pulled through the

machine over the build area
Heated roller laminates the new layer over the

previous layer
Laser outlines the boundary of the desired cross

section of the part.
Wastepaper is wound up on a take up roll
Process continues as additional layers are added

until part is done
Advantages
Fast method
Suitable for large components
No shrinkage or warpage
Disadvantage
Finish, accuracy and stability are not good
Limited use for complex components
No use of residual material
3.1.7.4 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

FDM is a liquid state deposition process where a
continuous filament of thermoplastic polymer is heated and
extruded layer by layer through a nozzle, whose movement
along the three axes are computer controlled.
Fila m en t
Fe ed e r
L iq uifie r
Fila m en t
S u pply C o il
E xtrus ion n ozzle

S o lidifie d plaster
(to fo rm m od e l)
Fig. 3.5. F used D eposition Mo deling .
H e ig ht
A d ju stable
P latform
Process
The entire system is contained within a chamber

held at a temperature just below the melting point
of the material
The material in the form of wire supplied in

sealed spools is threaded through the FDM head.
Molten material is extruded through the nozzle

moved in the horizontal x and y directions to
produce a layer on a height adjustable platform.
The platform is lowered after the completion of

each layer and the process is repeated.
Advantages
No post curing
Good
range
Polycarbonate)
Easy material changeover
Quiet operation office friendly
of
strong
materials
(ABS,
Disadvantages
Not good for thin walls and fine detail parts
Comparatively slow on wide cross section or dense

parts
Surface finish is comparatively low
3.1.7.5 Three Dimensional Printing (3DP)

3D printing is similar to laser printing except that
the laser beam is replaced by a liquid binder (Inkjet head).
The powder particles become bonded in the areas where
the adhesive is deposited.
L iq uid
a dh esive
sup ply
M ulti - C h an ne l
in kje t H e ad
R o lle r
...
..........
.....
...
Fa brication
P o w de r B ed (B )
O bject B eing
Fa bricate d
P o w de r
D e live ry
S ys tem
B u ild
C ylind er
Fig. 3.6. T hre e D im ens io nal Printin g.
Process
A measured quantity of powder object material is

spread on the top of a fabrication chamber.
Subsequently a multi channel inkjet head deposits

a liquid adhesive onto the powder layer in a
pattern corresponding to cross section of the object
to form a layer of the object.
The platform is lowered and a new layer of

powder is spread on the build surface.
The process is repeated until the whole model is

completed.
Advantages
Speedy fabrication
Low material cost
Full color output available. So excellent choice for

scientific
visualization
and
architectural
applications.
No supports necessary
Disadvantages
Limited materials
Limitation on resolution and surface finish(due to

grain size of powder)
Accuracy is not high
Fragile parts
3.1.8 Applications of Rapid Prototyping

There are many applications of rapid prototyping
which almost fall into one of the following categories
Design: A physical model can be built in

minimum time using RP. This will help designers
to visualize the model and confirm their design.
Engineering
Analysis
and
Planning:RP
enables stress analysis, flow analysis etc., of the
physical model. Also fabrication of pre-production
parts for process planning and tool design is
possible.
Tooling and Manufacturing Tools made by

other processes (CNC machining,electro discharge
machining etc) are expensive and time consuming.
Rapid tooling is used to fabricate production
tooling to speed up the process.
Many parts with intricate geometries can be made

using rapid or prototyping called rapid manufacturing. It
is suitable for short production runs, since it does not

require tooling.
Rapid tooling
Rapid tooling is the automatic
production quality machine tools.
fabrication
of
Advantages
Tooling time is shorter. Almost one-fifth as that

of conventional tooling
Cost is much less
Limitations
Tool life is considerably less than a conventional

tool.
Tolerances are wider.
3.2 TESTING AND EVALUATION OF DESIGN

Testing and evaluation of design is done to confirm
whether the design intent/criteria is satisfied. For this
purpose, the model or prototype is used to verify whether
the product will work as it is supposed to do or if it needs
refinement.
The goal of testing is to evaluate new designs prior
to production to ensure that the designs meet users
expectations (for consumer products) or a set of stipulated
test requirements (as for military equipments). In industry,
a test plan is developed by a separate team to design and
implement a detailed testing procedure. The test plan
describes the types of tests to be performed, time of tests
in the design process and the cost of the tests.
In some cases, the design of product testing may

require direct involvement of the user, where the design
team observe the people using the device and possibly
interview them. This provides valuable feedback to
incorporate changes in the design.
Also, for some products, tests are planned to generate
failures (accelerated testing). Actual failure modes are
studied to gain insight into the weaknesses of the design.
Here, the testing conditions are more severe that the worst
expected service conditions.
Some of the important consideration for testing and
evaluation of design are
List of important attributes to be tested
Set of experiments that test those attributes
Testing conditions i.e, under controlled conditions

or in a working environment.
Recording of test data
Analysis and comparison of test data with design

criteria and specifications
Identifying major
re-design work.
areas
of
concern
for
any
Reasons for Testing and Evaluation of Design

Testing and evaluation of design should be done for
the following reasons
To asses the viability of a design
To identify potential
improvements
faults
and
to
make
To identify safety issues. Conformance to

government standards and regulations need to be
checked.
To scrutinise costs. Alterations to the design or

processes have to be made for any cost
restrictions.
Evaluating the manufacturing process to design in

an efficient and cost effective production line
Comparison of tests conducted on similar design

may lead to improvements
For providing user instructions, so that the

consumer can use the product efficiently and
safely
3.3 DESIGN MODIFICATIONS

Design modification is the change conducted to the
product at any stage in the design process. Usually
products are not completely successful on the first try and
problems arise with some design aspects. So re-designing
or tweaking is necessary.The term tweaking refers to any
small modifications intended to improve a product/system.
Design modifications, in the commercial environment,
also refer to modifications carried out on existing
products/systems to remain competitive with regards to
price, performance and quality. Clients and end users are
demanding more value for their money and quite often only
small design changes are needed to have a positive
influence on sales and profitability.
3.4 FREEZING THE DESIGN

In industry, Freezing the design plays an important
role during product development. Before manufacturing
starts the entire design needs to be frozen.
Freezes mark the end point of a development stage.
For example a Specification freeze defines the set of
requirements on which the entire design is based and a
design freeze describes the end point of design phase at
which the final version of technical product description is
released to production.
When a freeze is imposed, no further changes will be
permitted unless they go through a formal review by a
design control board. This prevents the human tendency to
continually make slight improvements, thereby allowing the
design sequence to move forward. Only important changes
that affect safety, performance or cost are approved.
The different freezes in the various product
development stages are illustrated in the Fig. 3.7
C o ncep tu al
d esign
Sp ecificatio n
Free ze
C o ncep t
Free ze
D e taile d
d esign
Prototyping
D e sign
Free ze
Tooling
Free ze
Fig. 3.7. D ifferen t F reezes in Prod uct Develop ment
Here, design freeze is depicted as a single point,

however, different parts and parameters need to be
finalized prior to the official design freeze. So, a design
freeze can be defined as a binding decision that defines the
whole product, its parts or parameters and allows the
continuation of the design based on that decision.
Reasons and benefits for freezing the design
Reduces the likelihood of further engineering

changes
Where design
manufactured
Quality control norms like ISO 9000 requires a

freeze point for the control of changes to the
product after design completion.
Increased commitment by engineers as when they

are forced to sign off frozen parts, they assume
direct responsibility for what has been signed.
is
frozen,
product
can
be
3.5 COST ANALYSIS

Almost all engineering disciples are involved in the
cost management of their products, as among the
functionally equivalent product alternatives, the lowest cost
design would be successful in the market. A detailed
knowledge of costs and an understanding of how new
technology can lower costs is required for competing
companies to maintain markets.
So, an engineers involvement is not only developing
the working prototype and producing the final drawings but
also to consider the manufacturing requirements for
production. Costs must be taken into account by engineers
from the requirements development stage because the
product may be technically very good but if it requires
costly materials and manufacturing operations, then
customers might avoid, the product and select the one that
is more balanced in its cost and performance
Uses of Cost Analysis
To decide the selling price of a product or service
To determine the most economical material and

manufacturing process
To determine the standards

performance to control costs
To provide information concerning the viability of

a new product
of
production
3.5.1 Cost Categories
Product costs or variable costs
Period cost or fixed costs
Product costs are costs that vary with the volume of

product made. Some of the variable costs are
Materials
Labour
Maintenance
Power and utilities
Scrap losses and spoilage
Packaging and storage
Period or fixed costs are those that remain fixed over

a period of time regardless of the volume of products made.
Some fixed costs are
Indirect plant costs like investment costs
(Insurance,Taxes etc)and overhead costs (general
supplies, rental equipment etc)
Over head costs are costs of running the company
other than manufacturing or production activities.
Management and administrative expenses
Selling expenses
Another categorization
Direct costs
Indirect costs
Direct costs are those which are directly associated

with a particular unit of product made. Eg.Advertising for
a specific product or product line.
Indirect costs are those which cannot be assigned to
any particular product. Examples: Building rent, cost of
utilities, etc.
Working capital: This is an important cost category
referring to the funds that must be provided to get a project
started and to meet the subsequent obligations. It includes
procured raw material, semifinished goods, finished product
in inventory, accounts receivable and cash needed for daily
operations.
The elements of cost that establish the selling price
are illustrated below
D irect D irect
m aterial la b or
cost
cost
P rim e C o st
Fa ctory e xpe nse s

(p ow e r sup p lie s ,
m ainten an ce )
Fa ctory C o st
M an ufactu rin g co st
S a le s expe n se s
Tota l co st
P ro fit
S e llin g p ric e
So, Profit Selling Price T otal cost of product realisation
3.5.2 Some Financial Terms

Some of the financial terms an engineer should be
familiar with are summerised below
Principal: It is the money originally invested or loaned.
Interest: It is the cost of borrowing money on a loan or
the amount earned on an interest bearing account.
The percentage (of the principal) used to calculate the
cost of borrowed money or the amount that will be earned
over a certain period of time (quarterly,yearly etc) is called
the interest rate.
Compound Interest: It is the interest calculated on the
principal and also on the accumulated interest of previous
period of a deposit or loan. Also called compounding.
Time Value of Money(TVM): The idea that the money
available at the present time is worth more than the same
amount in the future, due to its potential earning capacity,
is referred to as time value of money.
Present Value (PV): The amount of cash that is
equivalent in value to a payment to be received in future.
Future Value (FV): It is the value of an asset or cash at
a specified date in the future, based on the value of that
asset or cash in the present.
Therefore,
For simple interest, FV PV [1 r n
Where, r rate of interest
n number of years or fraction of a year
For compound interest FV PV 1 rn
Where, r the interest rate for the period

n the number of compounding period.
First cost: The direct cost of a commodity like materials

and labour involved in its production, excluding fixed costs.
Also called prime cost.
Break Even Point (BEP): BEPis the production/sales
level at which the total revenue equals total expenses. It
is the point at which a product, project or a business
becomes commercially viable. Operating beyond the BEP
results in profits and operating below the BEP results in
losses. Also BEP is a measure of how long it takes to
recover ones investments. Many companies prefer a BEP of
18 months or less.
Now if P Selling price Rs/unit
F Fixed cost Rs
V Variable cost Rs/unit
Q Production volume units
We have
Gross profit, Z PQQV F
At break even point, the gross profit is zero. So the

production volume at BEP is given by,
Q BEP
F
PV
Process Improvement: PI is the task of identifying,

analyzing and improving upon existing business processes
within an organization by removing non-value added
activities and costs through incremental enhancements for

optimization and to meet new goals and objectives.
Return on Investment (ROI): ROI is a profitability
measure that evaluates the performance of a business by
dividing net profit by the investment that produces it.
ROI
Net profit
100
Cost of investment
Companies prefer an ROI of 15% or more.

R e turn on Investm e n t
C a pital e m p lo yed
Profit
Sa le s
C o sts
In ven tory
C a sh a nd
re ceiva bles
Fixed
a sse ts
Fig. 3.8. R eturn on Investment
3.5.3 Simple Problems

Problem: Determine the number of years for BEP to occur for
the following data.
Investment Rs. 1,000,000
Profit Rs 10/u nit
Sales volume 150 units/day
Equating total revenues to total cost, we have

150 10 No of days 1,000,000
Number of days
1,000, 000
666.67
1500
BEP occurs in 1.83 years
Problem: The cost structure for a new product for 1 day of

operation is given below. Determine the break even point. Also
determine the selling price needed to break-even at 1000 units.
Labour cost = Rs.2/unit

Material cost = Rs.5/unit
Equipment depreciation = Rs.4000
General expenses = Rs.1000
Factory expenses = Rs.800
Sales overheads = Rs.1200
Profit = Rs.2/unit
Total fixed costs, F 4000 1000 800 1200
Rs.7000
Total variable costs, V 2 5 Rs. 7/un it.

P 7 2 Rs . 9
Selling pric e,
Q BEP
7000
F
3500 units.
PV 97
Selling price needed to break-even at 1000 units.

Here, Q BEP 1000 units
So, P
F Q BEP V 7000 1000 7
Q BEP
1000
14000
Rs.14 /unit
1000
Problem: Calculate the ROI for the following data

Investment = 15 lakhs
Sales volume = 200 units/day
Profit = Rs.5/unit
No.of operating days = 300 days/year
Total Net profit 200 5 300

Rs. 3,00,000 /year
Return on investment, ROI
Net profit
100
Cost of in vestment
300000
100
1500000
0.2 100
20%
3.6 ENGINEERING THE DESIGN

Engineering is the most important feature of product
design in the means of bringing design to an end product
that is sold in the market. When the design is done, testing
complete, requirements satisfied, business plan ready and
marketing analysis (marketresearch) positive, then the
design is ready to go out to the market i.e,it is ready for
production. Decisions on whether to make each part
in-house or to obtain it from an outside supplier(vendor) is
done The production phase is usually the most expensive.
Manufacturing
products
involves
a
managed
production system that contains the output of capital,
people, knowledge, materials, energy, tools, machines and
processes. Processes are methods by which products can be
manufactured from raw materials. The costs will differ
widely for each product, manufacturing process and

location. Planning is important so that the best method of
production can be found. New techniques for managing
production involves computer integrated manufacturing and
just-in-time manufacturing (JIT). In a globally competitive
market place,it is the job of the engineer to figure out
methods and systems to produce a product in an efficient,
cost-effective way to provide a marketing edge for the final
product.
3.6.1 From Prototype to Product
Overcoming bugs(defects) is a large part of product
development and is the reason why most major companies
do several revisions (alpha, beta, release designs) of a
design before releasing a product to the public;especially
those companies wishing to release high quality
products.[Refer Fig 3.9]
Alpha and beta phases
focus on usability testing. Alpha
testing happens at the end of
the development process when
the product is in a near fully
usable state. It is normally
carried out in house and
performed by non-development
users who would emulate real
customers.
Beta testing is done prior
to launch to improve the
quality of the product, integrate
customer input on the product
D e ve lo pm e nt
A lph a P ha se
B e ta ph a se
P ro du ct R e le ase
P ro du ctio n
Fig.3.9. G eneral R ep resen tation
from D evelo pm en t to Prod uction :
Each Stage Representin g
D ifferent Levels of Q uality
and ensure release readiness. Testing is performed outside

the control of the development organization by focus groups
or specially selected users. Very often Beta prototypes are
made available free to existing customers to use and test
in their own environment.
Product release refers to a version of the product that
is technically complete and ready for customers to use. The
product features all designed functions and no known
critical defects. In the final release, any last minute defects
are fixed as the production is ramped up for the initial
product launch.
Some of the tasks that
must be completed before
product launch are process
planning, design of tooling,
negotiating with suppliers,
developing
a
quality
assurance plan, marketing
plan,
distribution
plan,
customer
service
plan,
maintenance plan and a plan
for retirement of the product
from service.
Depending on the first

batch of product from the
production line, passing a
manufacturing
prototype
M aterial S pecificatio ns,

P rocess &
E quipm en t S election ,
S afety R eview
P ilot P rodu ction
P roduction
Inspection &
Q uality A ssuan ce
Feedb ack
A conventional product
cycle from prototype to
product is shown in Fig 3.10
De tailed D esign
P rototyp e
P ackagin g, M arketing
& S ales Literature
P roduct
Fig.3.10. Prototype to Product
acceptance test, the product is launched. To achieve a

timely product launch, product lifecycle management (PLM)
softwared is increasingly being used. It refers to a set of
computer based tools designed to increase the effectiveness
of the product design process from conceptual design to
product retirement. Also Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) systems have been developed to integrate the various
business processes including human resources, payroll,
accounting, financial management and supply chain
management.
We have studied earlier that a company may decide
on whether to make each part in house or to obtain it from
a outside supplier. Many companies look out for
manufacturing partners to produce their products. Some of
the considerations that have to be made before taking the
product idea from prototype to production are
Bill of Materials(BOM)
Minimum Order Quantity(MOQ)
Purchase Order(PO)
Tooling
Quality
Packaging
Shipping
Storage
Other costs
BOM is a comprehensive cost of raw materials,

components and assemblies required to build or
manufacture a product. This decides the type of materials
to be used, number of parts and whether the parts are
available in the open market or custom fit; accordingly the

cost breakdown is worked out.
Minimum order quantity is the smallest amount of a
product that a company will supply. When ordering
products from a supplier, there will be a MOQ relating to
the minimum quantity that has to be bought in order to
place an order with the supplier.
A Purchase Order is a written authorization from a
buyer to a supplier to acquire goods or services. It includes
price, quality level, delivery date and certain other terms.
A PO is legally binding after the supplier counter-signs it.
Suppliers may ask for one-third to half of the total cost as
advance, while the rest can be paid at the time of shipping.
The product might require tooling referring to
manufacturing aids such as cutting tools, dies, fixtures,
gauges, jigs, molds and patterns of a specialized nature,
limited in use to the particular product.
Unexpected quality problems cost time, money and
relationship tension with the manufacturer. So proper
communication between the prototypes and manufacturer is
required to translate the prototype to large volume
production.
Proper packaging is needed to protect the product as
well as for marketing. Also packaging around the packaging
is needed to ship the goods, to prevent damaged products
that cannot be sold.
The finished goods from the manufacturer need to be
transported to the warehouse (where they are stored) by
either a truck, train or ship. The cost of relocation and

storage of the goods needs to be considered.
If the company is build around the product then other
costs like setting up of a website, merchant account,
workspace, trade shows etc add up to the fixed costs.
Product cycle in the Manufacturing Process
The product cycle in the manufacturing process is
illustrated in the Fig 3.11
Fro m
d esig n
p roc es s
P ro c ess
P lan ning
(S ch ed ulin g, M R P,S FC ,etc)

M R P - M ate ria ls R e qu irem en t P la nn in g
S F C - S ho p F lo or C on tro l
P ro du ctio n
P lan ning
D e sign &
P ro c ure m en t
o f n ew too ls &
e qu ip m e nts
P ro du ctio n
Q ua lity
C o ntrol
P a cka ging
O rd er
M aterial
N C ,C N C ,D N C
p rog ram m in g
N C - N um e rica l C o ntrol
C N C - C o m p uter N um e ric al C o ntrol
D N C - D ire c t N u m erica l C on tro l
D e sign n ee d
(D e sign P rocess )
C u stom er
Fe ed b ac k
M arke tin g
S h ip ping
Fig.3.11 . Pro du ct C ycle in Manu facturing
Process planning bridges the gap between the

design and manufacturing phases. It involves the
translation of product and process design requirement into
a set of manufacturing instructions that can be carried out
in the manufacturing unit. The production department then
takes the necessary steps to manufacture the product
i.e.analyze and procure the required equipment or tools,
procure the required raw material etc.,with the detailed
operational instructions to the shop floor.
The next stage is scheduling which provides a plan

that commits the company to the manufacture of certain
quantities of the product by certain dates.
Once all these plans are formulated, the product goes
into production, followed by quality testing. Products that
pass the quality inspection are packaged, labelled and
delivered to the customer. Finally the feedback from the
customer after use is incorporated into the design.
3.7 PLANNING
Planning consists of identifying the key activities in
a project and ordering them in a sequence in which they
should be performed.
Now-a-days, companies are in severe demands to
produce successful and high quality products with the
smallest cycle times and investment costs. So, product
development becomes risky if improperly planned. Good
product developers seek to balance product constraints(time,
cost) with product features, and quality. Absence of
planning would lead to wastage of time and resources.
Planning considers all input variables to achieve
predetermined output goals. Control activities are necessary
for remedial action to prevent variance of output from
planned levels.
The general product and control cycle is shown in
Fig.3.12
W h e re a re
w e no w ?
Feed back
How d o we
kn ow w h en
w e h ave
arriv ed ?
W h e re d o w e
w a nt to be ?
M on itoring
O bjectives
H o w a re w e
go in g to
ge t the re ?
C o ntrol activitie s
Plann ing
P lan ning a ctivities
Fig.3.12. The P lan nin g and C on trol C ycle .
Production Planning: Production planning is a plan in

which the facilities needed for production are determined
and arranged. It deals with basic concepts of what to
produce when to produce, how much to produce etc., It
takes a long term view at the overall production.
Objectives of production planning are
To ensure the right quantity and quality of raw

material, equipment etc., available during times of
production.
To ensure capacity utilization

forecast demand at all times.
in
tune
with
Production planning is made periodically for a specific

time period, called the planning horizon. It involves long
range planning dealing with facility planning, capital
investment location planning etc., medium range planning
dealing with demand forecast and capacity planning and
short term planning dealing with day to day operations.
Process planning: This can be considered as a part of

production planning. Process planning determines the most
efficient sequence to manufacture the product. Outcome is
production plan, tools procurement material order and
machine programming [Refer Fig.3.11]
3.8. SCHEDULING
Scheduling is the process of arranging, controlling and
optimizing work and work loads in a production process,
where it has a major impact on the productivity of a
process. It consists of putting the plan into the time frame
of the calendar. Companies use forward and backward
scheduling to allocate plant and machinery resources, plan
human resources, plan production processes and purchase
materials.
Forward scheduling
Planning tasks from the date of availability of

resources to determine the shipping date or the due date.
Backward scheduling
Planning the tasks from the due date to determine

the start date and/or any changes in capacity required.
The objective of planning and scheduling activity is
to develop a production plan that is efficient enough to meet
existing orders and anticipated shorter term demand while
minimizing inventories of both raw materials and finished
goods.
Benefits of Planning and Scheduling
Efficient service to customers
Enabling production to be conducted in accordance

with time schedules; therefore deliveries made on
promised dates.
Serves to co-ordinate the activities of the plant

and result in concerted effort by workmen.
Effective utilization of resources
Cost Reduction
Avoidance of bottlenecks - incomplete work does

not get accumulated.
3.8.1 Basic Planning and Scheduling Tools

In any project/product development ;it is necessary to
predict cycle times, costs and labour which is a very
difficult task, especially when complex projects are involved.
Tools are thus needed to assist in this task.
Many tools exist for product planning and scheduling.
Some common tools include work breakdown structure
(WBS), Gantt charts, Program Evaluation Review
Technique (PERT) and critical path method (CPM) or
critical path analysis (CPA). For small scale projects Gantt
charts will be sufficient whereas for large development
projects PERT and CPM are helpful for laying out project
timeliness.
Work Breakdown structure (WBS)
A WBS is a tool used to divide a project into
manageable segments, which can be easily supervised and
estimated. This ensures that the complete scope of work is
understood.
The WBS lists the tasks that need to be are done are
expressed as outcomes (deliverables). Identifying the main
deliverables of a project is the starting point for deriving
a work breakdown structure.
P ro je ct N a m e
Task 1
S u btask 1.1
S u btask 1.2
W ork P ac ka g e 1 .1 .1
Task 2
S u btask 2.1
Fig. 3.1 3. W ork B re ak D ow n Stru ctu re.
One can use many forms to display their WBS. Some

use tree structure to illustrate the WBS, while others use
lists and tables. Outlining is one of the easiest ways of
representing a WBS.
Although most WBS diagrams are designed based on
the deliveries, some WBS are created based on the project
phases
WBS is not restricted to a specific field when it comes
to application.
Usually, information technology projects perfectly fit
into WBS model.
In addition to the general use of WBS, it is used as
the input for Gantt charts. A Gantt chart is used for
tracking the progression of the tasks derived by WBS.
Gantt charts
Gantt charts are most widely used basic planning and
scheduling
tool, named after Henry Gantt. They are
essentially horizontal bar or line charts, providing a
graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan,

coordinate and track specific tasks in a project.
The chart relates project/product development tasks
and activities to time. The tasks are typically listed on the
vertical axis. The horizontal axis represents the total time
span of the project, broken down into increments (eg.days,
weeks, or months). Horizontal bars of varying lengths
denote the estimated time span for each task. The bar
spans may overlap, for example, you may start a task when
a previous task is yet to be completed. For each major task,
a milestone should be established, denoted by a symbol.
Grantt charts may be simple versions created on
graph paper or more complex versions created using project
management applications such as Microsoft Project or
Excel. A simple Grantt chart illustration of a project for
designing and constructing a robot vehicle is shown in
Fig.3.14.
Fig.3 .14. Gan tt C h art I llustration
Gantt charts give a clear illustration of project status

but they do not tell how a delay in one task will affect
other tasks (where as PERT charts do this). Gantt charts
should be adjusted frequently to reflect the actual status
of project tasks when they diverge from the original plan.
PERT
Program Evaluation Review Technique(PERT) is a
project management tool developed by the US Navy in the
1950s to evaluate the performance of large development
projects. It is a network of tasks needed to complete a
project, showing the order in which the tasks need to be
completed and the dependencies between them.
A PERT chart presents a graphic illustration of a
project as a network diagram consisting of numbered
nodes(either circles or rectangles) representing events or
milestones linked by labelled vectors (directional lines)
representing tasks or activities in the project. The direction
of the arrows on the lines indicate the sequence of tasks.
A PERT chart is illustrated in Fig.3.15
2
C
15
D u mm y
a ctivity
1
5
B
E
10
10
D
1 ,2,3,4 .... - N odes re presenting eve nts

