NTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Overview of Consumer Behavior

Consumerism, Public Policy, and Ethics

2: INTRINSIC INFLUENCES

Consumer Information Processing

Cognitive Learning and Memory

Behavioral Learning

Social Influence and Compliance Techniques

Motivation and Affect

Personality and Psychographics

Tripartite Model and Attitude Measurement

Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behavior Change: the Fishbein Model

Persuasion

ELM: Involvement, Knowledge, and Persuasion

Consumer Decision Processes

3: EXTRINSIC INFLUENCES

Environmental and Situational Influences

Group Influences

Households and Families

Cultural and International Issues

Subculture

OVERVIEW

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
the study of exchange processes involved in
acquiring, consuming, and disposing of
goods, services, experiences, and ideas
The study of consumer behavior (CB) incorporates theories and concepts from all of the behavioral
sciences:

cognitive, experimental, social psychology

sociology

anthropology

economics

- etc.

Acquisition:
The factors that influence the product/service choices of consumers. Much of CB research has focused
on this stage. E.g., how did you decide to purchase one brand of car over another?
Consumption:
How consumers actually use a product/service. E.g., what sorts of attitudes are you forming during the
time that you own a car, and how does this affect future purchases?
Disposition:
What consumers do with a product once they have completed their use of it. E.g., if you purchase a new
car several years later, do you keep the old one, trade it in, sell it yourself through the newspaper, give it
to a friend, or have it towed to a junk yard?

PERSPECTIVES TOWARD THE STUDY OF CB

Marketer:
How to best satisfy the wants and needs of a target market.
Consumer:
How to become a better consumer by learning how people go about consumption activities and how
marketers sell products.
Public policy maker:
How to make rules, regulations, or laws which influence marketers and consumers in the marketplace.

INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Intrinsic:
Individual, internal influence factors: personality, motivation, beliefs, attitudes, etc.
Extrinsic:
External factors of influence:

group influences, such as culture, family, reference groups

environmental and situational factors, such as time of day, temperature, etc.

PERSPECTIVES ON ACQUISITION BEHAVIOR

Decision-making
Consumers move through a series of steps when making a purchase:

problem recognition

search

alternative evaluation

choice

post purchase evaluation

E.g., we might go through the above steps in buying an expensive product such as a car or
house. In the study of consumer behavior, we are less interested in whether or not this generic
model is the "correct" model, and are more interested in the sorts of factors that influence this as
a generic model. Hence, we are interested in the intrinsic and extrinsic influences on this model.

Experiential:
Pople do not always make purchases according to a rational decision-making process; they sometimes
buy products to have fun, create fantasies, and obtain emotions and feelings.

E.g., concerts, movies, camping: these are experiences that do not result in the ownership of a
physical thing, but rather result in a pleasant (or unpleasant) memory. Why would someone go
out to eat at a fancy restaurant when they could make dinner at home for less cost in money and
time?

Behavioral:
Environmental forces propel consumers to make purchases without necessarily first developing strong
feelings or beliefs about the product.

E.g., using a coupon, responding to a contest, feeling proud when the national song is played. If
the national song is played during commercials for a political candidate, we might later associate
a feeling of pride with that candidate (classical conditioning) even though we otherwise know
nothing substantial about the candidate.

EXCHANGE
a transfer of something,
tangible or intangible
actual or symbolic
between two or more social actors
Exchange occurs between organizations as well as between organizations and household consumers.
Exchanges can be

simple: involves two parties in a reciprocal relationship

complex: involves a set of three or more actors enmeshed in a set of mutual relations

RESOURCES OF EXCHANGE:

money

goods

services

information

status

feelings

TWO MODELS OF EXCHANGE

1) Homans' basic exchange equation:
Profit = Rewards - Costs
When would satisfaction be the result?
2) equity theory:
Outcomes of A / Inputs of A
- vs.
Outcomes of B / Inputs of B
When would satisfaction be the result?

PUBLIC POLICY
REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT
the laws and regulations that federal, state, and local governments develop to exert control over business
practices
e.g., in the U.S.:

Food and Drug Administration (FDA, 1906)

Federal Trade Commission (FTC, 1914)

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA 1970)

Consumer Product Safety Commission (1972)

These organizations attempt to ensure that all marketers are on an even playing field, and that the market
is fair for buyers.

REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT (U.S.)

1960s-1970s: increase in government regulation

1980s: increase in government deregulation activities

1990s: increase in reregulation activities?

NOTE: Industry self-regulation is just as important as government regulation. E.g., DMA, local BBB. The
Direct Marketing Association would like to ensure as much as possible that people are not being bothered
by unscrupulous telemarketers; the local Better Business Bureau would like to ensure as much as
possible that people have trust in the local business community.

CONSUMERISM
the set of activities of government, business, independent organizations, and concerned consumers that
are designed to protect the rights of consumers
e.g.:

Consumers Union - Consumer Reports

Nader's Raiders

SOME PUBLIC POLICY ISSUES

Deceptive Advertising:
an ad which has the capacity to deceive a measurable (20 to 25%) segment of the public
Advertising Substantiation:
FTC (U.S.) idea that companies must provide evidence for the truth of their claims
Corrective Advertising:
advertising that is mandated by a federal agency (U.S.) to correct consumer impressions that were
formed by previously misleading advertising

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

idea that business has an obligation to help society with its problems by offering some of business's
resources

CONSUMER INFORMATION PROCESSING

CONSUMER INFORMATION PROCESSING
the process through which consumers are
1. exposed to information
2. attend to it
3. comprehend it
4. place it in memory and
5. retrieve it for later use.

