Professional Documents
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Class : B Morning
Semester : 6th
A. Overview of curriculum
Anthony (1965 ) provides a framework for comparing and understanding
the relationships among the various different language teaching activities that
he identified even at the early date. His framework includes three categories
into which all such activities can be classified :
1. Approach, encompasses all points of view on the nature of language and
nature of language teaching and learning
2. Method, to describe different plans for presenting language to students in
an
orderly manner
3. Technique, to define what actually happens in classroom
Adapted from Richards & Rogers ( 1982 )
Approaches
Classical approach
Grammar-translation approach
and effort
Direct approach
should use
Only second language in class.
Audio lingual approach
students
need
operant
conditioning
behavioural
Modification to learn language.
and
Communicative approach
that
Is they must learn the meanings that are
important to them.
the
literature reflects three major types of syllabus : structural, situational, and national,
Techniques
TECHNIQUES WAYS OF PRESENTING THE LANGUAGE
Bridging activities
Directed dialogue
Discussion
Idea Frame
Chain dialogue
Cloze procedure
Conversion
Copying
Expansion
Multiple-choice
Pattern drill
Proofreading
Replacement
Response drill
Restatement
Rosetta procedure
Sentence combining
Sentence modification
Speed writing
Substitution drill
Transformation drill
Translation
True - false
Packaged pedagogies
PACKAGED PEDAGOGIES
AUTHOR
Counselling learning
Curran
Dartmouth pedagogy
Rassias
Natural Way
Krashen
Suggestopedia
Lozanov
Asher
Need Analysis
Need Analysis in language program is often viewed simply as identification
of the language forms that the students will likely need to use in the target language
when they are required to actually understand and produce the language .The
analytical focus is on the learners, and their need are viewed in linguistic term. In
truth, it is logical to make the learners the focus of any sound needs analysis.
Need Analysis will be defined tentatively as the systematic collection and
analysis of all relevant information necessary to satisfy the language learning
requirements of the students within the context of the particular institutions invloved
in the learning situation. The same principle applies to the language facus af many
needs analyces.students have needs and concerns other than lingguistic ones.thus the
learners human needs mustt also be acknowledged alongside their purely languagerelated ones.this in turn means that the definition of needs analysis should be broadened to include this wider view of needs.needs analysis should be defined tentatively
as the systematic collection and analysis of all relevant information necessary to
satisfy satisfy the languagel earning requirements of the students within the context
of the particular institutions involved in the learning situation.
Objectives,on the other hand are precise statements about what content or skills the
students must master in order to attain a particular goal.For instance,to write a term
paper,the students might first need to develop several essential library skills.One
susch skill would be the ability to finding a particular book in the card
catalog,locating the call number for that book,and finding the book by locating its
call number in the stacks.the specification of objectives and the process of thinking
through what is involved in achieving the program goals will lead to
analyzing,synthessizing,and clarifying the knowledge and skill necessary to meet the
students language needs.
The label packaged pedagogy will be used here instead of innovative
approaches for four reasons first since the term approach is being used in this book
in a restricted way using the phrase
to teach as they feel appropriate. The teachers and students should be aware of what
the objectives for a given course are and how the testing will be conducted at the end
of the course. To those ends, the teachers need support and also need to be intimately
involved in the process of curriculum development and revision. All curriculum
process are described as group efforts. The primary reason for this emphasis is the
most teachers, as individuals, are in no position to do such tasks well. Hence,
Objectives, test and materials development should all be group efforts drawing on
the expertise, time, and energy available from everyone involved in the program. The
kind of support can help teachers do a superior job at what they are hired for
teaching.
Program Evaluation
Evaluation might be defined as the systematic collection and analysis of all
relevant information necessary to promote the improvement of the curriculum and to
assess its effectiveness within the context of the particular institutions involved.
Evaluation , on the other hand, can take advantage of all the above information and
tools to assess the effectiveness of a program, but can also utilize in the information
gathered in the process of (1) developing objectives, (2) writing and using the tests,
(3) adopting , developing, or adapting materials, (4) teaching
Program evaluation, than might be defined as the ongoing
process of
B. Needs Analysis
a. Introduction
In general tems, needs analysis it is also called needs assesment
refers to the achievementies involved in gathering information that will
serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the learning
needs of a particular group of students. In the case of language programs,
those needs will be language related. Once identified, needs can be stated
in terms of goals and objectives which, in turn, can serve as the basis for
developing tests, materials, teaching activities, and evaluation strategies,
as well as for reevaluating the precision and accuracyof the original
needs assesment. Needs analysis in the formal and technical sense is
relatively new in language teaching circles. However, needs analyses
have been conducted informally for years by teachers who wanted to
asses what language points their students needed to learn. Information
sources for such informal needs assesment might include scores on an
overall language proficiency test, fact gathered from a background
questionnaire that asks when and for how long students have had
previous language training, or impressions gleaned from teacher and
students interviews about th students cognitive and inguistic abilities.
