Chapter 3:

Plant Structure, Growth, and Development

The Three Basic Plant Organs

The evolutionary solution to the separation of resources, for some can be found above
ground while others below, was the development of three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves.
They are organized into two systems: the root system and the shoot system. The shoot system
consists of stems and leaves for all plants, and for angiosperms this system also consists of
flowers.
 Roots
A root is an organ which anchors a vascular plant, absorbs minerals and water, and often
stores organic nutrients. Most gymnosperms and eudicots have one main vertical root that develops
from an embryonic root, otherwise known as a taproot system. In angiosperms, the taproot often
stores organic nutrients that the plant requires during flowering and fruit production. The taproot
also gives rise to branch roots. Seedless vascular plants and most monocots have no main root, but
they do have a fibrous root system. The entire root system helps to anchor a plant, but in most
plants the absorption of water and minerals occurs through root hairs near the tip of the root. There
are also modified roots which come about from different environmental adaptations.

Buttress roots are aerial roots that look

like buttresses and support the tall trunks of
some trees, such as the ceiba tree.

“Strangling” aerial roots gradually

wrap around their hosts. Sadly, the host
tree eventually dies of strangulation and
shading.

Pneumatophores, also known as air

roots, are produced by trees such as
mangroves that inhabit tidal swamps. By
projecting above the surface, they enable
the root system to obtain oxygen.
 Stems
A stem is an organ made up of an alternating system of nodes, the points at which leaves are
attached, and internodes, the stem segments between nodes. Stems have four main functions. One
function is to provide support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers and fruits. The stems keep the
leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits. Another purpose
of the stem is to transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem.
Stems also store plant nutrients. And finally stems produce new living tissue, for the normal life
span of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate
new living.

A rhizome is a horizontal underground stem that

functions mainly in reproduction but also in storage.
This is a Euphorbia plant sending out rhizomes. This strawberry plant has a specialized
stem called a runner. A runner is a type of
stolon, horizontally growing on top of the
ground and rooting at the nodes, which aids
in reproduction.

Tubers, such as these potatoes, are

enlarged ends of rhizomes specialized for storing
food. The “eyes” are arranged in a spiral pattern
and are located in clusters of axillary buds that
mark nodes on the potato.
Leaves

In most vascular plants, the leaf is the main photosynthetic organ. Leaves consist of a
flattened blade and a stalk, the petriole, which joins the leaf to the stem. There are many
different variations of leaves in the plant world. Most monocots have parallel major veins
which run the length of the leaf blade, whereas eudicots usually have a multibranched network
of major veins. Leaf morphology can be used to identify and classify angiosperms. Most leaves
are specialized for photosynthesis, but some plant species have leaves that have become
adapted to provide support, protection, storage, or even reproduction.

The red parts of the poinsettia are

often mistaken for petals, but they are
The spines of a cactus are actually leaves, and
actually modified leaves called bracts which
photosynthesis is carried out mainly by the green stems;
are brightly colored to attract pollinators.
while these “leaves” provide protection.

Most succulents, such as this

ice plant, have leaves adapted for
storing water.
 The Three Tissue Systems

Dermal Tissue Vascular Tissue

The dermal tissue is the outer protective
covering. It forms the first line of defense
against physical damage and pathogenic
organisms, much like human skin. In nonwoody
plants, the dermal tissue usually consists of the
epidermis. The epidermis protects the plant
form water loss and disease, and has specialized
characteristics in each organ. In, woody plants,
the protective tissues are known as the
periderm.
The vascular tissue system carries out
long- distance transport of materials between
roots and shoots. The two vascular tissues are
the xylem and the phloem. The xylem carries
water and dissolved minerals from the roots
up to the shoots. The phloem transports
organic nutrients such as sugars form where
they are made to where they are needed. The
vascular tissue of a root or stem is all together
called the stele. The arrangement of stele
varies, depending on species and organ.

Ground Tissue
Ground tissue is basically all the rest of
the tissues of the plant which do not fall under
the dermal or vascular tissue categories. Ground
tissue that is internal to the vascular tissue is
called pith, and ground tissue that is external to
the vascular tissue is called cortex. The ground
tissue system contains various cells specialized
in functions such as storage, photosynthesis,
and support.
 Plant cells