PERCEPTION
the process through which individuals are

exposed to information,

attend to the information, and

comprehend the information

Exposure:
consumers receive information through their senses
Attention:
consumers allocate processing capacity to a stimulus
Comprehension:
consumers interpret the information to obtain meaning from it

THE EXPOSURE STAGE

a consumer's sensory organs are activated by a stimulus
selective exposure:
consumers can actively choose whether or not to expose themselves to information

e.g., zipping and zapping through a video tape (fast forwarding through commercials or turning off
the sound during commercials)

sensation:
the stimulation of a person's sensory receptors and the transmission of the sensory information to the
brain
Whether or not a stimulus is actually detected depends on its intensity:
absolute threshold:
the lowest level at which a stimulus can be detected 50% of the time.
Why do TV commercials seem louder than the program material?
subliminal perception:
the idea that stimuli presented below the level of conscious awareness might influence behavior and
feelings

THE EXPOSURE STAGE

Just Noticeable Difference Threshold (JND)
the minimum amount of difference in the intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time
Weber's Law
as the intensity of the stimulus increases, the ability of a person to detect a difference between the two
levels of the stimulus decreases

THE EXPOSURE STAGE

Consumer Adaptation:
the amount or level of the stimulus to which the consumer has become accustomed
a reference point to which changes in the level of the stimulus are compared
Butterfly Curve:
at the adaptation level, consumer preference for a stimulus declines because the person has become
habituated to the stimulus
preference for a stimulus is greatest at points just higher or lower than the adaptation level

Why are fashions constantly changing?

THE ATTENTION STAGE

the allocation of cognitive capacity to an object or task
Types of Attention

voluntary attention:
consumers actively search out information that has personal relevance

selective attention:
consumers selectively focus attention on relevant information

involuntary attention:
consumer is exposed to something surprising, novel, threatening, or unexpected
- e.g.:
o

surprise

movement

unusual sounds

size of stimulus

contrast effects

color

THE COMPREHENSION STAGE

the process through which individuals organize and interpret information
Perceptual Organization
the way people perceive shapes, forms, figures, and lines in their visual world
Gestalt Psychology:
attempts to understand how people perceive patterns in the world

THE COMPREHENSION STAGE

Interpretation processes:
people draw upon their experience, memory and expectations to attach meaning to a stimulus

Expectations:
prior beliefs about what should happen in a given situation can influence the interpretation of information
Semiotics:
how it is that people interpret meaning from signs

signs: words, gestures, pictures, products, and logos used to communicate information

CONSUMER INVOLVEMENT
the process through which individuals are influenced by the

perceived personal importance and/or

interest

evoked by a stimulus
Personal importance increases as perceived risk increases.
As involvement increases, consumers have greater motivation to comprehend and elaborate on
information salient to the purchase.
Higher levels of involvement are expected to result in

a greater depth of information processing

increased arousal

more extended decision making

Factors which can influence purchase involvement:

situation

product

personality

communication

COGNITIVE LEARNING AND MEMORY

MULTIPLE STORE MODEL OF MEMORY
This is a "black box" model which concentrates on external inputs and the consumer behavior outputs
that seem to ensue from them.

Sensory
o

preattention stage

brief analysis to determine if additional processing capacity should be devoted to stimulus

Short-Term
o

where information is actively processed

Long-Term
o

where information is stored after encoding for later retrieval

encoding:
the process of transferring information from short- to long-term memory for permanent storage
retrieval:
the process of accessing information stored in long-term memory so that it can be utilized in short-term
memory

MULTIPLE STORE MODEL OF MEMORY

Sensory Register(s)
o

the immediate impression caused by the firing of the sensory nerve cells

preattentive: determines if additional capacity should be allocated to processing stimulus

information

Short-Term Memory (STM)

o

a.k.a. working memory

where information is temporarily stored while being processed

rehearsal can be used to refresh STM, as when silently repeating a phone number prior
to dialing

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

o

essentially unlimited in capacity

can store information permanently

MULTIPLE STORE MODEL OF MEMORY

Sensory Register(s)
o

briefly hold (fractions of seconds) information inputs

very limited in capacity

Short-Term Memory (STM)

o

a.k.a. working memory

can hold information for tens of seconds

used for integrating inputs and LTM in"thinking"

limited in capacity

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

o

holds information for long periods of time (years)

"unlimited" capacity

MILLER'S LAW:
Expanding the Limits of STM
Recall:
STM seems to be capacity limited at around seven bits of information, plus or minus two
Chunking:
the mental process of grouping together several pieces of information and treating them as a single set
A chunk uses about the same amount of capacity as a bit.
INFORMATION OVERLOAD:
when more information is received than can be processed in short-term memory

INVOLVEMENT AND SHORT-TERM MEMORY CAPACITY

Higher involvement
. . . . . ====> higher arousal
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ====>higher capacity
Lower levels of involvement suggest lower capacity for information processing.

What are the implications for advertising?

LONG TERM MEMORY

Testing LTM:
recognition task
person is asked to judge if information that is presented has been seen previously
recall task
person must retrieve the information from long-term memory
Consideration Set (evoked set)
the set of alternative brands that a consumer regards as acceptable for further consideration; ones which
are recalled (enter STM)

LONG-TERM MEMORY
Two basic types of interest to consumer researchers:
Episodic
refers to memories associated with events or episodes in our experiences

-e.g., your first date

Semantic
refers to facts and other information that we store through language; verbal material

-e.g., how to do addition

(Note: Mowen also distinguishes between semantic and visual memory. The notion of an associative
network suggests that we do not simply store most information in a language format: the storage is in a
holistic form much like a laser hologram. Mowen notes that pictorial information is recognized and
recalled more readily than verbal information.)

LONG-TERM MEMORY
Schema:
a cognitive structure that represents a person's knowledge about a given object or behavior
an organized set of expectations held by a person about an object
Script:
an organized sequence of behavioral events

Information salience:
refers to the level of activation of a stimulus in memory

NETWORK ORGANIZATION OF LTM

Node
an LTM center that represents a word, idea, or concept
Linkage
the means of association between two nodes
Activation
an energy flow into particular nodes to bring them into STM
Retrieval
the process of locating the proper nodes in LTM and bringing them into STM
Encoding
the process of categorizing a stimulus and choosing a storage location for it in LTM

ATTENTION
the momentary focusing of our information processing capacity on a particular stimulus
One school of thought is that attention lies on a continuum, anchored by processes that are:

controlled
o

effortful

consume much capacity

automatic
o

"effortless"; "mindless"

consume little capacity

occur without conscious control

a.k.a. preconscious attention

STRENGTH OF LEARNING

Importance (effort)

Reinforcement (consequences)

Repetition (refresh)

Imagery (multiple memories)

COGNITIVE PROCESSING TERMS

Activation
Stored cognitive representations are made available for retrieval from memory for processing.