A ,B ,C ,D ,E.... - Ta sks o r a ctivities
5 ,8,10 ,15.... - Tim e allo te d
Fig.3.15. Pert Chart.
In the above example, the tasks between nodes 1,2,4,6

must be completed in sequence and are called dependent
or serial tasks. Tasks between nodes 1 and 2 and nodes
1 and 3 are not dependent and can be undertaken
simultaneously. These are called parallel or concurrent
tasks. Dotted lines represent dummy activities. These
activities do not require resources or compilation time but
have event dependency. Numbers on the directional arrows

indicate the time allotted for the task. A PERT chart is
sometimes preferred over the Gantt chart because it clearly
illustrates task dependencies.
Another popular scheduling tool is critical path
method (CPM). CPM uses the most likely estimate of time
duration to complete an activity unlike PERT which uses
a probabilistic estimate of time for completion of an activity.
The disadvantage of PERT and CPM is that the
relation of tasks to time is not as immediately obvious as
with Gantt charts.
3.9 SUPPLY CHAINS

A supply chain is a network of facilities and
distribution options that performs the functions of
procurement of materials, transformation of these materials
into intermediate and finished products and the distribution
of these finished products to customers
Initially, the concept of supply chain referred to the
flow of materials from suppliers to the company and then
inside the company to places where they were needed. Also,
a demand chain which described the process of taking
orders and delivering finished goods to customers, was
recognised. These two concepts are interrelated, so they
were combined under the single concept named the supply
chain.
Suppliers Manufacturing Distribution Customers
So, a supply chain refers to the flow of materials,
information, payments, and services from raw materials,
suppliers, through factories and warehouses, to the end
customers. It also includes the organizations and processes

that create and deliver products, information, and services
to the end customers. Supply chain includes many tasks
such as purchasing, payment flow, material handling,
production planning and control, logistics and warehousing,
inventory control, and distribution and delivery. Therefore,
the supply chain can be defined as a network of retailers,
distributors, transporters, storage facilities, and suppliers
who participate in the production, delivery, and sale of a
particular product
E - Supply chain: When a supply chain is managed
electronically, usually with a web based software, it is
referred to as an e-supply chain.
Typically, the supply chain includes three flows.
Materials flow
Information flow, and
Financial flow
A generic configuration of a
manufacturing is shown in Fig.3.16
supply
chain
in
Supply chains exist in both service and manufacturing

organisations, although the complexity of the chain may
In fo rm ation flow (ord e r, S ch ed ules, Fo rcca sts , etc.)
S u pp liers
A ssem blers
R e taile rs
M aterials
P ro du ct
A ssem bly
S a le s
C u stom ers
M aterial flow ( S u pp lies, P rod uc tion , D e live rie s, e tc.)

Fig. 3.16. G en eric C onfiguratio n o f a Sup ply C h ain in M an ufacturing
vary greatly from industry to industry and firm to

firm.Realistic supply chains have multiple end products
with shared components, facilities and capacities.
3.9.1 Supply Chain Management (SCM)
The function of supply chain management is to plan,
organize and coordinate all of the supply chains activities.
In managing supply chains, it is necessary to coordinate all
types of flows (i.e., materials, information, finance) among
all the parties involved in the supply chain. SCM can
therefore be seen as the joint operation of several businesses
to manufacture and deliver a product to the consumer
SCM is supported by software designed to improve
decision making, optimization and analysis.
The objective of supply chain management is to be able
to have the right products in the right quantities (at the
right place) at the right moment at minimal cost.
SCM reduces uncertainty and risks in the supply
chain there by positively affecting inventory levels, cycle
times, business processes and customer service. These
benefits
contribute
to
increased
profitability
and
competitiveness.
3.10 INVENTORY
Inventory is a stock of goods, materials or held for
operations or sale or for processing before being sold
The inventory means aggregate of those items of
tangible personal property which are held for sale in
ordinary course of business.
in process of production of such sales
to be currently consumed in the production of

goods or services to be available for sale.
In
a
manufacturing
organization, in addition to
the stock of finished goods,
there will be stock of partly
finished goods, raw materials
and stores. The collective
name of these entire items is
inventory.
The
types
of
inventory in manufacturing
organization is shown in
Fig.3.17
Inventories occupy the
most strategic position in the
structure of working capital of
most business enterprises as
they constitute the largest
component of current asset in
most of the enterprise. Hence,
a good inventory system is a
necessity for any modern
business or manufacturing
system.
Supp liers
M aterials
Arrived
R aw M ate rials
Inven tory
Produc e P a rts and
Suba ssem b lies
W ork in P ro cess
Inven tory
( C om po nent o r
su bassem blies )
Assem ble Finish ed

Produc ts
F inished G oo ds
Inven tory
D elivering
C ustom ers
Fig.3.17 Types of Inventory
in Man ufacturing Organization s
Inventory Management: This is primarily about

specififying the size and placement of stocked goods.
Inventory management is one aspect of supply chain
management, required at different locations within a
facility or within multiple locations of a supply network to
protect the regular and planned course of production from
running out of materials or goods.
The scope of inventory management is broader than

stock.(Stock is usually the amount of goods that is being
kept at a specific place, like a warehouse; sometimes
referred to as inventory). Inventory management can be
defined as the management of material in motion and at
rest.
Inventory management basically serves two main
goals
(i)
Responsible for the availability of goods i.e. to

ensure that the required materials are present in
the right quantities, quality and at the right time
to deliver a specific level of service.
(ii)
to achieve this level of service against optimal costs.
Materials Requirement Planning (MRP): Researches

realized the needs of manufacturing organizations for an
efficient system for planning and control of stock to be able
to compete in the market, thus MRP was developed. MRP
is a computerized inventory control technique making the
necessary materials and parts available when needed for
manufacturing. Subsequently, manufacturing resource
planning (MRP II) was developed based on an integrated
approach to the whole manufacturing process from orders
through production planning and control techniques to the
purchasing and supply of materials. Distribution
requirements planning (DRP) is the application of MRP II
techniques to the management of inventory and material
flow effective warehousing and transportation support.
3.11 MATERIAL HANDLINGS

Material handling is the movement of raw materials,
semi-finished goods and finished goods through various
stages of production and warehousing. It is concerned with

the identification of the various materials, their routings
and the scheduling of their moves.
Material handling should be avoided and minimised
as much as possible as it is considered non value adding
and only contributing to the cost of the product. So, the
modern goals are to create a flexible system that can be
used for a variety of products and processes and to
integrate the currently designed material handling system
in the overall material handling plan.
Unit Load: The materials are typically placed on a pallet
or other standard sized of container for convenience in
handling.A unit load is collection of materials so arranged
and restrained that it can be handled, stored, and controlled
as a single entity. A unit load should be as large as
practical.
Material handling an be classified according to the
handling method as
(i) Manual - Eg. Wheel barrows, hand lift. Here both
labour and control are by human.
(ii) Mechanized - Eg. Fork lift, labour is by machine
and control by human.
(iii) Automated - Eg. AGV (Automated Guided
Vehicle) Both labour and control are by the machine.
3.12 MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS

Manufacturing process is the transformation of raw
materials into finished goods. This can be achieved through
one or more of the following methods.
Forming
Separating
Joining or combining
Forming involves changing the shape of a material.

During forming process, no material is removed. i.e. They
are deformed and displaced. Forming material is achieved
primarily by two means
(i) Compressing or stretching process include forging
(bending, drawing, punching, cutting, etc) extrusion and
rolling.
Casting is a manufacturing process which involves
pouring a molten material into a mold (sometimes referred
to as molding), letting the material cool and solidify and
removing the part from the mold to complete the process.
Separating processes involve removal of some material from
the stock material to achieve the desired size and shape.
These processes can create nearly any shape however they
are not as efficient or productive as forming techniques as
separating creates considerable waste and requires
extensive time and machine processing.
Mechanical, electrical, chemical and thermal processes
all achieve material separating. Mechanical separating is
the most common process involving operations like
blanking, shearing, piercing and machining.
Under real life conditions, it may be impractical to
produce an element using a single piece of material. So
components are manufactured with different pieces of
material joined together to form a single unit.
Joining is achieved by mechanical fastening or by

transforming heat or chemical reaction to bond materials.
Based on the process used for making the joint, the
different joining processes are
Mechanical fastening
screws, etc.,)
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive bonding
(rivets,
bolt
and
nuts,
Mechanical fasteners are used for making temporary

joints (except rivets, which need to be broken or destroyed
for dismantling).
Welding and adhesive bonding are used to make
permanent or semi permanent joints, Brazing and soldering
form permanent joints, but for repair or replacement they
can be dismantled by heating.
3.13 STORAGE
Material storage in manufacturing system is required
for supplies coming in, work-in process parts and finished
goods. Materials must be accurately placed in appropriate
storage, so that no time is wasted looking for misplaced
products. Also, equipment tools and measurement devices
need to be stored easily for rapid retrieval while being
protected to avoid unplanned repairs / recalibrations and
prevent theft. Storage should be integrated into the working
environment depending on how a business specifically
operates and what storage solution will complement its
defined processes.
Storage may be classified as static storage or live

storage.
Static storage systems provide only a storage space,
without any provision for handling the items to be stored.
Examples: Shelves, bins etc.,
Live storage systems
in
addition
to
storage
locations, also provide the
mechanism for inserting and
retrieving the storage items.
Here, the storage medium is
integrated with internal
material handling devices.
These
systems
are
appropriate when space is
less and the amount of work
in process and the storage /
retrieval transaction rates
Fig.3 .1 8. U nit Load a uto m a ted
are
large.
Examples:
storag e/ retrieval
automatic work changer,
system I llus tration
automated
storage
/
retrieval systems(AS/RS). An illustration of unit load AS/RS
is shown in Fig. 3.18.
The efficient handling and storing of materials are
vital to industry. In addition to raw materials, these
operations provide a continuous flow of parts and
assemblies through the workplace and ensure that
materials are available when needed.
3.14 PACKAGING
Packaging is a necessity for the containment and
protection of products from the environment but also for
the protection of the environment from the products. In
addition to marketing, protection and containment, the
packaging also enables more efficient distribution and
storage of products, which means that the packaging can
help to reduce costs and cut lead-times in the supply chain.
Tailor-made packaging and product design can also
contribute to a reduction of packaging waste.
So,packaging is a pre-requisite for every product and
also plays an important logistics activity as it is the
packaged product that is transported, stored, carried, etc in
the supply chain.
3.15 SHIPPING
The move by many companies to have production
facilities at low cost manufacturing locations and
development of concepts such as focus factories, some with
a single global manufacturing point for certain products,
has had an obvious impact on the relative importance of
the different modes of transport.
Shipping is the process of transporting raw materials
and finished goods to their respective destinations. Shipping
originally referred to transport by sea but is extended to
refer to transport by land or air as well.
Multimodal transport is shipment of goods by trucks,
directly from shippers place to the destination.
Trucks and trains make deliveries to sea and airports
where cargo is moved in bulk. Ninety percent of the worlds
international trade is transported by sea. Sea-freight is

ideal for high-volume cargoes that are not necessarily time
sensitive.
Shipping by air is typically the fastest mode for long
distance transportation. The disadvantages are the high
unit costs, as well as size and weight restrictions.
Intermodal transport refers to the movement of goods
in one and the same loading unit, which uses successively
several modes of transport without handling of the goods
themselves in changing modes. Here shipping containers
are used that are easily transferred between truck, rail and
ship.
Shipping in the global context, must consider many
factors such as trade barriers, export controls and licenses,
law and taxation etc.,
3.16 MARKETING
Marketing is a management process through which a
product moves from concept to customer. It is based on
thinking about the business in terms of customer needs and
their satisfaction. Communicating the value of the product
or service is a key aspect of marketing. Marketing includes
the coordination of four elements called the 4 P of
marketing.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Identification,
product
selection
and
development
of
Determination of its price

Selection of a distribution channel to reach the
customers place
(iv)
Development and implementation of a promotional

strategy.
So, marketing encompasses the core product (i.e.

product features, ease of use, style, quality), packaging,
price, and product surround (i.e. ease of ordering
availability of the product, speed of delivery and after sales
support).
3.17 FEEDBACK ON DESIGN

Integrating
customer
feedback
into
product
development can be used by companies to better position
products or services in the market place. Good product
developers encourage user participation throughout the
product development process (like showing them initial
prototypes) where insightful feedback can be incorporated
into another iteration of the design. Participants willingly
tell the designer what they want and dont point the way
to successful design.
User feedback is important for the following reasons.
To improve a product or service
To measure customer satisfaction
Providing actionable insight to create a better

customer experience
Delivering real data that can be used to make

better business decisions.
3.18 STANDARDIZATION
A Standard is a document that defines the
characteristics of a product or service, such as dimensions,
safety aspects and performance requirements. The role of
standards is to act as a communication tool that allows all

users to speak the same language when reaching the
product or processes.
To provide a legal, or atleast a enforceable means

to evaluate acceptability and saleability of
products and / or services.
To protect the public from questionable designs,

products and practices.
Relevant standards should be consulted early in the

design process, since it is reasonable to assume that many
companies will want their products to be accepted in the
global market. Practicing engineers need to have knowledge
of standards to produce their products efficiently.
Component Standardization:It is the use of the same
component in multiple versions of a product. Common
standardized components include bearings, batteries,
motors, fasteners, lightbulbs, capacitors and resistors.
Component standardization has implications for the
producer in the areas of cost, performance and development.
Usually, using standard components lowers costs as they
are produced in higher volumes by several competitors,
than components designed and built for a single product.
3.18.1 Some Standards Organisations
NIST - National Institute of Standards and Technology
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
ISO - Interational Organizations for Standardization
IEC - International Electro Technical Commission
ITU - International Telecommunication Union
Chapter 4
DESIGN FOR "X"

Design for "X", covering quality, reliability, safety
manufacturing/construction, assembly, maintenance, logistics,
handling; disassembly; recycling; re-engineering etc. - List out the
design requirements(x) for designing a rocket shell of 3 meter
diameter and 8 meter length
4.1 DESIGN FOR X (DFX)

In recent years, more attention is given to improve
the design process and the drawbacks in maintainability,
testability, serviceability and manufacturability. The
terminology to explain a design methodology is known as
Design for X ; where in a detailed design is done to improve
life-cycle, optimum cost, quality, increased design flexibility,
and increased efficiency and productivity using the
concurrent design concepts. The letter "X" in DFX is made
up of two parts, life-cycle process X and performance
measure (ability).
Concurrent Engineering plays an important role in
the development of DFX methodologies explained in
Chapter 5.
DFX tools are referred to as concurrent engineering
tools. The tools are as follows
Design for Quality
Design for Reliability
Design for Safety
Design for Manufacturing / Construction
Design for Assembly etc.,
In 1980s, companies paid more attention in Design

for manufacturing and Design for analysis. These two were
the first to be implemented to improve product development
success by reducing development cycle time. Today "Design
for X" is often labelled and implemented in many places
throughout the product development process.
The various steps to implement DFX are as follows
Find the issue(x) targeted for consideration
Find where to give your focus [the product,

component, subassembly, or process plan]
To improve the x characteristics, the techniques

like mathematical or experimental methods,
computer modelling etc can be used.
Use parametric measurements and improvement

techniques on the x.
The Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA)

approach concentrates on reduction in parts, resulting in
simple and reliable design with less assembly and lower
manufacturing costs. Design for Reliability (DFR) analyses
how and why a proposed design may fail and identifies
aspects of design to be improved. If the reliability issues
are identified at early stages, project cycle time will be
reduced to get simplified product through DFMA. Another
DFX tool is Design for Maintainability which makes the
design performs satisfactorily throughout its life with a
minimum budget and effort. Design for Maintainability and
DFR are interrelated because lower maintenance and
excellent service are the outcome of improved reliability.
Design for X 4.3
4.2 DESIGN FOR QUALITY

Designers realized that the only way to ensure quality
product is by increasing design quality of the product.
Design is an important factor for the quality than
anything else. The designers determine the number of
components in a product, decide which parts should be
eliminated and then design the remaining components and
specify how they are to be manufactured. They also
determine the way the parts must be assembled, and
specify the overall function of each component in the final
assembled part.
Hence, both design and manufacturing processes are
responsible for the final quality of a product. If the quality
is insisted in the design procedure, the quality in
manufacturing will also be ensured at lesser expenses with
the less cost of inspection. This is the concept of Design
for Quality.
4.2.1 The Main Objectives of the Design for Quality
(i)
Design a product to meet customer requirements
(ii)
Design a robust product that can minimize the effect

of potential variation in manufacture of the product
and the products environment.
(iii)
Continuously
improved
product
reliability
performance and technology to meet customer
expectations.
4.2.2 Benefits of Design for Quality (DFQ)

(1)
The DFQ helps the design engineer to identify

factors influencing the robustness and reliability of
the products in the design process.
(2)
DFQ reduces the cost of quality involved in the

inspection, rework, and in the procurement of
replacement materials. DFQ also reduces defects
and errors, scrap, degradation of factory/machine
capacity, re-qualifications/re-certifications expenses,
and overhead expenses.
(3)
Quality product creates customer satisfaction that

obviously leads to greater stability of the
manufacturing shops, greater profile and the better
feedbacks.
Fig. 4.1 shows salient features of design for quality.
M arke t
S h are
C u stom er
S a tisfa c tio n
P rice s
Q ua lity
C o sts
P ro du ctivity
P ro fits
Fig. 4.1 . D esign for Q uality
4.2.3 Techniques to implement Design for Quality

The following are some of the techniques used to
implement Design for quality.
Design for X 4.5
Understand Previous Index

The main causes of previous quality issues should be
identified and rectified thoroughly with the help of a team
having representives from all the departments. This team
will create solutions not only to resolve the previous quality
issues but also to create new design ideas to improve the
quality further.
Initial product design
To Design the product for quality, utmost care is
required from the initial stage itself with standard
manufacturing techniques.The quality in manufacturing
should be obtained from the initial stages itself. If quality
is not assured in the initial design, then expensive changes
would be required in later stages of the product cycle,
leading to the wastage of valuable engineering resources
and time.
Simplify the Design
Simplify the design so that the product can be
produced from the smallest number of parts.
Select Parts for Quality
Normally parts are selected for functionality and cost.
But here parts must also be selected for quality to ensure
quality by design.
Easy processing
The manufacturing process should be robust enough
to ensure high quality of the products. It is better to go
for automating the process since automated production lines
will produce better and more consistent quality parts than
that of manual production.
Use Successful Standard Designs and Parts

Use successful standard parts and design features to
minimize risk and assure quality.
Ensure Document
To develop quality products, the designers should
document every aspect of the design thoroughly. Drawings,
manufacturing instructions, and bills of-material should be
sent to the manufacturers or vendors to avoid
misunderstandings and misinterpretations between the
manufacturer and the customer.
Implement incentives that reward quality
Implement incentives schemes for achieving the
quality standards, thereby motivating the designers to
produce products of much better quality.
4.3 DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY

4.3.1 Definition: Reliability is a measurement of the
ability of a component or a system to operate without
failure over a period of time. It is also defined as the
probability that a physical body delivers its functional
requirements for an intended period under several
operating conditions. For example, the mouse on a computer
has a reliability of 0.990 (or 99%) over the next 1000 hours.
It has a 99% chance of working normally during this time;
in other words it has a 1% chance of being faulty.
The reliability of an engineering system can be
determined by 2 major areas of engineering activity.
1.
Provision for reliability must be established during

the design concept stage, which is carried
Design for X 4.7
throughout the design development, manufacturing,

and maintenance processes.
2.
Reliability exists on a wide range of issues that

include human errors, technical malfunctions,
environment factors, inadequate design practices
and material variability.
The flow process of Design for Reliability shown in

Fig. 4.2 shows the process in operating environment,
system and component levels.
D e sign fo r R eliability
O perating
En vironm en t L evel
D e sign fo r the O pe ra tin g

En vironm en t
System L evel
U se R edundancy a nd Fault
Tolerance , R e duce C om p le xity
C o mpo ne nt Le ve l
C o mpo ne nt Selection - U se
Proven R eliable C om ponents
Fig. 4.2. Flow Process of D esign for Reliability
4.3.2 The major issues of Design for Reliability can

be classified into five categories
1. Manufacturing defects
Poor surface finish or sharp edges, decarburization
are the examples of manufacturing defects. The sources of
manufacturing defects are (i) Lack of proper instructions,

(ii) Insufficient supervision, (iii) Poor work environment,
(iv) Poor training etc.,
2. Design Errors
Incomplete information on loads, environmental
conditions and poor selection of materials may lead to
design errors.
3. Maintenance
Inadequate maintenance leads to shorter service life,
as the frequent wear and tear are not rectified immediately.
4. Exceeding design limits
The exceeding limits of temperature, speed and other
significant variables are also the major issues in design for
reliability.
5. Environmental factors
Exposure to corrosive environmental factors like
moisture, humidity, chemicals etc also affect the reliability
of a design.
4.3.3 The Reliability of the design can be improved
by considering the following
Minimizing damage form shipping, service and

repair
Reducing design complexity
Maximizing the use of standard components
Counteracting the environmental and degradation

factors
Simplicity of components and assemblies will

reduce the chances of errors.
Design for X 4.9
Inspections done for cracks and defects in the

component.
Tracking all yields and defect rates from both

internal and external suppliers, and planning an
action to address them.
4.4 DESIGN FOR SAFETY

4.4.1 Definition: The definition of Design for safety is
what we mean by design and to see how considerations of
safety are likely to affect this task. The product must be
safe to manufacture, to use and to dispose after usage.
Safety is the paramount issue in product design.
The design for safety may be classified into four types.
They are:
Abstraction The operation of generalizing the steps in
identifying the needs.
Decomposition The process of reducing an object into a
number of simpler, smaller parts, interfaces and structures
(modularization).
rin
ee
g in
S a fe ty
En
s ig
The Fig 4.3 shows how

engineering and design can
be used to achieve hazard
prevention. In most of the
De
Decision
making
Identification and selection
of alternative strategies.
Elaboration The operation

of detailing and adding
features.
H a za rd P reve ntion
Fig. 4.3. E ngin eering and
D esig n R elation
circumstances, good engineering can develop safe design.

