TheVarietiesofAtheistExperience

PaulCliteurasks:ifanatheistissomeonewhodoesntbelieveinGod,whichGoddont
theybelievein?
Whatisatheism?Althoughmuchusedincontemporarylanguage,notmanypeoplespecifywhatthey
meanbytheword.Atheismhasthisincommonwithreligion,atleast.
EveryonereadingWilliamJames(18421910)seminal1902bookTheVarietiesofReligious
Experiencewillbeimpressedbythehugevarietyofreligiousideas.Nevertheless,thatvarietyistoa
considerableextentcausedbyJamesverybroadconceptionofreligion.Jamesianreligion
encompassesallthefundamentalvisionsoflife,includingpolitical,ideologicalandphilosophical
stances.Suchaviewispopularamongthosewhoapproachreligionfromapsychologicalor
sociologicalperspective,asJamesdid.WeclearlydetectthisviewinJamessdefinitionofreligionas
thefeelings,acts,andexperiencesofindividualmenintheirsolitude,sofarastheyapprehend
themselvestostandinrelationtowhatevertheymayconsiderthedivine.(TheVarietiesofReligious
Experience:AStudyinHumanNature,Penguinedition,p.31.)
WhatJamescalledEmersonianoptimismorBuddhistpessimismalsobetraysarelationtothedivine,
sothesepositionsarereligions,accordingtohisdefinition:
Wemusttherefore,fromtheexperientialpointofview,callthesegodlessorquasigodlesscreeds
religionsandaccordinglywheninourdefinitionofreligionwespeakoftheindividualsrelationto
whatheconsidersthedivine,wemustinterpretthetermdivineverybroadly,asdenotinganyobject
thatisgodlike,whetheritbeaconcretedeityornot.(p.34.)

ThisbroughtJamestoaconceptionofreligionasmanstotalreactionuponlife.(p.35.)

WhatJamesDefinitionImpliesforAtheism
Whatdoesthatimplyforatheism?Theresultisclear:ifatheismmeansoppositiontoreligion,it
meansthecompletevanishingofatheismfromtheworld.Jamesapprovinglyquotesacolleagueofhis
whohadtalkedaboutastudentwhowasmanifestingafineatheisticardor&helipHebelievesinNo
God,andheworshipshim.(p.35.)BelievinginNoGodandworshippinghim?Isthatpossible?
Althoughabitinconvenient,Jameswrotethatthischaracterizationofthestudentwasdefensibleon
logicalgrounds.
Characterizingatheismornonbeliefasaspecialkindofbeliefhasbecomewidespread.Roger
Scruton,forexample,speaksaboutcultslikefootball,sacrificialofferingslikePrincessDianaand
improvisedsaintslikeLindaMcCartney.(GentleRegrets:ThoughtsfromaLife,2005,p.232.)The
historicallyrecentorientationonhumanrightsischaracterizedbyScrutonasthenewsecularreligion
ofhumanrights.
Areligion?InissuingtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsin1948didtheUnitedNations
becomesomekindofreligiousorganization?FollowingJamessemanticstrategywouldruleoutnot
onlyatheism,butalsosecularization.Thenewsecularreligionofhumanrightswouldactuallybea
rejectionofthesecularizationthesis.
Althougheveryone,followingHumptyDumpty,maychoosethemeaningofhiswordsaccordingtohis
ownpurposes,wemightquestionthewisdomofthisinflationaryapproachtotheconceptofreligion.
Woulditnotbebettertoreservethiswordforanorientationtowardsometranscendentreality?Then
atheismisnotareligion,buttheabsenceofreligion.Inparticular,atheismisatheism:itisthe
rejectionofthetheistcreed,whichinparticularmeansthemonotheisticconceptionofgod,ieGod.(I
willusethewordstheismandmonotheisminterchangeablyhere.)

ALimitedConceptofAtheism:Rejecting
Monotheism
WefindthismorelimiteddefinitionofreligionimpliedinauthorssuchasErnestNagel(19011985).