Spreading Activation
Activation of one representation will spread to and activate other representations with which it is
associated.

Capacity Limits
The cognitive processing system has a finite limit in the amount of information that can be
processed at one time.

Automatism
As cognitive processes are practiced (i.e., the limited capacity system is used), they eventually
require less conscious control and less capacity.

FORGETTING

retroactive interference
after old material has been learned, new material interferes with the retrieval of old material from
memory

proactive interference
material learned prior to the new material interferes with the learning of the new material

advertising pulsing
forgetting occurs rapidly at first, and then levels off: why do advertisers often use a pulsing
strategy?

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING
TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
Cognitive

"learning is knowledge"

focuses on internal characteristics

emphasizes the role of memory and thinking

Behavioral

"learning as behavior"

focuses on changes in behavior that occur as a result of experience

emphasizes stimuli and response behaviors

SUMMARY OF LEARNING THEORIES

Reasoning
individuals use thinking to restructure and recombine existing information and new information to form
new associations and concepts
Iconic rote learning
two or more concepts become associated without conditioning and without reasoning
Vicarious learning (modeling)
behaviors are learned by watching the outcomes of others' behaviors or by imagining the outcome of
potential behavior
Operant (instrumental) conditioning
a response that is given reinforcement is more likely to be repeated when the same situation arises in the
future
Classical conditioning
a response elicited by one object will be elicited by the second object if both objects frequently occur
together

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING
a process in which experience with the environment leads to a relatively permanent change in behavior or
the potential for a change in behavior
Three major approaches:

classical conditioning

operant conditioning

vicarious learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

stimulus =======> response

behavior is 'elicited'

OPERANT CONDITIONING

behavior =======> reward (or punishment) [or positive/negative reinforcement]

behavioral response is 'emitted'

behavior is caused by altering the consequences that follow the behavior

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
any stimulus capable of eliciting autonomically an unconditioned response (note that it can be possible for
an unconditioned or 'unconditional' stimulus to have previously been conditioned)
unconditioned response (UCR)
the reflexive, involuntary response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, may elicit a conditioned
response
conditioned response (CR)
the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus when classical conditioning occurs

OPERANT CONDITIONING
operant
naturally occurring actions of an organism in the environment
reinforcements
stimuli that occur after the behavior, affecting the likelihood that the behavior will be emitted again by an
organism
extinction
the disappearance of a response due to lack of reinforcement
shaping
a process through which a new operant behavior is created by reinforcing successive approximations of
the desired behavior

SOCIAL INFLUENCE - COMPLIANCE TECHNIQUES

RECIPROCITY

Guilt
o

feel guilty====>action to reduce guilt

Door in the Face Effect (DITF)

o

large request====>moderate request

COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY

Imagining an Event
o

Foot in the Door Effect (FITD)

o

imagine an event====>commitment compliance

small request====>moderate request

Low Ball Procedure

o

decision====>increase in "cost"

VICARIOUS LEARNING

Overt Modeling
consumer observes modeled behavior and consequences
e.g., commercial shows how to apply cosmetic and consequences of usage

Covert Modeling
consumer is told to imagine a model (or self) performing behavior and consequences
e.g., travel agency ad: ""imagine you're on the warm, sunny beaches of Florida"

Verbal Modeling
consumer is given a description of how others similar to her/him self behave in purchase or usage
situation

e.g., door-door volunteer collecting for worthy cause: "others on this street have been giving five
dollars on average"

MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
an activated state within a person that leads to goal-directed behavior
motive:
a construct representing an unobservable force that stimulates and compels a behavioral response and
provides specific direction to that response
Needs occur when a perceived discrepancy exists between an actual and a desired state of being
Note that there are many theories of motivation:

Don't look at these as "right" or "wrong"; they are just theories.

None are validated, but seem intuitively logical.

MULTIPLE MOTIVES
Consumers usually have multiple motives for particular behaviors. These can be a combination of:
Manifest
known to the person and freely admitted
Latent
unknown to the person or the person is very reluctant to admit
Note: different motives can lead to the same behavior; observing behavior is not sufficient to determine
motives.

A model of motivation might look like:

unsatisfied need===>
. . . . . . . . . .tension===>
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . drives===>
. . . . . . . . . . . . search behavior===>
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . satisfied need===>
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reduction of tension

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs:

1. Physiological
2. Safety
3. Social
4. Esteem
5. Self actualization
You may use this theory as a conceptual guide; it is intuitively appealing. However, there is no real
evidence to support it!
(E.g., why would a person like Dr. Bob spend a few years in a doctoral program, attempting to raise a
family of four on $725 per month, if "self actualization" shouldn't occur without first meeting lower order
needs?)
Nonetheless, one point that can be made from looking at Maslow's theory and from others is that we can
expect different people in different situations to be motivated in different ways and toward different goals
depending on what needs have been met. That is, while the specific factors of Maslow's idea are not valid
in all situations, the idea that motivation can work in a hierarchical fashion is a valid concept.

McCLELLAND'S THREE NEEDS THEORY

nACH:
need for achievement: drive to excel: drive to achieve in relation to a set of standards; to strive to
succeed.

nPOW:
need for power: the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise.

nAFF:
need for affiliation: the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

High nACH:
Some people like goals, some do not. These people are high achieves.

they are not gamblers

they avoid very easy or very difficult tasks

low odds of losing present no challenge to their skills

high odds of losing offer no rewards from happenstance success

get most satisfaction from "50-50 odds

High nPOW:

these people like being "in charge"

more interested in the prestige of power than in effective performance

High nAFF:

these people strive for friendship

prefer cooperative rather than competitive situations

desire relationships with a high degree of mutual understanding

McClelland's idea suggests why it is that different people behave in different ways. We all have more or
less of a need on some of these factors, making each of us motivated toward different personal goals.
People who have a higher nACH would probably make better entrepreneurs or salespeople and be lousy
team players. People who have a higher nPOW would probably make better leaders but could be
obnoxious "armtwisters" as salespeople. People who have a higher nAFF would probably make the best
team players but would lack the "self drive" to be salespeople running their own territory.
The point of this is to note that different people have different personalities.

