CHAPTER 5

5.0

: LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Introduction

The Laplace transform offers a simpler alternative approach to solve linear differential
equation. Problems are solved in the complex frequency domain, (i.e. function of the
complex variables, s = + j ), instead of the usual time domain. By using the Laplace
transform, the differential equation can easily be transformed into an algebraic function,
in terms of the complex variables, s. The algebraic equation can then be manipulated
to produce the solution, as a function of s. Finally, the solution in time domain can be
obtained by referring to the Laplace transform pairs in the table. In some cases, the
partial fraction expansion technique may have to be employed, to reduce the solution in
terms of complex variables to ones that conform to those presented in the table.
The strength of Laplace transform technique in solving control problem lies in its ability
to give close

approximation to

the

system

performance,

via

graphical

techniques, without actually solving the system differential equation. Besides, both the
transient and steady state solution, which contribute to the total solution of the system
differential equation, can be determined simultaneously.

5.1
5.1.1

Unilateral Laplace Transform

Definition

The LT of a function of time, x (t), is defined as,

L{x(t )} = X ( s ) x(t )e st dt ..(5.1)

t1

Equation (5.1) is known as the bilateral LT, when t1 is , or unilateral LT, when t1 is
0.
The unilateral LT is, in fact, the Laplace transform of a causal signal. Since signals of
all systems, in practice, are causal, that is they start at some finite instant (usually
assumed as the origin), only the unilateral LT is considered here. Moreover, by
restricting the signals to be causal, there will only be a unique x (t), associated with a
given X(s). This simplifies the system analysis problem immensely. The trade off is that
the analysis of non-causal system or the use of non-causal inputs will not be
applicable.

There are again variations in the defination for lower limits, which could be 0+, 0, or 0-.
Use of anyone of these lower limits makes no difference to the LT as long as the
function, x(t), does not include a singularity function at t = 0.
Table 2 lists some of the common unilateral Laplace transform pairs.
Table 2 UNILATERAL LAPLACE TRANSFORM LOOK-UP TABLE

Time-domain

f(t)

Frequency-domain
F(s)

Unit-impulse : (t )

Unit-step : u(t)

1
s

Unit-ramp : r(t)

1
s2

Sin (t)

s +2
2

Cos (t)

s
s +2
2

F(t-a)u(t-a)

e-asF(s)

e-atf(t)

F(s+a)

e-atsin (t)

( s + a) 2 + 2

e-atcos (t)

( s + a)
( s + a) 2 + 2

5.1.2

Examples on Laplace Transform

Example 5.1.2.1: Find the LT for x (t) = A, a constant, for t = 0.

Example 5.1.2.2: Find the LT for x (t) = A e at , for t 0, where A is a constant.

Example 5.1.2.3: Find the LT for x (t) = At, for t 0, where A is a constant.

Example 5.1.2.4: Find the LT for x (t) = A sin t for t 0, where A is a constant.

Note: Eulers Identity:

5.2

Properties of The Unilateral Laplace Transform

There exist a handful of properties, which enable the unilateral LT of some complex
signals to be derived, that bypass the formal defination of LT. In this section, some of
these properties are listed and the proofing of them is shown.

5.2.1

Property of Homogeneity (Amplitude scaling)

L{kx(t)} = kX(s)
To prove,

5.2.2

Property of Superposition
L{x 1 (t) + x 2 (t)} = X 1 (s) + X 2 (s)
To prove,

5.2.3

Property of Linearity
Property 5.2.1 and property 5.2.2 can be integrated to yield the property of
linearity.