NagelputsitasfollowsinhisADefenseofAtheism(1957):Ishallunderstandbyatheismacritique
andadenialofthemajorclaimsofallvarietiesoftheism.Monotheismistheviewwhichholdsthat
theheavensandtheearthandallthattheycontainowetheirexistenceandcontinuanceinexistence
tothewisdomandwillofasupreme,selfconsistent,omnipotent,omniscient,righteousand
benevolentbeing,whoisdistinctfrom,andindependentof,whathehascreated,saysNagel,quoting
RobertFlint,ProfessorofDivinityattheUniversityofEdinburgh.Soanatheistissomeonewhodenies
theexistenceofagodwiththecharacteristicsasmentioned.Inotherwords:hedeniestheexistence
ofGod.WefindthisapproachnotonlywithNagel,butalsowithRobinLePoidevin,DanielHarbour
andPaulEdwards.
Atheismasatheismhasclearadvantages.Weknowwhatweretalkingabout,andanimpressive
traditioninthehistoryofWesternthoughtcanbeinterpretedasadiscussionoftheexistenceofaGod
withclearlydefinablecharacteristics.GreatphilosophersandtheologiansfromPlato,through
Augustine,AvicennaandAquinas,toRenDescartes,BlaisePascal,andthesedays,Richard
Swinburne,DanielDennettandRichardDawkins,haveallparticipatedinthisdiscussionconcerningthe
existenceofatheisticgodwithcharacteristicsdefinedbythechurchorbasedontheinterpretationof
HolyScripture(QuranorBible).Thisisnotaconversationaboutthedifferentattitudespeoplehave
withregardtotheultimateidealsoflife(Jamesdefinitionofreligion),butaboutthecharacteristics
ofthetheisticGod,andinwhatsensethesearecompatiblewitheachotherandwithotherhuman
ideas.Forexamples:ifGodknowsthefuture,howcanwehavefreewill?(Cicero.)WhatwasGod
doingbeforeHecreatedtheworld?(Augustine.)MustGod,ifheexistsinthemind,alsoexistin
reality?(Anselm.)Cananomnipotentbeingbeconstrainedbyjusticeandgoodness?(AlGhazali.)As
theauthorofarecentoverviewoftheseargumentsputsit:thinkersfromallthreefaiths[Judaism,
ChristianityandIslam]grappledwiththegeneralphilosophicalproblemsthatneededsolvingifthe
greatmonotheismtheywerejointlyconstructingwastobeviable,developingnotmerelysophisticated
proofsofGodsexistence,butalsodetailedconceptionsofGodsvariouskeyattributes:omnipotence
(orpower),omniscience(orknowledge),perfectgoodness,eternality,immutability,andsoon.
(AndrewPessin,TheGodQuestion,2009,p.20.)Whatthisamountstoisthatdiscussionsaboutthe
existenceofGodveryoftenwerediscussionsaboutthecompatibilityofthecharacteristicsascribedto
thedivineinthetheistictradition.Thosewhoheldthatthosecharacteristicsarecompatiblewere
calledtheists:thosewhodidnot,atheists.
Seeingatheismasthedenialofthetheisticconceptionofgod(God)isclearlydifferentfromseeing
atheismastherejectionofallthingssupernatural.YetasJulianBagginisaysinAtheism:AVery
ShortIntroduction(2003),TheatheistsrejectionofbeliefinGodisusuallyaccompaniedbyabroader
rejectionofanysupernaturalortranscendentalreality.Forexample,anatheistdoesnotusually
believeintheexistenceofimmortalsouls,lifeafterdeath,ghosts,orsupernaturalpowers.(p.4.)He
acknowledgesthatstrictlyspeakinganatheistcouldbelieveinanyoftheseotherthings,but,ashe
contends,theargumentsandideasthatsustainatheismtendnaturallytoruleoutotherbeliefsinthe
supernaturalortranscendental.

TheCreationofGodOrnaBenShoshan2010.AllofOrnaspaintingsarecompletedinhermind
beforeshetransfersthemontothecanvas.Hermetaphysicalworkinfusesdeepspiritualexperience
withsubtlehumor,andhasbeenexhibitedinnumerouslocationsintheUSA,EuropeandIsrael.To
seemoreofherartworkandbuyartorprints,pleasevisit:benshoshan.com.

ACommonObjection
BythemorelimiteddefinitionofatheismasthedenialoftheGodofthemonotheists,polytheistsare
atheists.Fromtheperspectiveofatheismasatheism,GreekandRomanpolytheismhastobecalled
atheist,forinstance.Thedepictionofultimaterealityasimpersonal(aswefindintheearlier
HinduUpanishads)wouldalsobeclassifiedasatheist.TheravadaBuddhismandJainism,whichalso
rejectacreatorGod,havetobeclassedasatheistonthisaccounttoo.Sodoespantheism,beinga
rejectionofapersonalGod.Spinozawasanatheistfromthispointofview,eventhoughhesaid
NatureisGod.