PERSONALITY
reflects the common responses (behavior) that individuals make to a variety of recurring situations
Personality deals with relatively long lasting personal qualities that allow us to respond to the world
around us.

has to do with traits

has to do with individual differences

PERCEIVED RISK

Financial - might the used car cost me too much to maintain?

Performance - might the car break down and leave me unable to get to school?

Physical - what if I get into an accident in a car without air bags?

Social - what will my friends think if I buy the pink car?

Time - what if I have to drive 100 miles each month to that dealer for warranty service on a new
car?

Psychological - what if I attend the more rigorous college but flunk out?

Opportunity loss - if I go to college now, how much will I lose by not working a "real" job?

PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOGRAPHICS

PERSONALITY
patterns of behavior that characterize each individual's adaptation to particular situations
Personality deals with relatively long-lasting personal qualities that allow us to respond to the world
around us.
Two common assumptions:
1. That all individuals have internal characteristics or traits.
2. That there are consistent and measurable differences between individuals on those traits.

CONSUMER DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE

age

gender

occupation

education

marital status

expenditures

income

location

- etc.

CONSUMER SOCIAL PROFILE

culture/subculture

social class

reference groups

stage in family life cycle

- etc.

CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFILE

innovativeness

perceived risk

motivation

attitudes/opinions

class consciousness

personality

- etc.

AIO INVENTORY
Activities

work

hobbies

social events

vacation

entertainment

community

shopping

sports

club membership

Interests

family

home

job

community

recreation

fashion

food

media

achievement

Opinions

themselves

social issues

politics

business

economics

education

products

future

culture

LIFESTYLE
how one lives
Lifestyle is a function of inherent individual characteristics that have been shaped through social
interaction as one moves through the lifecycle.
Influenced by:

values

demographics

social class

reference groups

family

individual characteristics
o

motives

emotions

personality

PSYCHOGRAPHICS
quantitative investigation of consumers' life-styles and personality characteristics
a way of describing the psychological makeup or lifestyle of consumers by assessing such dimensions as:

attitudes

values

activities and interests

demographics

media patterns

usage rates

PROBLEMS WITH SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURES:

difficult to measure

somewhat subjective

based on self-reports from consumers

sometimes hidden from view

There are disputes over terms, misuse of data, and problems with reliability.
- - "TOUCHY FEELY" - Demographic data alone, however, are inadequate.

ATTITIDE FORMATION AND MEASUREMENT:

THE TRIPARTITE MODEL
Affect
a class of mental phenomena uniquely characterized by a consciously experienced subjective feeling
state commonly accompanying emotions and moods
Moods
are temporary feeling states
Emotions
include stronger feelings such as anger, distress, fear, interest, joy, surprise
Hedonism
refers to gaining pleasure through the senses

AFFECT
Affective responses range on a continuum of higher levels of arousal and activation to lower levels of
arousal and activation.
This equates to a continuum from stronger levels of intensity or strength to lower levels of intensity or
strength.
This equates to a continuum from emotions to feelings and moods to evaluations and attitudes.

Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrolled feelings that affect behavior:

- e.g.,

anger

joy

fear

sadness

grief

jealousy

Emotions are accompanied by physiological changes:

- e.g.

eye pupil dilation

increased perspiration

more rapid breathing

enhanced blood sugar level

increased heart rate and

blood pressure

Note: some social scientists distinguish between affect and emotion; I don't.

ATTITUDE
a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a
given object
ATTITUDE OBJECTS
An evaluation is always made with respect to some entity or thing that is the object of evaluation. Entities
that are evaluated are known as attitude objects.
- e.g.:

a professor (Bob Owen)

a presidential candidate (Perot)

a car (is yours a clunker or a cream puff?)

a brand of shoes (those swoosh ones)

an environmental issue (offshore oil drilling)

Evaluative responses are those that express:

approval or disapproval
favor or disfavor
liking or disliking
approach or avoidance
attraction or aversion
- etc.

Direction
Such evaluative responses are regarded as differing in valence or direction because they can be
classified into positive and negative evaluations.
Magnitude
In addition, evaluations of a given valence differ in intensity or extremity. E.g., slightly positive vs. very
positive.

MEASURING ATTITUDE
One-item Rating Scale
Compared to other brands, how much do you
like this product?
dislike it :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: like it
very much
very much

Likert Scale (short i)

1. This product is high priced.
___ strongly agree
___ agree
___ neutral
___ disagree
___ strongly disagree

2. This product provides good value for the money

that I would spend to buy it.

___ strongly agree
___ agree
___ neutral
___ disagree
___ strongly disagree

3. Overall, I like this product a lot.

___ strongly agree
___ agree
___ neutral
___ disagree
___ strongly disagree

What might be wrong with this set of questions?

MEASURING ATTITUDE
Likert Scale

assemble a large number of opinion statements relevant to the attitude issue

a large number of people express the extent of their own agreement or disagreement with each of
the statements

the scale assumes that each of the items measures the same underlying attitude

the responses to each individual item are summed to obtain a total test score

any items that do not correlate highly with the total test score are eliminated from the scale

a new (shorter) scale is constructed from the remaining items

a person's overall attitude is taken to be the sum of the individual items, or the average of the
items

MEASURING ATTITUDE
Semantic Differential Scale
Rate how you feel about this product
on each of the scales below.
high priced :___:___:___:___:___: low priced
good value :___:___:___:___:___: poor value
dislike it :___:___:___:___:___: like it

What might be wrong with this set of questions?

Why is an uneven number of rating values used?
When would an even number be better?

MEASURING ATTITUDE
Semantic Differential Scale

assemble bipolar adjective pairs that represent the evaluative dimension of interest

the person's attitude score would be the sum of the numbers corresponding to the positions
checked on the individual subscales (or average)

ATTITUDE AS AN INFERRED STATE

Social scientists often have assumed that certain kinds of responses reveal peoples' attitudes.
observable=======>inferred=======>observable
stimuli that
evaluative
denote atd.=======>attitude=======>responses
object

ATTITUDE AS AN OBSERVED STATE, WITH EVALUATIVE RESPONSES DIVIDED INTO THREE

CLASSES:
Social scientists often have assumed that responses that express evaluation, and therefore reveal
peoples' attitudes, can be or should be divided into three classes:

cognition (beliefs)

affect (feelings)

conation (behavior or intentions)

observable=======>inferred=======>observable

cognitive
/=======>responses
/
stimuli that
/
affective
denote atd.=======>attitude=======>responses
object
\
\
\=======>behavioral
responses

TRIPARTITE MODEL
Cognitive
thoughts that people have about the attitude object
Affective
feelings or emotions that people have in relation to the attitude object
Behavioral
peoples' actions with respect to the attitude object
Cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to a stumulus are taken to suggest an overall attitude
about some object.
NOTE: an assumption is that these components tend to be consistent.

