A Phenomenological Research Study on Sports Fandom

in Portugal: A Comparative Study of Surfing and Football

Pedro Dionı́sio
Carmo Leal
Luiz Moutinho

ABSTRACT. The aim of this research is to identify the existence of tribal behaviour in surfing lovers
and football fans and the impact of this tribalism on the consupmption of brans associated with surfing.
The intention is not to focus on tribal relationships between fans and their club or sport, but to identify
to what extent the fan commitement level can impact on preferences toward sponsor brands.

KEYWORDS. Fandom, cult, tribe, tribal brands, surfing, football

INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH Surfing fashion remains popular in the form of

CONTEXT
Over the last century, sport has grown into a
cultural phenomenon commanding media, aca-
demic, and government attention (Holden &
Wilde, 2004; Knoppers & Anthonissen, 2005).
Sporting events offer a strong emotional value
to consumers and therefore occupy a promi-
nent role in their lives, also representing im-
portant market potential for sponsors (Green,
2005; Lardinot & Le Nagard-Assayag, 2004;
Pons, Mourali, & Nyeck, 2006).
In Europe, football has become increasingly
popular. Big events like the Champions League
final attract an enormous number of fans. On
the other hand, surfing is currently riding a wave
of popularity, reflected in the rising consumption
of surfing-oriented high-fashion clothing and ac-
cessories (Booth, 2001). It also continues to at-
tract new participants, especially young riders.
various clothing brands (O’Rourke, 2006).
Since the middle of the 20th century, Euro-
pean football has attracted important fan com-
munities mostly associated with sport clubs. Al-
though these communities may be attached to
various sport forms, most of them relate to foot-
ball. In the case of surfing, whose popularity in
Europe stems from the 1990s, the great appeal
and fandom feeling are fundamentally related to
the sport itself, since in surf there are no specific
clubs. The behaviors of practitioners and surf
sympathizers as well as those of football fans
seem to demonstrate tribal behavioral patterns.
In order to analyze these behaviors we chose
surfing and football due to the fact that football
has historically been the sports modality with the
greatest level of fan attraction. Surfing, on the
other hand, is the most popular of the emergent
sports, particularly among youth (Booth, 2001).
Brands are progressively becoming more aware

Pedro Dionı́sio is Assistant Professor, Director of Marketing Master Program and Researcher at MRC-
ISCTE Business School, Lisbon, Portugal. Carmo Leal is Visiting Professor at GIEM-ISCTE Business School,
Lisbon, Portugal. Luiz Moutinho, BA, MA, PhD, FCIM, is Professor of Marketing, University of Glasgow,
Scotland, United Kingdom.
Address correspondence to Pedro Dionı́sio, MRC-ISCTE, Av das Forcas Armadas, Lisbon 1649-026,
Portugal. E-mail: pedro.dionisio@iscte.pt