When engineering fails to provide design to overcome
hazard, hazard prevention will be difficult to achieve.
Some of the safety hazards that are needed to be
considered in design.
Fire - Combustible materials, fuel ignition sources
Electrical - Shock, burns, power outage
Human Factors - Operator error, leak or spills
Environment - Fog, humidity, temperature extremes
Materials - Corrosion, breakdown of lubrication
Mechanical - Fracture, sharp edges, stability
Chemical - Human exposure or material degradation
In addition to provide a safety design and safety
product to the customer, it must be safe to manufacture,
sell, install and service.
And also engineers must understand the laws and
they must practice it to minimize safety issues and threat
of litigation.
4.4.2 To Improve the Design for safety
Identify the actual or potential hazards and then

design the product accordingly.
Design the product with a high factor of safety.
Humans are likely to make errors in process, so

user friendly products must be preferred to over
come human errors.
Design for X 4.11
Prototype of a product should be analyzed and the

occurred errors should be rectified before
manufacturing.
Determine the root cause of hazards and redesign

to eliminate the hazards.
Reduce the use of flammable materials including

packaging materials.
To prevent shock, the electrical products should

be properly grounded; Provide electrical interlocks
so that high voltage circuits will not be energized
without guard.
For example: A safe design must be as follows

(i) Controls are properly arranged, so that
operator need not have to move to manipulate
them.
(ii) Fingers of operator cannot be pinched by
lever or other features.
(iii) Avoid sharp edges and corners
(iv) Avoid awkward positions of the hand, wrist
and arm, repetitive motions and vibrations.
(v) Warning label should be indicated to alert the
user about hazards and tell how to avoid
injury.
4.5 DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING / CONSTRUCTION

4.5.1 Definition
Engineers put a lot of effort in the integration of
design and manufacture in order to reduce the
manufacturing cost and improve the product quality. The
process and procedures developed are known as design for
manufacture
or
otherwise
called
as
design
of
manufacturability. Both Design for manufacturing and
Design for assembly are similar.
Design for manufacturing (DFM) is based on the
concurrent engineering, which plays a major role in
acquiring the goals of DFM. The objectives of Design for
manufacture is to create an awareness about the design
being the base for all steps of production.
Benefits of Design for Manufacturing
Design for Manufacturing
considering the following points:
an
be
improved
by
1. Minimize total number of parts

By eliminating the unnecessary parts there is no need
for relative motion and no need for subsequent adjustment
between parts.
The best way to eliminate parts is to make minimum
parts count which is a requirement of the design at the
conceptual stage of design.
2. Common parts throughout product
Use or specify the same parts materials and
subassemblies in each product as much as possible. It is a
good business sense to use same parts in more than one
product. It leads to the reduction in process cost, labour
time and labour cost process control.
3. Standardized features
Standardized design feature reduces manufacturing
cost. Standardizing design like drilled hole size, thread
types and bend radius, minimizes the number of tools that
must be maintained in the tool room.
Design for X 4.13
4. Standard components
By preferring standard components, the cost is
reduced and improved quality can be seen in the design.
The cost reduction is implemented through discounts,
tooling costs, elimination of design work and better
inventory control.
5. Simple Design
Simple design will be the most reliable and the
easiest way to maintain. [For example: Instead of specifying
a heat treated alloy steel, a plain carbon steel will achieve
the performance with a bit more careful analysis].
Designing the product with the fewer parts, adjustments,
and less manufacturing steps are the best ways to reduce
the cost of manufacture.
4.5.3 Methods for DFM
To avoid overlap of tolerances, the dimensions

should all be from a single datum surface rather
than from a variety of points.
Dimensions should be made from specific surfaces,

but not from points in space. It helps in making
gauges and fixtures.
Without repositioning, parts should be designed so

that as many operations can be performed. It
increases accuracy and minimises handling.
Use large fillet and radii on casting, and on

moulded, formed and machined parts.
Use general purpose tools rather than special dies,

use standard cutters wherever possible. Special
tooling may be more cost effective in high volume
production.
Design of a component must satisfy minimum

weight with strength and stiffness requirement.
This reduces material cost, labour cost and tooling
cost.
Some of the examples of Design for manufacture are

shown here.
Dont
Dont
Do
N o Dra ft
t
R = 3/8 t
Do
R+t
Avoid sharp corners, they
produce stress concentrations
and obstruct m aterial flow
(b)
2 m in
Add
Th ickne ss
fo r d raft
(a) A lw ays provide a d ra ft ang le fo r
e asier m old rem o va l
Dont
Do
Dont
t rib= 8
t rib
t rib
t rib=
8
Do
B e tter
voids
S ink m arks
S teppe d thickness
tra nsitio n
8
B e st
( c ) Keep rib thickness less than

60% of the part thickness to prevent
voids and sinks.
(d) M ake all transitions sm ooth and

avoid changes in thickness
if possible
Fig. 4.4 Design for M anufacture
4.6 DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY

4.6.1 Definition
The lowest assembly cost can be achieved by
designing a product in such a way that it can be assembled
Design for X 4.15
by the most economical assembly system. There are three

main basic types of assembly systems. They are
(i) Manual
(ii) Special purpose machine
(iii) Programmable machine assembly
In manual assembly, an operator at a workstation
reaches and groups a part from a tray and then moves and
prepositions the part for inspection.
In special purpose machine, handling is accomplished
with a parts feeder like a vibratory bowl that feeds the
parts for inspection.
In programmable machine assembly, the handling and
inspection of the part is done by programmable machine
assembly which is called robot nowadays, under computer
control.
4.6.2 Methods for DFA
The existence of each separate part is questioned

and the designer is required to provide the
reasons why the parts cannot be eliminated or
combined with others.
The actual assembly time is estimated using a

database of real time standards developed
specially for the purpose.
A DFA design efficiency is obtained by comparing

it with the actual assembly time.
Assembly difficulties which may lead to

manufacturing and quality problems are identified
and solved.
4.6.3 How to improve Design for Assembly?

The Design for assembly
considering the following points:
can
be
improved
by
A part is to be eliminated if it is not required in

assembly section. Go through the list of parts in
assembly and identify the parts that are essential for
proper functioning of the product. All other parts
eliminated.
the
the
the
are
1. Reduce the number of parts
2. Reduce assembly surfaces

Less surfaces need to be prepared in assembly and
all works on one surface is completed before moving to the
next one.
3. Ensure the design and assembly
Components should be designed so that they can be
assembled in only one way. The way to orient a part in a
component should be obvious. The part should not be
capable of assembling in the reverse direction.
4. Reduce fasteners cost
Cost associated with fasteners can be minimised by
standardizing the types and size of fasteners, fastener tools
etc, For example, use shape fits whenever possible instead
of using screws in assembly.
5. Use Subassemblies
Product made from subassemblies are easy to repair
by replacing the damaged parts. It can be economical in
assembly since there are fewer interfaces in the final
assembly.
Design for X 4.17

D on t
D iffe re nt le ng th s
Do
S tan da rd le ng th
Fig.4.5 (a) Stand ard ized parts to R edu ce Part Variety
Don t
U nusua l heig ht
Do
S tan dard he ight
M in im ize pa rt co un t b y in co rpo ratin g

m ultip le fu nction s into sing le p arts
Fig.4.5 (b) Standardised height
Some of the examples of Design for assembly are

shown in Fig. 4.5 (a) and (b).
4.7 DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY

Maintainability may be defined as "the probability
that a failed system can be repaired in a specific interval
of time". The objective of Design for Maintainability is to
assure that the design will perform satisfactorily
throughout its intended life with a minimum expenditure
of budget and effort. Maintainability requirements can be
classified as qualitative and quantitative. Both qualitative
and quantitative maintainability requirements are used to
define the maintainability characteristics in a system or
equipment. Design for maintainability (DFM), Design for
Serviceability (DFS) and Design for Reliability (DFR) are

related because minimizing maintenance and facilitating
service can be achieved by improving reliability.
Maintenance actions can be preventive, corrective, or
recycle
and
overhaul.
Design
for maintainability
encompasses operating environment level, system level and
component level as shown in Fig 4.6.
M aintainability D esign
O pera tin g
En viro nm enta l L evel
Sp are s A nalysis; S elect Equip m en t

for M a inten an ce
System Le vel
R e du ce the need for a djustm e nt;

u se b uilt in se lf test an d indica to rs
C o mp onent Leve l
C o mp onent S election
(U se C om p on en ts easy to M aintain
R e place , R ecycle )
Fig. 4.6. Flow Process of D esign for Maintainan ce
The following are list of DFM guidelines that provide

specific guidance to designers.
General design features:
Minimize the number of serviceable design

parameters with simple procedures and skills.
Design for X 4.19
Provide easy access to the serviceable design

parameters by placing them in serviceable
locations.
Use common fasteners and attachment methods.
Minimize the hand tools.
Provide for safety devices, such as guards, covers,

kill switches, etc
Design for minimum adjustment and

adjustable Design parameters accessible.
Keying size or shape shall be used to ensure that

removable parts are reassembled in the correct
position.
Guide pins shall be provided for alignment of

modules.
Sharp edges and corners that could cause injury

to personnel shall be avoided.
make
The major maintenance cost can be classified into four

types. They are:
(i)
(ii)
Total cost of failure related repairs

Total cost for condition monitoring maintenance
(iii)
Permanent cost for safety related maintenance to

meet legal criteria
(iv)
Other miscellaneous maintenance
Two kinds of maintenance activity can be identified

for any product
1.
Preventive maintenance: Preventive maintenance

requires the replacement of parts that are still
working but are expected to fail soon. For example
like replacing engine spark plugs every 30,000 km
or changing the oil filter. An old filter may cause

serious engine damage by starving bearings from oil,
or allowing abrasive metal sludge into clean area.
2.
Remedial
maintenance
(repair):
Remedial
maintenance is performed after product has failed.
For example fitting new vehicle starter motor when
the existing motor has burned out.
If the anticipated life of a component is known, failure

can be avoided by scheduled replacement. In certain
instances, wholesale preventive maintenance is cheaper
than piecemeal remedial maintenance. For example,
replacing all the florescent lights in an office once a year
can be cheaper than replacing lights individually as they
fail, because labor is used more efficiently.
Design for maintainability process and many of the
features that make a product maintainable might not be
realized during the product development stage.
Table 4.1 Design
Benefits Matrix
Table 4.1
Design for
Maintainability
Features
Easy
access
serviceable items
for
Maintainability
Features/
Design for Maintainability

Benefits.
to Maintenance time and costs are
reduced
Product availability increases
Technician fatigue / injury is
reduced
Design for X 4.21
Design for
Maintainability
Features
No
or
adjustment

Benefits.
minimal Maintenance time and costs are

reduced
Maintenance training curve is
reduced
Components
/ Technician fatigue / injury is
reduced
modules - quick and
easy to replace
Problem identification improves
Mistake
proofing, Probability of damage to the
part or product is reduced
part/module
is
installed in one way Reliability is improved
only
Customer satisfaction improves
Self-diagnostics
or Maintenance time and costs are
reduced
built
in
test
or
indicators
to
find Diagnostic time is reduced
problems quickly
No or few
hand tools.
special Maintenance
reduced
investment
is

Tool crib inventory is reduced
Design for
Maintainability
Features

Benefits.
Standard
fasteners No. of spare parts in inventory
is reduced
and components
Product cost is reduced
Maintenance time and costs are
reduced
Reduce number of Product cost is reduced
components in final Reliability is improved
assembly
Spare parts inventory is reduced
Table 4.2 lists several metrics that can be used in
manufacturing measuring design for maintainability
benefits.
Table 4.2
Maintenance Metrics
Design
Attributes
Accessibility
Testability
Field costs
Repair costs
Total costs
Standardizat Maintenance
ion
Humanfactors
Times to
Repair
Field performance
Maintenance Work
Payroll
Maintenance
Management
Costs
Training costs
Orders / Year
Downtime
Total Maintenance
Hours
Number of
Maintenance
Personnel
Induced Failures
Design for X 4.23
4.8. DESIGN FOR LOGISTICS

Definition
Design for logistics is defined the efficient transfer of
goods from the source of supply, through the place of
manufacture to the point of consumption in a cost effective
way while providing an acceptable service to the customer.
In other words Logistics is the management of all activities
which facilitates movement and the co-ordination of supply
and demand with respect to time and place.
The Design
components.
for
logistics
has
some
major
key
Economic packaging and Transportation
Product design should facilitate easy shipping and

shelfing. Shipments are made in batches of a size
and frequency dictated by the transportation
system.
Product should be easy to pack, repack and track.
Concurrent and parallel processing

The manufacturing process should be designed to
perform steps in parallel to save time and lower inventory
cost.
Standardization
Achieve standardisation of parts by using common
parts for many different products. Similarly for
procurement, we can use standard processing equipment for
several products. The components of logistics in detail will
include transport, warehousing, inventory, packaging and
controls. Some typical examples are shown in Fig. 4.7.
Locatio n o f S to rage,
N u m be r & type of sto ra ge
and
size of distribution d epartm ents
Stora ge a nd w areh ou sin g

C o ntrol U nit &
C o ntrol
procedu res
Inform ation
and
control
Pa cking
U n it
Tra nsport
Inven tory
Fig. 4.7. T he Key C om ponents of Logistics, Show in g Som e of the

Asso ciated Detailed Elem ents.
A simple physical flow is illustrated in Fig. 4.8. The

different types of transport and stationary function of
production, finished goods inventory, etc., are explained.
This flow is a form of transportation of the product.
The stationary periods are usually for storage or to allow
some change in the product to take place like manufacture
assembly, packing etc., The benefits of logistics assesses the
real contribution and importance of logistics. It also
provides an insight of the cost or added value for a typical
low cost product.
Benefits of Logistics
Decrease in expensive Errors
Increased customer services
Design for X 4.25
Su ppliers
Bu lk delivery
R aw m ateria ls in ven tory
Pa ckaging inv entory
Tra nsfer
Prod uction
Tra nsfer
W ork -in-progres s inve ntory
and as sem bly
Tra nsfer
Fin ished g oods in ven tory
and w arehou se
Prim ary tra nsp ort
D istrib utio n dep ot

Loc al delivery
C us tom e rs
Fig.4.8 Flow Process of Design for Logistics
Organizational control
Scaling and Speed
Ensure proper delivery
Managing warehouses
Reduce idle time
Reduce transportation cost
4.9.1 DESIGN FOR HANDLING

4.9.1 Definition:
The flow of material through the process is an
important element in the manufacturing system.
Automation is essential for handling of materials in order
to reduce labour cost and fulfill many other functions.
Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) may be considered as
one of the solution for effective and economical material
handling.
Material Handling may be defined as the functions
and systems associated with the transportation, storage and
physical work in manufacturing process. It is also defined
as the usage of the cost effective method to deliver safely,
the appropriate material at the required place, with
precision in timing, sequence and orientation.
All parts must be handled to be assembled. Some
parts are difficult to handle, for example springs and wires.
To over come these difficulties the material handling
equipment used, can be divided into
(a)
Manually operated
monorail, and hoist
devices
Trucks,
cranes,
(b)
Automated system - Conveyors, AGVs
(c)
Miscellaneous System - Industrial robots, transfer

mechanisms, elevator, container etc.
4.9.2 Objectives of Design for Handling

(i)
The unit load should be as large as practically

possible. The material and containers are referred
to as the unit load.
Design for X 4.27
(ii)
The handling system is designed and scheduled, to

extend possible ways to carry loads in both
directions. Return trips with empty loads are not
cost effective.
(iii)
The material handling path should be in a straight

line from the point of source to point of destination.
This is possible in shorter distances.
(iv)
Manual handling of material should be avoided. The

handling process should be mechanized with
increased efficiency and cost effectiveness.
4.9.3 Guidelines for Design for Handling

Guidelines can help to simplify the handling steps in
the assembly process.
Maximise the part symmetry to make orientation
unnecessary. If part symmetry is not done, then plainly
mark the orientation feature in the part.
Parts should not be tangled or stuck together as they
are difficult to handle.
For easy identification,
distinguish different parts
with color code or mark the
parts with distinct features.
Design the parts so
that they dont get clamped
when stacked. For example
plastic coffee lids or cups
nest into one another and
cause problems in handling.
Don t
Do
Provide Orienting features on S ymm etry

Fig. 4.9.
4.9.4 Benefits of Design for Handling

(i)
Minimizes the movement of material (i.e.,) moves

them continuously and at maximum rate which
ensures shorter operation cycle, thereby reducing the
handling cost.
(ii)
It reduces idle machine time (and idle time of

labour) ensuring better turnover of investment.
(iii)
It eliminates the factory hazards

increasing the safety of operations.
(iv)
The quality of material is maintained through

minimum human touches, thereby eliminating
breakages.
(v)
It helps in providing better customer services due to
Reduced operating cost
Better quality of products
Timely production
and
thus
4.10 DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY

4.10.1 Definition
Designing for disassembly should be considered to optimize
a products life. It can also serve as a way the product is
more serviceable for users, and aid in maintenance and
repairability. Remanufacture, reuse and recycling, require
the ability to economically remove the most valuable
components when the product reaches the end of its life.
For these reasons the designing of products for easy
disassembly has been increased in popularity, enabling
more products to be recycled economically.
Design for X 4.29
4.10.2 Objectives of DFD
Products are recycled, reused or remanufactured

easily.
Fastening should be easy and quick.
Rapid and economical disassembly of the product.
4.10.3 Benefts of DFD
Facilitates maintenance and repair by reducing

the cost of manufacturing.
Enables re-use of component by recovering the

material, there by reducing the cost.
Recycling of materials can be done by avoiding

disposal and handling of waste.
Reduces liability for the product to be taken back

and extended producers responsibility.
4.10.4 Implementing of DFD

Factors such as life span of products, parts and their
standardization, maintenance, servicing play a major role
in designing of disassembly. In general, assembly should be
done as follows.
Use standardized joints so that the product can

be dismantled easily. eg: single type and single
size of screw.
Use detachable joints such as screw, snap instead

of welded, soldered connections.
Use position joints so that the product does not

need to be turned or moved for dismantling.
The product must indicate how it could be opened

non-destructively.
The product must indicate which part must be

cleaned or maintained in a specific way.
4.10.5. The guidelines employed in DFD
Minimize the number of fasteners and tools

required.
Minimize the number and length of wires and

cables used.
Usage of easily removable fasteners.
Eliminate adhesives unless it is compatible with

material of both parts being joined.
If parts cannot be produced by compatible

materials, make them easy for diassembly.
Some of the examples of Design of Dissassembly are

shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3
G uideline
A void Lo ng
D isas sem bly Paths
D esig n for D a m age

free D isa ssem b ly
U se the sa me to ols
for as sem bly and
D isas sem bly
D on t
Do
Design for X 4.31
4.11 DESIGN FOR RECYCLING

4.11.1 Definition
The increasing threat of global warming, carbon
footprint, depletion of the ozone layer and ultimately,
melting of arctic ice, make the industries rethink the basic
principles upon which their businesses are functioning.
Greater efforts have to be taken for protecting the
environment while achieving economic growth.
Recycling is to be done for saving the environment
and benefiting the economy. Much of the difficulties
inherent in recycling arise from the fact that most products
are not designed with recycling as a design factor.
The potential recyclability of a product is determined
at the design stage and thus can be improved by applying
changes in materials, structural layout and interpart
connections.
Benefits of Recycling
Recycling of material reduces pollution in the
Environment. For example, the use of steel scrap instead
of raw materials in the blast furnace eliminates the
pollution, as there is no longer a need for the production
of coke which is an essential ingredient for blast furnace
melting.
Steps in Design for Recycling
Manufacturing process should be designed to produce
as little harmful wastes as possible. Whatever wastes that
cannot be avoided should be dealt properly. For example,
the waste could be rendered harmless first, before disposal.
There are major steps that the designer can consider

to enhance the recyclability of a product. They are
Enhance the yield of the separation step by

making it easier to disassemble the product.
Minimize the number of different materials in the

product to simplify the identification and sorting
issue.
Choose materials that are compatible and which

do not require separation before recycling.
Identify and indicate the material from which the

part is made up of.
Recycle S ubassembly
Pro du ct
Install R ecycled
sub assem bly
New
Su ba ssem bly
Re mo ve o ld
Su ba ssem bly
R em o ve old
S u ba s sem b ly
Recycle Comp on en ts
Pro du ct
Install R ecycled
sub assem bly
New
C o mp onent
R e mo ve p roduct a nd
recover m ate ria ls
R e cycle old
C o mp onent
Recycle M aterials
Pro du ct
Install p roduct
w ith recycled
m aterials
New
product
R e mo ve p roduct a nd
recover m ate ria ls
R e cycle
m aterials
M anufactu re
Pro du cts
Virgin M aterials
Fig. 4.10. Flow Process of Design for Recycling .
Design for X 4.33
The Fig. 4.10 shows the hierarchy preference in

recycling of industrial products. Recycling should generally
be accomplished as high up the chain as possible.
Select suitable materials for Ease of Recycling
One of the important changes that can be made to a
design is material substitution. Some of the major factors
in the recycling are as follows:
1. Material Mix
Large variety of materials in a product can complicate
and increase the costs of separation, sorting and handling.
2. Toxicity of Materials
The use of toxic materials will cause environmental
problems during manufacturing, separation, material
recovery and disposal.
3. Materials recyclability
Material that are hard to recycle are often not
recycled because the cost of recycling outweighs the cost of
purchasing virgin materials.
4. Recycled Materials
Many issues of quality, strength, color, stability and
uniformity arises in the context of recycled products.
5. Materials compatibility
If the compatible materials are used in sub assemblies
and separable joints between groups, then the time spent
on separating parts will be reduced. This means that the
type of materials to be separated for recycling are reduced.
4.12 DESIGN FOR REENGINEERING