BELIEFS AND ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT:

THE FISHBEIN MODEL
BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIORS
beliefs
the knowledge that a consumer has about objects, their attributes, and their benefits
objects
products, people, companies, and things about which people hold beliefs and attitudes

attributes
characteristics or features than an object might or might not have
benefits
the positive outcomes that attributes might provide to the consumer
Note: people buy a bundle of benefits, not product attributes; hence, benefit segmentation as a basis for
segmentation beliefs can differ between people beliefs and attitudes are directed toward some specific
object of those beliefs and attitudes

BELIEFS
Three types of beliefs:

1. object-attribute beliefs

2. attribute-benefit beliefs

3. object-benefit beliefs

A person's attitude about an object can be a function of the beliefs that a person holds with regard the
attitudinal object, but can also be a function of the importance of the individual attributes about which a
person has beliefs.

BEHAVIORS AND BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS

behaviors
everything that consumers do related to acquiring, using, and disposing of products
behavioral intentions
the intentions of consumers to behave in a particular way with regard to the acquisition, use, and
disposition of products
Note: behavioral intentions are presumed to precede behaviors. We therefore assume that measures of
behavioral intentions are suggestive of future consumer actions (behaviors).

CREATING BELIEFS DIRECTLY

This can be done via cognitive learning and information processing. Recall: the basic objective of
promotion is to inform as well as to persuade and remind.
FORMING ATTITUDES DIRECTLY
Attitudes can be formed through:

classical conditioning

operant conditioning
o

e.g., friends make positive or negative responses to your comments about a particular
car model

vicarious learning
o

e.g., patriotic music during a TV commercial for a political candidate

e.g., a celebrity model is seen using a particular brand of cosmetics

mere exposure
o

e.g., Ace-Finderhol Ltd. is briefly mentioned as a TV show's sponsor each week

MULTIATTRIBUTE MODEL OF ATTITUDE

The cognitive component of the tripartite model is generally assessed by using a version of the
multiattribute or Fishbein model:
Ao=[SUM]BiEi
where:
Ao = the overall attitude toward object o
Bi = the strength of the belief that object o has some particular attribute i
Ei = the evaluation of the goodness or badness of attribute i
Note that the evaluative component serves as something of a weight.

1. How likely is it that Mountain Dew has no caffeine?

. . . . . . . . . . .1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
extremely unlikely . . . . . . . . . . . extremely likely
2. How likely is it that Mountain Dew is made from all natural ingredients?
. . . . . . . . . . .1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
extremely unlikely . . . . . . . . . . . extremely likely
3. How likely is it that Mountain Dew has lemon-lime flavor?
. . . . . . . . . . .1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
extremely unlikely . . . . . . . . . . . extremely likely

4. Mountain Dew has no caffeine.

. . . . .-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
very bad . . . . . . . . . . . very good
5. Mountain Dew has all natural ingredients.
. . . . .-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
very bad . . . . . . . . . . . very good
6. Mountain Dew has lemon-lime flavor.
. . . . .-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
very bad . . . . . . . . . . . very good
The first three questions measure beliefs; the last three indicate an associated evaluation or weight.

PERSUASION
PERSUASION
the explicit attempt to influence beliefs and attitudes
Communication
all aspects of a message, including the source of the message, the type of message, and through what
channel it moved
Message
information about some topic
Message Source
an individual or character who is presenting information about some topic
Channel of Communication
media through which information flows
Boomerang Effect
attitude changes in direction opposite to what was intended
Cognitive Responses
the thoughts that a person might develop in response to a message

SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
our interest here is in source effects on persuasion
Source Credibility
the extent to which a source is perceived to have expertise and trustworthiness

Source Expertise
the extent of knowledge that the source is perceived to have about the subject on which s/he is
communicating
Source Trustworthiness
the extent to which the source is perceived to provide information in an unbiased, honest manner
Source Physical Attractiveness
Source Likability
positive or negative feelings that people have toward a source of information

MESSAGE CHARACTERISTICS
our interest here is on the effects of the content and construction of the message on persuasion
Message Content
Message Construction
Some Factors:

message complexity

comparative message

one-sided, two-sided message

fear

humor

vividness

primacy vs. recency

repetition (cf., wearout)

Some Other Terms

Need for Cognition
measures the extent to which people have a tendency to engage in effortful cognitive activities
Attitude Toward the Advertisement
a person's general liking or disliking for the ad itself

Imagery
the extent to which an ad causes consumers to imagine their use of the product and to connect the ad to
their own feelings

PERSUASION AND THE

ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL
INVOLVEMENT
a state if energy (arousal) that a person experiences in regard to a consumption-related activity
Involvement is often thought of as a

continuum of personal relevance

continuum of a willingness to expend effort

This continuum is anchored by

HIGH involvement

LOW involvement

HIGH INVOLVEMENT

high levels of energy are aroused within the consumer

this energy is directed toward some particular consumer activity

A person under conditions of high involvement is likely to be thinking more or feeling more strongly.