Journal of Euromarketing, Vol. 17(3/4), 2008

C 2008 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.
doi: 10.1080/10496480802640353 233
234 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING
of and attached to these sports in order to profit
from these communities’ consuming patterns.
Under these circumstances, the final objec-
tive of this article was to identify in what ways
this type of tribalism impacts the cognitive and
affective responses of community members re-
lated to the brands connected to sports activities
and, particularly, those that sponsor football and
surfing.
We did not intend to perceive or analyze be-
havioral patterns regarding either specific foot-
ball club brands or surfing as a sport but rather
to understand whether the fandom of these com-
munities really impacts the knowledge and pref-
erence of sponsor brands. With this objective in
mind, our goal was to identify in what way the
behaviors of members of the football and surf
communities allows for the conceptualization of
fan typologies and how these different types of
fans associate with each other. In addition, we
desired to filter this information through the level
of affinity shown by each group for their sport,
based on the need of the fan for social recogni-
tion, socialization, and attachment to the sym-
bolism the practice of these sports represents.
This article is organized as follows: First, the
theoretical background supporting our research
questions is discussed. Second, the results of the
focus groups that took place with the partici-
pation of football and surf fans are presented.
After analysing the implications of the findings,
the article ends with the discussion of limita-
tions of this work and suggestions for further
research.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The Meaning of Cult in Sports Fandom
One of the most telling aspects of being a
fan is the emotional involvement a person has
with his team or sport. Watching sports is one
of the most passionate and intense of human en-
deavors, utterly dominating affect and cognition
(Capella, 2001). But can we call it a cult?
A cult is a religious group,1 often living to-
gether, whose beliefs are considered extreme or
strange by many people; it typically refers to a
cohesive social group devoted to beliefs or prac-
tices that the surrounding population considers
to be outside the mainstream. And why do peo-
ple join cults? Why do people become devoted
to certain brands? It is because the group they
join tends to make them feel at ease by being
among “like others.” Thus, one of the most im-
portant tasks of cults and cult-like brands is that
they establish their difference (Atkin, 2004).
Upon first glance it would normally be as-
sumed that there is little, if any, relationship be-
tween sport and cults. However, upon further
analysis it can be realized that both sport and
religious cults employ intricate rituals.
Novak (1995) argues that sport is, somehow,
a religion; sports flow outward into action from
a deep natural impulse that is radically religious:
an impulse of freedom, respect for ritual limits,
a zest for symbolic meaning, and a longing for
perfection. The athlete may of course be pagan,
but sports are, as it were, natural religions. Sports
also have unique significant religious terminol-
ogy as a means of expressing their sincerity, fer-
vor, and seriousness. If sports can bring their
advocates to an experience expressed through
a formal series of public and private rituals re-
quiring a symbolic language and space deemed
sacred, then it is both proper and necessary to
call sport itself a religion (Prebish, 1984).
Percy and Taylor (1991) presented a compara-
tive study of trends using football as a metaphor
for religion—relationship between rituals, per-
formance, and expectations of crowds. Some
sports supporters establish rituals involving the
clothing they wear, the food they eat, friends
with whom they gather, etc. The objects become
sacred through their involvement in the ritual or
association with the group. Brody (1979) gives
an analytic emphasis on symbols but also de-
tails the utility of the sociology of religion. Both
participants and spectators are seen to symbol-
ize, to hold beliefs, and to support the general
contention that sport is at least quasi-religious in
nature.
The essence of demand for a sport is fan inter-
est (Borland & MacDonald, 2003). Fandom al-
lows individuals to be a part of the “game” with-
out requiring any special skills (Branscombe,
Nyla, & Wann, 1991). Fandom still offers such
social benefits as feelings of camaraderie, com-
munity, and solidarity, as well as enhanced
 Dionı́sio, Leal, and Moutinho
social prestige and self-esteem (Chen, 2005;
Neale & Funk, 2005; Zillmann, Bryant, & Sapol-
sky, 1989). Sports sympathizers need not neces-
sarily be fans. The difference between a fan and
a sympathizer seems to depend on the degree of
passion. Anderson (1979) notes that a fan can be
defined as an ardent devotee of a sport or as an
individual possessed frequently by an excessive
enthusiasm for a particular sport. Jones (1997)
suggests that fans are more intense and devote
part of every day to the sport. Fandom has also
been defined as an affiliation in which a great
deal of emotional significance and value are de-
rived from group membership (Hirt, Zillmann,
Erickson, & Kennedy, 1992).
One of the most frequently used criteria for
understanding these distinct fandom levels is the
concept of commitment.2 Many researchers have
suggested different typologies of fans, recog-
nizing a particular behavior for each segment.
Hunt, Bristol, and Bashaw (1999) present con-
cepts of temporary, local, fanatical, and dys-
functional fans; Tapp and Clowes (2002) dis-
tinguish between fanatics, regular, and casual
supporters; and Stewart and Smith (1997) pre-
fer terms like aficionado, passionate partisan,
champ follower, and reclusive partner. What-
ever the names given, one of the most frequently
used criteria for understanding these distinct fan-
dom levels is the concept of commitment. Sport
commitment is defined as a psychological state
representing the desire to continue sport partici-
pation (Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, &
Keeler, 1993). Chen (2005) suggests that fans’
commitment to the sport or the team is reflected
through their attendance at every event and par-
ticipation in the sport activities. Pimentel and
Reynolds (2004) note that ultimate fans are those
who are affectively committed to the sport and
engage proactively in sustained behaviors. Wann
and Pierce (2003) propose that, because the re-
actions of sport fans are so often a function of
their level of commitment and identification with
the sport, the accurate measurement of identifi-
cation/commitment is of utmost importance to
sport psychologists and marketers. Haggerty and
Denomme (1991), on the other hand, have iden-
tified eight variables that jointly explain 35% of
the variance in the commitment of sports mem-
ber. They suggest, for example, that males ex-
235
press more commitment than females. The do-
main of sports and physical activity has tradition-
ally been considered as appropriate for men and
not compatible with the feminine role (Klein,
1990; Koivula, 2005).
Conversely, instead of treating commitment
as a binary variable, Malhotra and Galletta
(2003) argue that commitment can be repre-
sented more appropriately through a continuum,
ranging from negligible or partial commitment
to absolute commitment. Richardson (2004) and
Wann and Grieve (2005) remark that fans highly
identified with a sport display a far greater
propensity toward a self-serving bias. For Madri-
gal (2002), most committed fans are less inclined
to be objective about the sports’ likely future
success and Pimentel and Reynolds (2004) also
note that fans with this higher identification with
the team or the sport are more likely to ascribe
positive attributes to their personal in-group and
negative attributes to the out-group.
Fandom and its Relationship With
Affiliation
What determines group affiliation? Accord-
ing to the Cambridge Dictionary, affiliating3
with a cause or to a group is to become part
of or form a close relationship with another,
usually larger, group or organization. Affiliation
is motivated by social recognition, a desire for
positive distinctiveness from other social groups
(Madrigal, 2002). Individuals strive to maintain
or enhance a positive social identity by affiliating
themselves with attractive social groups (Fisher
& Wakefield, 1998). In affiliation, one important
part of the identification process with the group
includes rituals like gathering, pilgrimages, and
viewing the sport as a part of one’s self-identity.
The mechanism of role adoption is a constituent
of identity reinforcement or of social recognition
in sport. The social-recognition facet of fandom
is particularly relevant in the context of an activ-
ity more intensely associated with aspirational
life styles.
Passion, ecstasy, and a sense of community
can be experienced through being a sympathizer
of a sport. Tajfel (1982) argues that individuals