L{k 1 x 1 (t) + k 2 x 2 (t)} = k 1 X 1 (s) + k 2 X 2 (s)

Example 5.2.3: Find the LT of the signal, x (t) = (4+2t).u (t)
From Table 2,

L{u(t)} =

1
s

L{t.u(t)} =

1
s2

Thus, using the property of linearity,

X(s) =

5.2.4

4 2
+
s s2

Shifting in the Time Domain

L{x(t t 0 )u(t t 0 )} = e st 0 X(s)
To prove,

Example 5.2.4: Find the LT for the following signals, given that x (t) = t, for 0 t ,
and t 0 is a constant.

x 1 (t) = x(t).u(t)
(i)

x 1 (t) = t.u(t)
x 1 (s) =

1
s2

x 2 (t) = x (t - t 0 ).u(t)

x 2 (t) = (t - t 0 ).u(t)
(ii)

x 2 (t) = t.u(t) t 0 .u(t)

x 2 (s) =

(iii)

1 t0

s2 s

x 3 (t) = x (t - t 0 ).u(t - t 0 )
From Table 2, L{t.u(t)} =

1
s2

Using the above property,

x 3 (s) =

e -st 0
s2

x 4 (t) = x (t ).u(t - t 0 )
x 4 (t) = t.u(t - t 0 )
(iv)

x 4 (t) = (t - t 0 + t 0 ).u(t - t 0 )
x 4 (t) = (t - t 0 ).u(t - t 0 ) + t 0 .u(t - t 0 )
-st
e -st 0 t 0 e 0
x 4 (s) = 2
s
s

5.2.5

Shifting in the s Domain

L e m at x(t) = X(s a)
To prove,

Example 5.2.5: Find the LT of the signal, x (t) = e 5t sin 2t.u(t)

From Table 2,
So,

L{sin t} =
sin 2t

s + 2
2

2
s +4
2

By using properties shifting in the s Domain, L e m at x(t) = X(s a)

e -5t .sin 2t
X(s) =

5.2.6

(s + 5)2 + 4

2
(s + 5)2 + 4

Time Scaling
L{x(at)} =

1
s
X
a
a

To prove,

Example 5.2.6: Find the LT of y (t) = e 3t

By using properties shifting in the s Domain, L e m at x(t) = X(s a) ,

x(t) = e -t X (s ) =

If

1
s +1

y (t ) = x(3t ) Y ( s ) =

1 s
X
3 3
1 1
=
3 s + 1
3
1
=
s+3

5.2.7

Multiplication by t

L t n .x(t) = ( 1)

d n X(s)
ds n

To prove, let's start with n =1,

In the same way, by differentiating with respect to s for n times,

Example 5.2.7:

Find the LT of x (t) = t.e 2t

{ }

5.2.8

From Table 2, L e -2t =

1
s+2

It follows that, X(s) =

d 1
1

=
ds s + 2 (s + 2 )2

Differentiation in the Time Domain

d n x(t) n
L
= s X(s) s n-1 X(0) - s n2 X 1 (0) - ................ - s 0 X n -1 (0)
n
dt

To prove,

dx st
dx(t)
L
= e dt
dt 0 dt
Applying the product rule, let u = e st , dv =

dx(t)
st
L
= x(t).e
dt

dx
dt

+ s x(t).e st dt
0

= x(0) + sX(s)
For n = 2, let g(t) =

LHS

dx
dt

= L{g(t)} = sL{g(t)} g (0)

dx
x(0)
dt

= L

= s 2 X ( s ) sx(0) x(0)
In the same way, this can be extended to derive the Laplace transform of

d n x(t)
dt n

Example 5.2.8

d 4 x(t)
Find the Laplace transform of
dt 4

'
''
'''
d 4 y(t)
4
3
2
L
=
s
Y(s)

s
y
(0)
s
y
(0)
s
y
(0)
y
(0)

4
dt

5.2.9

Integration in the Time Domain

L x(t) dt =

X(s) x -1 (0)
+
s
s

To prove,

( x(t) dt )e

LHS =

st

dt

Let u = x(t)dt , du = x(t)dt

and

dv = e

st

- e st
, v=
s

- e st
1
+
x(t). e st dt
LHS = x(t) .