Parenchyma Cells

Sclerenchyma cells, like collenchyma cells, function to support elements in the plants, but
sclerenchyma cells are rigid and contain a thick secondary wall. There are two types of
sclerenchyma cells: sclereids and fibers. These cells are specialized entirely for support and
strengthening. Sclereids, which are shorter than fibers and vary in shape, have very thick, lignified
secondary walls. Sclereids pass on the hardness to nutshells (see picture below) and seeds and the
gritty texture to pear fruits. Fibers, which are usually arranged in threads, are long, slender, and
tapered. Some fibers are used commercially, such as hemp fibers for weaving into linen or making
popular friendship bracelets.
 Primary Growth Secondary Growth
Collenchyma Cells
Primary growth lengthens roots and Secondary growth adds girth to stems
Parenchyma cells are relatively
shoots. Primary meristems, which are located and rootsCollenchyma
in woodycellsplants.
help support young
Secondary
unspecialized cells that retain the ability to parts of located
the plant shoot. Collenchyma cells
at the tips of roots and shoots, are responsible meristems, in the margins of the stem
divide. They can only divide though under
for increase in length. andhave
rootthicker primary
(vascular and walls
cork then parenchyma
cambium), are
special conditions. They also perform most of cells, though the wallsinare unevenly thickened.
responsible for increase girth.
the plant’s
In metabolic
roots, the functions, synthesizing
apical meristem is Collenchyma cells provide flexible support
and
locatedstoring
near the various
tip, where organic products.
it regenerates the Lateral meristems are secondary
without restraining growth because they lack
Parenchyma cellsapical
root cap. These have primary walls
meristems givewhich are
rise to meristems that form "tubes" within the stem and
secondary walls and they also lack a hardening
thick and flexible,
three primary but often
meristems: lackmeristems,
ground secondary root of the plant. There are two lateral
agent in their primary walls. At functional
walls.
which The protoplast
develop intogenerally
groundhas tissues,
a large meristems: the vascular cambium, located
maturity, these cells are living and flexible,
central vacuole.which
procambium, In addition,
developsome
intoparenchyma
vascular between xylem and phloem, and the cork
elongating with the stems and leaves they
cells in stems
tissues and and
the roots contain
vascular plastids which
cambium, and cambium, located between phloem and bark.
support.
store starch. which develops into the dermal
protoderm, The vascular cambium develops into a
system. In shoots, the apical meristem is meristematic cylinder that produces the
located in the terminal bud, where it gives rise secondary xylem and phloem. The cork
to a repetition of internodes and leaf- bearing cambium gives rise to the secondary plant
nodes. body’s protective covering, or periderm, which
Sclerenchyma Cells
consists of cork cambium plus the layers of cork
it produces.
 Xylem Phloem
Made of Dead Cells Living cells
Cell wall thickness Thick Thin
Cell wall material Lignin (rigid) Cellulose
Permeability Impermeable Permeable
Transports… Water & Minerals Food
Carried to… Leaves Growing parts & storage
organs
Direction of flow Upwards Up & down
The xylem and the phloem
 Chapter 4:
Angiosperm Reproduction

Flower Structure
There are four floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. The four floral organs
are separated by short internodes and attached to a part of the stem called the receptacle. Stamens
and carpels are reproductive organs, whereas sepals and petals are sterile. Sepals, which enclose
and protect the floral bud before it opens, are usually green and more leaflike in appearance than
other floral organs. In many species, the petals are more brightly colored than sepals, so as to
appeal to pollinators.
 The nest floral organ, the stamen, consists of a stalk called the filament and a terminal
structure called the anther. In the anther there are chambers with pollen sacs where pollen is
produced. Finally, the carpel, this organ has an ovary at its base and a long, slender neck called the
style. At the top of the style is the stigma, a sticky structure which serves as the landing platform
for pollen. In most species, two or more carpels are fused onto a single structure. This results in an
ovary with two or more chambers, each containing one or more ovules. The term pistil is
sometimes used to describe a single carpel or a group of fused carpels.
Double Fertilization
Double fertilization is a complex fertilization mechanism that has evolved in angiosperms.
This process involves the joining of a female gametophyte (embryo sac) with two male gametes
(sperm). It begins when a pollen grain attaches to the stigma of the carpel. After a pollen grain has
landed on an accessible stigma, the pollen grain takes in moisture and begins to germinate,
forming a pollen tube that extends down toward the ovary through the style. The tip of the pollen
tube then enters the ovary and penetrates through the micropyle. The micropyle is an opening in
the protective layers of the ovule. The pollen tube proceeds to release the two sperm in or near the
embryo sac.

One sperm fertilizes the egg cell and the other sperm combines with the two polar nuclei of
the large central cell of the embryo sac. The sperm and haploid egg combine to form a diploid
zygote; while the other sperm and two haploid polar nuclei form a triploid nucleus (some plants
may form polyploid nuclei). The large cell of the embryo sac will then form the endosperm, a
nutrient-rich tissue which provides nourishment to the developing embryo. The ovary,
surrounding the ovules, develops into the fruit, which is used for protection and dispersion of the
seeds.
 Methods of pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma and is the first step in a
chain of events which can lead to fertilization. This step can be accomplished in numerous ways.
In some angiosperms, including grasses and trees, wind is a pollinating agent. These plants often
release enormous amounts of pollen to compensate for the unreliability of this dispersal
mechanism. At certain times of the year the air is loaded with pollen grains, which is not fun for
those with pollen allergies (like me). Some aquatic plants rely on water to disperse pollen. Most
angiosperms rely on insects, birds, or other animals to transfer pollen directly to other flowers.

An Andrena bee collects pollen

among the stamens of a rose. The bee's
stash of pollen is on its hind leg.

This picture depicts grains of

pollen visible on the stamen of a tulip.

A bee covered in pollen.

 From seed to fruit
While the seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary of the flower is developing into a
fruit, which protects the enclosed seeds. Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that cause the
ovary to begin conversion into a fruit. If a flower has not been pollinated, fruit usually does not
develop.

During fruit development, the ovary wall becomes the thickened wall of the fruit (the
pericarp). The other parts of the plant whither and are shed as the plant grows.

Fruit are classified, depending on their developmental origin, into several types. Most fruits
are derived from a single carpel or several fused carpels and are called simple fruit. Some simple
fruits are fleshy, such as a peach, and others are dry, such as a pea pod. An aggregate fruit results
from a single flower that has one separate carpel, each forming a small fruit. These “fruitlets” are
clustered together on a single receptacle, therefore forming a raspberry. A multiple fruit develops
from a group of flowers tightly packed together (an inflorescence). An example of this is a
pineapple, for when the walls of many ovaries start to thicken and then they fuse together, forming
one fruit.