are unable to form self-images in the absence of
a social identity derived from group affiliations.
236 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING
In the context of affiliation, one important part
of the identification process with the group com-
prises rituals such as collecting memorabilia, go-
ing on pilgrimages, and viewing the sport as a
part of one’s self-identity. Consuming certain
brands also becomes part of the integration.
Socialization leads the individual to attribute
desirable group characteristics to oneself and to
assume a greater similarity with other group
members (Fisher & Wakefield, 1998). Kolbe
and James (2003) suggest that socialization con-
tributed significantly to the understanding of fan
loyalty and associative behavior. According to
Richardson (2004), in a socialization process a
fan acquires a kind of cultural capital from the
group as a means of preserving distinctions—not
only between classes but also between categories
of fans. Cultural capital is knowledge of how
to consume the product of sport, through spe-
cialized knowledge, vocabulary, clothing, and
rituals.
Past research demonstrates the positive effect
of identification on sports fans. For example,
using a sports context, Donavan, Carlson, and
Zimmerman (2005) investigated some disposi-
tional antecedents of identification. Their find-
ings showed that the basic personality traits of
extraversion, agreeability, and need for arousal
positively affect the need for affiliation, which
in turn positively influences the level of identi-
fication with a given sport. Curry and Weaner
(1987) present some measurement procedures
for studying sport identity and demonstrate the
utility of these procedures by testing similar hy-
potheses on religious role behavior.
Weiss (2001) reviewed role analysis and sym-
bolic interactions for their potential to further de-
velop this dimension of sport’s place in modern
societies. In the cases of both surfing and foot-
ball, after being categorized as a group member,
individuals achieve positive self-esteem by pos-
itively differentiating their own group in com-
parison with an “out-group,” with respect to
some valued dimension (Tajfel & Turner, 1986).
Symbolism is the applied use of any iconic
representations (symbols) that carry specific
conventional meanings. The utilization of cult
symbolism is inherent to fan groups—products
become social tools serving as means of commu-
nication between the individual and his signifi-
cant references (Banister & Hogg, 2004). Sport
is also a basis of distinction and reflects par-
ticular taste signifiers (McGillivray, Fearn, &
McIntosh, 2005).
Unequivocally placed within the context of
society’s significant symbols, sports impact an
individual’s self-perception, self-esteem, and
self-worth. In other words, sport has a vital so-
cial dimension, combining self-recognition with
social recognition and symbolism.
Since consumption emerges as the linking
value surrounding a common passion in a tribe,
will different fan typologies with distinct levels
of associative behavior triggered by affiliation
reveal different consumption behaviors toward
brands?
Sports Fans’ Tribal Consumption
Brands are above the products; their value
comes from the capacity to conquer an exclu-
sive significance in the mind of potential con-
sumers. This approach reinforces the relevance
of some brand concepts to consumer behavior as
is the case of brand image developed from the
identity signals of the brand, as well as from its
marketing mix. This is a concept of receptor as
Kapferer (1998) remarks. Brands are also based
on mental elaboration (Kapferer 1995). When
buying a certain brand, the consumer projects
his self-image. Moreover, brands are value sys-
tems as well. Sheth, Newman, and Gross (1991)
propose that we select brands in order to satisfy
specific values; by preferring a specific brand
and not others of the same category consumers
establish a correspondence between brand per-
sonality and the one they would like to project to
others. As Aaker (1996) points out, brand per-
sonality guides brand communication and adds
value to the brand.
On the other hand, some brands establish a
relationship with their consumers; sometimes a
cult relationship that also signals the kind of per-
son that consumes the brand. For the above rea-
sons, in the construction of communities, brands
do play a vital role, since they can be the link
among the members of the group. Muniz and
O’Guinn (2001) have approached the concept of
brand community by considering it as a com-
mon understanding of a shared identity. They
 Dionı́sio, Leal, and Moutinho
defend the existence of three major components
in brand communities: a shared consciousness,
rituals, and a sense of responsibility that may
lead their members to recruit other members
for the community. McAlexander, Schouten, and
Koenig (2002) agree with the view of Muniz
and O’Guinn but expand the concept to in-
clude the relationships between customers and
the product, the company, and even among cus-
tomers. They also distinguish between commu-
nities whose primary bases of identification are
brands and those who mostly share consump-
tion activities. The authors stress that these com-
munities have been observed to share meaning-
ful consumption experiences. Rowley, Kupiec-
Teahan, and Leening (2007) note that the mem-
bers of the tribe may be willing to participate
in the cocreation of the brands that support the
community and Muniz and Schau (2005) ac-
knowledge that rituals, traditions, and behavioral
expectations characterize brand communities.
Burgh-Woodhaman and Brace-Govan (2007)
used the surfing community to identify the differ-
ence among the concepts of subculture of con-
sumption and brand communities, concluding
that though they share certain common traits,
they have distinct meanings. One of the ways
of expressing the “we-ness” of a community is
through consumption. It seems, then, reasonable
to investigate to what extent the passion for the
sport transfers to these linked brands through
the acceptance and preference for these brands.
The question is will the fans understand that
these supporting and sponsor brands are emo-
tionally linked to the surfing and football sport
or are they seen as intrusive and opportunistic
supporters?
Consumers are supposed to value the goods
and services that, through their linking value,
permit and support social interaction of the com-
munal type (Cova & Cova, 2002). Each con-
sumer becomes “an illusion consumer . . . buys
images not products” (Elliot, 1999). This trend
may take the form of a rejection of virtual sat-
isfaction through purchasing or search for direct
satisfaction through emotion shared with others,
not through consuming with them but through
being with them Cova (1997).
We cultivate and preserve our identities
via symbolic use of possessions (Kleine &
237
Kleine, 1999). Postmodern researchers believe
that image does not represent the product; it’s
the product that represents the image (Cova,
1999). As suggested by Venkatesh, Sherry,
and Firat (1993), the objectivity gives way to
symbolization—consumption becomes produc-
tion (Christensen, Torp, & Firat, 2005) and brand
loyalty only exists while brands project attractive
images for consumers’ momentary experiences
(Thompson, 1997).
Belk and Tumbat (2005) introduce the notion
of “brand cult” to better understand the extreme
brand-focused devotion. The main difference is
that in brand cults the product dominates the
personalities of the group members, whereas in
sports the play and the players are typically more
important than club merchandise. Besides the
similarities that may exist between tribal rela-
tionships among neo-tribe members and mem-
bers of brand communities, the fact is that both
are symbolically constructed and based on a sys-
tem of values, norms, and codes—mental con-
structs that allow group members to formulate
their own meaning. Community members create
extended social networks that provide positive
social stimulation and ongoing emotional sup-
port (Caldwell & Henry, 2005). This link may
or may not lead to a shared acceptance and con-
sumption of other brands linked with the ma-
jor cult brand—surfing itself and a football club
brand in this case.
Conceptual Model Explanation
The main purpose of this study is to identify
the linkage of sport consumption association and
tribal behavior. It must be stressed that the ob-
jective is not to analyze the relationships that
tribe members have with the sports activity but
to focus on the brands that, somehow, help and
support surfing and football.
According to the knowledge of fan behav-
ior and, particularly in the case of the sports
fans, the authors hypothesize that surfer’s be-
haviors are significantly impacted by the cult
traces that characterize the way surf practition-
ers see surfing as a way of living. Moreover, the
strength of this fandom may be able to deter-
mine the strength of the link members have with
brands that are part of the surfing universe, either
238 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING

because they sponsor sports competitions or pro- FIGURE 1. Fandom and its Relationship With
duce surfing equipment or just because they use Tribal Brands
surf symbolism in their marketing strategy to
approach their targets.
Given the distinct types of surfers—ranging
from sympathizers, with little or even no experi-
ence in surf, to the most devoted fans that do not
lose an opportunity to catch the waves and also in
the case of football fans—some questions can be
posed: Do different levels of fandom, and their
consequent distinct behaviors, relate in the same
way to surf brands? Is there a difference between
practitioners and sympathizers in regard to the
knowledge and to the liking and consumption of
these brands?
looseness-1 A conceptual model has been de-
veloped and applied to the cases of surfing and
football fans, in order to identify fan typologies,
their behavioral patterns, and, as a consequence,
associative behavior and its relationship with the
consumption of tribal brands. Figure 1 depicts
the constructs of the research model. The first
components of our model are sports fandom and
cult. Fandom experience is expressed through
a formal series of public and private rituals re-
quiring a symbolic language and space deemed
sacred by its worshipers—a religion, according
to Prebish (1984). Chun, Gentry, and McGinnis Regarding the relationship between fan be-
(2003) conceptualize fan ritualization as a pro- havior and demographic profile, some sociode-
cess through which an individual acquires sports mographic variables (i.e., age, gender, income,
fandom. Atkin (2004) argues that cult brands and occupation) have been found to influence
need to “telegraph” their differences, whereas sport consumption (Armstrong & Peretto Stratta,
Brody (1979) suggests that both practition- 2004). Boys are traditionally socialized into
ers and sympathizers are seen as symbolizing sports at a young age through both parental in-
something. fluences and marketing means (Jacobson, 2003).
Surf and football fans develop a cultic feeling Furthermore, sports can be perceived as a realm
with their sports that makes them consider some of masculinity (Klein, 1990). Wann and Wad-
surf and football symbols and some beaches or dill (2003) conclude that masculinity is the most
stadia in particular as sacred places. The inten- powerful predictor of motivation to sport. Pi-
sity of this cultishness in surf and football relates mentel and Reynolds (2004) suggest that ulti-
to the degree of commitment that the fan has with mate fans are those who are committed to the
his sport on a daily basis. Thus, the first research sport. In order to acknowledge the transcendent
proposition states: behavior of their commitment, the authors use
the term devoted fans.
As explained before, many researchers have
proposed fan typologies, including Hunt et al.
RP 1: With their sport or club, sport fans (1999) or Tapp and Clowes (2002). Although
have a kind of cult that is similar to that of the theories differ in some ways, the underly-
members of a religious cult in its manifes- ing concept is similar—they have to do with
tations. passion and commitment. Accordingly, since
 Dionı́sio, Leal, and Moutinho
commitment appears to be the critical factor for
understanding the distinct behavioral patterns of
fans, our second research proposition is:
RP 2: Among sports/club fans, it is possible
to differentiate between distinct fan types
with distinct behavioural patterns and be-
liefs that vary according to the level of fan
commitment to the sport/club.
The third component of this research model
deals with affiliation, which entails a social
recognition of members as sport fans. This so-
cial classification defines the member within the
social environment (Ashforth & Mael, 1989),
labeling him either as having values that are co-
herent with theirs or with which he can identify.
Group affiliation, according to Madrigal (2002),
is motivated by a desire for positive distinctive-
ness from other social groups. Jacobson (2003)
argues that a motivation to affiliate with the
group may be due to the fact that this group
provides its members with a sense of commu-
nity. Identity of community members has been
recognized as an important approach to the study
of role-related behavior, including sports behav-
ior (Curry & Weaner, 1987). Bloch, Black, and
Lichtenstein (1989) examined the involvement
many fans have with sports equipment having
identified several outcomes of this involvement
such as product spending levels.
Richardson (2004) refers to this process of
socialization as obtaining cultural capital, oth-
erwise defined as the knowledge of how to con-
sume sports. This author also remarks that high-
identification fans display a far greater propen-
sity for self-serving bias. Most committed fans
also have higher expectations (Madrigal, 2002)
and strong emotional reactions during the event.
In addition to socialization, individuals could be-
come fans as a way of achieving group member-
ship or becoming part of a collective unit.
The utilization of cult symbolism is inherent
to fan groups. Surfing seems to be considered as
an adventurous and elite way of living. In ad-
dition, surfing is a symbol of important positive
qualities: courage, stamina, and a love of nature.
Football fans use the colors and logos of their
club on a daily basis in order to express their
affiliation and commitment.
239
Fans of different types do not participate in
fan activities with the same level of intensity.
Sometimes, fans assume an extreme fanaticism,
as noted by Thorne and Bruner (2006). However,
as Gardner (1997) remarks, one man’s religion
is another man’s fanaticism. Since affiliation im-
pacts on fans’ associative behaviors because of
the need to socialize, to be socially recognized,
and also in terms of the symbolism inherent to
the sport, our third research proposition is:
RP 3: Sports fan associative behaviors are
influenced by affiliation as expressed by:
1. affiliation through the desire for social
recognition;
2. affiliation through the desire for socializa-
tion;
3. affiliation through the impact of the club’s
or sport’s symbolism.
The last element of the research model, a di-
rect consequence of affiliation, is some form
of tribal behavior, expressed in the awareness
and preference for tribal brands. Behavioral pat-
terns constitute a kind of tribalism affecting the
consumption of brands, since neo-tribes usually
affirm their tribal nature through consumption.
These postmodern communities can be held to-
gether through shared emotions, lifestyles, and
consumption practices (Cova, 1997). As sug-
gested by Venkatesh et al. (1993), postmodern
individuals do not perceive consumption and
production as separate processes, showing in-
stead a clear propensity to act like coproducers.
Consumption becomes production, a point made
by Christensen et al. (2005).
On the other hand, if different types of surf
fans show distinct behavioral patterns, it should
be possible that they also have different relation-
ships with the brands that are associated with
surfing and football. Under this assumption, this
study intends to discover any significant differ-
ences between fan types and their level of spon-
sorship awareness and consumption of brands.
In surfing, it is possible to identify brands
clearly associated with the sport. These are
mostly brands with surfing product lines and are
somehow present in the surfer’s life, whether a
practitioner or not. In football, each major club
240 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING

TABLE 1. Cult and Fandom

Major Opinions From Surfing Fans Major Opinions from Football Fans

Devoted Fans Organized Summary

Sympathizers Practitioners Fans in Claques Assessment

Sacred places Nonexistent Special beaches Club stadium Club stadium and Only surfing
with goods waves group sympathizers
headquarters do not have
sacred places
Rituals Nonexistent Analysing the sea Team entrance to Choreography of The practice of
before entering stadium and production and rituals
the water applause performance characterize
Dressing Celebrating team all groups,
Preparation of goals except surfing
surfing material sympathizers

Symbolism Sport surfing brands Board The animal in the Club symbols All groups have
logo (animal and club symbols
The club color Club color)
eclectics with a Their own logo
wide range of Collective values of
sports champions the club
Club eclectics with
passionate fans
Against
merchandise
sales
Values Dressing style Respect nature but these are
Freedom Positivism more deeply
rooted in the
groups with a
higher level of
fandom in
each sport
All groups have
values,

Note. Associated RP 1: With their sport or club, sport fans have a kind of cult that is similar to that of members of a religious cult in its
manifestations
Phenomenological outcome: RP1 was confirmed, except for the group with the lowest level of fandom, mostly nonpractitioners

+Commitment −Commitment

Surfing
Practitioner Sympathizer
Fans that are highly involved with the sport Fans attracted by the surf life style and
and practice on a daily basis or at least twice symbolism but not practicing the sport or that
a week) only practice occasionally
Football
Claque members Devoted fans
Fans organized in supportive groups that Fans associated with a club that attend games
usually accompany the club to every match on a regular basis. They normally use visual
(home and away) signs of club loyalty like scarves and t-shirts
 Dionı́sio, Leal, and Moutinho
is sponsored by a sport brand that supplies their
team’s equipment. However, many other brands
advertise in the stadium and in other club media.
The fourth research proposition is therefore:
RP 4: There is a relationship between
the fan typology and the relationship they
maintain with surf sponsors’ brands, par-
ticularly at the following levels:
1. sponsorship awareness;
2. preference for these brands.
METHODOLOGY
In the context of this article the following
terminology will be used:
Although it may seem unusual to compare
fans of a club with fans of a sport modality, this
is due to the following:
r In Portugal, surf is not associated with
clubs;
r Football fans, on the contrary, are inti-
mately linked to one club and this connec-
tion is mostly grounded on football, even
if the club includes other modalities.
In order to test the research model, the context
of this study is centered on surfing and football.
The concept model was applied through four
focus-group meetings with people of different
levels of commitment. Given the purpose of the
study to analyze the behaviors of the distinct
communities linked by the sport and the sport
practice and also because it was necessary to
capture their motivations and attitudes, the focus
group methodology was chosen.
Focus groups have enjoyed increasing pop-
ularity in social sciences research during the
past three decades (Duggleby, 2005; Sim, 1998;
Webb & Kevern, 2001) as a means to explore
group dynamics, meanings, and perceptions; ob-
tain better understandings; and develop hypothe-
ses for future study (Dicicco-Bloom & Grabtree,
2006; Powell & Single, 1996).
For the study of surfing, there was a group of
practitioners—the devoted fans referred to by
Hunt et al. (1999) as highly committed fans—
and another group of nonpractitioners called
241
sympathizers. Fans were approached with a fil-
ter question relating to their practice level. In
the case of football, two focus-group meetings
were conducted with fans with different levels
of commitment to the club, namely, a group of
active associated members (here called devoted
vans) and another group of fanatical fans orga-
nized in a support group (a claque, to use the
original Portuguese term) called torcida verde,
known as the most supportive but also the least
aggressive group of claques. Members of these
groups displayed club symbols like scarves at a
home match where they were recruited for the
focus groups. Fans were also approached with a
filter question relating to their club attachment.
More particularly, the fans were asked whether
they belonged to an organized supportive group.
The Focus Groups, Metrics, and Data
Analysis
Due to the phenomenological nature of the
study, the analysis protocol was developed to re-
flect the research objectives. A wide range of
subjects was approached in the meetings, rang-
ing from motivation and fandom to behavioral
group patterns, as well as intra and intergroup
relationships. These constructs were selected in
line with notions of the conceptual model.
The surfing practitioner group was comprised
of 6 male and 1 female participant, with ages
ranging from 21 to 27, and the 10 members of
the surfing sympathizers included 1 female and
9 male elements, with ages between 16 and 26.
The dominance of the male gender is justified by
the greater involvement of men in this sport. The
age range of these groups is coherent with the
reality of practitioners and sympathizers since
surf is a “young” sport. The devoted football fan
group comprised 7 male and 3 female partici-
pants, with ages raging from 26 to 56, and the
10 members of the fans organized in the claque
torcida verde included 8 male and 2 female ele-
ments, with ages between 17 and 48. Once again,
men were prevalent in these groups, reflecting
the general distribution of males/females found
in the universe of football fans.
Given the fact that football is an old sport
and also transversal to various age groups, the
age range of football focus groups reflect this.
242 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING
Focus-group meetings took place during April
2006. All participants were offered a t-shirt from
a well-known sports brand. In order to ensure
the spontaneity of answers and to avoid restrict-
ing the participants’ statements, meetings were
recorded with audio equipment and videotaped,
but no one other than the participants and the
group moderator was present in the room—other
researchers stayed in an adjacent room oversee-
ing the meeting and evaluating fan reactions on
a plasma monitor. During the focus meetings,
the moderator used several techniques in order
to obtain a high level of participation. The ques-
tions were followed by a set of computerized
projective techniques.
Computerized Projective Techniques
(CPT)
Lilienfeld, Wood, and Garb (2000) stress
the scientific status of projective techniques,
whereas Bornstein (1999) explains the criteria
for the validity of objective and projective de-
pendency tests and Cramer (1999) studied the
then-future directions of thematic apperception
tests. In both groups, projective techniques were
used with the aid of a computer and a projector,
which allowed the moderator to project four dif-
ferent PowerPoint presentations—one for each
group—with the questions related to the main
constructs of the research model being analyzed.
This allowed participants to visualize the de-
scribed situations and questions. The objective
was to clarify every aspect of the considered
themes (Appendix 1). Balloon tests were also
used to identify the main characteristics of surf-
ing sympathizers and practitioners, as well as the
profile of devoted and claque fans (Appendix 2).
Program-Assisted Designed (PAD)
Techniques
During the focus groups, each participant had
a computer in front of him and all computers
were linked to a central server. This infrastruc-
ture allowed the development of PAD techniques
that were used to identify certain constructs such
as commitment to surfing or to the club. Partici-
pants were required to express their level of pref-
erence for various images representing a number
of preference contexts including surfing, football
match attendance and other leisure activities in a
continuum ranging from 1 to 10. In the computer
application, each person expressed his opinion
about his commitment to the sport (Appendix 3).
The focus group content was fully transcribed
from videotape to paper. The data analysis fol-
lowed the sequence of research questions and
their constructs and the data results were coded
according to the articulation of these constructs.
A comparative analysis of the data for the two
groups of surfers and the two groups of football
fans was conducted, along with a summary as-
sessment. Lastly, the data relating to each sport
wrea also analyzed comparatively (see Tables
2–4).
Findings
The main constructs linked with the cult and
fandom concepts in the research reviews are rit-
uals, symbols, meeting places, and values (Ta-
ble 2). Surfing practitioners, as well as football
claques and devoted fans manifest certain ritu-
als, symbols, sacred places, and values related to
the sport or club. Only surfing sympathizers fail
to exhibit a close relationship to these concepts.
For them, the only relevant issue is surfing style,
which allows them to at least pretend that they
are part of the surfing universe. The members of
this group are, in fact, an out-group, since they
would like to be seen as surfers but are not gen-
uine surfers. Their preference therefore relates to
external appearance and that is why they insist
on using surfing-sport clothing brands. These
findings are consistent with Prebish (1984) and
McGillivray et al.’s (2005) proposals that sport
can be considered as a religion in its manifes-
tations. Therefore, RP 1, which referred to the
existence of a kind of cult among surfing and
football fans, is confirmed, except in the case of
surfing sympathizers.
RP 2 was meant to explain the possibility of
identifying fan typologies that could trigger the
level of affiliation. The commitment concept was
evaluated through open questions about the fre-
quency with which surfing fans surf, whereas
football fans were evaluated on the number
of games attended. In addition, a PAD tech-
nique tested the alternative preferences between
surfing and football and other activities (Table
 TABLE 2. Cult and Fandom