Definition: Reengineering is the systematic transformation
of an existing system into a new form to realize quality
improvements in operation, functionabilty, performance at
a lower cost, schedule or risks to customer.
Reengineering process focuses on the end users
current and future needs; as well as ensuring a quick and
easy transition to the new system. If the entire system is
redesigned and implemented, then we dont have a
reengineering process.
Reengineering benefits:
Reduce manufacturing and material expenses
Reduce warranty costs
Increase profitability
Improve customer satisfaction
The optimization process is done during product

development, however, this is not always possible due to
time constraints and can take the form of material
optimization, design optimization or manufacturing
optimization.
Finding right materials for right components can
make the difference between success and failure.
Design optimization allows to economically adjust
existing product design without complete review and costly
redesign and retooling.
Manufacturers often find the most economical
approach to identify existing product and to fill the new
markets. However, without a complete review of the
Design for X 4.35
applications fit, form and function, product performance

often does not fully meet expectations.
Manufacturing process Optimization
Manufacturing costs can be greatly affected by
reviewing manufacturing techniques with the objective of
implementing more economical processes or reducing scrap
waste.
Some phases of reengineering are:
Reverse engineering
Analysis
Redesign
Forward Engineering
Reverse engineering deals with extraction of elements

and data from an already existing product. The working
principle is determined by a thorough analysis of the
product after disassembly.
Fig. 4.11. Pha ses of R e - E ng ineering
F orw a rd E n gine ering
R e de sign
A n alysis
R ev erse E n gine ering
R e - E ng in ee rin g
Forward engineering is similar to reverse engineering

as it uses the concept of a high level existing model in a
low level need based model, in an analogous way.
Analysis
The analysis is the first phase of Re-engineering
process. This is the most important part of the
re-rengineering process. Without a proper analysis and a
proper understanding of the system, one cannot complete a
project with a satisfactory result. An analysis provides a
detailed report about the components, functionality and the
complete data needed to design a product.
Redesign
Redesign is the second phase of the re-engineering
process. Redesign may be done to a component or a product
that is falling in service or to reduce it costs of
manufacture. Often redesign is accomplished without any
change in the working principle or concept of the original
design.
For example: The banning of the use of fluorinated
hydrocarbon refrigerants because of the "ozone layer
depletion", it requires the redesign of refrigeration system.
Chapter - 5
VALUE ENGINEERING
Product centered and user centered design. Product centered
attributes and user centered attributes. Bringing the two closer.
Example: Smart phone. Aesthetics and ergonomics.
Value
engineering,
Concurrent
engineering,
Reverse
engineering in design; Culture based design; Architectural designs;
Motifs and cultural background; Tradition and design; Study the
evolution of Wet grinders; Printed motifs; Role of colours in
Design.
5.1 PRODUCT CENTERED AND USER CENTERED

DESIGN
5.1.1 Product Centered Design
The product centered design is the method of
designing the product with increased efficiency and output
and by reducing the manufacturing time and cost, so that
the customer needs are met. It is a product of favorable
design.
The steps involved in product centered design process
are:
Step 1: Product conceptualization
Step 2: Identification of Product Quality Factors.
Step 3: Preparation of Product Microstructure.
Step 4: Generation of alternative ways to manufacture
the product.
Step 5: Product and Process evaluation.
Step 1: Product Conceptualization

The first step in product design is to define the
product and understanding the goal of the product. While
doing this, customer needs and market trends should be
considered. The typical trends to be considered other than
market trends are listed here.
Customer needs
The product should last longer and cost less.
Products performing complementary

should be combined in one product.
The product should be compatible, easy to handle

and transport.
functions
Product Safety
The product should not contain any allergic

materials.
No dangerous chemicals.
Legal and Environmental Issues
It is preferable that the product is bio-degradable.
Reduce waste production as much as possible.
Step 2: Identification of Quality Factors

The next step is to identify the desired performance
of the product in terms of quality factors. Customer
satisfaction is not only affected by the ability of the product
to perform a certain function but also other factors such as
convenience of use, sensation and product durability.
Depending on the product form or delivery system, the
desired quality factors can be different.
Value Engineering 5.3
Step 3: Preparation of Product Microstructure

The next step in product centered design process is
the preparation of product microstructure. It is the stage
of design process, where a miniature model of the product
is developed. This stage also includes the analysis of
selection of components for manufacturing.
Step 4: Generation of alternative ways to manufacture the
product
It is the stage where all the possible ways for
manufacturing the product, is developed. The process that
involves the manufacturing of the product with increased
efficiency and reduced cost and labour time will be more
preferable.
Step 5: Product and Process Evaluation
The final step in the product centered design process
is the evaluation of performance, efficiency, user
friendliness etc of the product. The process that suits the
product development with the reduced budget and time is
also evaluated. Customer satisfaction is the ultimate goal
of product evaluation.
5.1.2 User Centered Design
Definition
User centered design is also called as human-centered
design. It is an approach to iterative system that focuses
specially on making products usable. In other words, it is
the process of designing product such as a website or
application user interface, from the point of how it will be
understood and used by a human user. User centered
design is a multi-disciplinary activity and it is employed by
offering more efficient, satisfying and user friendly
experience for the user of the product which is likely to

improve sales and customer loyalty.
Design is based upon the clear understanding of
users, tasks and environments; and it also follows a series
of well defined methods and techniques for analysis, design
and evaluation of hardware, software and web interfaces.
The UCD process is strictly an iterative process.
The following are the general phases of the UCD
Process:
Id en tify th e
N e ed
S p ecific con te ct
o f u se
E v alua tion o f
D e sign
U s er
S p ecify
R e qu ire m en t
S o lu tio n fo r
P ro du ct d es ig n
Specific contact of use

Identify the people-who will use the Product, what
they will use and under what conditions?
Specify requirements
Identify any user goals or business requirements that
can lead the product to be more successful.
Create design solutions

This part of the process may be done in stages, like
making a rough concept to a complete design.
Evaluate design
Evaluate the design through usability testing
the actual users of that product.
with
5.1.3 Benefits of user centered and product centered design

It increases the sales since the usability of the
product is given higher ratings in the market and the
customer needs are also satisfied.
Usage savings: Reduced task time and increased
productivity with - fewer user error that have to be
corrected which inturn lead to increased quality of life.
A
deeper
understanding
of
psychological,
organizational, social and ergonomic factors
emerges from the involvement of the users at
every stage of design and evaluation of the
product.
Leads to the development of effective, efficient and

safe products.
Reduced training time.
5.2 PRODUCT CENTERED AND USER CENTERED

ATTRIBUTES
Product and user centered attributes examine the
products and check whether they satisfy the customer needs
and achieve market success.
This design builds a sustainable relation between the
product and consumer. Achieving this goal requires the
design to achieve number of answers to questions related

to consumer needs and satisfaction. Considering these
questions and answers while designing the product would
have a high potential to achieve the human centered design
approach. Some questions help to acquire the product
success.
Who is the consumer? Does the design reflect the

user characteristics?
What are the consumers goals of using the

product?
What is the consumer experience about the

product?
What are the goals of using this specific product

or service?
When and how does the consumer interact with

the product design?
How do the consumers think about the product or

the design?
Why does the consumer use this product or

design?
In addition to the above questions, design is based on

the rhetorical situations; audience, purpose and context.
These situations form the product or service design. The
audience refers to the customer or the user who is going
to use the product or the service.
The purpose refers to the customers target of using
the product.
The context refers to the other extrinsic factors that
may affect user interaction with the product.
During the last years, many examples provided proof

of success by utilizing human centered design as a part of
the organization strategy. Companies such as IKEA, Lego,
Google, Facebook, and Apple shifted their direction to focus
on the emotional relation between its products and the
consumers instead of focusing on the technology.
5.2.1 Smartphone-Aesthetics and Ergonomics
Aesthetics engineering is the field of applying
quantitative methods to aesthetics. Aesthetics involve all
our senses-vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell and our
emotions. There are many things that contribute to our
overall perception of a product and our opinion about a
product may also be influenced by certain things.
In a smartphone:
How fashionable it is?
Whether it is new or old?
Whether it is a symbol of wealth or love?
How much danger or risk is involved?
Is it providing a link with your past?
Ergonomics in design of smart phones

Considering ergonomics along with aesthetics, will
result in a product more desirable and better for the user.
Physical ergonomics is the major concept to study
while designing handheld devices like mobile phones.
Some common diseases that arise
improperly designed mobile phones are
from
Cubital tunnel syndrome [cell phone elbow]
Peripheral Nerve Entrapment Syndrome.
Blackberry thumb.
using
These diseases are the outcome of poor ergonomics

taken into consideration while designing the mobile phones.
Some common facts of poor ergonomics in mobile
phones are
Overuse of small handheld devices

tendinitis in thumb [Inappropriate size]
causes
Smaller keypads and poor keypad layout always

slows down the operation of user.
Smaller sizes can cause pain for persons with

large hands.
Hence the ergonomics design includes various

components to be considered while designing a smartphone,
like device length, device width, screen area and corner
radius.
A genetic algorithm suits well in designing a mobile
by taking the above factors and results under
considerations.
Genetic Algorithms and Interactive Genetic Algorithms: (GA
& IGA)
A genetic algorithm is a computer program that uses
an equation to iteratively measure the success of variables
in design space. Interactive Genetic algorithm similar to
GAs is another iterative method but it uses human rating
to select the best designs which can be suited even in the
next generations. Hence GAs and IGAs are used to
iteratively evaluate designs and select the best one which
suits to next generation.
The change in independent variables to the design
space are fed as input to GAs. The dependent variable in

S creen
W idth
P hone
R a dius
S creen
H e ight
i
S creen
R a dius
Vertical S pacing
H o rizonta l S p acing
Fig. 5.1 : Independent dim ension
variables in m obile pho ne
GA is the fitness test score, which determines the design

to proceed further. The number of designs selected depends
on the configuration of GA.
Using IGA in combination with GA will balance the
user aesthetic score and genetic algorithms ergonomic score.
The combinations can be parallel or asynchronous. In
parallel combination GA and IGA select the same set of
designs that suit next generation, while an asynchronous
combination of GA and IGA may not converge easily, so it
is not considered often.
Variables considered in designing mobile phones.
The independent variables considered in the design of
mobile phones are
Horizontal and vertical screen dimensions.
Horizontal and vertical button spacing.
The corner radius of the outside of mobile phone

and the corner radius of the screen.
By keeping ergonomics in mind, a shape of smartphone

which fits in hand well is coupled with a new weight
distribution of the components even when it falls down. The
heavy parts are located on the bottom part of the phone,
leaving the top with very thin and light display. The
keypad is designed for using it easier. Many people dont
like small keypads on phones. The design tries to eliminate
the sealed case look by using an exoskeleton as a feature.
The strong side beams are the structurally supportive
elements of the design.
Hence adding these aesthetics and communicating the
ideas of ergonomics, the smartphones have been designed
and manufactured which leads to the success of that
product.
5.3 VALUE ENGINEERING

Definitions
Value Engineering is an approach to analyse the
function of systems, equipment, facilities, services and
supplies for the purpose of achieving their essential
functions at the lowest life-cycle cost with reliability,
quality and safety. In other words It is a systematic and
structured approach for improving projects, products and
processes to analyze and improve design, and business.
The term value is defined within the context of value
Engineering, as the comparison of the true cost of a project
feature to its worth to those involve (i.e owners, users).
Value can be expressed mathematically in terms of worth
and cost
i.e., Value
W orth
Cost
The main objectives of Value Engineering are:
To minimize total costs of the projects and process.
To eliminate unnecessary cost.
To make the project easier and successful by

improving quality.
And to ensure safe operations and environmental

and ecological goals.
Totally value engineers seek the optimum blend of

scheduling, performance, constructability, maintainability,
environmental awareness, safety and cost consciousness.
5.3.1 Value Engineering Methodology
The value Engineering methodology can be applied to
any subject or process, to carry the project from inspection
to conclusion. It is conducted in eight sequential phases as
follows:
Orientation
Refine the problem and prepare for the value study.
Information
Finalize the scope of the issue to be addressed and
targets for improvement.
Functional Analysis
Identify the most beneficial areas for study.
Creativity
Develop a large number of ideas for alternative ways
to perform each function selected for further study.
Evaluation
Refine and select the best ideas for development.
Development
Determine the best alternatives for presentation to
the decision-maker.
Presentation
Obtain a commitment to follow a course of action for
initiating an alternative.
Implementation
Obtain final approval of the proposal and facilitate its
implementations.
5.3.2 Benefits of Value Engineering
(i)
(ii)
It reduces the operation and machining cost by

simplifying the procedures and increasing procedural
efficiency.
It improves
efficiency.
quality
management
and
resource
(iii)
It reduces the labour cost.
(iv)
It
enhances
the
customer
satisfaction
by
determining the exact need and expectation of
customers.
(v)
Value engineering focuses on standardization of the

parts and components.
5.4 SEQUENTIAL ENGINEERING

It is essential to study sequential engineering before
studying concurrent engineering to appreciate its benefits.
The conventional product cycle is sequential. It
contains product design, manufacturing process, quality
D esign
P lan ning
M an ufactu ring
Q ua lity
M arketing
Fig: 5.2 Sequ ential En gin eering
control, with every activity is carried out in a sequential

manner.
In sequential engineering, each department
insulated i.e. each department functions separately.
is
There is no interaction among the groups.

This is time consuming because, if any flaw is
encountered during the quality check stage, the product has
to go through the whole cycle from the start.
5.5 CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

Concurrent engineering is known as simultaneous
engineering. Concurrent engineering is defined as the
practice of considering the entire functionality of the
product, as well as its assembly and manufacture in an
integrated design process. Here, while the product is
designed, the design and manufacturing processes are
carried out simultaneously. This technique facilitates the
design engineer to improve the efficiency of product design
and process. This is effective interaction of process planning
and product design. Concurrent engineering also influences
the cycle cost of product. Concurrent engineering also unites

people from different functional areas.
The block diagram of concurrent engineering is shown
in Fig.5.3.
In sp e ction
M an ufactu rin g
S e rvic ea bility
M arke tin g
D e sign
C o -ord in ator
A s sem bly
S a le s
P a cka ging
Fu nction
Fig. 5.3 S im u ltaneous (o r) C on cu rren t En gin eering
The block diagram describes that, in a traditional

designing process, complete design descriptions are
produced in the form of engineering drawings and diagrams
and these are then issued by the design department of a
company for analytical evaluation, and for the preparation
of plans and instructions for manufacture. Inevitably, the
manufacturing specialists and design analyst find aspects
of the design that should be improved, and so the design
is returned to the design department for modification and
reissue of the drawings.
In some cases reissue may occur many times - one
large aerospace manufacturer is said to change each
drawing in an average of 4.5 times before final release -
and thus the whole process is both time consuming and

costly.
Furthermore because the considerations of manufacturing
and other specialists are taken into account after the design
drawings have been produced, the design department tends
to concentrate on functional aspects of the design at the
expense of ease of manufacture, maintainability and so on.
Concurrent engineering aims to overcome all of these
limitations, by bringing together a design team with the
appropriate combination of specialist expertise to consider
early in the design process, all elements of the product life
cycle from conception through manufacture and use in
service to maintenance and disposal.
5.5.1 Characteristics of concurrent engineering
Constant and un-interrupted evaluation of design

process and development process.
Fast and speedy information exchange achieved

through internet, LAN etc.
Rapid prototyping.
More attention and concern for satisfying customer

needs.
Focus on new technologies.
5.5.2 Need for implementation of concurrent engineering
In order to effectively implement concurrent

engineering, suitable training programs need to be
organized.
The power should be decentralized which allows

effective participation of workers from all levels to
work together and solve the problem.
Concurrent engineering ensures that the problem

between design and manufacturing, design and
production, etc. are removed.
In concurrent engineering there is simultaneous

interaction between the groups, moreover all the
procedures are split into simple tasks which are
easier to complete.
5.5.3 Benefits of Concurrent Engineering

(i)
It reduces the process time to market which

enhances the business gain by competing with the
competitors.
(ii)
It reduces design and development time in making

products and fulfills the customers satisfaction and
needs at a reduced cost.
(iii)
Enhances productivity by rectifying the errors in the

earlier design and discoveries.
5.6 REVERSE ENGINEERING IN DESIGN

5.6.1 Introduction
In
todays
competitive
global
market,
the
manufacturers are constantly seeking new ways to reduce
the time for new product development which satisfies the
customer needs. In general manufacturers have invested in
CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing),
Reverse Engineering, Rapid prototyping and adapt new
technologies for business benefits.
5.6.2 Definition
Reverse-engineering is defined as the process of
duplicating the already existing product, subassembly,
without drawings, documentation, or a computer mode. In
other words it is also the process of obtaining a geometric

CAD model for 3-D points acquired by scanning.
The concept of reverse engineering is producing a part
based on an original or physical model without the use of
engineering drawings.
Reverse engineering is now widely used in large
number of applications, such as manufacturing, industrial
design and jewelry design. For example, when a new car
is launched in the market, competing manufacturers may
buy one and disassemble it to learn how it was built and
how it works.
5.6.3 Need For Reverse Engineering
Some of the reasons for using reverse engineering:
The original manufacturer of a product no longer

produces the product eg: the original product has
become outdated or stopped.
No data to manufacture the product (or) Part for

which there is no CAD data.
To perform inspection and quality control by

comparing a part to a standardized part.
To strengthen the good features of a product by

eliminating the bad features of a product.
Generating data to create dental or surgical

prosthetics tissue engineered body parts or for
surgical planning.
5.6.4 Process of Reverse Engineering

The reverse engineering process consists of three
phases, which are scanning, point processing and
D ata C aptu re
S cann er
D ata S e gm en tatio n
P oin t P rocessing
3 D C A D M ode l
A pplicatio n
Fig. 5.4 Process of Reverse Enginen ering
application. The major steps in reverse engineering is

shown in Fig.5.4.
Scanning
Selecting the correct scanning technique.
Preparing the part to be scanned
Performing the actual scanning to capture

information that describes all geometric features
of the parts such as steps, slots, pockets and holes.
Point Processing
This phase involves point cloud data which is a

set of data points in some co-ordinate system
defined by X,Y, Z coordinates.
Tasks are performed using a range of predefined

filters.
Allows to merge multiple data sets.
Good Planning for multiple scanning will reduce

the effort required in the point processing and also
avoid introduction of errors from merging multiple
scan data.
The output of the point processing is clean,

merged, point cloud data set.
Applications of Geometric Model Development
Generation of CAD models from point data is

probably the most complex activity.
Surface fitting algorithms are required to generate

surfaces to represent the 3D information in point
cloud data sets.
Most CAD systems are not capable to display and

process large amount of point data and hence
discrete software packages are required for point
processing.
5.6.5 Benefits of Reverse Engineering

(i)
High degree of precision for wide range of surfaces

as compared to manual measurements.
(ii)
Quick process time when compared to conventional

methods.
(iii)
Efficient reproduction of parts or components with

less cost.
(iv)
Faster time to market the products.
5.7 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS

5.7.1 Introduction
Thousands of years ago people have designed and
built their own habitats for their needs like home buildings,
hospital, working places, library etc., Today our homes and
neighborhoods can be created or built independently but
they cannot be able to provide the flexibility, functionality,
comfort, privacy or freedom for our own needs and to
improve the quality of life.
We should feel the comfort in our own home and the
spaces around us; We should happily eat, sleep, work, rest
and play. So an architectural design is essential to convert
the parts of the structure into a whole new system to have
a comfort living.
5.7.2 Architectural Designs
Architectural designs can overcome all discomfort
problems
by
making
things
and
places
safe,
understandable, durable, energy efficient and affordable.
The architectural design is a luxury in the production of
the building environment.
An architectural design brings more to a building
than just aesthetics. This plays a major role in adding value
which turns a building or object into a valuable thing. And
also the architects contribution can have a considerable
impact. Architectural designs can lead to cost saving both
in construction and operating the building through
innovative designs.
5.7.3 Objectives of good designs
By satisfying the client or customer needs.
Luxury, comfort and fitness for purpose with

expertise.
Providing the flexibility for a future changes.
Reducing operation and maintenance costs as less

as possible.
Completing the project on time and within budget.
By making profits on investment.
Cost-effectiveness; In the long term, good design

always costs less than bad design.
5.7.4 Will Architectural design be green?

In architectural design, the sustainability plays a
major role in minimization of fossil fuel consumption with
a reduction of greenhouse gas emission which leads to the
global warming. Mechanically air-conditioned buildings are
constructed or designed with high levels of permanent
artificial lighting. And often builder uses materials of high
embodied energy. Architect replaces those materials and
Buildings are designed with natural lighting and
ventilation. This makes use of alternative forms of energy
such as solar or wind power.
Such buildings will conserve energy and can be
constructed by re-usable materials with minimal
environmental impact during their manufacture and
transport to the site processes.
Sustainable architecture, suggests a further design
principles such as climates and natural energy sources;
selecting re-cyclable materials of low embodied energy to

save energy.
5.7.5 Examples of Good Design
Jubilee library is an example of beauty and
economical building completed on time and within budget.
Designed by Bennett Associates. The building includes
heating and cooling system that utilise winter, sun, natural
ventilation, solar shading, wind towers and heat generated
by people and equipment in the building. Hence this
Jubilee Library is highly appreciated by public for its
architectural design.
5.8 CULTURE BASED DESIGN

5.8.1 Introduction
The physical appearance of an item is a basic
component for its prosperity which is frequently affected by
the way of life, multi-society, aesthetical, structural part of
the setting where it is generally utilized. Culture represents
a set of dynamic, diabetic and coherent body of beliefs and
practices that is in harmony with a particular historical
period.
Culture plays a major role in the field of design and
cultural design will become a key point in design evaluation
in the future. Designing a product based on culture will
become a design trend world wide.
5.8.2 Culture based design in India
It is nothing but designing a product based on Indian
culture and architecture. Product is made in four different
types of shapes and design, which is based on four zones
of India (West Zone, East zone, North zone and South
zone). Hence product is same but it is designed with four

different Culture and Architecture of Indian Zone. Product
may be furniture, handicrafts, ornaments, wooden work,
vehicle, fan, lamp, house-hold items, decorative items etc.
Hence product should be based on culture as well as
aesthetic beauty.
5.8.3 History
According to Indian history, craftsmen make the
product as per the basic needs and daily used purpose. For
example at the period of Harappa culture or Indus valley
civilization, craftsmen made toys, jewellery, pottery, seals,
shell and bronze figures.
The mughal period was the important period of art,
craft and culture. Clay work, glass engraving, carpet
weaving, handicrafts methods were introduced by the
mughal Empire.
5.8.4 Design Features
Culture has been called as the lifestyle of whole
society. From the design point of view a culture can be
classified into three layers such as:
Physical or
material culture
Including food, garments and

transportation related objects.
Social or
behavioural culture
including human relationships

and social organization.
Spiritual or ideal
culture
including art and religion.
5.8.5 Example for Cultural Design in India

Based on the result and analysis of culture in
different zones of India, the concept and design has been
generated for any particular product.
One best example of such product, developed by
implementing cultural design, is a Tea Table. This model
is based on the culture of Odisha and the product is
generated from the Konark wheel (Sun Temple).
The top of the table is designed to be as Konark wheel
over which circular glass is placed. The model for the
product is shown in Fig 5.5.(a).
Fig. 5.5(a) Concept of the product (Konark wheel-Sun Temple)
Different types of patterns, motifs, culture format are

used to design a product in different zones of India and all
these products are unique. Indian culture has a great
potential in enhancing the design value and gradually
leading its way on the international market.
Fig. 5.5. (b) P roduct Sketch ( Tea - Table - D eveloped from

the Concep t of Konark Wh eel )
5.9 MOTIFS AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND

5.9.1 Motifs
Motif may be defined as a design, pattern, decoration,
shape, ornamentation, logo (or) theme. Motif is the element
of an image. Motif is an art and ichnography. A motif may
be repeated in pattern or design for many times or just
occur once in a while. A motif may be an element of a
particular subject, ichnography - which deals with the study
of images or symbol of visual arts. In other words motif is
M OT IF S
a recurring subject, theme, idea, etc, especially in a

literature, artistic or musical works.
The related motifs are in confronted animals that may
also be repeated in silk sarees and other ancient textiles.
Motifs are ornamental or decorative art that can
usually be analysed by a number of different elements often
in textile art.
For examples: Western art including acanthus, egg
and dart and various types of scroll work.
5.9.2 Motifs Features
Many designs in mosques in Islamic culture, include
those of the sun, moon, animals such as horses, lions,
flowers and landscapes. Motifs can have emotional effects
and be used for propaganda. It is more proudly used in
discussing literature and other narrative arts for a
particular element or section in the story that represents
a theme.
5.9.3 Cultural background
Definition of culture
1. The definition of culture given in the literature
varies widely depending on the context. There are two
definitions for culture. Culture is a sort of software of the
mind, (i.e) every person carries unique way of thinking,
feeling and reacting. Culture is a collective phenomenon
and is shared at least partially with other people living in
the same social group.
2. Also culture is defined as an orientation or
cultural standards to individual perception, thinking and
acting of persons belonging to a specific social group.
Cultural standards are shared by persons belonging to a

social group or community.
5.9.3.1 Influence on Cultural background
Culture has been widely studied in the fields related
to the development and use of products, intercultural
product development or intercultural usability engineering.
These fields, focus on the design process and also on
product properties and on user interfaces.
Culture has also been referred to as an influencing
factor in literature on distributed and collaborative product
development. Culture plays a major role particularly to
understand the cultural backgrounds of the project
partners, the cultural competencies of participants, and
project leaders for successful collaboration of international
companies.
5.9.4 Characteristics of cultural background
Empirical studies on culture have revealed many
dimensions, some of which can be related to the
characteristics of individual approaches and some are
interesting in the context of a design process in general.
Study shows that in different cultures, there are basic
differences in viewing things - In Western cultures, by
dissecting objects into components i.e. Westerners pay more
attention to the objects and less to the environment and
in Asian cultures, viewing objects in holistic terms i.e.
Asians focus on the relationships of the objects and see the
environment in terms of inter-connected entities.
5.9.5
Cultural background in design
Culture influences engineering designers to show up

in their design processes to shape problem solving
behaviour in different cultures. Problems are broken down
into sub problems, thereby focusing on the core problem.
Engineering designers solve subproblems one by one,
thereby developing a solution for each subproblem until
they reach a concrete level, or attend all subproblems in
parallel and develop solutions in the same way.
Engineering designers use a variety of approaches
within one process depending on the situation and there
are large differences among engineering designers even
within one culture.
5.10 TRADITION AND DESIGN

Introduction
Design is not only a profession but also a certain
manner of thinking and acting according to situations in a
culture. Hence design has become natural and necessary
because it needs to replace the older ones.
Tradition and design
Tradition and design are defined as alternatives to
each tocher, where design is to tradition and creation is to
evolution. Evolution and creation are the two alternative
ways in which any functional organism (or) a mechanism
may originate. In other words design and tradition are
respectively creation and evolution in culture. Based on
tradition and design, the design differs from tradition in a
variety of specific areas. Here are some examples.
Social responsibility
In traditional view, the main responsibility is to fulfil
the specific role such as work, society, family etc which is
given to us.
In design point of view, the primary responsibility is
to act in a way that supports the integrity and function of
the whole such as the planetary ecosystem, the culture or
the university.
Way of Thinking
The traditional person focuses on the details of the
situations at hand and handles it by thinking
conventionally. The designer has the holistic high level
views to study the priorities and action.
Academic research
The goal of the traditional researcher is to discover
facts within his area of specialization. The goal of designer
is to create or develop whatever is needed in order to make
our world functional and safe.
Research organization
The
traditional
researches
grow
through
specialization. The designer requires a combination of many
talents and backgrounds.
5.11 EVOLUTION OF WET GRINDERS

Wet grinder is a milling process used to produce powder
or paste from a solid using liquid such as water. It can
also be used in an abrasive process to reform hard objects
such as grain and areas.
Early Development
The basic action of grinding has been used since the
beginning of time. However, over the years, the tools used
to grind material have become highly complex. The grinding
and millings has its origin in prehistoric times, humans hit
grains and nuts with stones to free the seed from the hard
protective shell. In the olden days, during the stone Age
the tool used for this operation are the mortar and pestle.
By around 2000 BC the saddlestone mill had been
invented incorporating a horizontal fixed stone over which
a moving stone was moved forward and backwards.
Around 1500 AD the grinding of
revolutionized for grinding large volumes
small particles. At this time stamp miles
to break the pebble by the impact from
hitting hammer.
minerals was
of pebbles into
were developed
a pounding or
1850 -1900
In Germany at 1870, invented the roller mill for
grains with high capacity machines for ores and cement.
Grinding machines become more precise during this time.
1900-1920
During the early twentieth century, the introduction
of electricity enhances the technology of size reduction
which leads to the invention of vertical roller mills and
pebble mills for grinding the fine particles.
In the year 1960, Wily A Bachofen introduced the
Turbula Mixer world-wide, mixer used for mixing of powder
substances of different weights and particle sizes.
Nowadays wet grinders are used for making the idli,

dosai batter and to make a paste out of seaked rice and
lentils. The wet grinder plays a major role in South Indian
Kitchen. The wet grinder industries are located mainly in
coimbatore because of the stones are available in abundant
in this region and also so many industrialists and
enterpreneours are available. The Indian government is
planning to get geographical indication for coimbatore for
wet grinders.
5.12 EVOLUTION OF PRINTED MOTIFS

Motifs were found in the 17th century region of the
Mughal Empire. These motifs, which can still be seen today
are mostly floral, vegetal and animal figures such as
elephants and peacocks. Wider variety of traditional
complicated motifs and colours were introduced, when the
art of block printing migrated from Gujarat to Rajasthan
and eventually to West Bengal. The Indian textile art of
block printing had a tremendous impact on 19th century
patterns and prints in Britain. British designers of the
1800s found inspiration in Indian floral motifs, of which
the Paisley pattern remains commonly loved. The motifs
and colours of traditional block printing continue to appear
in contemporary fashion culture, both in and out of India.
The Paithapur families of Gujarat passed the art of
block printing from generation to generation, forming the
trader or sodagiri print, where soda is derived from the
Persian word for trade. The block printings were developed
in Kutch district in Gujarat. The Ajrak print is said to have
originated from this region and is widely used in male
garments till today.
In Rajasthan, popular motifs and colours incorporate

figurative designs of animals, birds, dancing women and
Gods in a variation of striking colours. Printers of Persian
origin in the city of Bagru and the village of Sanganer are
credited for popularising sophisticated floral motifs.
Another Mughal-inspired print that originates from
Rajasthan is the Sikar or Shekahawat print of animal
motifs, usually camels, horses, lions or peacocks. Motifs in
West Bengal block printing is quite market driven, given
that the art was only established in eastern India in the
mid 20th century.
5.13 ROLE OF COLOURS IN DESIGN

Color carries emotional effects. When we see a color,
we have an emotional response towards that color. We
naturally associate colors with emotions because it is hard
to feel by using words. For example, Blue can be sad, calm,
and confident while yellow is happy, light, and Red is
cautionary.
Colors connect our feelings in a unique and
memorable way and become a powerful marketing tool to
keep in mind for our design projects. The colors in our
design need to be purposeful and have meaning in their
use. Hence it is essential to make good color choices to
reflect the business or product successful.
Color is helpful in communicating our message
because it draws attention, sets the tone of the message,
and guides the eye where it needs to go. It presents a sense
of direction and recognition that people can identify and
relate to.
There are several reason to use colours in design:
Use color to speed visual search
Use color to improve object recognition
Use color to enhance meaning
Use color to convey structure
Use color to establish identity
Use color for symbolism
Use color to improve usability
Use color to communicate mood
Use color to show associations
Use color to express the figure of speech.
Chapter - 6
MODULAR DESIGN
Modular Design, Design Optimization: Intelligent and
autonomous products: User Interfaces: Communication between
products: autonomous products: Internet of things: Human
Psychology and the advanced products.
Design as a marketing tool: Intellectual Property Rights Trade secret: Patent: copyright: Trademarks: Product liability.
6.1 MODULAR DESIGN

Modular design is a technique where everything is
built using a block grid pattern. Each of the elements of
the design fits into modules in rectangular patterns.
Modular designs are popularized at various stages by
newspaper designers as they create modules for the
components of each story in that days edition of the paper.
But modules are popular for other design styles as well,
since the use of unique grid is a good way to organize and
manage content.
In website design, the popular option will be modular
design because of the flexible nature of the modular grid.
Modular design takes some thought on the front end
of the projects but it really is a grid based design system
that works like any other grid and it works for any type
of project or style.
Two benefits of modular design are, standardization
of components and reconfigurability of devices.
6.1.1 Modular Design - Basic Methods of Grouping

The overall goal of modular design is to translate
customer needs into rough layouts of the product. In order
to accomplish this goal, small modules must be identified
in the product. These small modules will provide a means
for distributing individual designers or design teams to
traceable subsystems in the product design.
Two views of product that drives a process are (ie)
functions and components. The functional view follows the
components of functional hierarchies or function structures.
In other words, functions are the operation or activities
performed by the product. Components, on the other hand,
perform the action by the function.
Using the function - component views, the four step
process for laying out a perfect modular design are
explained here.
Step 1: Create a function structure of the product
A function structure is an input output diagram of
what a product does. Materials, energies and signals enter
from the environment, are processed by the function
structures and leave the product as new flows. For this
purpose sub-functions are introduced. These subfunctions
are connected by lines to show their dependencies.
Step 2: Group the elements into Module Chunks
After creating one or more valid structures, the next
step is grouping the sub-functions into chunks. (Chunks are
nothing but small modules). These chunks will become the
modules or assemblies for the product. Chunks are chosen
based on the natural or intuitive groups of sub-functions
that depend on each other and can also be solved together.
Modular Design 6.3
During the choice of groups, simple interaction between

modules are preferred. By simplifying the interactions, each
chunk will be as independent as possible. These simple
interactions will also reduce the possibility of problems or
faults caused at the interfaces of modules. This overall
process of identifying chunks is known as clustering.
Step 3: Create a Rough Geometric Layout(s)
When suitable chunks have been chosen, skip to the
first phase of modular design. This is the stage where the
creation of a rough geometric layout(s) of the product is
taken place. Typically a rough geometric model/layout is
known as the block diagram of product modules. It is also
known as configuration design of product assemblies.
Two sub-steps are included in this stage of modular
design.
Create a hierarchy of the product architecture

from the function structure chunks.
Map the hierarchy to a 2-D or 3-D sketches of the

product layout.
In the first substep, a hierarchy is created by

simplifying major components that are expected within each
module of the product.
The form of hierarchy is
Top L evel
P ro du ct
L ist o f Ide ntified

C h un ks from the
P re vio us o ne
S e co n d Le ve l
L ast L eve l
N a m e s of e xp ecte d
C o m p o ne nts tha t
a re n e ed ed to
fu lfill th e fun ctio n
o f m od u les
After developing hierarchy, drawings should be

developed for alternative spatial layouts of the product
modules. This substep usually includes a cooperative effort
between industrial designers and engineers. Aesthetics,
ergonomics and spatial configuration decisions are all goals
of the layout process.
Step 4: Define
Characteristics
Interactions
And
detail
Performance
After the creation of rough geometric

interactions between modules must be defined.
layouts,
Two goals are mainly involved in this step.
To develop a specification for generating,

embodying, prototyping and testing of each
module.
To enhance the communication between the

individuals or design teams assigned to each
module.
The interactions between modules, materials, energies

and signal flows must be studied and refined at each
Modular Design 6.5
module boundary. These flows define the interactions and

the boundary defines interface between modules.
Generally four types of interactions are investigated.
1.
Material Interactions: Solid, liquids or gases that

flow from one module to the other.
2.
Energy Interactions: Energies

transmitted between modules.
3.
Information interactions: Signals that must

processed from one module to the other.
4.
Spatial
Interactions: Geometrical
dimensions,
degrees of freedom and tolerances that must be
maintained between the modules.
that
must
be
be
After defining these interactions, a specification for

each interaction is developed for each module.
6.2 DESIGN OPTIMIZATION

Fundamentals of design optimization
The methods and algorithms by which the best vision
of a design concept is produced are called optimization
methods or design optimization.
An optimization problem may be defined as
Maximize
(or
minimize)
subject to
: F x objective function.
: gj x 0 ; j l, m Inequality constraints.
h j x 0 ; j l, P Equality constraints
x li xi xui : i l, n side constraints
Where [X]T x1, x2 xn are design variables.
x u and xl are upper and lower bounds on X .
Objective Function
The objective function is a function, with respect to
which the design is optimized.
Design Constraints
Differentiating acceptable and unacceptable designs
by design restrictions are collectively called as Design
constraints.
Design Variables
The values chosen in producing a design for different
independent variables are called design variables.
Design Space
The n-dimensional variable vector represented in
space, forms the design space.
Constraint Surface
These are the surfaces formed by the limiting
constraints.
Regional Constraints
Regional constraints are one sided constraints where
stress, geometry and cost do not exceed the limiting values.
These constraints are also called as inequality constraints
and it is denoted by gj
For eg: if a stress x must be less than yield stress
S y, then our constraint is
x S y
Converting this constraint to
x S y 0
Modular Design 6.7
(or) gj x 0
Now the constraint is of the form gj x 0
Equality constraints
These constraints restrict certain design variables to
be simultaneously related. It is denoted by hj. The similar
transformations are performed on equality constraints hj so
they equals zero.
h j x 0
Standard Null Form

When the measure of products performance is
converted to constants [in the form of gj and h j]. Select a
single performance measure to serve as a main function,
then the problem has been casted in a negative null form.
If the on gj is given instead of then the problem is
casted as negative null form. Only negative null form is
used in a larger extent.
6.2.2 Classification of Optimization Methods
The different optimization methods are
Classical methods
Direct method (Search Method)
Indirect method (Optimization Criteria)
Each method is further classified into two types

namely
Constrained Problem
Unconstrained Problem
6.2.3 Process of design optimization

The process of design optimization starts from
identifying the variable to optimizing the design, as shown
in flow chart.
S tart
Id en tify
D e sign Variab le s
O bjective F un ctio n
C o nstra in ts
C o lle ct d ata f o r
d escrib ing the
syste m
E stim a te
in itia l d esig n
A n alys e th e
P ro blem
Is th e con ve rge n ce
C riteria is satisfie d
b y the d esig n
NO
C h an ge th e
d esig n usin g an
o ptim ization
m etho d
YES
S top
Modular Design 6.9
6.3 INTELLIGENT AND AUTONOMOUS PRODUCTS

6.3.1 Intelligent products - definition and meaning
An Intelligent Product can be understood as todays
product that enable competencies and abilities for
decision-making and interaction with its environment. High
level requirements of intelligent products are mentioned by
several authors, and they often reflect the demand on
autonomous products. McFarlane and Wong describe the
Intelligent Product as a physical and information based
representation of an item which:
possesses a unique identification.
is capable of communicating effectively with its

environment.
can retain or store data about itself.
uses a language to display its features, production,

requirement, etc
is capable of participating in or making decisions

relevant to its own destiny.
6.3.2 Classification of Intelligent Product

Level of intelligence
The degree of intelligence of an Intelligent Product
can vary from dumb product to a product that can control
the situations which are responding to it. The level of
Intelligence of Intelligent Products can be divided into three
categories:
Information handling A Intelligent Product

should at least be able to manage its own
information, given by sensors, and other
techniques. Without this ability, it can hardly be
called intelligent. If the Intelligent Product is only

capable of information handling, then it is not in
control of its own life, as full control of the product
is from outside of the product.
Problem notification. A more Intelligent Product is

a product that notifies the problem to the user.
For example, If the product is engaged in a
situation where the temperature is too high, etc,
eventhough the product is still not in control of
its own life, its able to report when there are
problems with its status.
L evel o f Inte lligen ce
D e cision s M aking
Pro blem S olving
Info rm ation H a ndling
Inte lligen ce throug h n etw ork
Inte lligen ce at o bject
L ocatio n of
inte llig en ce
Inte lligen t item
Inte lligen t C ontain er
G ro up ing
level of
Inte lligen ce
Ag gre g ation
level o f
inte llig en ce
Modular Design 6.11
Decision making. The most intelligent product is

a product, which without any human intervention,
can completely manage its own life and is able to
make decisions in such situations. It is also called
as inside out control of product.
Location of intelligence
Each product has its own intelligence. The intelligence
of the product is not necessarily need to be located at the
object. Two extremes can be identified:
Intelligence through network. The intelligence of

the product is completely outside the physical
product, at a different location. For example, there
is a server where a dedicated agent for the
product is running. The product only contains a
device that serves as an interface to the
intelligence.
Intelligence at object. All the intelligence, whether

it enables only information handling, or advanced
decision making, takes place at the physical
product itself. The object has the needed
computational power, storing capacities and
network connectivity.
Grouping ability level of intelligence / aggregation level of

intelligence
This type of Intelligent Products is one which lacks
the concepts and classifications discussed in the first type.
However, we consider the aggregation level of the
intelligence also as an important dimension, as many
products are composed from parts, which can also be
products in itself. For example, a car is an assembly of
components
that
are
manufactured
by
different
organizations and that may by themselves be composed of
other parts. In the case of modern cars or other products
with sufficient information processing and communication
capabilities, a lot of decision-making can be embedded into
the product itself. However, some parts of the product may
have only one identifier, while other parts may have their
own embedded information processing capabilities. In order
to make it possible the communication interface is made
similar for all components of the product. For analyzing
this type the following separations are made.
Intelligent item. These are the objects that only

manages
information,
notifications
and/or
decisions about itself. If that contains any
components, then they can not be distinguished as
individual objects.
Intelligent container. The intelligent container not

only manages information, notifications and/or
decisions about itself, but also aware of the
components that are made of and may act as a
proxy device for them. If the intelligent container
is disassembled or parts are removed or replaced,
the parts may be able to continue as intelligent
items or containers by themselves. For instance,
an engine may be removed from a vehicle which
can be remodeled and then start a new life in
another vehicle, if possible together (or) with
new/remodeled components. (clutch, etc.)
6.3.3 Combination of Intelligent and autonomous products

One way to generate autonomous behaviour in a
product is to make the product intelligent so, that the
Modular Design 6.13
product gains the ability to act appropriately in an

uncertain environment performing appropriate action
thereby increasing its output.
For example the ultimate goal of an intelligent and
autonomous car may be to transport the user from one
location to the other with no accidents and strict adherence
to traffic laws. The goal and success criteria of this
intelligent and autonomous product is defined by the user
of the car and not by the car itself. It should be noted that
autonomy doesnt imply intelligence but intelligence may
imply autonomy and also partially autonomy with some
human interactions for selecting decisions and actions.
The achievement of intelligent and autonomous
products requires substantial technical results from two
areas: Algorithms and architecture. Algorithms encode the
formal, mathematical knowledge for solving specific
problems in a series of computation steps. For eg: a sensor
fusion algorithm is used to estimate the current
acceleration in an automobile. On the other hand,
architecture provides all the necessary principles for
executing the algorithms and modularizing the product.
One such example of Intelligent and autonomous
product is intelligent and autonomous transport vehicle
which is a fully autonomous vehicle used for transporting
personals autonomously inside a specified area. It is also
used for advance research in mobile robotics.
It is an electric-powered vehicle, fitted with sensors
and actuators to make it fully autonomous. It can drive
autonomously around the campus based on the fixed
waypoints as well as it can be driven manually.
For autonomous navigation this vehicle primarily uses

Laser range finders, GPS, Inertial guidance and fluxgate
magnetometers. On-board computer estimates, vehicles
lateral and longitudinal position with the help of sensors.
Any undesired deviation from the path is corrected in real
time by, steer by wire control system.
The vehicle can be switched between auto and manual
mode by pressing a button on the control panel, the top
speed of the vehicle is limited to 20 km/hour in the
autonomous mode.
6.4 USER INTERFACE

In the industrial design field of human-machine
interaction, the user interface is the space where
interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal
of this user interaction is to allow effective operation and
control of the machine from the human end, while the
machine simultaneously sends Feedback that helps the
operators in decision making process. Examples for user
interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer
operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator
controls, and process controls. The design considerations
applicable while creating user interface, involve disciplines
such as ergonomics and psychology.
Generally, the goal of user interface design is to make
it easy, efficient, and user friendly to operate a machine in
the way which produces the desired result. It means that
the operator needs to provide minimal input to achieve the
desired output and also that undesired outputs are
minimized by the machine.
Modular Design 6.15
With the increased use of personal computers and the

relative decline in societal awareness of heavy machinery,
the term user interface is generally assumed to mean the
graphical user interface, while industrial control panel and
machinery control design discussions more commonly refer
to human-machine interfaces.
6.4.1 Steps in designing user interface
User interface design requires a brief knowledge of
user needs. There are several phases and processes in the
user interface design. Depending on the project, their
priorities vary.
Functionality
requirements
assembling
Assembling a list of the functions required by the
product to accomplish its goals and the potential
needs of the users.
User and task analysis - A form of field research,

which includes the analysis of the potential users
of the product by studying how they perform the
tasks and conducting interviews to make their
goals clear, Typical questions involve,
(i) What would the user want the product to do?
(ii) How would the product fit with the users
normal workflow or daily activities?
(iii) How technically the user has the ability to
understand the concept of the product and
what similar products does the user already
use?
(iv) What interface look and feel styles appeal to
the user?
Information architecture - Development of the

process and/or information flow of the product.
Prototyping - Development of wire-frames, either

in the form of paper prototypes or simple
interactive screens.
Usability inspection - Allowing an evaluator

inspect user interface. This is generally considered
to be cheaper than implementing usability testing
and can be used early in the development process
since it can be used to evaluate prototypes or
specifications for the system, which usually cant
be tested on users. Some common usability
inspection methods include,
(a) Cognitive walkthrough, which focuses the
simplicity to accomplish tasks with the
product for new users,
(b) Heuristic evaluation, in which a set of
heuristics are used to identify usability
problems in the UI design, and
(c) Pluralistic walkthrough, in which a selected
group of people step through a task scenario
and discuss usability issues.
Usability testing - Testing of the prototypes by an

actual user - a technique called think aloud
protocol is often used, where you ask the user to
talk about their thoughts during the experience.
User interface design testing allows the designer
to understand the reception of the design from the
viewers point of view and thus facilitates to create
successful applications.
Modular Design 6.17
Graphical user interface design - Actual look and

feel design of the final graphical user interface
(GUI) may be based on the findings developed
during the user research, and fine tuned to fix
any usability problems found through the results
of testing.
6.5 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN PRODUCTS

For a product to be successful, it must provide enough
interaction with its user on both working and cultural level.
Nowadays manufacturing companies are competing on
national and international levels to achieve a competitive
edge in the market, which creates demand for faster
product development and production.
A key test for a company is its ability to develop
successfully from single product to a number of project
lines. There exists two types of communication system (i)
Formal (ii) Informal. A formal communication system
between
engineering
introduction
of
new
and
production
products
from
deals
the
with
the
design
and
development laboratories to the production line, and this

provides sufficient level of information on existing products.
It may also lead to production changes in more cost
effective manner.
Manage New Product Development
The
communication
between
production
and
engineering should be very intense when introducing new

products to the production line from engineering laboratory.
The personnels from different functional departments in the
organisation
can
process
new
product
design
and
introduction.
Value Engineering to optimize competing priorities of cost
and performance
Value
engineering
is
responsible
for
engaging
everybody in an organisation, for the creation of new

product. The goal of design engineers is to maximise the
performance and for production engineer, is to minimize
cost, and therefore have conflicting priorities. During the
early design stage of the product, meetings on product
design should be held atleast once in a month. Weekly,
design
meetings
should
be
held
and
the
following
presentation of the new product should be made.
Prototype Units produced by engineering can help

to reduce the cost of design errors.
Pilot production with limited quantity, helps in

testing the producibility and to clear any bugs in
the final design before the organisation starts its
mass production.
It must be clear that the design must be frozen or

stopped before the mass production is started. Standard
components or parts of the product that requires little or
no tooling can be frozen at last in the design cycle while
the parts that have long procurement needs to be frozen
first.
Modular Design 6.19
Ensuring appropriate documentation

Formal
communication
between
Design
and
production departments demands the following:
Computer databases which are very useful for

documentation; Engineering drawings, bills of
material, assembly prints etc create most and
efficient communication.
Very detailed documentation are needed when

there exists (i) high production volumes (ii) tooling
and automation are used to reduce cost (iii) when
less skilled factory labours are used.
Less detailed documentation is required when

there exists (i) Less production volumes (ii) Skilled
worker capable of operating with limited
instruction (iii) When design changes are applied
faster.
Manage changes to existing products

In
the
production
field,
the
organization
must
facilitate orderly and cost effective changes to the products.

