Chapter 1: Plant Evolution

GreenThealgae
theory, all land plants evolved from green algae, is supported by both morphological
and biochemical evidence. Many key characteristics of land plants also appear in a variety of
protists, primarily algae. For example, plants have cell walls made of cellulose, as do green algae,
dinoflagellates, and brown algae. Most importantly, there are four traits that land plants share only
with the charophyceans, strongly suggesting a close relationship between the two groups. First, the
cells of both land plants and charophyceans have rosette cellulose- synthesizing complexes. These
are rose shaped collections of proteins in the plasma membrane that synthesize the cellulose
microfibrils in cell walls. Secondly, both contain peroxisomes, which contain enzymes that help
minimize the loss of organic products as a result of photorespiration. Thirdly, in species of land
plants that have flagellated sperm, the structure closely resembles that of charophycean sperm.
Finally, certain details of cell division occur only in land plants and certain charophyceans, for they
both form a phragmoplast. In addition, there are similarities in nuclear and chloroplast genes
suggest that charophyceans are the closest living relatives of land plants.
 Terrestrial Adaptations

5 key traits appear in nearly all land

plants but are absent in charophyceans.
These traits are: apical meristems,
alternation of generations, walled spores
produced in sporangia, Multicellular
gametangia, and Multicellular, dependent
embryos. These traits evolved
independently as derived traits of land
plants.

Apical Meristems
The apical meristem, or growing tip, is a completely undifferentiated meristematic tissue
found in the buds and growing tips of roots in plants. Its main function is to begin growth of new
cells in young seedlings at the tips of roots and shoots (forming buds, among other things). Cells
produced by apical meristems differentiate into various tissues. In addition, shoot apical meristems
also generate the leaves in most plants.

The parts of this diagram which are

labeled “SAM” represent the shoot apical
meristem (SAM) at the above-ground
growing tip, and then the root apical
meristem or (RAM) is shown at the below-
ground growing tip.
Alternation of Generations
The life cycles of all land plants alternate between two different Multicellular bodies,
which each form producing the other and this process is called alternation of generations.
Alternation of generations is a derived characteristic of land plants, for it was not present in the
common ancestor of land plants and charophyceans. Gametophyte and sporophyte generations
are the two multicellular body forms which alternate in the life cycle of land plants. The cells
of the gametophyte are haploid, while the cells of the sporophyte are diploid. The gametophyte
is named for its production by mitosis of haploid gametes, egg and sperm, that fuse during
fertilization to create a zygote. Mitotic cell division of the zygote produces the multicellular
sporophyte, the spore- producing generation. Meiosis in a mature sporophyte produces haploid
spores. Spores are reproductive cells which can develop into a new organism without fusing
with another cell. Mitotic cell division of a plant spore produces a new multicellular
gametophyte. Alternation of generation continues with sporophytes producing spores that
develop into gametophytes, and gametophytes developing gametes which unite to form zygotes.
Zygotes then start this process all over again by developing into sporophytes.
Walled Spores Produced in Sporangia

Plant spores are haploid reproductive cells that have potential to grow into multicellular,
haploid gametophytes by mitosis. The polymer sporopollenin makes walls of plant spores very
strong and resistant to harsh environments. This chemical alteration makes it possible for spores
to be dispersed through dry air without harm. The sporophyte has multicellular organs called
sporangia that produce plant spores. Within a sporangium, diploid cells called sporocytes.
Sporocytes undergo meiosis and generate haploid spores. Multicellular sporangia that produce
spores with sporopollenin- enriched walls are key terrestrial adaptations of land plants.

These pictures depict the

sporophyte and sporangium of
Sphagnum (a moss).
Multicellular Gametangia
Early land plants are further distinguished from their algal ancestors by the production of
gametes within multicellular organs called gametangia. The female gametangia are called
archegonia and the male gametangia are called antheridia. Each egg is fertilized within an
archegonium, where the zygote develops into an embryo.
Multicellular, Dependent Embryos
Multicellular plant embryos develop from zygotes that are retained within tissues of the
female parent. The embryo has specialized placental transfer cells which enhance the transfer
of nutrients from parent to embryo through elaborate ingrowths of the wall surface. This
interface is analogous to the nutrient- transferring embryo- mother interface of placental
mammals. The multicellular, dependent embryo of land plants is such a significant derived trait
that land plants are also known as embryophytes.