DISCOVERY OF ELECTRICITY

One of the first recorded mentions of electricity was by the Greek philosopher Thales in about 500 B.C. He
reported that when substances such as amber and jet were rubbed with a piece of cloth, they attracted
light objects such as feathers and bits of straw. Later in the eighteenth century, it was discovered that there
were two kinds of forces, or charges, caused by rubbing certain materials together. Charges of the
same kind repelled each other while opposite charges attracted.
In about the middle eighteenth century, the practi
cal mind of Benjamin Franklin found a way to prove
that lightning was a form of electricity. In his
famous kite experiment, he flew a kite into a thun
derstorm and found that sparks jumped to the
ground from a metal key attached to the wet string.
Franklin made a logical assumption that whatever it
was that came down the string was flowing from a
high level of energy to a lower level. He assigned the
term "positive" to the high energy, and "negative" to
the lower level. It was not known what actually
came down the string, but Franklin used a term
associated with the flow of water, and said that it
was "current" that flowed down the string, from
positive to negative.
I
The assumption that electricity flowed from positive to negative was accepted until the discovery of the
electron in 1897. At that time, it was discovered that electrons, or negatively charged particles, actually
move through a circuit. However, there are still many textbooks in use today that speak of current as being
from positive to negative.

ELECTRON THEORY
When a light bulb is connected to a source of electrical energy by solid conductors, or wires, there appears
to be no movement within the conductor. However, if you could see inside the wires, you would find that
they are not really solid. In fact, you would see that the wire contains far more empty space than expected.
This space allows for electron flow between atoms.
THE ATOM
As discussed in Chapter 2, all of the material in the universe is composed of atoms, which are the smallest
particles that can exist, either alone or in combination with other atoms. You should also recall that each
atom consists of a nucleus containing posi-

Figure 3-1. The nucleus of a copper atom consists of 29

tively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus and traveling at high
speeds are electrons, each of which is negatively charged and weighs about 1/1845 as much as a proton.
All electrons are alike, as are all protons and all neutrons. However, the number and arrangement of these
elementary building blocks determine the material that atoms make up. For example, copper has a
nucleus consisting of 29 protons and 36 neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus and spinning in four rings, or
"shells," are 29 electrons. This combination yields what is called an electrically balanced atom. In other
words, there are exactly the same number of positive charges as there are negative charges. The neutrons
have no electrical charge and do not affect the flow of electricity. [Figure 3-1]
All matter contains energy, and energy in an atom causes the electrons to spin around the nucleus. As the
electrons spin, centrifugal force tends to pull them away from the nucleus. However, the electrostatic
attraction between protons and electrons produces a force which opposes this centrifugal force and holds
the electrons in a specific orbit.
The electrons spin around the nucleus in shells at a constant radius. Some atoms have up to seven
shells. Each shell holds a certain number of electrons. For example, the first shell holds 2 electrons, the
second shell holds 8, the third shell holds 18, and so on. The outermost shell containing at least one
electron is called the valence shell. Likewise, the electrons in the valence shell are called valence
electrons.
IONS
Positive electrical forces outside an atom tend to attract or rob electrons from an atom's outer ring. This
results in an unbalanced electrostatic condition and leaves the atom with an electrical charge. Charged
atoms are called ions. If an atom possesses an excess of electrons, it is said to be negatively charged, and is
called a negative ion. On the other hand, an atom with excess protons is called a positive ion. For
example, copper has one electron in its outer ring. When a positive force is applied to the atom, the valence
electron is drawn from the atom and leaves it with more protons than electrons. The atom is now a positive
ion and tries to attract an electron from a nearby balanced atom. Electrons constantly move within a
material from one atom to another in a random fashion.
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Some materials have an atomic structure that easily permits the movement of electrons. These materials are
referred to as conductors. Materials are typically good conductors if they have fewer than five electrons in
their outer shells. Four excellent conductors are silver, copper, gold, and aluminum. Materials which
oppose the movement of electrons are called insulators. Insulators typically have between five and eight
valence electrons and therefore do not easily accept additional electrons. To prevent the inadvertent flow
of electricity, insulators are often placed around conductors. Some common insulating materials are plastic,
rubber, glass, ceramics, air (or vacuum), and oil.

ELECTRON FLOW
Consider what happens when a conductor made of copper is connected across a source of electrons. The
positive terminal of the source attracts an electron from an atom in the conductor and the atom leaves the
conductor. The atom which lost the electron now becomes a positive ion and pulls an electron away from
the next atom. This exchange continues until the electron that left the conductor initially is replaced by
one from the source's negative terminal. [Figure 3-2]
Electron movement takes place within the conductor at about the speed of light, which is approximately
186,000 miles per second. However, this does not mean that a single electron moves from one end of a
conductor to the other at this speed.

Figure 3-2. When a positive source attracts an

electron from a conductor, it leaves a positive ion.
This ion attracts an electron from an adjoining
atom. This exchange continues through the
conductor until an electron is furnished by the
negative terminal to replace the one taken by the
source.

Instead, an electron entering one end of the

conductor almost immediately forces another
electron out the other end. [Figure 3-3]
Figure 3-3. When one electron enters a conductor, it
immediately forces another electron out of the
opposite end.

EFFECTS OF ELECTRON FLOW

Although you cannot see the movement of electrons within a conductor, you can see and use the effects of
this movement. For example, as electrons flow through a conductor they produce a magnetic field around
the conductor. The greater the flow, the stronger the field. Furthermore, as electrons flow, the opposition
to their flow produces heat within the conductor.
DIRECTION OF FLOW

Since the flow of electricity could not be observed, it was only natural to assume that it flowed from a high
level of energy to a lower level or, in electrical terms, from "positive" to "negative." This theory worked
well for years. In fact, many textbooks were written calling the flow of electrons "current flow," and
assumed a flow from the positive terminal of the source to the negative terminal.
As scientists gained knowledge of the atom, it became apparent that the negatively charged electron
actually moved through a circuit. Therefore, most textbooks have been revised to explain electron
flow as being from the negative terminal, through the load, and back into the positive terminal.
Because electricity was thought to flow from positive to negative for so long, the theory is still discussed
and is referred to as conventional flow. Although the conventional flow of electricity is technically
incorrect, it does follow the arrow symbology used on semiconductors. The proper flow of electricity is
termed electron flow. You may use either method for tracing flow, as long as you remain consistent.
This chapter follows electron flow and uses the terms electron flow and current interchangeably. In
chapters dealing with semiconductor devices and their symbols, the flow of conventional current is used.
This is because the arrows used in semiconductor symbols point in the direction of conventional current
flow. [Figure 3-4]

Figure 3-4. Electron flow

from the negative
terminal. On the other
said to travel from
easier to think in terms
working with

refers to the flow of electrons

terminal to the positive
hand, conventional current is
positive to negative. It is
of conventional current when
semiconductor symbols.