All
these
engineering
changes
performed
should
be
approved and documented. The appropriate authorities

must approve all these legal changes to the documentation
and give sufficient time for the members of the respective
functional departments to adapt to these changes.
If the control of documentation is lost, quality
problems can occur, which inturn leads to the increase in
manufacturing cost and also expediting, trouble shooting
and setups consume direct or indirect labour hours.
6.6 AUTONOMOUS PRODUCTS

Autonomous
product
are
the
ones
that
are
independent and having the power to make its own

decision. Recently several autonomous products have been
launched in the market place. One such example is the self
initiating, independent vacuum cleaner that determines to
clean at the right time when a floor or room needs to be
vacuumed and returns to its charging station when needed
to recharge its battery. But consumers do not appreciate
these autonomous products to a larger extent, because
eventhough autonomous products take over tasks from user,
leaving them free from their activities, the consumers
consider these products as complex and the use and
purchase of these products are risky.
Autonomous Products as Icons for a Company
Making products more autonomous means that these
products initiate actions by themselves, and this may be
one
of
the
attracting
results
of
the
application
of
information and communication technology in consumer

products: a ghost in a machine. The British firm DYSON
provides an example of such use of product autonomy. The
announcement for the development of an autonomous
vacuum cleaner even before the product was launched,
results in enormous publicity for the company. This
example shows that, besides the advantages of product
autonomy that are perceived by certain consumers, creating
autonomy also can have public relations and branding
benefits.
Modular Design 6.21
Examples of Smart Autonomous Products

Autonomous products are made to be smarter by
equipping
them
with
information
and
communication
technology. Examples of such smart autonomous products

are small-sized devices like mobile phones and palmtops
that shows increase in the number of new features and
functions. Another example is the TIVO device developed
together by Sony and Philips. TIVO stands for Television
In Video Out. This device is attached to a television set
and builds a user profile on the basis of ratings of television
shows and recognizes the favorite channels of the user.
TIVO then uses this profile either to record shows that the
user may like or gives advice on shows that the user may
want to watch. The Swedish firm Husqvarna provides
another example of Solar Mower which is a robotic
lawnmower that measures the length of the grass and
decides whether it needs to be cut. When grass grows,
without human intervention, the machine starts mowing.
6.7 INTERNET OF THINGS

The internet of Things (IoT) is an environment where
objects, are provided with unique identifiers and the ability
to transfer data over
a network without requiring
human-to-human
or
human-to-computer
interaction.
Convergence
of
wireless
technologies
micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) and the Internet

led to the development of IoT. The concept may also be
referred to as the Internet of Everything.
A thing, in the Internet of Things, can be a person

with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal with a biochip
transponder, an automobile that has built-in sensors to
alert the driver when tire pressure is low or any other
natural or man-made object that has been assigned with
an IP address and provided with the ability to transfer data
over a network. So far, the Internet of Things has been
most closely associated with machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication in manufacturing and power, oil and gas
utilities.
Products
built
with
M2M
communication
capabilities are often referred to as being smart. eg. smart

label, smart meter, smart grid sensor.
The IoT can be understood as convergence of
technologies and as a bundle of heterogeneous objects that
are enabled to interact with each other. There are some
key functionalities required to enable the IoT working.
Identification: Objects in the IoT are identifiable

by a defined scheme.
Communication and Cooperation: Objects are

capable of interacting with each other, or with
resources in the net.
Sensor: Objects can collect information about their

environment.
Storage: The object has an information storage

that stores information about the objects history
and its future.
Actuating elements: IoT objects are capable of

acting on their own without having a
superordinate entity.
Modular Design 6.23
User Interface: Adapted metaphors of usage have

to be made available by the object.
6.7.1 Importance of identifiers

IPv6s huge increase in address space is an important
factor in the development of the Internet of Things. The
address space expansion is that we could assign an IPv6
address to every atom on the surface of the earth, and still
have enough addresses left to do another 100+ earth. In
other words, everything on earth can be easily assigned an
IP address by humans easily. An increase in the number
of smart nodes, as well as the amount of upstream data,
the nodes generated, are expected to raise new concerns
about data privacy and security.
6.7.2 Some commonly used identifiers
Cloud Computing
IoT creates New and innovative applications by
connecting billions of devices and sensors. To support these
applications, a reliable platform must be provided. Cloud
computing is one of the platform to support IoT. Cloud
computing is an architecture that exhibits various abilities
like multi-tenancy, and usage accounting while relying on
internet.
There are three common cloud service models namely
cloud Software as a Service (SaaS). Cloud Platform as a
Service (Paas) and cloud Infrastructure as a service. (Iaas).
For example, in Iaas, cloud resources like sensors and
actuators are made available to the users. These users can
setup arbitrary services and manage these cloud resources
through
cloud
resource
access
control.
Paas
provide
platform to access IoT data and to develop IoT applications.

Certain
companies,
nowadays,
are
providing
software
development platform to build innovative IoT applications.

Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)
IPv6 is the advanced internet addressing protocol that
replaced the earlier version (IPv4). There are approximately
3.4 10 38 unique IPv6 addresses.
The features of IPv6 includes
Large number of connected devices.
Used to address all the connected devices.
No need for Network Address Translation (NAT)
Promotes End to End connectivity and control.
The Internet of Things has been in development for

decades. The first Internet appliance for example, was a
Coke machine at Carnegie Melon University in the early
1980s. The programmers could connect to the machine over
the Internet, check the status of the machine and determine
the process of preparation of drink by the machine.
6.7.3 The IoT Landscape
Hence the application of Internet of things covers a
wide range with the use of small connectable devices that
connects the user with anything in the world ranging from
cars to industries located far apart.
Modular Design 6.25
Indu strial
inte rne t
C onnected
w earables
d evices
C onnected C onnected
C itie s
C onnected H om es
C ars
Tra nsp orta tion
O il & Gas
h ea lth C are
6.7.4 Key attributes of IoT and how it differs from internet

Sense
Sensing
Actions of IoT
Use
to
maximize
advantage of sensors
attached to things (eg:
temperature, pressure,
acceleration)
How it differs from

common internet.
More
data
is
generated by things
with sensors than by
people.
Sense
Actions of IoT
How it differs from

common internet.
Efficient
Adds intelligent to Extends the internet

manual process like productivity gains to
reducing power
things.
Network
ed
Connects
network
Specializ
ed
Modifies
technology The IoT is fragmented
and process to specific smaller in size and is
task.
more efficient unlike
Pcs and smartphones.
Everywh
ere
Can
be
effectively More devices can be
used everywhere like connected with greater
on human body, cars, security concerns.
homes cities, factories
etc.
objects
to Some
of
the
intelligence are shifted
from cloud to the
networks edge.
6.7.5 Factors leading to the rise of internet of things

A number of significant technology changes lead to
the rise of the IoT. These include.
Cheap sensors -Sensor prices have dropped to an

average of 60% in the past 10 years.
Cheap bandwidth - The cost of bandwidth has also

declined comparatively over the past 10 years.
Cheap processing - Similarly, processing costs

have declined over the past 10 years, enabling
more devices to be not just connected and smart
Modular Design 6.27
enough to know what to do with all the new data

they are producing and receiving.
Smartphones- Smartphones are now becoming the

personal gateway to the IoT as they serve as a
remote control for the connected home, connected
car, or the health and fitness devices.
Wide wireless coverage- With Wi-fi coverage now

being widely used, wireless connectivity is
available for free or at a very low cost.
Big data - IoT generates a huge amount of

unstructured data.
6.7.6 Applications of IoT

Cities
Smart Parking: Guiding the user about the parking
availability in the city.
Structural health: Monitoring of vibrations and material
conditions in buildings, bridges and historical monuments.
Noise Urban Maps: Sound monitoring in bar areas and
centric zones in real time.
Traffic prediction: Monitoring of vehicles and pedestrian
levels to optimize driving routes.
Smart Lighting: Intelligent and weather adaptive lighting
in street lights.
Waste Management: Detection of rubbish levels in
containers and to optimize the ways of collecting these
trash.
Intelligent Transportation Systems: Smart Roads and
Intelligent Highways with warning messages and diversions
according to climate conditions and unexpected events like

accidents or traffic jams.
Environment
Forest Fire Detection: Monitoring of combustion gases and
recognizing fire conditions to define alert zones.
Air Pollution: Control of CO 2 emissions from factories,
pollution emitted by cars and toxic gases generated in
farms.
Landslide and Avalanche Prevention: Monitoring of soil
moisture, vibrations and earth density to detect landslides
and avalanches in advance.
Earthquake Early Detection: Distributed control in specific
places of tremors.
Water
Water Quality: Study of water suitability in rivers and the
sea for fauna and eligibility for drinkable use.
Water Leakages: Detection of liquid presence outside tanks
and pressure variations along pipes.
River Floods: Monitoring of water level variations in rivers,
dams and reservoirs.
Retail
Supply Chain Control: Monitoring of storage conditions
along with the supply chain and product tracking for
traceability purposes.
Near Field Communication (NFC)
Payment: Payment processing based on location or activity
duration for public transport, gyms, theme parks, etc.
Modular Design 6.29
Intelligent Shopping Applications: According to customer

habits, preferences, presence of allergic components for
them or expiring dates, giving advice about the point of
sale.
Smart Product Management: Control of rotation of
products in shelves and warehouses to automate restocking
processes.
Industrial Controls
M2M Applications: Machine auto-diagnosis and
control.
assets
Indoor Air Quality: Monitoring of toxic gas and oxygen

levels inside chemical plants to ensure workers and goods
safety.
Temperature Monitoring: Control of temperature inside
industrial and medical fridges with sensitive goods to be
bought and sold.
Ozone Presence: Monitoring of ozone levels during the
drying meat process in food factories.
6.8 HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY AND ADVANCED PRODUCTS

Engineering Psychologists study how people interact
with machines and advanced technology. They use
psychological science to guide the design of products,
systems and devices we use everyday. Performance and
safety are their main focus.
Understanding Human Psychology
Human beings would experience a mild anxiety
during interaction with a new device like, a high definition
TV and getting doctors appointment through phonecall.
During such situations, human minds will need answers to

the question like. Will the product work in an expected way
Will it happen in the expected manner?
Hence human psychologists try hard to make these
interactions easier, more comfortable, less frustrating and
safer sometimes. They also apply the science of psychology
to improve life with critical products like medical
equipment and airline computer systems.
These professionals apply what they know about
human behaviour to help manufacturers in designing
products, system or devices. They combine technology and
psychology to improve our interactions with the system and
equipments we use daily.
After the products have been distributed to the
customers, one might notice that some products seem to
work better than the others. Such best products are tested
with people, trying them out in the real life situations.
Better designs often lead to happy customers, fewer costly
redesigns and less likelihood of human factors and injuries.
Because of these reason, organisations need the expertise
of engineering psychologists who study how people behave
and use their knowledge to create better processes and
products.
These psychologists work in many different areas,
including
business,
government
and
educational
institutions. As they can work on a range of designs from
the ordinary thing that touch all our lives, such as water
can openers and safer cars, to the highly specialized
instruments that allow pilots to land a jet safely.
Modular Design 6.31
6.9 DESIGN AS A MARKETING TOOL

Product design has always been of keen interest to
marketers. Medieval craftsman in 1930 attracted
passengers with the visual impact of their streamlined
locomotives and comfort of their pullman cars. Today
companies like apple achieve record profits even during a
major recession because of leadership in design. The mass
media have been attracted to design issues with numerous
websites, videos and publications. In recent years design
research activity within marketing has grown significantly.
The research in design still remains a topic of modest
activity when compared to its relevance to buyer decision
making, brand building and overall marketing success.
Engineering designers often aim to select designs that
meet the following criteria.
Maintain the functioning of the product under

various usage situations and conditions.
Show the least possible variation in performance.
Have the best possible performance under the

worst case of variations in uncontrollable design
parameters.
Design determines the market place success.

There are several issues that lead to the continuous
development in the research of product design.
Despite attempts in defining design and indicating its
wide importance to marketing, the confusion of whether
design is a mere styling or something that accounts larger
in the creation of product still prevails.
Since design plays a main role in determining the

business prosperty and leading to survival of an
organization, one must recognize that design is a term
which goes beyond styling and surfaces of the product.
6.10 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

Intellectual property rights are like any other
property right that allows the creators, or owners of
patents, trademarks or copyrighted works to benefit from
their own work. These rights are outlined in Article 27 of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which provides
for the right to benefit from the protection of moral and
material interests resulting from authorship of scientific,
literary or artistic productions.
The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial
Property (1883) and the Berne Convention for the
Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886) were the
first to recognize the importance of intellectual property
right. Both treaties are administered by the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
6.10.1 Reasons for promoting intellectural property
(i)
The progress and well-being of humanity depends

on its capacity to create and invent new works in
the areas of technology and culture.
(ii)
The legal protection of new creations encourages the

commitment of additional resources for further
innovation.
(iii)
The promotion and protection of intellectual

property leads to economic growth, creates new jobs
and industries, and enhances the quality and
enjoyment of life. An efficient intellectual property
Modular Design 6.33
system can help all countries to realize intellectual

propertys potential as a factor that promotes the
economic development and social and cultural
well-being. The intellectual property system helps
strike a balance between the interests of innovators
the public interest, and provides an environment in
which creativity and invention can develop for the
benefit of all.
6.10.2 Types of Intellectual Property
Intellectual property often refers to the creations of
the mind, innovative ideas on literary and artistic works.
Hence, intellectual property can be divided into two
categories.
Industrial property which includes patents for

inventions, trademarks, industrial design and
geographical representations.
Copy right covers literary works like novels,

poems, plays, films, music and other artistic works
like drawings, paintings photographs, and
sculptures. In some cases, architectural designs
are also included. Rights related to copyright
includes to those personals like producers of
phonogram in their recordings, broadcasters in
their radio and television programs etc.
6.10.3 Benefits of intellectual Property Rights

Intellectual property rights reward creativity and
human endeavor, which enables the progress of humankind.
Some examples are, the multimillion dollar film, recording,
publishing and software industries - which bring pleasure
to millions of people worldwide, can never exist without
copyright protection. Without the rewards provided by the

patent system, researchers and inventors would have little
incentive to continue producing better and more efficient
products for consumers if the rewards are not provided by
the patent system. Consumers would have no means to
confidently buy products or services without reliable and
international trademark protection.
Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright,
trade marks Trade secrets and Product liability.
6.11 TRADE SECRETS

Trade secrets are any, confidential business
information which provides the organization a competitive
edge. Trade secrets include manufacturing or industrial
secrets and commercial secrets. The unauthorized use of
such information by persons other than the holder is
regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade
secret. The protection of trade secrets forms part of the
general concept of protection against unfair competition or
is based on specific provisions or case law on the protection
of confidential information, depending on the legal system.
The trade secrets is usually defined in broad terms
including sales methods, distribution methods, consumer
profiles, advertising strategies, lists of suppliers and clients,
and manufacturing processes. A final determination of what
information constitutes a trade secret will depend on the
circumstances of each individual case, clearly unfair
practices in respect of secret information include industrial
or commercial espionage, breach of contract and breach of
confidence.
Modular Design 6.35
Protection of Trade Secrets

Contrary to patents, trade secrets are protected
without registration, in other words, trade secrets are
protected without any procedural formalities. Added to it,
a trade secret can be protected for an unlimited period of
time. For these reasons the protection of trade secrets may
appear to be attractive for SMEs, however there are some
conditions for the information to be considered a trade
secret. These conditions may look more difficult and costly
than it would appear at first glance. While these conditions
vary from country to country, there are some general
standards which are referred to in Art. 39 of the Agreement
on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS Agreement) which are
The information must be secret (i.e. it is not

generally known among, or readily accessible to
circles that normally deal with the kind of
information in question).
Since it is secret, it must have commercial value.
It must have been subjected to reasonable steps

by the rightful holder of the information to keep
it secret (e.g., through confidentiality agreements).
There are three essential elements to a trade secret claim:
The subject matter involved must be qualified for

trade secret protection; It must be the type of
information that is intended to protect, and it
must not be generally known.
The holder of the trade secret must establish,

whether reasonable precautions were taken to
prevent the secret information.
The trade secret holder must prove that the

information was wrongfully acquired by another;
Unlike patents, trade secrets do not last for a specific

term of years. Trade secret protection continues indefinitely
until public disclosure of the secret occurs. Additionally,
patent law requires public disclosure of the means to
reproduce an invention in exchange for a limited monopoly
over such invention. Thus, an inventor must choose
between either patent or trade secret protection; The same
invention cannot be protected by both simultaneously.
Example
An SME (small and medium enterprises) develops a
process for manufacturing its products that allows it to
produce its goods in a more profitable manner. Such a
process provides the organization a competitive edge over
its competitors. The organization therefore would not want
competitors to learn about it. The organization should make
sure that only a limited number of people knows the secret,
and those who know it are made well aware that it is
confidential. When dealing with third parties or licensing
its know-how, the organisation signs confidentiality
agreements to ensure that all parties know that the
information is a secret. In such situation, a misjudgment
of the information by the competitor or third party would
be considered as a violation of trade secrets of the
organisation.
6.12 PATENT
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an
invention of a product or process that provides a new way
of doing something, or that offers a new technical solution
Modular Design 6.37
to a problem. A patent provides patent owners with

protection for their inventions. Protection is granted for a
limited period, generally 20 years.
Need for patents
Patents provide incentives to individuals by
recognizing their creativity and also offers material rewards
for their marketable inventions. The reason for offering
incentives is that it encourages innovation which inturn
enhances the quality of human life.
Patent protection
Patent also offers protection (ie) an invention cannot
be commercially made, used, distributed or sold without the
patent owners approval. Patent rights are usually enforced
in courts that in most systems, hold the authority to stop
patent infringement. Ultimately, a court can also declare a
patent invalid upon a successful challenge by a third party.
Rights to patent owners
A patent owner has the right to decide who may-or
may not-use the patented invention for the period of
permission to, or license, other parties to use their
inventions on mutually agreed terms. Owners may also sell
their invention rights to someone else, who then becomes
the new owner of the patent. Once a patent expires,
protection ends and the invention enters the public domain.
This is also known as becoming off patent, which means
the owner no longer holds exclusive rights to the invention,
and it becomes available for commercial exploitation by
others.
Role of patents in everyday life

Patented inventions have protected every aspect of
human life, from electric lighting (patents held by Edison
and Swan) and sewing machines (patents held by Howe
and Singer), to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (patents
held by Damadian) and the iPhone (patents held by Apple).
In return for patent protection, all patent owners are
obliged to publicly disclose information on their inventions
in order to enrich the total body of technical knowledge in
the world. This everincreasing body of public knowledge
promotes further creativity and innovation. Patents
therefore not only provides protection for their owners but
also valuable information and inspiration for future
generations of researchers and inventors.
Steps in granting patents
The first step in securing a patent is to file a patent
application. The application generally contains the title of
the invention, as well as an indication of its technical field.
It must include the background and a description of the
invention, in clear language and enough detail that an
individual with an average understanding of the field could
use or reproduce the invention. Such descriptions are
usually accompanied by visual materials - drawings, plans
or diagrams - that describe the invention in greater detail.
The application also contains various claims, that is,
information to help determine the extent of protection to
be granted by the patent during which it is protected.
Personals Qualified to Grant Patents
Patents are granted by national patent offices or by
regional offices that carry out examination work for a group
of countries - for example, the European Patent Office
Modular Design 6.39
(EPO) and the African Intellectual Property Organization

(OAPI). Under such regional systems, an applicant requests
protection for an invention in one or more countries, and
each country decides whether to offer patent protection
within its borders. The WIPO - administered Patent
Cooperation Treaty (PCT) provides for the filing of a single
international patent application that has the same effect as
national applications field in the designated countries. An
applicant seeking protection may file one application and
request protection in as many signatory states as needed.
6.13 COPYRIGHTS
Copyrights are used to protect the expressive arts.
They provide exclusive rights to owners reproduce their
work, publicly display or perform their work and create
derivative works. In other words copyright laws grant
engineers, authors, artists and other creators, protection for
their literary and artistic creations, generally refereed to as
works. Additionally, owners are given economic rights to
financially benefit from their work and prohibit others from
doing so without their permission. It is important to realize
that copyrights do not protect ideas, only how theyre
expressed.
6.13.1 Copyrights and related rights
A closely associated field is related rights or rights
related to copyright that encompass rights similar or
identical to those of copyright, although sometimes more
limited and of shorter duration. The beneficiaries of related
rights are: performers (such as actors and musicians) in
their performances; producers of phonogram (for example,
compact discs) in their sound recordings; and broadcasting
organizations in their radio and television programs. Works

covered by copyright include, but are not limited to: novels,
poems, plays, reference works, newspapers, advertisements,
computer programs, databases, films, musical compositions
choreography, paintings, drawings, photographs, sculpture,
architecture, maps and technical drawings including this
book Design and Engineering.
6.13.2 Terms that can be protected by copyright
Copyright protects original works often means the
expressive arts of owners that are fixed in the intangible
form of expression. This means that the work must exist
in some physical form for at least some period of time, no
matter how long it can be. Virtually any form of expression
can be a tangible medium including a computers random
access memory (RAM), the recording media used to record
a live broadcast, and the detailed notes on the back of an
envelope that contain the basis for a speech that is given
in less amount of time to prepare. The fixation need not
be able to be seen directly as it may be perceived and
communicated with the aid of a machine or device, for
example, a software program.
Copyright protects original works of ownership
including: literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works,
such as novels, songs, poetry, movies, CD-ROMs, video
games, video recordings, plays, paintings, street music,
recorded music performances, software code, sculptures,
photographs, choreography, architectural and industrial
designs, computer software, and architecture.
6.13.3 Copyright table works
Copyright table works include.
Modular Design 6.41
1. Literary works
2. Musical works, including any accompanying words
3. Dramatic works, including any accompanying music
4. Mimes and choreographic works
5. Pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works
6. Motion pictures and other audiovisual works
7. Sound recordings
8. Architectural works
These works should be viewed broadly. For example,
computer programs and most compilations are considered
to be literary works; and maps and architectural plans
are considered pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works.
Adding to it, the work must be original--that is,
independently created by the owner. It doesnt matter if an
owners creation is similar to existing works or even if it
is lacking in quality, ingenuity or aesthetic merit. To be
short if the owner creates an original work without copying
from someone else, the results can always be protected by
copyright.
Finally, to receive copyright protection, a work must
be the result of some creative effort on the part of its
owner, but there are no standards as to how much
relativity is enough. For example, a work must be more
creative than a telephone books white pages, which
involves a straight forward alphabetical listing of telephone
numbers rather than a creative selection of listings.
Note that copyright does not protect facts, ideas,

systems, or methods of operation. But the way these things
are expressed can be protected. Copyright also does not
protect names, short phrases, titles, or commonly used
words.
6.14 TRADE MARK