Manypeoplefindthispuzzling.
Anevenmoreunacceptableconsequenceofthedefinitionofatheismasatheism,isthatliberal
conceptionsofthedivinewouldhavetoqualifyasatheist.NotonlySpinoza,butthereligious
convictionsofmodernChristiantheologianssuchasJohnRobinson(19191983)andPaulTillich(1888
1965)wouldbecalledatheisticaswell.Somepeoplefindthisdeeplycounterintuitive,ifnotoffensive.
Acommonobjectionisthatthisgivesmuchtoomuchgroundtothefundamentalists.
Thiscriticismcanbeillustratedwithareferencetotheworkofoneofthebestknownrepresentatives
oftheanalyticaltraditioninthephilosophyofreligion:theOxfordphilosopherAnthonyKenny(1931).
KennygivesalucidsummaryofhisviewsonreligioninhisbookWhatIBelieve(2006).Hewas
ordainedasaCatholicpriestin1955,buthedidnotthinkthattheexistenceofGodcouldbe
demonstrated.Thiswasaproblembecausepontificaldoctoralcandidateshadtotakeanoathrejecting
variousmodernheresies.Theoathincludedthestatementthatitwaspossibletodemonstratethe
existenceofGod.Aftertwoyearsofpriesthoodhedecidedthathecouldnolongercontinueasa
teacherofdoctrinesandmoralpreceptsofwhosevalidityhewasincreasinglydoubtful.Heobtained
leavefromthePopetoreturntothelaystate.Sincethenhehashadseveralacademicpostsat
Oxford.From1969to1972KennylecturedonNaturalReligion.Heanalyzedtherelationshipbetween
thedivineattributesomniscience,omnipotenceandbenevolence,andwrote:
Iarguedthatthesethreeattributeswereincompatiblewithoneanother,ascouldbeseenby
reflectionontherelationshipbetweendivinepowerandhumanfreedom.IfGodistobeomniscient
aboutfuturehumanactions,thendeterminismmustbetrue.IfGodistoescaperesponsibilityfor
humanwickedness,thendeterminismmustbefalse.Sotherecannotbeanomniscient,omnipotent,
allgoodbeing.(WhatIBelieve,p.8.)

KennyconcludedfromthisthattherecannotbesuchathingastheGodofscholasticorrationalist
philosophy.Nevertheless,thisdidnotbringhimtoanabsoluteatheistposition.
Whynot?Kennyanswers:Ileftthequestionopenwhetheritispossibletoconceive,andbelievein,a
Goddefinedinlessabsoluteterms.Isthatareasonablepositiontotake?Fromtheperspectiveof
atheismasatheismitisnot.(Althoughsomescholarsclaimonecanadheretomonotheismandyet
rejectthebeliefthatanomnipotentGodexists.)Kennyseemstothinkthathehasonlyrejectedthe
Godofscholasticorrationalistphilosophy,butisthattrue?Hasnthedonemuchmore?Ithinkhehas.
HehasrejectedtheideaofGodasdefendedthroughtheagesbythechurch,andalso,Iminclinedto
think,GodasHeappearstousinsomeimportantpassagesinHolyScripture.
WhetherthatlastcontentionistruedependsofcourseonthequestionwhethertheattributesofGod
asdefendedbythechurchhaveafirmbasisinScripture.IsittruetheBiblepresentsuswithan
omniscient,benevolentandomnipotentpersonaldeityorisGodaninventionofscholasticand
rationalistphilosophy,asKennyseemstosuppose?
Myimpressionisthatthechurchisonmuchfirmergroundherethanliberaltheologiansliketo
acknowledge.Ithinkthecharacteristicsthatthechurch,thechurchfathersandthescholastic
philosophershaveattributedtoGoddohaveafirmbasisinScripture.TheBibledoesnotpresentus
withanimpersonalGodwhoislimitedinpower,forinstance.
ApersonwhobelievesinaGodwiththecharacteristicsdescribedaboveisgenerallyconsideredtobe
atheist.Thatisnotverycontroversial.Thecontroversycentersontheatheist.Whatshouldwecall
thepersonwhodoesnotbelieveinthatspecificconceptofGod?Onereasonableanswer,soitseems
tome(followingHarbour,Nagel,LePoidevin,andthescholars),isanatheist.Soitseemstome
Kennyisanatheistinthissense.