s 0 s 0

X(s) x -1 (0)
+
s
s

5.2.10 Initial Value Theorem

x (0 + ) = Lim sX(s), Provided limits exist.
s

To prove, consider the LT for first order derivative,

dx(t)
L
= sX(s) x(0)
dt
Limiting s on both sides,

LHS = Lim
s

dx(t) st
. e dt = 0
dt
0

RHS = Lim[sX(s) x(0)]

s

Equating both sides, x (0) = Lim sX(s)

s

If x (t) is continuous at t = 0, then x (0- ) = x (0+), and thus, x (0 + ) = Lim sX(s),

s

5.2.11 Final Value Theorem

Lim x (t) = Lim sX(s), Provided that limits exist.
t

s 0

To prove, consider the LT for first order derivative,

dx(t)
L
= sX(s) x(0)
dt
Limit s 0 on both sides,

dx(t) st

LHS = Lim
. e dt = dx = [x(t)]0 = Lim x (t) - x (0)
s 0
t
dt
0
0
RHS = Lim[sX(s) x(0)]
s

Equating both sides, Lim x (t) = Lim sX(s),

t

s 0

Summary of Laplace Transform properties:

Property of
1.

Homogeneity
Property of

2.
3.

Superposition
Property of Linearity
Shifting in the Time

4.

Domain
Shifting in the s

5.

L{kx(t)} = kX(s)

(Amplitude scaling)

Domain

L{x 1 (t) + x 2 (t)} = X 1 (s) + X 2 (s)

L{k 1 x 1 (t) + k 2 x 2 (t)} = k 1 X 1 (s) + k 2 X 2 (s)

L{x(t t 0 )u(t t 0 )} = e st 0 X(s)

L{e m at x(t)} = X(s a)

Time Scaling.

L{x(at)} =

6.

7.

Multiplication by t
Differentiation in the

8.

Time Domain
Integration in the

9.

Time Domain
Initial Value

10.
11.

Theorem
Final Value Theorem

1
s
X
a
a

L{t n .x(t)} = ( 1)

d n X(s)
ds n

d n x(t) n
L
= s X(s) s n -1 X(0) - s n2 X 1 (0) - ................ - s 0 X n -1 (0)
n
dt

X(s) x -1 (0)
L x(t) dt =
+
s
s
x (0 + ) = Lim sX(s),
s

Lim x (t) = Lim sX(s),

t

s 0

10

5.2.12 Exercise on Laplace Transform

1. Using Laplace transform table, obtain the Laplace Transform of signal y(t)
shown below:

2. Find the Laplace Transform of the signal f (t).

3. Obtain the Laplace transform of signal y (t) below:

4. Obtain the Laplace Transform of signal below:

f(t)

2
1

5. Obtain the Laplace Transform using appropriate properties:

11

6. Determine the Laplace Transformation of the following signals using the

respective properties:

x(t ) = 2t. sin 5t.u (t )

y (t ) =

x(t ) = 3e 3( t 1) .u (t 1)

y (t ) = t. cos 10t.u (t )

1 2( t +1)
e
.u (t + 1)
2

7. Determine the Laplace Transform of f (t) by using Look Up table.

f (t ) = te 2t . sin 5t.u (t )
8. Determine the Unilateral Laplace Transform of the following signals:
i.

x(t ) = 10e t cos t.u (t )

ii.

y (t ) = t 2 . sin 2t.u (t )

iii.

x(t ) = 10t.u (t ) + t.u (t 1)

iv.

y (t ) = e 2t . cos 5t.u (t )

9. If unilateral Laplace Transform (ULT) of the signal is given :

l{x(t )} = X ( s ) = x(t ).e st .dt

0

Solve for f (t) = cos 0 t .

10. Find the Laplace transform of the following time function:
i. f (t ) = 3(t 2).u (t 2)

t t
.u
2 4 2 4

ii. g (t ) = sin 3

12

11. Using the definition of Laplace Transform :

l{x(t )} = X ( s ) = x(t ).e st .dt

0

Determine the Laplace Transform of x (t) = 2e t .u (t )

12. The Laplace transformed of x (t) is given as X(s) =

( s + 4)( s 2)
. Find the initial
2 s 3 + 3s

and final value of x (t) using initial and final value theorems.
13. The Laplace transformed of x (t) is given as X(s) =
i)

( s + 4)( s 2)
.
2 s 3 + 3s

Find the initial and final value of x (t) using initial and final value
theorems.

ii)

5.3

Determine x (t) and verify your answers in part i).