Thus, two points seem immediately obvious when thingking about
analysis. First, informal needs analysis is not a new thing: indeed, good
teacherssince the birth of the teaching profession have been conducting
some form of needs assessment. Second, needs analysis involves the
gathering of information o find out how much the students already know
and what they still need to learn.
In more formal terms, needs assesment is defined by Richards,
Platt, and Weber (1985, p. 189) as the process of determining the needs
for which a learner or group of learners requires a language and
arranging the needs according to priorities. Needs assesment makes use
of both subjective and objective information (data from questionnaire,
tests, interviews, observation). The definiton then goes on to prescribe
topic areas on which information should be obtained. These will be
discussed below. Notice that the needs described in this definition are
those of the learnes involved and also notice that students language
requirements are to be delineated and sequenced on the basis of both
subjective and objective information. The definition will use in this book
meant to combine the best futuresof all three of these definitions, as well
as include elements that have either been left out or glossed over in other
definitions. In order to accomplish all this and actually perform a needs
analysis, certain systematic steps must be followed. The remainder of
this chapter will elaborate on these steps and provide suggestions for a
reasonable set of procedures and steps to accomplish each.
b. Making Basic Decisions About The Needs Analysis
Before any needs analysis can take place, curriculum planners must
make certain fundamental decisions. Who will be involved in the needs
analysis? What types of information should be gathered? Which points of
view should be represented? And how might points of view and program
philosophy interact?
1. Who will be involved in the needs analysis?
a. The target group is made up of those people about whom
information will ultimately be gathered. The usual target
group is the students in a program, but sometimes the
teachers and/ administrators are also targeted.
b. The audience for a needs analysis should encompass all
people who will eventually be required to act upon the
analysis. This group usually consists of teachers, teacher
aides, program administrators, and any governing bodies or
sepervisiors in the bureaucracy above the langiage program.
c. The needs analysis are those persons responsible for
conducting the needs analysis. They may be consultans
brought in for the purposes, or members of the faculty
designated for the job. In addition to conducting the needs
analysis, this group will probably be responsible for
identifying the three groups. The needs analysis as
individuals and as a group must be willing to devide up,
share, and delegate responsibilities or the entire needs
assesment process may prove unrelizable.
d. The resoutce group consists of any people who may serve as
sources of information about the target group. In some
contexts, parents, financial sponsors, or guardians may be
included as sources of valuable information about the target
observanle objectives.
Goals should never be viewed as permanent, that is, they
the basic units that can in turn be used to define and organize all teaching
activities into a cogent curriculum.
3. Getting Instructional Objectives on Paper
a. Sources of Ideas For Objectives
A number of sources are available to help formulate objectives from
the goals of a program. These include other programs and their
curriculum, the books and journals that constitute the language teaching
literature, and educational taxonomies that were worked out as far back as
the 1950s.
a) Other language programs
b) The literature
c) Texonomies
b. Sound Instructional Objectives
For the planners is to state them as clear and unambiguous
instructional objectives. For example, my overall goal in this chapter is to
help the reader develop the skill necessary to define and write clear
instructional objectivies ( a need, at least in my perception). In other to
transform the goal into potential objectives, first break it into tha smallesr
seperable units, geoup those units logically, and then express them as a
set of goal. The following objectives have result from this process:
Distinguish between curriculum goals and instructional
objectives.
Recognize complete or instructional objectives.
Recognize vaguely stated instructional objectives as well as
clearly state ones.
Write clear and complete perfomance objectives-including
subject, perfomance, conditions, a measure, and criterion
According to Mager (1975) suggested three components necessary for
the formulation of good objectives:
Performance
: an objective always says what a learner is
expected to be able to do.
Conditiona
: an objective always describes the important
conditions under which the permance is to occure.
Criteria : wherever possible, an objective describes the
criterion of acceptable performance by describing how well the
learner must perform in order to be cosidered acceptable.