LOW INVOLVEMENT

lower levels of energy are aroused within the consumer

the consumer will invest less energy into their thoughts or feelings

ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL

Central Route<============>Peripheral Route
"thoughtful"<============> "mindless"

proposes that people are neither universally "thoughtful" in evaluating a persuasive message nor
universally "mindless"

central and peripheral routes represent positions on a continuous dimension ranging from high to
low elaboration likelihood

CENTRAL ROUTE
When the person has the motivation and ability to engage in issue-relevant thinking:

elaboration likelihood is said to be high

person is likely to scrutinize and elaborate upon the message, draw inferences

person will tend to engage in effortful thinking about the issue

Outcome:
this is expected to result in an attitude change that is more enduring, more temporally stable, more
accessible in memory

PERIPHERAL ROUTE
As various factors in the situation reduce a person's motivation or ability to think about an issue:

the elaboration likelihood is said to be low

person will tend to avoid effortful thinking about the issue

person will conserve cognitive resources or expend them on some other irrelevant task

person will tend to engage in a superficial analysis of the issue, drawing a "reasonable" attitude
based on non-issue-relevant cues

Outcome:
this is expected to result in an attitude change that is less enduring, less temporally stable, less
accessible in memory

When a message is on an issue of HIGH involvement or prior knowledge:

the message content will become a more important determinant of persuasion

it will be more difficult to find any effects of source credibility

more thinking will occur in response to a source of high credibility than of low credibility

thinking will be guided primarily by the quality of the arguments presented in the communication

highly credible speakers will be more persuasive than speakers of low credibility primarily for
appeals with strong arguments

the credibility effect should be attenuated or reversed for appeals with weak arguments or no
arguments

When a message is on an issue of LOW involvement or prior knowledge:

more thinking will occur in response to a source of low credibility than of high credibility

this thinking will be guided primarily by the person's preexisting attitude on the issue

highly credible speakers will be more persuasive than speakers of low credibility primarily for
counterattitudinal appeals

this credibility effect should be attenuated or reversed for pro attitudinal appeals

use a high credibility source to change attitude

use a low or high credibility source to reinforce existing attitude

One sided messages reinforce existing points of view.

Two sided messages (both points of view) are more effective than one-sided messages in terms of
changing a strongly held attitude.
Which is better?

High involvement situation:

emphasize the message content

guide thinking by using high quality, strong arguments

stimulate thinking with a source of high credibility

note: use two sided message to stimulate thinking if supportive of your view

Low involvement situation:

stimulate thinking with a source of low credibility (i.e., don't stimulate with high credibility)

emphasize the recipient's preexisting attitude on the issue using a source of low credibility

and/or

use a source of high credibility to counter a preexisting attitude

note: peripheral cues might be more important

note: use one sided message to reinforce existing attitude

CONSUMER DECISION MAKING

THE GENERIC MODEL REVISITED
problem recognition
=====>search
=====>alternative evaluation
=====>choice
=====>postacquisition processes
Recall: we noted that our interest is in various influencers or moderators on this generic model. These
influencers can be loosely classified as:

intrinsic

extrinsic

environmental/situational

PROBLEM RECOGNITION
occurs when there is a difference between a desired state and an actual state.
The desire to resolve a particular problem depends on two factors:

the magnitude of the discrepancy between the desired and actual states

the relative importance of the problem

SEARCH

internal search

external search

Internal Search

awareness set
brands about which the person is aware

evoked set
brands which come to mind in a particular situation
o

"top of mind awareness"

consideration set
brands which are considered acceptable for further consideration
o

inert set
brands about which the person is indifferent

inept set
brands considered unacceptable

SEARCH
Sources of Information:

Memory of past searches, personal experiences, and low-involvement learning

Personal sources such as friends and family

Independent sources such as consumer groups and government agencies

Marketing sources such as sales personnel and advertising

Experiential sources such as inspection or product trial

ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION
associated with the formation of beliefs and evaluations
Perceived risk can be an important influence in how people evaluate potential outcomes.
Measurement of Evaluative Criteria:

direct methods:

ask consumers what information they use in a particular purchase

observe what consumers say about products and their attributes;

e.g., focus groups

indirect methods:
o

projective techniques:
allow a person to indicate what criteria someone else might use

perceptual mapping:
consumers judge the similarity of alternative brands (often by ranking), which is
processed by a computer to derive a spatial configuration

PRODUCT POSITIONING
refers to the place an offering occupies in consumers' minds on important attributes relative to competitive
offerings
E.g., which is more sporty, Porsche, Mercedes, or Cadillac? More prestigious? Expensive? Escort, Miata,
Neon, Viper?
What are some dimensions, or characteristics, that you might use to assess business schools?
On each of these dimensions, where would you position several schools relative to each other? E.G.,
Harvard University, Michigan State, Podunk College, Branfield Community Tech.
PERCEPTUAL MAP:
a means of displaying or graphing on two dimensions the location of products or brands in the minds of
consumers
REPOSITIONING:
changing the place an offering occupies in consumers' minds relative to competitive offerings.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Uses nonstatistical, unstructured research methods in which consumers are enticed to reveal what they
can about their innermost thoughts, feelings, and motivations.

focus group

in-depth personal interviews

projective tests

PROJECTIVE TESTS
sentence completion

"People buy a Porsche _________________."

story completion

Respondents complete a story.

cartoon techniques

Respondents fill in the words or thoughts of a character in a cartoon drawing

picture

Respondents tell a story about a person shown in some situation.

ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION
Surrogate indicator:
readily observable attribute of a product used to represent the performance level of a less observable
attribute

e.g., price and brand name are often used by consumers as surrogate indicators of quality

Framing:
how a person perceives the value of something in relation to something else

e.g., "mfgr's. suggested retail price"

CHOICE
Note that some people are satisficers and some people are optimizers in specific situational contexts.
Heuristics are the "rules of thumb" that people use to make judgments and decisions.
- e.g.,

choice heuristic: never buy a car in the first model year

search heuristic: if buying a computer, go to Wong's for the best deal

POSTACQUISITION
the consumption, disposition, and postchoice evaluation of goods, services, and ideas
consumption
use and depletion of the product

Consumer satisfaction is the overall attitude associated with a good or service after its
acquisition and use.

Satisfaction or dissatisfaction is the difference between what was what is experienced and
what was expected.
o

Also, recall equity theory:

o
o
o
o

outcomes of A
outcomes of B
------------- ~ ------------inputs of A
inputs of B

When would satisfaction be the result?

o

Also, recall attribution theory, which is concerned with how people identify the causes
for action.

Also, recall the notion of cognitive dissonance, where a person experiences doubts
about the wisdom of a decision.

POSTACQUISITION
A consumer has low-performance expectations for a product, and after use, performance is perceived as
worse than expected. This consumer will be dissatisfied.
A consumer has low-performance expectations for a product, and after use, performance is perceived as
better than expected. This consumer will be satisfied.