Inverse Laplace Transform

The inverse Laplace transform-equation is given by,

+ j

1
X(s) e st ds
L {X ( s )} = x(t ) =

2j - j
1

However, this equation is not used to evaluate the inverse Laplace transform, due to
the integration in the complex plane. In most cases, the Laplace transform exists in the
following form,

G(s) =

B( s ) k ( s + z1 )( s + z 2 )............( s + z m )
=
A( s ) ( s + p1 )( s + p 2 )............( s + p n )

(5.3)

Values of s that will set B(s) to zero, such as -z1, -z2, are known as the zeros of G(s),
while values of s that will set A(s) to zero, such as -p1, -p2 are known as the poles of
G(s).
If the degree of polynomial B(s) is strictly less than the degree of A(s), i.e. m is less
than n, the inverse Laplace transform can be obtained by applying the partial fraction
expansion techniques. Otherwise, long division must be applied first to reduce the
expression such that m is less than n.

13

5.3.1

Partial Fraction Expansion Method

Expansion in partial fraction is a technique to reduce proper rational functions as in

equation (5.3), into a sum of simple terms, which is known as the partial-fraction
decomposition of G(s), and each of these simple terms, Gi(s), is known as the partial
fraction. In other words,

G(s) =

B( s)
= G1 ( s ) + G2 ( s) + ............... + Gn ( s )
A( s )

Where Gi(s) has one of the following forms,

k s + k2
a
or 2 1
p
( s + b)
( s + as + b) q
where p and q are some non -negative integer while polynomial ( s 2 + as + b) is
irreducible.
The first step in inverse Laplace transform is to expand G(s) in terms of a sum of partial
fractions. The partial-fraction decomposition technique starts by expressing A(s) as a
product of factors (s + b)p or (s2 + as + b)q. The resulting form of the partial fractions
depends on the type of factors for A(s). As the final step, the inverse Laplace transform
of G(s) is obtained by summing the inverse Laplace transform of each of the partial
fractions, by referring to Table 2. The following reveals three different cases, depending
on the type of factor for A(s).

5.3.1.1

Case 1: G(s) contains only distinct poles

If polynomial G(s) contains only linear non-repeated factors, it can be rewritten as

follows,

G (s) =

an
a1
a2
B( s)
=
+
+ ......................... +
A( s ) s + p1 s + p 2
s + pn

Where ai are the residues of poles. Values of ai can be obtained by multiplying both
sides of the equation above by (s + pi).
a

B( s)

a2
(s + p i ) + .......... .......... ..... + a n (s + p n )
= 1 (s + p i ) +
A( s ) .(s + p i )
s + p2
s + pn

s = p1 s + p1
s = p1

B( s)

.(s + pi )
A( s )
s = p1

Thus ai =

ai
p t
= ai e i
s + pi

By referring to Table 2, L1

14

Example 5.3.1.1

Find f (t) given that F(s) =

s 3 + 5s 2 + 9s + 7
(s + 1)(s + 2)

Since degree of polynomial B(s) is higher than the degree of polynomial A(s), long
division is carried out first.

F (s) = s + 2 +

s+3
( s + 1)( s + 2)

Consider first, F1 ( s ) =

s+3
( s + 1)( s + 2)

By partial fraction, F1 ( s ) =

a
a
s+3
= 1 + 2
( s + 1)( s + 2) s + 1 s + 2

To find a1, multiply both sides of the equation by (s+1),

s+3
a1 =
.( s + 1)
=2
s = 1
( s + 1)( s + 2)
To find a2, multiply both sides of the equation by (s+2),

s+3
.( s + 2)
= 1
a2 =
s = 2
( s + 1)( s + 2)
Substituting the values for a1, and a2,

F1 ( s ) =

2
1
s+3
=

( s + 1)( s + 2) s + 1 s + 2

An alternative to determine the coefficients is to equate the coefficients of different

powers of s as follows. Firstly, multiply both sides of the partial fraction decomposition
by (s+1) (s+2),

s + 3 = a1 (s + 2 ) + a 2 (s + 1)
By equating coefficients of different power of s,
For s 0 :

2a1 + a 2 = 3

For s 1 :

a1 + a 2 = 1

Solving the above, a1 = 2 and a 2 = 1 .