A trademark is a recognizable sign that identifies
specific goods or services manufactured or provided by an
individual or a company. Its origin dates back to ancient
times when craftsmen reproduced their signature or marks
on their artistic works or products. Over the years, these
marks have transformed themselves into todays system of
trademark registration and protection. The system helps
the consumers to identify and purchase a product based on
whether its specific characteristics and quality indicated by
its unique trade marks meet their needs.
6.14.1 Functions of Trade Mark
Trademark protection ensures that the owners of the
marks have the exclusive right to use them to identify
goods or services and to authorize others to use them in
return for payment. The period of protection varies, but a
trademark can be renewed indefinitely depending upon the
payment of corresponding fees. Trademarks promote
initiative and advertise the product worldwide by rewarding
their owners with recognition and increased financial profit.
Trademark protection also restricts the effort of unfair
competitors to use similar recognizable signs to market
interior or different products. The system thus enables
people with skill and enterprise to produce and market
Modular Design 6.43
goods and services in the fairest possible conditions,

enabling international trade.
6.14.2 Different kinds of acceptable trademarks
Trade marks can be single or a combination of words,
letters and numerals. They can also consist of drawings,
symbols and three dimensional signs such as the shape and
packaging of goods. In some countries non-traditional marks
can also be registered for distinguishing features such as
holograms, motion, colour and non-visible signs like sound,
smell or taste. In addition to identifying the commercial
source of goods and services, several other trademark types
also exist.
Collective marks are one of such kind, that are

owned by an association whose members use them
to represent products with a specific level of
quality. Such associations include members like
accountants, engineers, architect etc.
Certification marks are given to the products that

obey some defined standards but are not confined
to any ownership.
6.14.3 Registration of Trademark

To start with, an application for registration of a
trademark, must be filed with the appropriate national or
regional trademark office. The application must be provided
with the clear reproduction of sign field for registration,
including any colours, forms or three dimensional features.
It must also contain a list of goods or services to which
the sign can be applied. The sign must fulfill certain
conditions so that it can be protected as a trademark or
other type of mark. It must be unique and recognizable so
that consumers can distinguish it from trademarks

identifying other products as well as identify a particular
product with it.
It must neither mislead the customers nor violate
public order or morality. Finally the rights applied for,
cannot be similar to the right that has already been
granted to another owner. This may be determined through
search and examination by national offices or by the
opposition of third parties who claim to have similar rights.
6.15 PRODUCT LIABILITY

Product liability refers to a manufacturer or seller
being held liable for delivering a defective product to a
customer. Responsibility for a product defect that causes
injury lies with all sellers of the product who are in
distribution chain. Liability for a product defect could rest
with any person in the products chain of distribution, such
as:
The product manufacturer:
A manufacturer of component parts:
A person / group of persons who assembles

install the product.
The wholesaler; and
The retail store that sold the product to the

consumer.
Generally a product must meet the ordinary

expectations of the consumer but when a product has an
unexpected defect or danger, a product cannot meet the
ordinary expectation of these consumers.
Modular Design 6.45
There are three types of defects that cause injury and

give rise to manufacturer or supplier liability. They are:
Design defects
Manufacturing
defects
Marketing defects
Present in product from the

beginning even before it is
manufactured. (i.e) Design of
the
product
is
inherently
unsafe.
These are the defects that occur
in the course of the products
manufacture or assembly.
Defects in the way, a product is
marketed such as improper
labeling insufficient instructions
or inadequate safety warning.
One best example of marketing defect in product

liability is an electric knife that is too dull to injure anyone
would also be useless for purpose for which it is designed.
It is generally believed that, users and consumers of such
products, are the best equipped to minimize risk. Thus,
while a product deemed to be dangerous, manufacturers
and suppliers of unavoidably unsafe products must give
proper warnings of the dangers and risks of their products
so that consumers can make decisions regarding the use of
that product.
Persons who can claim product liability
The injured product user
The person who suffered an injury by using the

product has the right to legally appeal.
The injured bystander
A product may be claimed to have injured not the

user but some innocent bystander, like when a car runs a
red light and hits a pedestrian because of faulty brakes.
Even though the pedestrian did not purchase the car, he
can sue the car manufacturer.
The spouse
The husband or wife of the injured product user can

also sue for the harm he or she suffered as the result of
having an injured spouse.
The children
In most states, the children of the injured product

user can also sue for the harm they suffered as a result of
having an injured parent.
The estate
When a product user dies as the result of using a

product, the estate of that person can sue. The estate can
seek recovery for the income that the deceased would have
earned if not for his untimely death, for the deceased
medical and funeral expenses.
Who can be legally appealed in products liability?
Anyone in the chain of distribution
Everyone in the chain of distribution can be legally

appealed for the full amount of damages; from the
manufacturer, to the one who sold the product, to the end
user.
Parent companies, sometimes
A parent of a subsidiary that sells or manufactures

a product cannot be appealed legally in products liability
for suits arising from the use of the subsidiarys products.
Modular Design 6.47
Ultimately, the wrongdoer is to pay
Just because the product distributor and retailer can

usually be sued does not mean that they are ultimately
responsible though they may end up paying some or all of
the damages. Ultimately, it is only the wrongdoer, the one
who caused the injury, is responsible.
Indemnification
Indemnification is the legal right of retailers and

distributors to make the manufacturer pay for any damage
caused by the defective product. In
other words, if a
customer claims to be injured by a product and sues the
retailer who sold it to him, the retailer can in turn sue the
manufacturer and recover whatever damages the retailer has
had to pay.
Short Questions and Answer TM.1
Chapter 1
Design and its Objectives

1.1 What is meant by Engineering Design? State the
types.
Engineering design can be defined as the process of
designing a system, component or process to meet the
desired needs.
Types
Adaptive design
Development design
New design
1.2. Write a note on development design.

A development design is considerably complex in
nature. The designer may start from an existing design,
but the final outcome may vary significantly from the initial
product. Example: Design of a continuous variable
transmission system (CVT) is developed from a manual
gear box transmission type.
Hence, a development design process requires a
considerable amount of scientific training as well as a
better designing ability.
1.3. State a few objectives of design.
To identify the need of the user
To do research and know about the various

possibilities of problem solving.
To fix and formulate a working principle of the

solution.
TM.2 Design and Engineering
To complete the product design within the affixed

time period.
To reduce the cost of the design process.
To reduce the complexity of the component.
To increase the efficiency of the component.
To increase the ergonomic features of the designs

there by making it more user friendly.
To increase the safeness of the component under

various static and dynamic conditions.
To make an eco-friendly material
To create a self-sustainable component. (Any 4

points)
1.4. Define the term Design constraints.

The term design constraints can be defined as the
limits posed on a design process, thereby causing significant
changes in the end product of a process.
1.5. What are the common functional constraints?
These contraints pose a limit on the proposed working
principle of a product. Some common functional constraints
are
(i) Overall geometry
(ii) Kinematics involved
(iii) Energy Requirement
(iv) Materials used
(v) Control system
(vi) Information flow
1.6. List the common constraints of a design process.

1. Functional Constraints
2. Safety constraints
3. Quality constraints
4. Manufacturing constraints
5. Time constraints
6. Economical constraints
7. Ecological constraints
8. Legal and ethical constrainsts
9. Ergonomical and Aesthetic constraints
1.7. What are the
constraints?
factors
affecting
economic
Some factors influencing economic constraints are:
Demand for the product
Design costs
Development costs
Manufacturing costs
Distribution costs
Availability of resources
1.8. What is meant by

classified?
design form? How is it
Form is defined as an area or mass to define objects

in space. Design form is a profile (or) shape or a
configuration of a product.
Forms are classified into two groups based on the
visual perception. They are:
A two dimensional form to specify a surface by

width and length.
Three dimensional form to specify depth, width

and length.
1.9. How are design functions classified?
R e se arch
En gine ering
Co mm e rcial
D e sign
Fu nctions
M anufacturing
Q uality
Fig:1.1 Broad Classificatio n of Engin eering

Design F un ctions
1.10. What is meant by problem statement?

A problem statement provides the necessary
information for the design team to solve the problem
successfully. This is obtained in the following ways:
Problem analysis
Problem clarification
1.11. What is Ethnography? How is it useful in

market survey?
Ethnography is a process of investigation of the
behaviour of a specific group under particular conditions.
In this method, the close observation of customer with the
product in their regular environment is studied. This type
of study is done by the product development team to
observe, how the actual end users are interacting with the
product in their regular condition. Team members collect
photographs, sketches, videos and interviews during
Ethonographic study.
1.12. Graphically explain Maslows Hierarchy of Needs.
Self-Actualisation
Esteem
G ro w th
Social
Physiological
B elo ng ing
Safety
A ccepta nce
S ecurity
S ocial L ife
H unger
P ro tection
Thirst
form D a ng er
Friend ship
G E N E R AL EX AM PL E S
S tatus
Friend ship
S tab ility
Food
A ccom plish me nt
A chieve me nt
P erson al
S tatus
D evelo pm e nt
R ecogn itio n
a nd love
S lee p
A chieve me nt
S elf - R esp ect
O R G A N IZATIO N A L E XA M P LE S
S elfa ctu alizatio n
n ee ds
C halle ngin g job

Job title
E ste em need
B elo ng ingn ess n eeds
Friend s at w ork
S ecurity ne ed s
P hysiolog ical nee ds
Fig. 1.3 M aslo ws H ierarch y of Needs
P ensio n plan
B ase sa lary
1.13. List the parameters considered by the design

team to fulfill customer requirement.
1. Performance
2. Additional Features
3. Reliability
4. Durability
5. Serviceability
6. Conformance
7. Aesthetics
8. Perceived quality
1.14. Define the term Conformance.
It can be defined as the degree to which a products
design and operating characteristics meet the customers
expectations and the International standards.
1.15. What is meant by design attributes?
Attributes are those factors of a design which an user
finds it to be appealing. From a customers point of view,
attributes are those properties of a design which they can
experience and evaluate directly. A few attributes are
ergonomics, efficiency, ease of use, aesthetics etc.
1.16. What are design characteristics?
The designer can not proceed further without
translating the design attributes into valuable design
information. These information are the properties of the
design and these properties are known as design
characteristics.
1.17. Define the term Ideation.
Ideation is the process which allows to evaluate
current ideas, create new ideas and improve an idea with
other benefits. The major goal of ideation should not be

developing lots of idea, but the goal should be to develop
a single idea with a best solution to satisfy the customer
needs.
1.18. What is meant by benchmarking?
Benchmarking is the process of gathering, analyzing
and evaluating the ideas outside of your organisation and
comparing it with your own.
Benchmarking measures the concepts of best-in-class
organisations, determines how the best in class achieve
those concepts and uses that information as the basis for
new idea generation and break-though design.
1.19. What is meant by brainstroming?
Brainstorming is a group creativity technique in
which a group of people are allowed to discuss about a
problem and to find a solution and conclusion for the
problem in a limited period of time.
1.20. What are the advantages of brainstroming?
1. It is highly motivating
2. It promotes spontaneity and creativity
3. It increases focus on the task
4. It is sufficient and productive
5. It provides a developing solution to the problem.
Chapter 2
Design Process
2.1. What are the major steps involved in designing?
The major designing process steps are
(i) Sense Gap
(ii) Define problem
(iii) Explore Alternatives
(iv) Select plan
2.2. Explain the term feasibility.
The feasibility study is an evaluation and analysis of
the potential of the proposed project to support the process
of decision making. It is the alternative of achieving the
desired outcome.
2.3. What is conceptualization? Explain the techniques
involved.
Feasibility study is followed by the concept study
which
is
also
called
as
conceptualization.
The
conceptualization is a phase in the design process which
involves in the process planning that includes ideas and
considering the ideas for implementation.
The most common
conceptualization are
techniques

(ii) Synectics
(iii) Brainstorming
involved
in
the
2.4. What is Morphological chart?

It is a chart which contains independent design
characteristics along with the different engineering
solutions proposed for each problem. Morphological charts
are accompanied by sketch and short reports.
2.5. Explain the term Design space.
The set of all possible and feasible designs created in
response to the articulation of a design task is said as
problem space or a design space. The space has a boundary
which will cover the feasible design.
2.6. How is an analogy helpful in problem solving?
Analogy is an inventive method of problem solving in
everyday life. It is the duty of the designer to recognize the
similarity between the design under study and a previously
solved problem.
Analogy is a creative solution which depends on the
degree to which the analogy leads to a new and different
designs. In one type of solution, analogy recognizes the
similarity between an existing product and its design
specification of the product which is under study. Thus it
helps in arriving at the solution quickly.
2.7. Define Quality function on Deployment.
Quality function Deployment may be defined as a
system for translating customer requirements into
appropriate requirements at every stage, from research
through product design and development, to manufacture,
distribution, marketing sales and sericve.
2.8. Explain the term House of Quality.
Interrelationships
betw ee n
Technical D escriptors
C o un te rpart C ha racte ristics
(Tech nica l D escriptors)
(Voice of the O rganisation )
Vo ice of the
C u stom er
( C ustom er
R e qu ire m en ts)
Priority of
C u stom er
R e qu ire m en ts
Priorities of Tech nica l

D e scripto rs
Co mpe titive
Evalution
Fig. 2.3. H ouse of Quality.
House of Quality is a set of matrix used to translate

the voice of the customers into technical design
requirements that meet specific target values and
characteristics of the final product. The customer
requirement planning matrix is the basis for the QFD
concept. Because of its structure, it is referred to as the
House of Quality.
2.9. What are the steps involved in building the house
of Quality.
Building the House of Quality consists of six steps.
1.
Identify
voice
requirements)
of
the
customer
(customer
2.
Identify technical descriptors.
3.
Relate the customer requirements to the technical

descriptors.
4.
Conduct an evaluation of competing products.
5.
Evaluate technical descriptors and develop targets.
6.
Determine which technical descriptors to deploy in

the remainder of the production process.
2.10. What are the benefits of QFD? (Write any four)

The benefits of QFD are:
1.
A systematic way of obtaining information and

presenting them.
2.
Shorter product development cycle.
3.
Considerably reduced start-up costs.
4.
Fewer engineering changes
5.
Reduced chance of mistakes during design process.
6.
An environment of team work.
7.
Consensus decision
8.
Everything is preserved in writing.
9.
It facilitates identification of the causes of customer

complaints and makes it easier to take prompt
remedial action.
10.
It is a useful tool for improving product Quality.
11.
It is a useful tool for competitive analysis of product

quality.
12.
It stabilises quality.
13.
It cuts down on rejects and rework at the production

site.
14.
It decreases claims substantially.
15.
Marketing benefits are obtained by identifying sales

point.
2.11. Explain the steps involved in evaluation methods.
C o ncep t G e n era tio n
Ev aluation Ph as es
A b so lu te C riteria
G o - N o n go S c re en in g
P u gh C o nce pt S election
B e st C o ncep t
Fig:2.7 Steps involved in E valua tio n
2.12. Explain the term solid modelling.

Solid modelling is a type of geometric modeling.
Geometric modelling is a mathematical description that
allows the image of the object to be displayed and
manipulated on the computer screen and also it can be
stored in the memory and retrieved back and displaced on

the computer screen whenever required.
2.13. What is Constructive Solid Geometry.
A solid modeler has a library of set of basic element
shapes known as primitives like cuboid, cylinder, sphere,
cone, wedge, torus etc.,
Sp he re
C o ne
Torus
C ylinder
C u bo id
Fig:2.9 Basic 3-D Shap es
In this approach, the physical objects are modelled by

combining these primitives by a set of Boolean operations.
The type of Boolean operations used in CSG are union
( ), Difference () and intersection ( )
2.14. State the advantages and disadvantages of CSG.
1. Since the data to be stored are less, memory
required will be less.
2. Create fully valid geometrical solid model
3. Less skill is enough
Disadvantages of CSG
1.
More computational effort and time are required

whenever the model is to be displaced in the screen.
2.
Getting fillet, chamfer and taperness in the model

is very difficult.
2.15. State the advantages and disadvantages of

B-rep.
Advantages of B-rep
1.
Combining
possible.
wireframe
and
surface
model
are
2.
It is particularly suitable for modelling part having

internal symmetry.
3.
Complex engineering objects can be modelled very

easily compared with CSG.
Disadvantages of B-rep
1.
The data to be stored is more and it requires more

memory.
2.
Sometimes
possible.
geometrically
valid
solids
are
not
2.16. What are the advantages of solid modelling?

Advantages of Solid Modelling
1.
Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, centre

of gravity and moment of inertia of physical model
can be calculated quickly.
2.
It is very much useful in FEA (Finite Element

Analysis).
3.
They can help to produce NC machining instructions

automatically.
4.
Aesthetic look of finished object can be visualized in

the computer screen itself with colour shading,
highlighting, and facilities available in solid
modellers.
5.
Different views of object can be viewed as given

below.
(i) Isometric view

(ii) Perspective view
(iii) Orthogonal view
2.17. Define BOM.
Bill of materials (BOM) is a list of individual
components in the product. BOM is used for manufacturing
and in determining the product cost.
2.18. Explain the term tolerance.
A tolerance is the permissible variation from the
specified dimensions. The designer should decide how much
variation is allowable from the basic dimension of the
component to accomplish the desired function.
2.19. What are the ways of expressing tolerance?
The three basic ways of expressing tolerance is
Bilateral tolerance
Direct tolerance
2.20. What are Geometric tolerances?

Geometric tolerance refers the maximum variation of
form or position of a feature by defining a tolerance zone
within which the feature is to be contained.
2.21. What do you mean by the term Design standard.
A standard is an agreed set of procedures, criteria,
dimensions, materials or parts. Design standards may
describe the dimensions and sizes of small parts like screws
and bearings, the minimum required properties of
materials, or an agreed procedure to measure a property
like fracture toughness.
2.22. What are the types of design standards?

The types of standards include
(i) National standard
(ii) International standard
2.23. What are the common ideas of research.
(i) Invention
It is the creative act where an idea is conceived,
articulated and recorded.
(ii) Innovation
The process by which an invention or idea is brought
into successful practice and is utilized by the economy.
(iii) Diffusion
The successive and widespread implementation and
adoption of successful innovations is called diffusion.
Chapter 3
Prototype of product
3.1. Define the term prototyping.
Prototyping can be defined as the process of quickly
putting together a working model (prototype) in order to
test the various aspects of a design, illustrate ideas or
features and gather early user feedback.
3.2. Define the term prototype.
Prototype can be defined as a working model,
technically and visually complete, that is used to confirm
that the design meets all customer requirements and
performance criteria.
3.3. What is the difference between a model and a
prototype?
A model is used to demonstrate or explain how a
product will look or function, whereas, a prototype is used
to test different working aspects of a product before the
design is finalized. A prototype is much closer to the form,
fit and function of the final design than a model.
3.4. What are the Benefits of prototyping.
A prototype allows engineers and designers to explore
design alternatives,test theories and confirm performance
prior to starting production commercially.
Prototyping
Helps us to find specific unknowns still present in

the intended design.
Allows evaluation and feed back.
Allows stakeholders to see, hold, interact with a

prototype more easily than a document or a
drawing.
Allows team members to communicate easily
Allows faster improvements as the person

responsible can intervene quickly and fix the
problem if any.
Helps to reduce cost as building full design is

expensive and time consuming, especially when
repeated several times.
Helps us find at an early stage whether the

product or the service is actually what the future
users really need.
3.5. What are the types of prototypes?

Product-concept Prototypes
Proof of concept (Principle) prototype
Alpha-prototype
Beta or proof of process prototype
Pre-Production Prototypes
3.6. Write a note on limitations of prototyping.
A prototype may fail to perform acceptably due to
differences in materials, processes and design fidelity
whereas the production design may be sound. Also, there
are practical limitations to the ability of a prototype to
match the intended final performance of the product.
Hence, some allowances and engineering judgement are
often required before moving forward with a production
design.
3.7. Write a note on Rapid prototyping.

Rapid Prototyping (RP) is a technology in which
complex three dimensional objects (prototypes) are
fabricated directly from a computer aided design (CAD)
models, often in a matter of hours. Rapid prototyping
models can be used for visualization for testing & to create
male models for tooling.
3.8. Draw the block diagram showing flow of control
in Rapid prototyping?
R P Ma chine
S olid
(C A D )
M od el
C onversion
to
S T L F ile
P ro cess P lann er
(M ode l validity,
slicing, trajecto ry
p la nnin g)
P ost P rocessing
A uto ma ted
Fabrication
Fig.3.1. Representation of Rapid Prototyping Pro cess.
3.9. What are the various rapid prototyping methods?
Stereo Lithography (SLA)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Three Dimensional Printing (3DP)
3.10. What are the Applications of Rapid Prototyping?
Design: A physical model can be built in

minimum time using RP. This will help designers
to visualize the model and confirm their design.
Engineering
Analysis
and
Planning:RP
enables stress analysis, flow analysis etc., of the
physical model. Also fabrication of pre-production
parts for process planning and tool design is
possible.
Tooling and Manufacturing Tools made by

other processes (CNC machining,electro discharge
machining etc) are expensive and time consuming.
Rapid tooling is used to fabricate production
tooling to speed up the process.
3.11. Explain Break even point?

Break Even Point (BEP): BEPis the production/sales
level at which the total revenue equals total expenses.
Number of products needed to achieve break even
Q BE P
F
PV
Now if P Selling price Rs/unit

F Fixed cost Rs
V Variable cost Rs/unit
3.12. How return of investment is used to evaluate the

performance of a business?
Return on Investment (ROI): ROI is a profitability
measure that evaluates the performance of a business by
dividing net profit by the investment that produces it.
ROI
Net profit
100
Cost of investment
Companies prefer an ROI of 15% or more.

3.13. Discuss the role of process planning?
Process planning bridges the gap between the
design and manufacturing phases. It involves the
translation of product and process design requirement into
a set of manufacturing instructions that can be carried out
in the manufacturing unit.
3.14. What are the objectives of production planning?
Objectives of production planning are
To ensure the right quantity and quality of raw

material, equipment etc., available during times of
production.
To ensure capacity utilization

forecast demand at all times.
in
tune
with
3.15. Define scheduling?

Scheduling is the process of arranging, controlling and
optimizing work and work loads in a production process,
where it has a major impact on the productivity of a
process. Companies use forward and backward scheduling
to allocate plant and machinery resources, plan human
resources, plan production processes and purchase
materials.
3.16. What do you mean
structure (WBS)?
by
Work
Breakdown
A WBS is a tool used to divide a project into

manageable segments, which can be easily supervised and
estimated. This ensures that the complete scope of work is

understood.
3.17. Explain the use of a PERT chart?
A PERT chart presents a graphic illustration of a
project as a network diagram consisting of numbered nodes
(either circles or rectangles) representing events or
milestones linked by labelled vectors (directional lines)
representing tasks or activities in the project.
3.18. What is a supply chain?
A supply chain is a network of facilities and
distribution options that performs the functions of
procurement of materials, transformation of these materials
into intermediate and finished products and the distribution
of these finished products to customers
3.19. What are the flows involved in supply chains?
Materials flow
Information flow, and
Financial flow
3.20. Explain
the
management?
objective
of
supply
chain
The objective of supply chain management is to be able

to have the right products in the right quantities (at the
right place) at the right moment at minimal cost.
3.21. List any two goals of inventory management?
(i)
Responsible for the availability of goods i.e. to

ensure that the required materials are present in
the right quantities, quality and at the right time
to deliver a specific level of service.
(ii)
to achieve this level of service against optimal costs.
3.22. Define unit load?