PURCHASE BEHAVIOR
impulse purchases
occur when a consumer experiences a sudden urge to buy something immediately without a buying
intention formed prior to entering a store
compulsive consumption
a response to an uncontrollable drive to use or experience something that leads to a repetitive behavior
that will ultimately cause harm to the person or others
variety-seeking purchases
associated with the tendency of consumers to buy a new brand of product even though satisfied with the
previously purchased brand

PURCHASE INVOLVEMENT
level of concern for, or interest in, the purchase process relevant to a particular purchase

Habitual decision making:

a problem is recognized

long term memory provides a single preferred brand

that brand is purchased

only limited postpurchase evaluation occurs

associated with low involvement

associated with repeat purchases and brand loyalty

Limited decision making

Extended decision making:

increased information search

more extensive and complex alternative evaluation

more thorough postpurchase evaluation

associated with high involvement

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES

CONSUMER ENVIRONMENT
those factors existing independently of individual consumers and firms that influence the exchange
process
MARKETING SITUATIONS

information acquisition

shopping

purchasing

consumption/usage

disposition

PERSON, SITUATION, PRODUCT INTERACTIONS

Do you like grapes? Peas?

on your morning cereal?

Do you like oatmeal?

as a desert after dinner?

When are grapes most likely to be consumed and enjoyed? Peas? Oatmeal?

EXAMPLES OF SITUATIONS / SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES

Information acquisition:

Watching a TV commercial during a football broadcast at a party in a dorm room at 1:00 p.m.
Saturday afternoon

Watching a TV commercial alone during a zombie movie at 1:00 a.m. Tuesday morning.

Consumption:

Eating at an expensive restaurant with date at 6:30 p.m. Saturday evening

Eating at McDonald's at 6:30 a.m. Tuesday morning on the way to work.

Shopping:

Shopping at the mall for an interview suit.

Shopping at Salvation Army for a dorm room sofa.

SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES
temporary environmental factors that form the context within which a consumer activity occurs at a
particular time and place
a set of factors outside of and removed from the individual consumer

GROUP INFLUENCES
GROUP
two or more individuals who share a set of norms, values, or beliefs

a set of individuals who interact with one another and who share some common need or goal; their
behaviors are interdependent
Note: almost all consumer behavior takes place in a group setting of some sort.

REFERENCE GROUP
a group whose values, norms, attitudes, or beliefs are used as a guide for behavior by an individual
a group whose presumed perspectives or values are being used by an individual as the basis for her/his
current behavior in a specific situation
Note: as the situation changes, so do reference groups and so does out behavior.
E.g.:

colleagues at work

friends at school

roommates

members of clubs, church, fraternities/sororities, etc.

GROUP INFLUENCE

aspiration group:
a group to which an individual would like to belong
o

What is the attraction of a Harley to different age groups?

Does a Harley have a Forbes or Hell's Angels image?

What is the attraction of a "gold card" or an American Express card?

What are the long term strategic implications?

dissociative group:
a group with which a person does not wish to be associated
o

Does a Harley have a Forbes or Hell's Angel's image?

Conformity:
the tendency to want to be like relevant and significant others
a change in behavior or belief toward a group as a result of real or imagined group pressure

Conformity is often viewed as following the crowd, not acting and thinking as an individual.

compliance:
the person merely conforms to the wishes of the group without really accepting the group's
dictates

private acceptance:
the person actually changes his/her beliefs in the direction of the group

Group norms:
general expectations about behaviors that are deemed appropriate
Violation of norms can result in sanctions.

Conformity: the Asch experiment

Eight subjects are asked which of three unequal lines is closest in length to a fourth line.
Seven subjects (who actually are 'cohorts') announce incorrect answers. These subjects are actually
working for the experimenter, but this is unknown to the eight subject.
If the eighth subject makes a decision without prior knowledge of the other's choices, then the eighth
subject is likely to make a correct choice.
If the eighth subject makes a decision after hearing the incorrect choices of the other seven subjects, then
the eighth subject is very likely to make an incorrect response that is in agreement with the group.
C.f., Latane's social loafing experiments.

SOCIAL COMPARISON
the process through which people evaluate the 'correctness' of their opinions, the extent of their abilities,
and the appropriateness of their possessions

GROUP INFLUENCE
Role
prescribed pattern of behavior expected of a person in a given situation by virtue of the person's position
in that situation
Sanctions
punishments imposed on individuals for violating role parameters
Role parameters
range of behavior acceptable within a given role

Role overload
results when a person attempts to fill more roles than the available time, energy, or money allows
Role conflict
results when a person faces incompatible role demands in which roles demand different behaviors
Role stereotype
a shared visualization of the ideal performer of a given role
What sorts of products might a 'supermom' buy? How do product choices differ between a traditional
mom of the 1950s and a working mom, going to college, in the 1990s?

Word of Mouth (WOM) communications

refer to exchanges of comments, thoughts, or ideas between two or more consumers, none of whom
represent a marketing source

Joe Girrard: we each have about 250 friends, relatives, and acquaintances and will tell them
about good or bad experiences

OPINION LEADERS
those consumers who influence the purchase decisions of others
a group member who consistently filters, interprets, or provides information for others

direct flow of information:

a marketing communication flows directly from the marketing organization to a relevant market
segment

multistep flow of information:

a marketing communication is processed by opinion leaders and others as it flows to a relevant
market segment

Opinion leaders are likely to be used under conditions where an individual has low knowledge but is in a
high involvement situation. E.g., interview outfit.

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
continuous innovation

usually modifications of existing products to improve performance, taste, reliability, etc.

requires little change of behavior

requires little learning

low perceived risk

dynamic continuous innovation

discontinuous innovation

innovations that produce major changes in the lifestyles of consumers

requires great change in behavior

requires much new learning

much perceived risk

Turning a discontinuous innovation into a continuous innovation, or, the best marketing move that I've
ever seen:
George Eastman couldn't sell his new strippable film to even photography amateurs of the day: it was too
difficult to develop and print.
His solution: the world's first 'disposable' camera. A box camera came loaded with enough strippable film
for 100 pictures. The user paid $25 for the preloaded box and sent the whole box back to the factory
when all of the pictures had been taken. The promotion: "You press the button; we do the rest."