L{ (t )} = 1

From Table 2,

d (t )
L
= s ; using property 5.2.8
dt

f1 (t ) = L1 {F1 ( s )} = 2e t e 2t .u (t )
Hence,

d (t )
f (t ) = L1 {F ( s )} =
+ 2 (t ) + 2e t e 2t .u (t )

dt

15

5.3.1.2

Case 2: G(s) contains complex conjugate poles

If polynomial G(s) contains non-repeated irreducible second degree polynomial, it can

be rewritten as follows,

G ( s) =

an
k s + k2
a1
B( s)
= 21
+
+ ......................... +
A( s ) s + as + b s + p1
s + pn

The simplest way to determine the coefficients is to equate the coefficients of different
powers of s or by substituting-values of s that make the factors zero, one at a time.

Find f (t) given that F(s) =

Example 5.3.1.2

s+1
s(s + s + 1)
2

k s + k 2 a1
s +1
= 21
+
s(s + s + 1) s + s + 1 s
2

Multiply s (s2 + s + 1) to both sides,

s + 1 = s (k 1s + k 2 ) + a1 s 2 + s + 1

By comparing coefficients for different power in s,

For s0 : a1 = 1
For s1 : k2 = 1- a1 = 0
For s2 :

k1 = - a1 = -1

Substituting the values for the coefficients,

F (s) =

s +1
s
1
= 2
+ = F1 ( s ) + F2 ( s )
s(s + s + 1)
s + s +1 s
2

It is necessary to reduce F1(s) further to obtain its inverse,

F1 ( s ) =
=

s
s + s +1
2

- (s + 0.5) + 0.5

(s + 0.5)2 + 0.75
- (s + 0.5)
0.5
+
=
2
(s + 0.5) + 0.75 (s + 0.5)2 + 0.75
From Table 2, we know that:
e-atsin (t)

( s + a) 2 + 2

e-atcos (t)

( s + a)
( s + a) 2 + 2

16

F (s) =

- (s + 0.5)

(s + 0.5)

+ 0.75

0.75

(s + 0.5) + 0.75 0.75
0.5
2

0.5
- (s + 0.5)
0.75

+
2
(s + 0.5) + 0.75 0.75 (s + 0.5)2 + 0.75

s +1
s
1
= 2
+ = F1 ( s ) + F2 ( s )
s(s + s + 1)
s + s +1 s
2

F ( s ) = F1 ( s) + F2 ( s ) =

- (s + 0.5)

0.5
0.75
1

+
+
2
(s + 0.5) + 0.75 0.75 (s + 0.5) + 0.75 s
2

Taking inverse Laplace transform,

f (t ) = L1 {F1 ( s )} + L1 {F2 ( s )}

= 1 e 0.5t cos 0.75 t + 0.57 e 0.5t sin 0.75 t u(t)

5.3.1.3

Case 3: G(s) contains multiple poles

If polynomial G(s) contains repeated factors, it can be rewritten as follow

G ( s) =

a3
a
br
br 1
b
a2
B( s)
=
+
+ ..... + 1 +
+
+ .... n
r
r 1
A( s) (s + p1 )
s + p1 s + p 2 s + p3
s + pn
(s + p1 )

The multiple roots of p1 of multiplicity r can be obtained in the following way,

The other roots are assumed to be distinct, and should be treated as in Case 1

Example 5.3.1.3

Find f (t) given that F(s) =

s 2 + 2s + 3
(s + 1) 3

By partial fraction decomposition,

A
B
C
s 2 + 2s + 3
=
+
+
3
3
2
(s + 1)
(s + 1)
(s + 1)
(s + 1)