A unit load is collection of materials so arranged and
restrained that it can be handled, stored, and controlled as
a single entity.
3.23. What is the significance of user feedback?
To improve a product or service
To measure customer satisfaction
Providing actionable insight to create a better

customer experience
Delivering real data that can be used to make

better business decisions.
3.24. Name some standard organisations

establish rules and standards.
which
Some Standards Organisations
NIST - National Institute of Standards and Technology
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
ISO - Interational Organizations for Standardization
IEC - International Electro Technical Commission
ITU - International Telecommunication Union
Chapter 4
Design for X
4.1. What do you mean by the term Design for X?
The terminology to explain a design methodology is
known as Design for X; where in a detailed design is done
to improve life-cycle, optimum cost, quality, increased
design flexibility, and increased efficiency and productivity
using the concurrent design concepts. The letter "X" in DFX
is made up of two parts, life-cycle process X and
performance measure (ability).
4.2. What are the main objectives of the Design of
Quality?
(i)
Design a product to meet customer requirements
(ii)
Design a robust product that can minimize the effect

of potential variation in manufacture of the product
and the products environment.
(iii)
Continuously
improved
product
reliability
performance and technology to meet customer
expectations.
4.3. What is meant by the term reliability?

Reliability is a measurement of the ability of a
component or a system to operate without failure over a
period of time. It is also defined as the probability that a
physical body delivers its functional requirements for an
intended period under several operating conditions.
4.4. How can the reliability of a design be improved?
Minimizing damage form shipping, service and

repair
Reducing design complexity
Maximizing the use of standard components
Counteracting the environmental and degradation

factors
Simplicity of components and assemblies will

reduce the chances of errors.
Inspections done for cracks and defects in the

component.
Tracking all yields and defect rates from both

internal and external suppliers, and planning an
action to address them. [Any four points]
4.5. List the common safety hazards considered in

design for safety.
Fire - Combustible materials, fuel ignition sources
Electrical - Shock, burns, power outage
Human Factors - Operator error, leak or spills
Environment - Fog, humidity, temperature extremes
Materials - Corrosion, breakdown of lubrication
Mechanical - Fracture, sharp edges, stability
Chemical - Human exposure or material degradation
4.6. Explain the types of assembly systems.
In manual assembly, an operator at a workstation
reaches and groups a part from a tray and then moves and
prepositions the part for inspection.
In special purpose machine, handling is accomplished

with a parts feeder like a vibratory bowl that feeds the
parts for inspection.
In programmable machine assembly, the handling and
inspection of the part is done by programmable machine
assembly which is called robot nowadays, under computer
control.
4.7. How to improve Design for Assembly?
1. Reduce the number of parts
2. Reduce assembly surfaces
3. Ensure the design and assembly
4. Reduce fasteners cost
5. Usage of Subassemblies
4.8. Define the term maintainability.
Maintainability may be defined as "the probability
that a failed system can be repaired in a specific interval
of time".
4.9. Explain the term Preventive Maintenance.
Preventive maintenance requires the replacement of
parts that are still working but are expected to fail soon.
For example like replacing engine spark plugs every 30,000
km or changing the oil filter.
4.10. What do you mean by remedial maintenance?
Remedial maintenance is performed after product has
failed. For example fitting new vehicle starter motor when
the existing motor has burned out.
4.11. Define the term Design for Logistics?

Design for logistics is defined the efficient transfer of
goods from the source of supply, through the place of
manufacture to the point of consumption in a cost effective
way while providing an acceptable service to the customer.
4.12. Name four benefits of logistics.
Decrease in expensive Errors
Increased customer services
Organizational control
Scaling and Speed
Ensure proper delivery
Managing warehouses
Reduce idle time
Reduce transportation cost (write any 4)
4.13. What do you mean by Design for handling.

Material Handling may be defined as the functions
and systems associated with the transportation, storage and
physical work in manufacturing process. It is also defined
as the usage of the cost effective method to deliver safely,
the appropriate material at the required place, with
precision in timing, sequence and orientation.
4.14. State the objectives of design for Disassembly.
Products are recycled, reused or remanufactured

easily.
Fastening should be easy and quick.
Rapid and economical disassembly of the product.
4.15. What are

disassembly.
the
advantages
of
design
for
Facilitates maintenance and repair by reducing

the cost of manufacturing.
Enables re-use of component by recovering the

material, there by reducing the cost.
Recycling of materials can be done by avoiding

disposal and handling of waste.
Reduces liability for the product to be taken back

and extended producers responsibility.
4.16. State the material factors which influence the

recyclability process.
1. Material Mix
2. Toxicity of Materials
3. Materials recyclability
4. Stability of materials after recycling
5. Materials compatibility with the new product
4.17. Explain the term Reengineering.
Reengineering is the systematic transformation of an
existing system into a new form to realize quality
improvements in operation, functionabilty, performance at
a lower cost, schedule or risks to customer.
4.18. What are the benefits of reengineering?
Reduce manufacturing and material expenses
Reduce warranty costs
Increase profitability
Improve customer satisfaction
4.19. State the phases involved in reengineering.
Reverse engineering
Analysis
Redesign
Forward Engineering
4.20. Define the term Reverse engineering.

Reverse engineering deals with extraction of elements
and data from an already existing product. The working
principle is determined by a thorough analysis of the
product after disassembly.
Chapter 5
Value Engineering
5.1. Explain the method of Product centered design?
The product centered design is the method of
designing the product with increased efficiency and output
and by reducing the manufacturing time and cost, so that
the customer needs are met. It is a product of favorable
design.
5.2. What are the steps involved in product centered
design?
The steps involved in product centered design process
are:
Step 1: Product conceptualization
Step 2: Identification of Product Quality Factors.
Step 3: Preparation of Product Microstructure.
Step 4: Generation of alternative ways to manufacture
the product.
Step 5: Product and Process evaluation.
5.3. Define User Centered Design.
User centered design is also called as human-centered
design. It is an approach to iterative system that focuses
specially on making products usable. In other words, it is
the process of designing product such as a website or
application user interface, from the point of how it will be
understood and used by a human user.
5.4. What are the phases of user centered design

process?
Id en tify th e
N e ed
S p ecific con te ct
o f u se
E v alua tion o f
D e sign
U s er
S p ecify
R e qu ire m en t
S o lu tio n fo r
P ro du ct d es ig n
5.5. Define value engineering?

Value Engineering is an approach to analyse the
function of systems, equipment, facilities, services and
supplies for the purpose of achieving their essential
functions at the lowest life-cycle cost with reliability,
quality and safety. In other words It is a systematic and
structured approach for improving projects, products and
processes to analyze and improve design, and business.
5.6. List the objectives of value engineering?
To minimize total costs of the projects and process.
To eliminate unnecessary cost.
To make the project easier and successful by

improving quality.
And to ensure safe operations and environmental

and ecological goals.
5.7. What are the benefits of value engineering?

(i)
(ii)
It reduces the operation and machining cost by

simplifying the procedures and increasing procedural
efficiency.
It improves
efficiency.
quality
management
and
resource
(iii)
It reduces the labour cost.
(iv)
It
enhances
the
customer
satisfaction
by
determining the exact need and expectation of
customers.
(v)
Value engineering focuses on standardization of the

parts and components.
5.8. Explain Sequential Engineering with a sketch?
D esign
P lan ning
M an ufactu ring
Q ua lity
M arketing
Fig: 5.2 Sequ ential En gin eering
5.9. Define concurrent engineering.

Concurrent engineering is defined as the practice of
considering the entire functionality of the product, as well
as its assembly and manufacture in an integrated design
process. This technique facilitates the design engineer to
improve the efficiency of product design and process.
5.10. What are the

engineering?
characteristics
of
concurrent
Constant and un-interrupted evaluation of design

process and development process.
Fast and speedy information exchange achieved

through internet, LAN etc.
Rapid prototyping.
More attention and concern for satisfying customer

needs.
Focus on new technologies.
5.11. What are the benefits of concurrent engineering?

(i)
It reduces the process time to market which

enhances the business gain by competing with the
competitors.
(ii)
It reduces design and development time in making

products and fulfills the customers satisfaction and
needs at a reduced cost.
(iii)
Enhances productivity by rectifying the errors in the

earlier design and discoveries.
5.12. Write a note on reverse engineering.

Reverse-engineering is defined as the process of
duplicating the already existing product, subassembly,
without drawings, documentation, or a computer mode. In
other words it is also the process of obtaining a geometric
CAD model for 3-D points acquired by scanning.
5.13. What are the various reasons for using reverse
engineering? (Any 4 points)
Some of the reasons for using reverse engineering:
The original manufacturer of a product no longer

produces the product eg: the original product has
become outdated or stopped.
No data to manufacture the product (or) Part for

which there is no CAD data.
To perform inspection and quality control by

comparing a part to a standardized part.
To strengthen the good features of a product by

eliminating the bad features of a product.
Generating data to create dental or surgical

prosthetics tissue engineered body parts or for
surgical planning.
5.14. Explain
the
steps
involved
in
engineering process with a sketch.
D a ta C aptu re
Sc an ner
D a ta Se gm en ta tio n
Po int P roc essin g
3 D C AD M ode l
Ap plicatio n
Fig. 5.4 Process of Reverse En gin enering
Reverse
5.15. What are the benefits of reverse engineering?

(i)
High degree of precision for wide range of surfaces

as compared to manual measurements.
(ii)
Quick process time when compared to conventional

methods.
(iii)
Efficient reproduction of parts or components with

less cost.
(iv)
Faster time to market the products.
5.16. What is the need for architectural designs?

Architectural designs can overcome all discomfort
problems
by
making
things
and
places
safe,
understandable, durable, energy efficient and affordable.
The architectural design is a luxury in the production of
the building environment.
An architectural design brings more to a building
than just aesthetics. This plays a major role in adding value
which turns a building or object into a valuable thing.
5.17. Give some objectives for a good design.
By satisfying the client or customer needs.
Luxury, comfort and fitness for purpose with

expertise.
Providing the flexibility for a future changes.
Reducing operation and maintenance costs as less

as possible.
Completing the project on time and within budget.
By making profits on investment.
Cost-effectiveness; In the long term, good design

always costs less than bad design.
5.18. Explain the role of culture in the field of design.

Culture plays a major role in the field of design and
cultural design will become a key point in design evaluation
in the future. Designing a product based on culture will
become a design trend world wide.
5.19. Define Motif.
Motif may be defined as a design, pattern, decoration,
shape, ornamentation, logo (or) theme. Motif is the element
of an image. Motif is an art and ichnography. A motif may
be repeated in pattern or design for many times or just
occur once in a while.
5.20. Explain tradition and design.
Tradition and design are defined as alternatives to
each tocher, where design is to tradition and creation is to
evolution. Evolution and creation are the two alternative
ways in which any functional organism (or) a mechanism
may originate.
5.21. Write a note on Role of colours in designs.
Color carries emotional effects. When we see a color,
we have an emotional response towards that color. We
naturally associate colors with emotions because it is hard
to feel by using words. For example, Blue can be sad, calm,
and confident while yellow is happy, light, and Red is
cautionary.
Chapter - 6
Modular Design
6.1. What is modular design?
Modular design is a technique where everything is
built using a block grid pattern. Each of the elements of
the design fits into modules in rectangular patterns.
6.2. Explain the hierarchy involved in creatures a
product architecture.
Top L evel
P ro du ct
S e co n d Le ve l
L ast L eve l
L ist o f Ide ntified

C h un ks from the
P re vio us o ne
N a m e s of e xp ecte d
C o m p o ne nts tha t
a re n e ed ed to
fu lfill th e fun ctio n
o f m od u les
6.3. Explain the types of interactions between modules.

Generally four types of interactions are investigated.
1.
Material Interactions: Solid, liquids or gases that

flow from one module to the other.
2.
Energy Interactions: Energies

transmitted between modules.
3.
Information interactions: Signals that must be

processed from one module to the other.
that
must
be
4.
Spatial Interactions: Geometrical dimensions,

degrees of freedom and tolerances that must be
maintained between the modules.
6.4. Explain the term Design Optimization.

The methods and algorithms by which the best vision
of a design concept is produced are called optimization
methods or design optimization.
6.5. How are optimization methods classified?
The different optimization methods are
Classical methods
Direct method (Search Method)
Indirect method (Optimization Criteria)
6.6. What are autonomous products? What is

consumer view on an autonomous product?
Autonomous
products
are
the
ones
that
a
are
independent and have the power to make their own

decision. Consumers do not appreciate these autonomous
products
to
larger
extent,
because
eventhough
autonomous products take over tasks from user, leaving

them free from their activities, the consumers consider
these products as complex and the use and purchase of
these products are risky.
6.7. Explain the term Internet of things.
The internet of Things (IoT) is an environment where
objects, are provided with unique identifiers and the
ability to transfer data over
a network without requiring
human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
6.8. Explain the flow of control in a design

optimization process through a flowchart.
S tart
Id en tify
D e sign Variab le s
O bjective F un ctio n
C o nstra in ts
C o lle ct d ata f o r
d escrib ing the
syste m
E stim a te
in itia l d esig n
A n alys e th e
P ro blem
Is th e con ve rge n ce
C riteria is satisfie d
b y the d esig n
NO
C h an ge th e
d esig n usin g an
o ptim ization
m etho d
YES
S top
6.9. What are the key functionalities required for the

IoT to work?
Identification
Communication and Cooperation
Sensor
Storage
Actuating elements
User Interface:
6.10. What is cloud computing? What are the common

models of it?
Cloud computing is an architecture that exhibits
various abilities like multi-tenancy, and usage accounting
while relying on internet.
There are three common cloud service models namely
cloud Software as a Service (SaaS). Cloud Platform as a
Service (Paas) and cloud Infrastructure as a service. (Iaas).
6.11. What are the applications of IoT?
Cities
Smart Parking
Structural health
Environment
Forest Fire Detection
Air Pollution
Water
Water Quality
Water Leakages
Retail
Supply chain control
Intelligent shopping applications
Industrial controls
M2M applications
Temperature Monitoring
6.12. What are trade secrets?
Trade secrets are any, confidential business
information which provides the organization a competitive
edge. Trade secrets include manufacturing or industrial
secrets and commercial secrets.
6.13. How to protect a Trade secret?
Trade secrets are protected without registration, in
other words, trade secrets are protected without any
procedural formalities. Added to it, a trade secret can be
protected for an unlimited period of time.
6.14. What is a patent?
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an
invention of a product or process that provides a new way
of doing something, or that offers a new technical solution
to a problem.
6.15. What is the need for patents?
Patents provide incentives to individuals by
recognizing their creativity and also offers material rewards
for their marketable inventions. The reason for offering
incentives is that it encourages innovation which inturn
enhances the quality of human life.
6.16. Explain the term copyrights.
Copyrights are used to protect the expressive arts. They
provide exclusive rights to owners reproduce their work,
publicly display or perform their work and create derivative
works. In other words copyright laws
grant engineers,
authors, artists and other creators, protection for their literary
and artistic creations, generally refereed to as works.
6.17. Explain the term trademark.

A trademark is a recognizable sign that identifies
specific goods or services manufactured or provided by an
individual or a company.
6.18. What are the functions of trademark?
Trademark protection ensures that the owners of the
marks have the exclusive right to use them to identify
goods or services and to authorize others to use them in
return for payment. Trademarks promote initiative and
advertise the product worldwide by rewarding their owners
with recognition and increased financial profit.
6.19. What do you mean by product liability?
Product liability refers to
being held liable for delivering
customer. Liability for a product
person in the products chain of
a manufacturer or seller
a defective product to a
defect could rest with any
distribution.
6.20. What are the types of defects that could cause

liability?
Design defects
Manufacturing defects
Marketing defects
6.21. What is indemnification?

Indemnification is the legal right of retailers and
distributors to make the manufacturer pay for any damage
caused by the defective product. In
other words, if a
customer claims to be injured by a product and sues the
retailer who sold it to him, the retailer can in turn sue the
manufacturer and recover whatever damages the retailer has
had to pay.
Index In.1
Index
A
Academic research, 5.30
Adaptive design, 1.1
Advanced Products, 6.29
Aesthetics, 1.32
Analogies, 2.9
Architectural Designs, 5.20
Autonomous Products, 6.9, 6.20
B-rep, 2.44
Design for X (DFX), 4.1

Design Errors, 4.8
Design for Assembly, 4.14
Design Attributes, 1.33
Design Standards, 2.54
Design Variables, 6.6
Design Visualization, 2.38
Design Optimization, 6.5
Design for Manufacturing, 4.11
Design Space, 6.6
Benchmarking, 1.36
Design Modifications, 3.21

Design for Disassembly, 4.28
Bill of Materials (BOM), 2.47

Brainstorming, 1.37
Design for Maintainability, 4.17

Design for Handling, 4.26
C
Cloud Computing, 6.23
Communication Between
Products, 6.17
Conceptualization, 2.4
Concurrent Engineering, 5.13
Conformance, 1.32
Constraint Surface, 6.6
Copyrights, 6.39
Cost Analysis, 3.23
CSG, 2.42
Cultural background, 5.27
Culture Based Design, 5.22
Customer needs, 5.2
Customer complaints, 1.21, 1.24
Customers Requirements, 1.26
D
Defining the Design Space, 2.7
Design for Recycling, 4.31
Design Form, 1.13

Design for Quality, 4.3
Design, 1.1
Design for Reliability, 4.6
Design for Reengineering, 4.34
Design for Strength, 2.41
Design for Safety, 4.9
Design Communication, 2.37
Design for Logistics, 4.23
Design Functions, 1.8
Design, 2.1
Design Constraints, 1.4
Design Constraints, 6.6
Design Process, 2.2
Design for Function, 2.39
Detailed Design, 2.6, 2.45
Development Design, 1.2
Direct analogy, 2.9
Durability, 1.32
In.2 Design and Engineering
Inventory , 3.45
Ecological constraints, 1.6, 1.7

Engineering the Design, 3.30
Ergonomical and Aesthetic
constraints, 1.7
Ethnographic studies, 1.26
Evolution of Wet Grinders, 5.30
Evolution of Printed Motifs, 5.32
F
Fantasy analogy, 2.10
Feasibility , 2.4
Feedback on Design, 3.54
Focus groups, 1.20
Freezing the Design, 3.22
Functional Constraints, 1.4
Functional Design, 1.12
Fused Deposition Modeling
(FDM), 3.15
G
Gantt charts, 3.40
Geometric Tolerances, 2.52
H
House of Quality, 2.15
Human Psychology Products,
6.29
I
Ideation, 1.34
L
Laminated Object
Manufacturing, 3.13
Legal and Ethical Constraints,
1.7
M
Maintenance, 4.8
Manufacturing constraints, 1.6
Manufacturing Operations, 3.48
Market Survey, 1.23
Marketing, 3.53
Material Handlings, 3.47
Material Selection Process, 2.49
Modular Design, 6.1
Motifs, 5.27
Motifs Features, 5.27
N
Need Identification, 1.19
New design , 1.2
O
Objective Function, 6.6
P
Packaging, 3.52
Patent, 6.36
Patent protection, 6.37
Perceived quality, 1.32
Intellectual Property Rights, 6.32 Personal analogy, 2.10

PERT, 3.42
Intelligent Products, 6.9
Internet Protocol Version 6
(IPv6) , 6.24
Planning, 3.36
Problem Statement, 1.22
Internet Of Things, 6.21

Interviews, 1.20
Product Centered Design, 5.1

Product Safety, 5.2
Index In.3
Product Conceptualization, 5.2
Product Liability, 6.44
Production, 2.7
Prototyping, 3.1
Q
QFD Process, 2.28
Quality Function Deployment
(QFD), 2.12
Quality constraints, 1.6
R
Rapid prototyping, 3.7
Reliability, 1.31
Research in Design, 2.56
Research, 2.3
Research organization, 5.30
Reverse Engineering In Design,
5.16
Role Of Colours In Design, 5.33
S
Safety constraints, 1.5
Scheduling, 3.38
Selective Laser Sintering(SLS),
3.12
Sequential Engineering, 5.12
Serviceability, 1.32
Shipping, 3.52
Social responsibility, 5.29
Solid Modelling, 2.42
Standardization, 4.23, 3.54
Stereo Lithography, 3.10
Storage, 3.50
Supply Chains, 3.43
Surveys, 1.21
Symbolic Analogy, 2.11
T
The IoT Landscape, 6.24
Three Dimensional Printing
(3DP), 3.16
Time constraints, 1.6
Tolerance Allocation, 2.52
Tolerancing, 2.50
Trade Secrets, 6.34
Trade Mark, 6.42
Tradition and design, 5.29
U
User Centered Design, 5.1, 5.3
User Interface, 6.14
V
Value Engineering Methodology,
5.11
Value Engineering, 5.10
W
Warranty data, 1.21
Way of Thinking, 5.30

Design and Engineering - Ramachandran S

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Design and Engineering - Ramachandran S

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DESIGN AND

(As per Leading Technological Universities Syllabus)

Dr. S.Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

First Edition: 25th January 2016

constraints, Design functions, Design means

of daily use. Need identification; Problem

approaches; Arriving at solutions; Closing

Design process- Different stages in design

space; Analogies and "thinking outside of

concept into a configuration, drawing and

First Internal Exam

Prototyping - rapid prototyping; testing and

chains; inventory; handling; manufacturing/

Design for "X", covering quality, reliability,

assembly, maintenance, logistics, handling;

Second Internal Exam

Product centered and user centered design.

Product centered attributes and user

based design; Architectural designs; Motifs

Printed motifs; Role of colours in Design.

Modular Design, Design Optimization: L3

Design as a marketing tool: Intellectual

End Semester Exam

1.2 Design Constraints...........................................................

1.2.1 Functional Constraints ....................................

1.2.2 Safety constraints .............................................

1.2.3 Quality constraints...........................................

1.2.4 Manufacturing constraints ..............................

1.2.5 Time constraints...............................................

1.2.6 Economical constraints ....................................

1.2.7 Ecological constraints ......................................

1.2.8 Legal and Ethical Constraints .......................

1.2.9 Ergonomical and Aesthetic constraints .........

1.3 Design Functions.. ...........................................................

1.3.1 Research function .............................................

1.3.2 Engineering functions ......................................

1.3.3 Manufacturing functions .................................

1.3.4 Quality control functions.................................

1.3.5 Commercial functions ...................................... 1.10

C.2 Design and Engineering

1.12.1 Interviews with the Customers ..................... 1.24

2.2 Design Process.. ...............................................................

2.3 Different Stages in Design Process...............................

2.3.2 Feasibility ........................................................

2.3.6 Detailed design .................................................

2.3.7 Production planning and tool design............

2.3.8 Production .........................................................

2.4 Defining the Design Space .............................................

2.5 Analogies ..... .....................................................................

2.5.1 Direct analogy...................................................

2.5.2 Fantasy analogy ............................................... 2.10

2.6 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) ............................ 2.12

C.4 Design and Engineering

3.1.1 Need for prototyping ........................................

3.1.2 Types of prototypes ..........................................

3.1.3. Advantages of prototyping..............................

3.1.4 Disadvantages of Prototyping .........................

3.1.5 Rapid prototyping.............................................

3.1.6 Basic Methodology of Rapid Prototyping......

3.1.7 Rapid Prototyping Methods or Techniques... 3.10

3.1.8 Applications of Rapid Prototyping................. 3.18

3.16 Marketing .. ..................................................................... 3.53

4. DESIGN FOR "X"