Major Opinions From Surfing Fans Major Opinions From Football Fans

Devoted In Summary
Sympathizers Practitioners Fans Claques Assessment

Commitment
Proximity to the Rather than watching a In their free time, practitioners prefer Both groups are prepared to attend Except for
sport/match surfing competition, to surf rather than going to a in bad weather, to lose out on their sympathizers, the
attendance they would prefer to go concert, a movie or staying with best friend’s birthday party, and other three groups
to a concert, a party or their girlfriend. sell their favorite jacket in order to prefer to attend a
meet with friends Between surfing and going to their attend a club match. match as opposed to
(exception: the best friend’s birthday party, they However, they would remain loyal to conducting other
cinema). are willing to compromise their girlfriend even if she belonged activities.
Watching surfing is not to another club However, they would
their preferred not leave their
leisure-time activity girlfriend
Football team Support the team Support the team, not a Both groups of football
support especially in away special player and fans support their
matches not in a disruptive team
Usually support the way
team but react Use chants, flags,
differently when they banners
are losing
Demographic Both surfing groups agree that: Mostly male Most supporters are The more dedicated
profile sympathizers are teenagers, of The number of female male, between 15 groups have a
both sexes, are attracted by the fans and children are and 30 years of age predominance of
lifestyle of a popular TV series increasing men
Practitioners are people from all ages, In football younger
mainly teenagers and 20s. The people are more
oldest are almost only men and the involved
youngest are mostly men In surfing exactly the
opposite occurs
Perceived fan They perceived three different Two different groups Three groups Four groups perceived: All the groups
typologies groups: perceived: characterized: destructive (other perceived fan
regular practitioners occasional regular practitioners organized supporting supporting groups) typologies, but their
practitioners nonpractitioners (only those who want to groups highly organized supporting number and
dress code) look like practitioners devoted fans other groups (claques) characteristics vary
(occasional and supporters non-supporting with the
dress code) regular fans auto-perception of
occasional fans each group.

Note. Associated RP 2: Among sports/club fans, it is possible to differentiate between distinct fan types with distinct behavioral patterns and beliefs, varying according to the level of fan commitment to

243
the sport/club Phenomenological outcome: RP 2 was confirmed
244 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING

TABLE 3. (S3)—Social Recognition, Symbolism, and Socialization

Key Opinions From Surfing Fans Key Opinions From Football Fans

Summary
Sympathizers Practitioners Devoted Fans Claques Assessment

Social recognition Surfing fashion Practitioners think Other clubs’ fans Other clubs’ fans Each individual
attracts that surfing consider them a members believes to be
sympathizers (not fashion attracts little aristocratic consider them socially
with a negative sympathizers but They consider “angels” recognized as a
perspective) in a negative way themselves They consider group member
They recognize They recognize different from the themselves as
themselves by the themselves by the fans of organized having a more
clothing and sun-tanned neck, support groups, civic and
brands they use hands, and face because of their multi-sport
and through the more civic approach
feelings behavior
expressed by
their calm
disposition and
smiling faces
Symbolism Their external Their board is their Scarves and club The main symbol is All groups have
symbols are the main symbol shirts on the day their own logo, their symbols
surfing-related of the match T-shirts, and which are more
brands sweatshirts exclusive in more
The Centenarium dedicated fans
club t-shirt, groups
because it reflects
the club history
Socialization They have some They like eating Usually begin as Begin in childhood All groups share
common activities together after sympathizers as sympathizers moments of
(parties, cinema, surfing between 4 and 9 (between 4 and 7) togetherness,
beach. . . ) Some practitioners years of age, and became which are
used to have since at least one members of the stronger in the
others activities parent is also a claque between youngest groups
together, like club sympathizer 15 and 20 of each sport—
going to the They join the club at Clearly assume sympathizers and
cinema different ages, having had a claques
depending on strong influence
their personal to become
income Sporting
Together, they sympathizers and
sometimes shout members of
during matches torcida verde
and sing. The Are organized in
club needs easier town nucleons
chants to and socialize a
socialize better great deal when
Regret not having producing
other socializing choreographies
besides the and when
match meetings following the team