The type of instructional objectives described here will
contain five element they are:
a) Subject
b) Performance
c) Conditions
d) Measure and
e) Criterion
D. Testing
Test will be examined in terms of whether they are norm-referenced or
criterion-referenced test, which differ fundamentally in the ways they are
applied to different types of decisions. Then I will outline a strategy for
creating successful test within a language program including suggestion for
integrating test into the overall cirriculum and using checklists to help in
evaluating the quality of test and to aid in administering those test.
Making Dicisions With Tests
These four categories are probably emphasized because they fit neatly with
four of the fundamental types of decisions that must be made in language
program.
a) Proficiency decisions
Teachers sometimes find themselves in the position of having to
determine how much of a given language their students have learned and
retained. In such a case, general, overall language ability is the focus
without reference to any particular program ( and its objectives, teaching,
and materials). Such information may prove necessary when students are
completely new to a program, and it is necessary to get a general nation
of how much of the language they know, for example, to make intelligent
admissions decisions. So, proficiency decisions involve tests that are
general in nature ( and not specific to any particular program) because
proficiency decisions require general estimares of students proficiency
levels. Such a curriculum, in adjusting the level of goals and objectives
to the true abilities of the students, or in making comparisons across
programs. Despite the fact that proficiency decisions are general in
nature, they nevertheless very important in most language programs.
b) Placement decisions
Placement decisions should be based on instruments that are either
designed with a specific program in mind or, at least, seriously examined
for their appropriateness to a specific program. The tests upon wich
placement decision are based should either be specifically designed for a
given program (and/or track within a program) or, at least, carefully
examined and selected to reflect the goals and ability levels in the
program. Thus a placement test will tend to apply only to a specific
program and will be narrower in purpose than a proficiency test.
c) Achievement decisions
Achievement decisions are central to any language curriculum. We
are in the business of fostering achievement in the form of language
learning. In fact, this book promotes the idea that the purpose of
curriculum is to maximize the possibilities for students to achieve a high
degree of language learning. The tests used to monitor such achievement
must be very specific to the goals and objectives of a given program and
must be flexible in the sense that they can readily be made to change in
response to what is learned from them about the other element of the
curriculum. In other word, well-considered achievement decisions are
based on tests from which a great deal can be learned about the program.
These tests should, in turn, be flexible and responsive in the sense that
their result can be used to affect changes and to continually assess those
changes against the program realities.
d) Diagnostic decision
Diagnostic decisions are focused on the strengths and weaknesses
of each individual vis-a-vis the instructional objectives for purposes of
correcting deficiencies before it is too late. Hence, diagnostic decisions
are aimed at fostering achievement by promoting strengths and
eliminating weaknesses.
Matching Tests To Purposes
a) Norm-refferenced versus criterion-refferenced tests
One definition for a criterion-refferenced tests is a test which meansures a
students performance according to aparticular standard or criterion which
has been agreed upon. The student must reach this level of performance to
pass the test, and students score is therefore interpreted with reference to the
criterion score, rather than to the scores of other students. (Richards, Platt, &
Weber 1985, p. 68)
This is markedly different from the definition for a norm-refferenced test
given in the same source a test which is designed to mearsure how the
performance a particular student or group of students compares with the
important so that qualified staff can be properly trained to carry out the scoring of
the test. Equally important is the interpretation of the results. There must be a clearly
defined purposes for the result, and provision for helping teachers use scores and
explain them to their students. Ideally, there will also be a well-defined place for the
results in the overall curriculum planning.
Third, changing the objectives due to what we learned from the tests
naturally led to rethinking our materials an teaching strategies to meet newly
perceived needs of the students.
The fourth and last benefit gained from ourtesting program was that when
ever we needed to focus on program evaluation, we had a great deal of information
ready to be presented.
English language institute, university, of hawaii at manoa
We used four sets of procedures that help us toensure that students are working at the
level that most benefits all parties concerned:
a) Intial screening procedures
Before students are admitted to UHM, they are carefully screened by the Office of
Admissions and Records. The students previous academic records, letters of
recommendatation, and toefl scores are reviewed and only those students with total
scores of 500 or higher are accepted for admissions to UHM.
b) Placement procedures
In most cases, however, studens who scored between 500 and 599 on the TOEFL are
required to take the ELI placement test as soon as they arrive on campus.
c) First-week assessment procedures
During the first week of instuction, all ELI teachers administer a criterion-referenced
test designed specifically to test the objectives of their courses. The teachers are also
to keep a close wacth on their students to see if any have been misplaced. When
teachers find students who seem to be in the wrong level, they consult with the ELI
derector, interview with the students are conducted to find out what they want they to
do, and they are advised about what we think should happen.