Teletronix has just introduced a new wristwatch which contains a "personal communicator." It will transmit
and receive picture and voice signals with another wristwatch on the same frequency code within a halfmile distance.
Picture and voice clarity is constrained due to the small physical size of the device. In size, the wristwatch
is a little larger and about twice as thick as a standard wristwatch. Price: $999; not discounted due to
limited distribution channels.
1. Would you buy one of these?
2. Do you know anyone who would?

CATEGORIES OF PRODUCT ADOPTERS

innovators

early adopters

early majority

late majority

laggards

HOUSEHOLD AND FAMILY DECISION MAKING

household
all people who occupy a living unit

family

nonfamily

family
household in which at least two people are related
What are some changes in the "typical" American family?
nuclear family
two adults of opposite sex living in a socially approved relationship with their own or adopted children
extended family
the nuclear family plus other relatives, such as the parents of the husband or wife

FAMILY LIFE CYCLE

the idea that families move through a series of stages in a developmental fashion
Stages in the traditional family lifecycle:
young/single==>young/married==>married/children==>empty nester
Each stage presents people with different problems to solve.
Each stage presents the marketer with different opportunities.
How typical is this traditional family life cycle?

Recall the notion of the Buying Center or Decision Making Unit:

Users

Influencers

Deciders

Buyers

Gatekeepers

What are some similarities in the roles of these constituents in organizational decision making and in
household and family decision making?
Recall the notion of organizational buy classes (straight rebuy/new buy). How does this relate to the
notion of routinized vs. extended decision making in household buying behavior?

CULTURAL INFLUENCES
CULTURE
refers to the learned meanings, values, and behavior patterns that are shared by a society
includes the knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs, and habits acquired by a person as a member
of society
e.g.:

different perceptions of time, poly. vs. monochronic

different perceptions of the role of women, men

different perceptions of right vs. wrong, as in "lubrication"

CULTURE

Culture is comprehensive: it includes almost everything that influences an individual's thought

processes and behaviors

Culture is acquired or learned: it does not include inherited responses or predispositions. Values
and behaviors are learned from cultural influences.

Culture supplies boundaries within which individuals think and act.

We are seldom aware of cultural influences; we generally take these influences for granted.

CULTURE
Culture provides loose boundaries for individual behavior.

These boundaries are called norms.

norms
rules that specify or prohibit certain behaviors in specific situations; expectations of behaviors regardless
of position
cultural values
what is right, good, and important; widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable
customs
basic actions such as what ceremonies are held and the roles played by the sexes
mores
customs that emphasize the moral aspects of behavior

NORMS: Nonverbal Communication

Time

polychronic vs. monochronic

promptness

lead time

Space

office size and location

personal space

Friendship

fast vs. slow

Agreements

verbal vs. written

Things

terminal materialism:
acquisition of goods as an end in itself

instrumental materialism:
acquisition of goods to enable one to do something

Symbols

pink vs. blue identifiers

Etiquette

generally accepted ways of behaving in social situations

SOME CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS

individual vs. collective
the extent to which a culture values more - the individual or the group
masculinity/femininity
the extent to which the characteristics of one sex are valued over those of another
time orientation
the extent to which the members of the society are oriented to the past, present, or future
uncertainty avoidance
the extent to which members of the society are willing to tolerate ambiguity and unusual behavior
activity orientation
the extent to which the society values action versus reflection
relationship to nature
the extent to which the society lives in harmony with nature or attempts to dominate nature

PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATION
The following are "urban legends" which, for the most part, probably have no basis in fact. Nonetheless,
these are repeated here because they help to make an important point.
US: "Body by Fisher"
Japan: "Corpse by Fisher"
US: Chevrolet "Nova" = "Star"
Puerto Rico: "No Va" = "it doesn't go"
U.S.: Pepsi "come alive"
Germany: "come out of the grave"
Asia: "bring your ancestors back from the death"
LESSON: translate back and forth a few times!
If people can't read your English labels and rely on the picture to indicate what is the contents of a jar,
would you attempt to distribute baby food with the picture of a baby on the jar?

SUBCULTURAL INFLUENCES
SUBCULTURE
segment of a culture which shares distinguishing patterns of behavior and values different from the overall
culture
Subcultures can be identified on the basis of:

race

nationality

religion

age

geographic location

gender

social class

- etc.

e.g.,
baby boomers: people in the U.S. born between 1946 and 1964
mature market: increasing in size in the U.S.
Note that many characteristics of subculture can be measured with demographics.

DEMOGRAPHICS
How would you estimate the number of potential consumers for a new type of diaper?
demographics
the study of human populations on the basis of age, gender, geographic location, etc.
Using demographics, we are interested in estimating:

market size - how many potential consumers?

market composition - who buys and who doesn't?

market location - where are the buyers?

market trends - what will the future bring?

Demographic Profile
a listing of the characteristics of the audience for a particular television show, magazine, or other medium

CAUSES OF POPULATION GROWTH

Birth rate: fertility; number of births

Death rate: mortality; number of deaths

Net immigration: the number of people moving into or out of a country

What was the single most significant factor contributing to U.S. population growth prior to the baby boom
era?
What are some public policy changes in different countries that affect these factors?

AGE SUBCULTURES
American baby boom
1946-1964; high birth rate
American baby bust
1965-1980; low birth rate. A.k.a. "generation X".

"Because of the group's relatively small size, employers must compete for them in the job
market." Do you agree or disagree with the claim that is made by several baby-boomer textbook
writers?

Mature consumer
Woopies?

SOCIAL CLASS SYSTEM

a hierarchical division of society into relatively distinct and homogeneous groups with respect to status,
wealth, education, possessions, and values
social class
distinguished in terms of esteem and prestige
Most frequently used measures:

education

occupation

income

These make up the U.S. Bureau of Census Index of Socioeconomic Status (SES)
The average of these scores results in an index with four classifications:

upper class

upper-middle class

lower-middle class

lower class

PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF SOCIAL CLASS

problem of definition

choice-behavior fallacy

husband-only fallacy

present social class fallacy

effect of aspirations and disdain

status crystallization
how consistent an individual is on various status dimensions

In the U.S.: which job has more prestige, a plumber or a professor?

Which has higher education? Education?

Which pays a higher "occupational privilege" tax in Pennsylvania?