ABroaderDefinitionofAtheism
Itsnotonlybelieverswhofeelalittleuncomfortablewiththislimiteddefinitionofatheism,butself
confessedatheistsaswell.Oftenatheismischaracterizedinabroaderway.MichaelMartin,oneofthe
mostinterestingcontemporaryauthorsonatheism,writes:Initsbroadersenseatheism,fromthe
Greeka(without)andtheos(deity),standardlyreferstothedenialoftheexistenceofanygodor
godsanygodorgods.AtheismdoesnotonlyrefertothedenialoftheGodofmonotheism,then,
buttothedenialoftheGodofliberaltheismandthegodsofpolytheismtoo.
LeslieStephen(18321904)wrote:DogmaticAtheismthedoctrinethatthereisnoGod,whatever
maybemeantbyGodis,tosaytheleast,ararephaseofopinion.Whetherthisisindeedrareis

difficulttosay,butitseemssenselesstosimplydenytheexistenceofwhatevermaybemeantby
God:rather,wedneedtofirstintelligentlydefinewhatismeantbyagodsay,aselfsustaining
creativepersonalbeing.ItisjustassenselesstoaffirmtheexistenceofaGodweknownothingabout
whoiscompletelyundefined.OrletmesaythatdiscussingtheexistenceofaGodwithno
characteristics,orcharacteristicstoovagueorundeterminedtoknow,impliesthataffirmingthe
existenceofsuchaGodwouldbeassenselessasdenyingtheexistenceofsuchaGod.Theliberal
theologianwholeavestheexistenceofsuchanundefinedGodopenisnaturallyallowedtodosobut
thispositionismoreproblematic,andalsoalittlebitmoretrivial,thanheassumes.
Thebroaderdefinitionofatheismasthedenialofanydivineentities,asadoptedbyMichaelMartin,
GeorgeSmith,etal,hasanevidentdisadvantagethough:itisnotclearthatthereisonesingle
argumentativestrategythatcanbedirectedagainstallthedifferentideasofgod.Whensomeone
says:IbelievethattheshipwreckwaspreventedbyPoseidon,itisnotsoclearhowwecanprove
thatshipsarenotrescuedbyPoseidonbutbynaturalcauses.OrifaSpinozansays:Ibelievethat
Godandnaturearethesame,howcouldwerefutethis?Whateverwemaythinkofthesetwo
statementsofreligiousconfession,itsclearthatrejectingpolytheism(Poseidonrescuingthesailors)
orpantheism(Spinoza)requiresacompletelydifferentargumentfromthatofrejectingtheisminthe
classical,orthodoxsense.Thediscussiononthemeritsofclassicaltheismproceedsaccordingtothe
patternofclassicalphilosophers,sometryingtodefendtheodicy(egLeibniz),otherstryingtoattackit
(Hume,forinstance).[TheodicyistheattempttorationalisethegoodnessandomnipotenceofGodin
anevilworldfullofsufferingEd.]
IthinkGeorgeSmithisonfirmergroundwhenhesaysthatsometheistshavebeencalledatheists
fordisbelievingintheGod(orgods)oftheorthodoxmajority.Thisfocusesonthenarrowerdefinition
ofatheism.ThisisalsothecasewhenMartinnotes:inWesternsocietythetermatheismhasmost
frequentlybeenusedtorefertothedenialoftheism,inparticularJudeoChristiantheism.This
[theism]isthepositionthatabeingthatisallpowerful,allknowing,andallgoodexistswhoisthe
creatoroftheuniverse,andwhotakesanactiveinterestinhumanconcerns,andguideshiscreatures
byrevelation.(Atheism,inTheNewEncyclopediaofUnbelief,editedbyTomFlynn,2007,p.88.)Also,
theNewAtheismbyDawkins,Harris,HitchensandDennettismainlyatheismasatheism,thatis,
againstclassicalmonotheism.Dawkinsmakesthisclearwhenhewritesaboutthesocalledreligion
ofAlbertEinstein,forexample.EinsteindoesnotbelieveinapersonalGod.Hisreligionisbasedon
(andidentifiedwith)theunboundedadmirationforthestructureoftheworldsofarasourscience
canrevealit.Butifthisisreligion,thenDawkinsisreligiousaswell.
Jamesandhismanycontemporaryfollowersmaydefinetheirconceptsastheylike,ofcoursebut
again,weclearlyneedaspecialwordforthedenialoftheorthodoxideaofthedivinewhichthe
Jewish,ChristianandIslamicreligionsshare:theideaofGod.Atheismseemsnotabadchoicefor
thisword.
Prof.PaulCliteur2010
PaulCliteurisprofessorofJurisprudenceattheUniversityofLeidenintheNetherlands.His
forthcomingbookisTheSecularOutlook:ADefenseofMoralandPoliticalSecularism(Wiley
Blackwell,August2010).

SomeVarietiesofAtheism
WilliamJames:Thereisnoatheism,asreligionisdefinedtoincludeanyfundamentalperspectiveon
life.
atheism:Narrowatheism,involvingonlytherejectionofmonotheism.
atheism:Broadrejectionofthepossibleexistenceofanyandalldivine(supernaturallypowerful)
beings