d) Achievement procedures
At the of each semester, evaluation report forms are filled out by the teachers about
the performance of every student. Teachers are asked specifically what ELI course
level the students should take during the next semester.
e) Criterion-referenced diagnostic and achievement procedures
For the Criterion-referenced diagnostic and achievement tests, the lead teachers has
proven essential in rallying the teachers to review and revise each of the forms for
each course and getting the tests to the teachers on time for use in class. In addition,
it has proven important that this lead teachers do the scoring and get the results back
to the teachers within 24 hours. Such promptness has made the results particularly
useful and helped in garnering teachers support for the entire testing program.
E. Materials
Working from the general parameters of the program design, as defined
by the need analysis, goals and objectives, and tests, curriculum developers are
in an excellent position to begin materials development. Materials will be
defined here as any systematic description of the techniques and exercises to
be used in classroom teaching. The surest test of the viability of a set of
materials is for a teacher to be able to implement them without any aid from
their original creator. If that teacher is successful, the chances are that the
materials are systematically and clearly described. The curriculum developers
should have a clear understanding of the programs theoretical positions (the
presented in terms of its teachers and students. Next step in a blueprint for the
systematic development or materials is some sort of description of the types
of instructional materials that are envisioned. Finally, an effective blueprint
for materials development must include some form of evaluation component
that take the form of detailed plans for studying the effectiveness of the
materials, or discussion processes that will be instituted the constantly revise
and upgrade materials, or both.
Units Of Analysis
The following components of a syllabus are specified:
1. The situations in which the foreign language will be used, including the
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
completed.
8. The degree of skill with which the learner will be able to perform.
Scope And Sequence Charts
One way to express a course structure is to delineate the scope and
sequence in a chart. Scope and sequence chart turns out to be more
transparent and easier to interpret because it captures and delineates the
repetative elements of the curriculum in an efficient manner that minimizes
redundancy.
Gantt Diagrams
One useful technique for representing the different steps involved in
large-scale materials development and implementation projects is the
Ganttdiagram. A Gantt diagram is a two-axis figure with time divisions
labeled across the horizontal axis and task divisions down the vertical axis. A
Gantt diagram is useful for providing an overview that can be understood at a
glance. It shows all the tasks involved and the time frames in which each task
must be begun and completed.
F. Teaching
a. Introduction
This chapter talked about how to examine the need analysis
information, objectives, test, and materials can be implemented in the
teaching phase of curriculum development. The focus of the teaching
phase is on the kinds of instruction that will characterize the program. That
is, on the kinds of teaching that will be required to achieve the goals of the
program.
b. Orienting and Involving Teachers in the Curriculum
This discussion will center on ways to put initial information in
various forms into the hands of teacher, especially those who are new to
c) Reference Documents
Teachers should also receive copies of the relevant course
objectives
and
any
handouts
such
as:
Syllabuses,
Learning approaches
Attitudes toward learning
Learning style
Strategies used in learning
G. Program evaluation
Introduction
The primary information gathering and organization elements of the
curriculum have been include in the needs analysis and testing compenents as
represented by the goals and objectives. The insights and information gained
from these curriculum activities can be further analayzed and synthesized into
labeled the materials and teaching components of the systematic curriculum
model that serves as the basis of this book. The model, readers might think that
needs analysis, goals and objectives, testing, materials, and teaching are five
sequential steps that should be instituted chronologically. The arrows and the
links to evaluation are meant to imply three things.
First, in an ideal situation, curriculum development would start with a
through needs analaysis and progress through the steps. However, such an
ideal sitution is actually very rare and for political or other reasons, the
curriculum planners may start the process with some element other than need
analysis, formulation of goals and objectives, articulation of tests, and delivery
of instruction are all going on at the same time.
Second, the process of curriculum development is never finished
( unless of course a program is canceled ). Thus provisions must always be
made for revision of all the curriculum elements with a view to improving
them. Indeed, the bi-directionality of the arrows within the models signifies
that as focus is placed on any particular element of the curriculum the work on
that component may reveal a need for revisions in the preceding ( or
succeeding ) elements.
Thrid, program evaluation on the right side of the model is the glue
that connects and holds all the elements together. In the absence of evaluation,
the elements lack cohesion; if left in isolation, any one element may become
pointless. In short, the heart of the systematis approach to language curriculum
design is evaluation: the part of the model that inculdes, connects, and gives
meaning to all the other elements.