17

 s 2 + 2s + 3

A=
(s + 1) 3
=2
3
(s + 1)
s = 1

B = s 2 + 2s + 3
=0
ds
s = 1
C=

1 d2 2
=1
2 s + 2s + 3
2 ! ds
s = 1

Notes:

1
1
=
2 ! 1 2
1
1
1
=
=
3! 1 2 3 6
1
1
1
=
=
4 ! 1 2 3 4 24
Alternatively, the constants can be obtained by multiplying both sides of the partial
fraction decomposition by (s+1)3, and then comparing the coefficients of the different
power in s, as shown in the following.

(s + 1) 2
(s + 1)
s 2 + 2s + 3
A
B
C
+
=
+

(s + 1) 3
(s + 1) 3 (s + 1) 2 (s + 1) (s + 1) (s + 1) 2

s 2 + 2s + 3 = A + B(s + 1) + C (s + 1) 2
s 2 + 2s + 3 = s 2 (C ) + s(B + 2C) + A + B + C
By comparing coefficients for different power in s,
For s2 :
1

C=1

For s :

B+2C = 2; B = 0

For s0 :

A + B + C = 3; A = 2

From either method, the following will be obtained,

F (s) =

2
1
+
3
s +1
(s + 1)

By taking inverse Laplace transform on both sides of the equation (refer Table 2),

f (t ) = L1 {F ( s )} = t 2 e t + e t u (t )

18

5.4

Application of Laplace Transform

Three of the many applications of LT in solving problems in system analysis and

design, are discussed.

5.4.1

Solution of Differential Equation

Differential equations modeling the continuous time LTI systems are solved by using
the differentiation property of the LT. The procedure is outlined as follows:
Step 1:

Apply LT to both sides of the differential equation, and substitute the

appropriate initial conditions, to obtain an algebraic equation in Y(s).

Step 2:

Solve the algebraic equation for Y(s), or Y(s) as a sum of Yzi(s) and
Yzs(s)

Step 3:

Apply inverse LT to obtain y (t).

Consider the following second order LTI differential equation,

Example 5.1.1.1

y" (t) + 8y' (t) + 12y(t) = x(t) , y' (0) = 1 and y(0) = 2 and x(t) = 6.u(t)
Using LT method, determine (i) The zero input solution
(ii) The zero state solution
(iii) The total solution
Refer to Properties 5.2.8 (Differentiation in the Time Domain),

d n x(t)
L
= s n X(s) s n - 1 X(0) - s n2 X 1 (0) - ................ - s 0 X n - 1 (0)
n
dt

Taking LT on both sides of the equation y" (t) + 8y' (t) + 12y(t) = 6 u(t) :

Y ( s ) s 2 + 8s + 12 sY (0) Y ' (0) 8Y (0) =

Y ( s ) s 2 + 8s + 12 s (2) (1) 8(2) =

i)

6
s

6
s

zero input response, Yzi(t): (input set to 0 and initial condition y (0) =1, y (0)
=0)

[
Y ( s ) [s

]
+ 8 s + 12 ] 2 s 17

Y ( s ) s 2 + 8 s + 12 s ( 2 ) 1 8 ( 2 ) = 0
2

Y zi ( s ) =

= 0

2 s + 17
s + 8 s + 12
2

19

ii)

zero state response, Yzs(t): (all initial condition set to 0, y (0) =0; y (0) =0)

Y ( s ) s 2 + 8 s + 12 sY ( 0 ) Y ' ( 0 ) 8 Y ( 0 ) =
Y ( s ) s 2 + 8 s + 12 0 0 0 =
Y ZS ( s ) =

Y (s) =

(i)

s s

6
+ 8 s + 12

6
s

6
s

2s + 17
6
+
2
s + 8s + 12 s (s + 8s + 12)
2

The zero input response of the system is,

2s + 17
A
B
=
+
s + 8s + 12 s + 2 s + 6

Yzi ( s) =

by partial fraction

Since the input X(s) is zero. Multiplying s 2 + 8s + 12 to both sides,

2 s + 17 = A(s + 6 ) + B ( s + 2)
Comparing the coefficients,
s - term:
s - term:

6A + 2B = 17
A+B=2

Hence, A =

5
13
and B =
4
4

Taking inverse LT (refer to Table 2),

13
y zi (t ) = e 2t e 6t u (t )
4

4
(ii)

The zero state response is,

YZS ( s ) =

6
C
D
E
= +
+
s (s + 8s + 12) s s + 2 s + 6
2

by partial fraction

Since all the states i.e. y (0), y'(0), y"(0) etc are zero.Multiplying s s 2 + 8s + 12

to both sides,

6 = C (s 2 + 8s + 12 ) + Ds( s + 6) + Es ( s + 2)
Comparing the coefficients,
s2 - term :

C+D+E =0

s - term :

8C + 6D + 2E = 0

s -term:

12C = 6

20

Hence, C =
Thus,

1
3
1
, D=
and E =
2
4
4

11 3 1 1 1
YZS ( s ) =

+
2 s 4 s + 2 4 s +6

Taking inverse LT:

1 3
y zs (t ) = e 2t + e 6t u (t )
4

2 4
(iii)

The overall response is,

y(t) = yzi (t) + yzs (t)

1 7
y (t ) = + e 6t 2e 2t u (t )

2 2

Determine the initial and final value for a system with the

Example 5.4.1.2

following LT, by using the LT theorems. Then prove that the

values are correct, by using the inverse LT.

Y(s) =

s+1
s(s + 2)(s + 3)

By using the Initial Value Theorem,

y (0 + ) = Lim sX ( s )
s

= Lim
s

s ( s + 1)
s ( s + 2)( s + 3)

1
1 +
s
= Lim
s
2 3
1 + 1 +
s s

= Lim
s

1
(1)()

=0
By using the Final Value Theorem,

y () = Lim sX ( s )
s0

21

= Lim
s 0

s ( s + 1)
s ( s + 2)( s + 3)

1
6

To prove the above value by using the inverse LT,

Y (s) =

A
B
C
( s + 1)
= +
+
s( s + 2)( s + 3) s ( s + 2) ( s + 3)

by partial fraction

Multiplying the denominator [s(s+2) (s+3)] to both sides,

( s + 1) = A( s + 2)( s + 3) + Bs( s + 3) + Cs ( s + 2)
Comparing the coefficients,
s2 - term:

A+B+C=0

s - term :

5A + 3B + 2C = 1

s -term:

6A =1

1
,
6

B=

Hence, A =

Y (s) =

1
2
and C =
2
3

11 1 1 2 1

+
6 s 2 s + 2 3 s + 3

Taking inverse LT,

1 1
y (t ) = + e 2t e 3t u (t )
3

6 2
As t 0

then y (0) = 0

As t

then y ( ) =

1
6

It can thus be concluded that the initial and final value obtained from the both methods
are the same.

22

5.4.2

Determination of Transfer Function

Transfer functions are mathematical models commonly used in control theory to

characterize the input-output relationships of system that can be described by linear,
time-invariant differential equations. The transfer function describes the dynamic
characteristics of the system in full. It is defined as the ratio of the LT of output to the
LT of the input, with the assumption that all the initial conditions are zero.
Consider a linear, time invariant system described by the following differential equation,

a 0 y (n) (t) + a 1 y (n 1) (t) + ...... + a n 1 y (t) + a n y (t) = b 0 x (m) (t) + b1 x (m 1) (t) + ...... + b m 1 x (t) + b m x (t)
Given that y (t) is the output while x (t) is the input of the system, and n is equal or
higher than m.
The transfer function of this system can be obtained by taking LT of both sides of the
equation, assuming that all the initial conditions are equal to zero.
Transfer function

= G(s)
=

L [output ]
L [input ]

Y (s)
X ( s)

b 0 s m + b1 s m 1 + .... + b m 1 s + b m
a 0 s n + a 1 s n 1 + .... + a n 1 s + a n

The procedure to derive the TF is as follows:

Step 1:

Obtain the differential equation that describes the dynamics of the system,
by applying the physical law of balance of it.