Note. Associated RP 3: Sport fans’ associative behaviors are influenced by affiliation as expressed by:1. affiliation through the desire for social
recognition.
2. affiliation through the desire for socialisation.
c)3. affiliation through the impact of club or sport symbolism.
Phenomenological outcome: RP 3 was totally confirmed.
 Dionı́sio, Leal, and Moutinho 245

TABLE 4. Associative Behavior and Tribal Brands

Major Opinions from Surfing Fans Major Opinions from Football Fans

Summary
Sympathizers Practitioners Devoted Fans Claques Assessment

Knowledge of Some are aware Are aware of both Are aware of the fact that some All groups make
surfing/club of surfing surfing and brands sponsor their club associations
association with sponsorships athletes’ between the
related brands but not of sponsorships club/sport and
athletes’ related brands,
sponsors but surfing
sympathizers
are the group
with lowest
awareness
Effective Tend not to They prefer Tend to dislike Mostly reject Tribe-related
preference for differentiate brands that t-shirts or t-shirts with brands
tribe related between surfing sponsor surfing sweatshirts with sponsor logos preference is
brands sponsors’ but distinguish large Think that the assumed by
brands and these brands sponsor-brand relative surfing fans and
brands that use from those that logos importance of not by football
surfing style in only use surfing Do not have a the club can be fans
their advertising in their significant lost near a very
Both situations advertising. preference for large sponsor
positively They do not these sponsor logo
influence brand prefer these brands Manifest some
preference brands doubts about
They prefer to the use of
wear clothing of sponsorship
surfing-related revenues Would
brands like to use this
money to
support other
club sports

Note. Associated RP 4: There is a relationship between the fan typology and the relationship they maintain with surf sponsors’ brands,
particularly at the following levels:
1. sponsorship awareness.
2. preference for these brands.
Phenomenological outcome:
RP4a was fully confirmed.
RP4b was confirmed only for surfing fans.

2). Most of the fan groups (except surfing sym-
pathizers) are willing to forfeit other activities
because of their favorite sport. However, even
the most committed fans in both cases would
not give up their girlfriend to attend a football
game or for a day of surfing. As expected, the
majority of fan groups in both sports are male.
Whereas for football, claque members (the most
committed fans) are younger than devoted fans,
in surfing it is the opposite, with mere nonprac-
titioner sympathizers being the youngest group
of all.
With respect to fan typologies, all the fan
groups in question acknowledge the existence
of different fan types. Interestingly, in the case
of surfing, the most committed fans (the prac-
titioners) assume only two extreme typification
groups: either practitioners or nothing at all, a
more radical position than that of sympathizers,
who tend to segment fans by the frequency of
their surfing. In the case of football, the findings
reveal the existence of distinct fan types, vary-
ing with the level of commitment. While the
devoted fans suggest the existence of three fan
types, the claque members identify four groups
ranging from occasional fans to highly fanatical,
destructive organized groups Therefore, RP2 is
fully confirmed.
246 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING

TABLE 5. Major Differences Between Surfing and Football

Major Differences Surfing Football

General vision of sport/club There is a kind of selective Fandom level is seen as a

dichotomy—a genuine in-group and
an out-group of sympathizers
Fans typologies Either genuine surfer or “just pretending
to be one”
Cult For genuine surfers, surfing is a real cult.
For mere sympathizers, not really . . .
Socialisation propensity and Surfing is a high-profile sport associated
social image with a lifestyle and positive image
Sympathizers tend to compensate for the
absence of real linkage to the group
through other forms of external
identification such as t-shirts
External signs Real surfers do not care much about
clothing. They do not want to be
confused with pretenders
Preference for tribal brands Yes, but surfers identify a difference
between real surf brands and others
that just capitalize on surfing
continuum—no one is out of the
game
A fan is a fan—the real difference is
the intensity of their support
There is a kind of cult whose intensity
and externalization level vary with
the level of commitment
Depending on the club, the intensity
of club love determines the
propensity to socialize together
External signs acquire a value,
because fans are proud of their
club, but symbols are not
necessarily the same for all fans
Yes but, the link between fans and
sponsor brands is weaker than for
surfing