Richards et al. (1985, p. 98) define evaluation as the systematic
gathering of informatio for purposes of making decisions. At first glance, this
seeems to be a serviceable definition, but reflection reveals that is too broad
and could equally well be used to define other curriculum components such as
needs analysis and teting. In truth, needs analysis and testing information
might well be included in an evaluation, but this fact does not strengthen the
definition given above.
Popham (1975, p. 8), systematic educational evaluation consists of a
formal assessment of the worth of educational phenomena. If the Richards et
al. definition was too broad, Pophams is too restrictive. Certainly, there should
be an element within a program evaluation that focuses on formal
assessment, but there is also room for a number of other more informal
activities. However, there are also forms that focus on improving the
curriculum, and they are perhaps the most constructive and useful types.
Pophams definition does not seem adequate.
Worthen and Sanders (1973, p. 19) evaluation is the determination of
the worth of a thing. It includes obtaining information for use in judging the
worth of a program, product, procedure, or object, or the potential utility of
alternative approaches designed to attain specified objectives. This may be
unnecessarily limiting-implying a goal-oriented approach to the evaluation
process, while ignoring the potential of evaluation to affect curriculum
improvment.
Brown (1989a, p. 223) as the systematic collection and analaysis of
all relevant information necessary to promote the improvment of a curriculum
and assess its effectiveness within the context of the particular institutions
invloved. Notice that there are two purposes for the information: the promotion
of improvement and the assessment of effectiveness.
Evaluation is a term that is used in a number of different ways, there
are testing and measurment. Testing only to refer to procedures that are based
on tests. Measurment more broadly to include testing, but also other types of
approaches, process-oriented
program effectiveness
Periodic observations of behaviors
Analysis of data given by status and change measures
Interpretation of the data relative to specific objectives and broad goals
Recommendations culminating in further implementation, modifications, and
in revisions of broad goals and specific objectives.
Static-Characteristic Approaches
Static-characteristic evaluation is also performed to determine the
effectiveness of a particular program. This type of evaluation is conducted by
outside experts who inspect a program by examining various accounting and
academic records, as well as such static characteristics as the number of
library books, the number and seating capacity of classroom, the parking
facilities, and so forth. Statis-characteristic evaluations are used even
accerditation.
Accerditation is a process where by an association of institutions sets
up criteria and evaluation procedures for the purpose of deciding whether
individual institutions should be certified (accredited) as members in good
standing of that association.
Process-Oriented Approaches
This shift was partially due to the realization that meeting program
goals and objectives, while important, was not very helpful in facilitating
curriculum revision, change, and improvment. Scriven and Stake wrew two of
the most important advocates of process-oriented approaches.
Scrivens (1967) model contributed a number of principles that have
promoted a process-oriented approach to program evaluation. The model he
advocated was called goal-free evaluation, that is, evaluation is which limits
are not set on studying the expected effects of the program vis-a-vis the goals.
Stakes (1967) approach to process evaluation was called the
contenance model. It consisted of the following basic elements:
1) Begin with a rationale
2) Fix on descriptive operations (intents and observations)
3) End with judgmental operations (standars and judgment) at three different
levels: antecedents (prior conditions), transactions(interactions between
participants), and outcomes (as in traditional goals but also broader in the
sense of transfer or learning to real life).
Decision-Facilitation Approaches
In these approaches, evaluators attempt to avoid making judgments.
Instead, they favor gathering information that will help the administrators and
faculty in the program make their own judgments and decisions. Examples of
this approach are the CIPP, CSE, and Discrepancy models of evaluation.
CIPP, described in Stufflebeam et al. (1971), is an acronym for
Context (rationale for objectives), Input (utilization of resources for
achieving objectives), Process (periodic feedback to decision makers), and
Product (measurment and interpretation of attainments during and at the end
of a program). Stufflebeam (1974) lists four key elements that should be
remembered in performing program evaluation:
1) Evaluation is performed in the service of decision making, hence it
should provide information that is useful to decision makers.
2) Evaluation is a cyclic, continuing process and therefore must be
implemented through a systematic program.
3) The evaluation process includes the three main steps of delineating,
obtaining, and providing. These steps provide the basis for a
methodology of evaluation.
4) The delineating and providing steps in the evaluation process are
interface activities requiring collaboration.