Step 2:

Take the LT of the differential equation, assuming all the initial conditions
are zero.

Step 3:

Take the ratio of the output function to the input function. This ratio is the
Transfer Function.

23

Example 5.4.2 Determine the transfer function for the circuit as shown in the following.

By considering the equilibrium in voltage,

Vin (t ) = R.i (t ) + L
Vout (t ) =

di (t )
+ Vout (t )
dt

dV (t )
1
i (t ).dt or i (t ) = C out

dt
C

By re-arranging the two equations above,

Vin (t ) = RC.V 'out (t ) + LC.V "out (t ) + Vout (t )

1
R
1
.Vout (t )
.Vin (t ) = V "out (t ) + V ' out (t ) +

LC
L
LC
By applying LT to both sides,

2 R
1
1
.Vin ( s ) = Vout ( s ) s + s +

LC
L
LC

Taking the ratio of output to input function,

Transfer function, G(s) =

Vout ( s )
Vin ( s )

LC
=
R 1
s 2 + s +

L LC

24

5.4.3

Stability in The S - Domain

The LT of linear time invariant differential equation, as observed, are usually rational
functions of s i.e. ratios of polynomials in s, as shown in equation (5.3). The terms
(s+zi) are factors of the numerator polynomials, and the terms (s+pi) are factors of the
denominator polynomials or characteristic polynomials. Values of complex variable s
that would set X(s) to zero, are called zeros of X(s), while those that would set X(s) to
infinity, are called poles of X(s).
Poles and zeros are complex numbers determined by two real variables, one
representing the real part and the other the imaginary part of the complex numbers.
The poles and zeros can be represented on the complex plane or the s-plane. The
complex plane consists of the real axis (a-axis), and the imaginary axis (j-axis).
The half of the s-plane which contains negative real parts, or < 0, is known as the
left half plane. The other half of the s-plane which contains positive real part, or >
0, is known as the right half plane. A "cross" (x) is used to denote the location of a
pole in the s-plane. A "small circle" (o) is used to denote the location of a zero in the splane. An s-plane showing the locations for all the poles and zeros of X(s) is defined as
the pole -zero plots of X(s). The stability of the system can be determined from
locations of its poles, in accordance to the following definition.
A linear system is stable if and only jf all the poles of its transfer function are located on
the left half plane. In other-words, a linear system is stable if and only if all the roots of
the characteristic polynomial have negative real parts.

Example 5.4.3.1

Determine whether the system with the following transfer

function is stable. Draw its pole-zero plots.

Y(s)
20(s + 1)
=
X(s) (s + 2)(s 2 + 4s + 13)
Characteristic polynomial: (s + 2) (s2 + 4s + 13)
Zero at s:

-1

Poles at s:

-2, - 2 j3

Pole-zero plots:

25

The system is stable because all the poles have negative real parts or
all the poles lie on the LHS of the S-plane.

Example 5.4.3.2

Determine whether the system with the following transfer

function is stable. Draw its pole-zero plots.

Y(s)
20(s 1)
=
X(s) (s + 1)(s - 2)(s + 3)
Characteristic polynomial: (s + 2) (s - 2) (s + 3)
Zero at s:

Poles at s:

-1, 2, -3

Pole-zero plots:

The system is unstable because one of the poles has positive real parts
or all the poles lie on the RHS of the S-plane.

26

Example 5.4.3.3

Determine whether the system with the following transfer

function is stable.

Y(s)
20(s + 1)
=
X(s) s(s + 2)(s 2 + s + 1)
Characteristic polynomial: s(s + 2) (s2 + s +1)
Zero at s:

-1

Poles at s:

0, -2, -0.5 j0.866

The system is critically stable because one of the poles lies on the
imaginary axis of the S-plane.
Practice by drawing the pole-zero plots for this system.

27