RP 3 stated that distinct associative behav-
iors are impacted by the level of affiliation ex-
pressed through the desire for social recognition,
socializing, and symbolism. From the relation-
ships between beliefs, behavioral patterns, and
affiliation, three relevant outputs emerge: social
recognition, socialization, and symbolism (S3).
The main findings indicate that for both sports,
the four groups have an associative behavior trig-
gered by the social recognition of the group they
belong to. This fact cannot be isolated from the
symbolism of sports, since fan groups have their
favorite symbology, consistent with the cult they
manifest toward the club or sport. The desire to
socialize seems to be evident in the affiliation of
fan groups, with all of them manifesting the plea-
sure of being together, either in social settings
after surfing or in game attendance in the case of
football. In surfing, the sympathizer group tends
to prefer being together for activities other than
surfing, which is understandable since they do
not actually surf and their interest in surfing is
demonstrated through external symbolism such
as clothing and accessories. Given the above
findings (Table 3), RP 3 was fully confirmed.
According to RP 4, sport tribalism should
confer fans with a propensity to be aware and
prefer commonly accepted brands according to
the degree of passion manifested toward the
sport or the club. As expected, less commit-
ted fan groups are less aware of tribe-related
brands, but only in the case of surfing. In the
context of football, both fan groups (claques and
devoted fans) seem to be fully aware of club
sponsor brands (Table 4). Not surprisingly, in
terms of preferences, sympathizers clearly de-
velop a preference for surfing brand clothing,
since it allows them to pretend to be part of the in-
group of the surfers’ universe. As regular surfers,
practitioners have a tendency to prefer surfing-
related brands; however, they distinguish spon-
sor brands from those brands that only use surf-
ing motives in their advertising. These brands
are considered non-genuine (brands that do not
serve the tribe but make use of the tribe; Cova,
1997), as having a deeply commercial intent and
used mostly by sympathizers. Therefore, they
are not preferred by practitioners.
The findings with respect to football fans are
quite revealing, since they show a clear defence
of the club interest. However, although consid-
ered necessary, sponsorship is seen as some-
how risking the club image. Therefore, both fan
groups have some doubts about the appropriate
 Dionı́sio, Leal, and Moutinho
dimensions of the sponsor’s logo and prefer t-
shirts and other merchandise only with the club
logo and no logos of commercial brands. RP4a
was, therefore, again fully confirmed, but RP4b
was only confirmed for surfing fans.
CONCLUSIONS AND MANAGERIAL
IMPLICATIONS
The conceptual model was globally accepted;
however, it was possible to identify some rele-
vant exceptions. In the case of sympathizers the
notion of surf as a cult differs from that of prac-
titioners. In the case of football fans there was a
difference in the preference for sponsor brands.
Sympathizers exhibit group behavior distinct
from that of practitioners. This difference is no-
torious in the way that they feel about surfing
as a sport. Although appealing, surfing is not
seen as a cult (as is the case for practitioners),
which may be due to the fact that sympathizers
value most the visible part of the tribe—clothes
and accessories—and not particularly the sport
living.
Regarding football, the fact that fans do not
prefer sponsor brands is understandable for two
reasons: on one hand, sponsor brands are com-
panies with large marketing budgets and for
which the brand shifting process has substan-
tial obstacles. Since we are talking about the
financial and telecommunication sectors and not
fast moving consumer goods, it is not easy to
change consumer preference. On the other hand,
it is possible that the majority of individuals
under analysis tend to express that their fa-
vorite brand is in fact that one that they really
possess in order to avoid cognitive dissonance.
Table 5 summarizes the major differences be-
tween surf and football fandom as expressed
by fans.
As found by Malhotra and Galletta (2003),
football lovers tend to see fandom as a contin-
uum ranging from partial to absolute commit-
ment. The level of fandom determines the level
of support, the likeliness to exhibit club sym-
bols, and the propensity to join with others in
their activities.
With respect to the propensity toward sponsor
brands, football fans reveal a weaker link with
247
those brands, which could be due to the tradition-
ally low level of constancy of sponsorships and
their nonexclusive status, as well as the lower
affinity brands have with the sport they sponsor.
Surfers, in contrast, assume a more extremist
vision: either a surfer or not—mere sympathizers
are not part of the “surf universe.” Consequently,
surfers tend to lean toward extreme positions—
they have a kind a “religious” cult with surfing
and its symbols and rituals. Others are just con-
sumers of surf wear. As a result, genuine surfers
care about the legitimate surf brands and reject
other “intrusive” brands.
All in all, this point of view confirms the gen-
eral proposition underlying our research. That
is, ultimate fans do have a different brand atti-
tude and a greater inclination toward brands that
serve the sport and reinforce the links between
their group members.
The research findings have some managerial
implications for the different organizations in-
volved. Surfing seems to represent a good op-
portunity for consumer goods brands, since they
have a low involvement level and it is there-
fore easy to promote them among young people.
Most popular surfing brands are increasing their
sales to sympathizers but risk losing the prac-
titioner market, since the latter do not want to
be confused with or mistaken for non-surfers.
Therefore, sport-surfing brands should consider
creating special new clothing lines and specific
channels for practitioners and developing spe-
cial activities like events and contests to fulfill
practitioners’ needs. This could be a challenge
for sponsor brand managers.
In the case of football, the research revealed
a degree of resistance to sponsor brands in both
the claque community and in the devoted fans
football groups, because they do not consider
these companies as having a real emotional link
with the club. On the contrary, fans think these
may obscure the exposure of the club brand. This
kind of reaction may be linked to the fact that
sponsor brands usually only have a short-term
sponsorship strategy and simultaneously spon-
sor the three big football clubs, because they do
not want to develop a strong association with
just one club.
Companies do not wish to risk being re-
garded as favoring a particular club. However,
248 JOURNAL OF EUROMARKETING
supporting more than one club can somehow be
seen as opportunistic. In order to change this
perception by fans, football clubs must develop
an educational strategy to explain to their fans
the benefits of club sponsorship, namely, the fact
that they help the club to contract better players
for the team, thereby increasing the competitive-
ness of the club. Furthermore, sponsor brands
can also develop a “soft” approach to club fans.
For instance, equipment producers can develop
product lines with club signs but ensure that they
are more discrete and low-key, so that club fans
will use these clothes in their daily life. On the
other hand, sponsor companies are willing to in-
vest in clubs that might offer a significant return
on their investment. This return can be evaluated
at various different levels, ranging from media
exposure to sponsorship awareness and brand
preference.
Another kind of sponsorship approach could
be to consolidate a long-term relationship with
fans and the club in order to express their emo-
tional link with them; for example, by supporting
the club in their non-football activities.
LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER
RESEARCH
The main limitations are related to the re-
stricted research scope: one country, two sports,
and two fan levels. In addition, because of the
qualitative character and sample dimension of
this research, the findings can hardly be general-
ized. Further research is already planned, using
a quantitative approach to generalize the main
qualitative conclusion. More research on surfing
fans could be conducted in other places, partic-
ularly Australia or Hawaii, where surfing may
be perceived differently by fans and probably by
people in general.
In reference to football, it would be useful to
gain a greater understanding of the relationship
between fans and sponsor brands for countries
in which football support has a tradition of be-
ing rather more emotionally charged, like Brazil.
This would enable a comparison of higher lev-
els of fandom and the associated preferences for
tribe-related brands.
NOTES
1. According to the Cambridge Dictionary.
Retrieved from Cambridge Dictionary Online, from
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp? key=18874
&dict=CALD
2. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, to com-
mit is “to promise or give your loyalty, time or money
to a particular principle, person or plan of action.”
3. According to the Cambridge Dictionary. Re-
trieved from Cambridge Dictionary Online, from
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp? key=18874
&dict=CALD
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 APPENDIX 1. Examples of Slides for the Focus Group Presentations

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APPENDIX 2. Examples of Balloon Test
 Dionı́sio, Leal, and Moutinho 253

APPENDIX 3. Example of PAD Test