The CSE model is named after the acronym for the Center for the
study of Evaluation at UCLA. Similar to the CIPP model, this is an approach
designed to help in decision making. Alkin (1969) suggets that evaluations
should provide information for five different categories of decisions:
1) Systems assessment (the state of the overall system)
2) Program planning (a priora selection of particular strategies, materials,
and so forth)
3) Program implementation (appropriateness of program implementation
relative to intentions and audience)
4) Program improvment (changes that might improve the program and help
deal with unexpected outcomes)
5) Rogram certification (the overall value of the program).
The discrepancy model as advocated by provus (1971) was also
designed to help with decision making. Provus defined evaluation as follows:
evaluation approaches has been a healthy and progressive one. The strenghts
of those other approaches were incorporated in their descendants.
Three Dimensions That Shape Point of View on Evaluation
The patterns invlove at least three dimensions (also discussed in
Brown 1989a): formative versus summative, process versus product, and
quantitative versus qualitative. In each case, they seem to be points at the
ends of a scale alog which variation can occur. First is related to the purposes
for gathering the information, the second is associated with the types of
information being gathered, and the third is connected with the sorts of data
and analysis that will result.
Purpose of the Information
Formative evaluation takes place during the ongoing curriculum
development processes. The aim of this type of evaluation is to collect and
analyze information that will help in improving the curriculum. The types of
decisions that result from formative evaluation are usually numerous and
relatively small in scale because such decisions are meant to result in
modifications to and fine tuning of an existing curriculum. Summative
evaluation is usually characterized as occuring at the end of a program. The
purpose for gathering information in a summative evaluation is to determine
the degree to which the program was succsesful, efficient, and effective.
revised and improved, but also so that the degree ao overall succces of the
entire program can be assessed.
Gathering Evaluation Data
Quantitative Evaluation studies
Quantitative data are those bits of information that are
countable and are gathered using measures that produce results in the
form of numbers. For each of these procedures, the table indicates with
an X in the appropriate column whether the procedure is used
primarily to gather quantitative or qualitative information. The
procedures just listed are perdominantly used to collect quantitative data,
though in some cases they may be modified to obtain qualitative data.
The importance of using quantitative data is not much in the
collection of those data, but rather in the analysis of the data, which
should be carried out in such a way that patterns emerge. Statistic-based
experimental study designed to investigate the effectiveness of a given
program. The experimental group is the one that receives the treatment,
while the control group receives no treatment. A treatment is something
that the experimenter does to the experimental group.
The purpose of giving a treatment to the experimental group
and nothing to the control group is to determine whether the treatment
has been effective.
interactional
analysis,
individual
interviews,
group
and
decision-facilitation
approaches.
Three
7. Parents
8. Vocational training specialists
9. Influential individuals and pressure groups
10. Community agencies
Administering the Needs Analysis
Needs analyses vary in their scope and demands, sometimes a team of
personnel is assembled specially for the purpose of doing the analysis; at other times
two or three interested teachers may be the only ones involved.
Procedures for Conducting Needs Analysis
1. Questionnaires
2. Self-ratings
3. Interviews
4. Meetings
5. Observation
6. Collecting learner language samples
7. Task analysis
8. Case studies
9. Analysis of available information
Making Use of the Infomation Obtained
The results of a needs analysis generally consist of information taken from
several different sources and summarized in the form of ranked lists of different
kinds. For example: (1) Situation in which English is frequently used, (2) situation in
which difficulties are encountered, (3) comments most often made by people on
learners performance, (4) perceived difficulties with different aspects of language
use, (5) preferences for different kinds of activities in teaching.
The Nature of Situation Analysis
Project Factors:
1. Who constitute the project group and how are they selected?
2. What are the management and other responsibilities of the team?
3. How are goals and procedures determined?
4. What experience do members of the team have?
5. What is the time frame of the project?
Institutional Factors:
1. What leadership is available within the school to support change
and to help teachers cope with change?
Learner Factors
1. What are the learners past language learning experiences?
2. How motivated are the learners to learn English?
3. What are their expectations for the program?
4. Are they a homogeneous or a heterogeneous group?
5. What type of learning approach do they favor?
Adoption Factors
1. What advantages does the curriculum change offer?
2. Is the innovation very complicated and difficult to understand?
3. Is the use of the innovation consistent with existing beliefs, attitudes, and
organization?
4. Have the features and benefits of the innovation been clearly communicated
to teachers and institution?
Implementasi
Perencanaan dan pengelolaan keempat tahap pembelajaran tersebut dituangkan
dalam bentuk Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran (RPP). Satu RPP memuat satu
genre dan sekitar 10 atau 11 kali pertemuan.