Professional Documents
Culture Documents
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: Project Plan: Schedule/phasing9
TABLE 2: Impedances of R, L & C......................40
TABLE 3: A comparison of different types of PWM ICs.....................62
TABLE 4: Transmitter Circuit Components List.......................70
TABLE 5: Receiver Circuit Components List...71
TABLE 6: Transmitter and Receiver Parameters..73
ABSTRACT
This thesis report explains the implementation of Wireless Electric Power Transmission
System using Resonant Coupling. We have designed two circuit first circuit is called
power sending circuit and second circuit is called receiving circuit. Both the circuits are
working on resonant coupling system. In this way power is wirelessly transfer between
two resonant coils. The device would plug into the wall and adjust the frequency of the
wall voltage to the resonant frequency of the LC circuit (640 KHz) by rectifying and
inverting the wall signal. After power is transmitted to the receiving LC circuit, this
voltage will be transformed, rectified and filtered to produce around 220V to power up
22Watt energy saver bulbs at a contact less distance of 36 cm. The power is wirelessly
transmitted even if any thick obstacle is placed between transmitter and receiver. All the
block diagrams, equipment, circuit elements have been completely explained in the
report.
CHAPTER 1
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Objectives
In this chapter, the main focus is on describing the general structure. This chapter is
mainly concentrated on:
1.)
2.)
3.)
Project Overview
1.1: Proposed Objective
Our main objective is to develop a system for Wireless Electric Power Transfer. Today,
portable technology is a part of every day life. Having your stereo, telephone or computer
tied to a wall is a thing of the past. But from portability, emerges another challenge:
energy. Almost all portable devices are battery powered, meaning that eventually, they all
must be rechargedtying the user back to the wall he was trying to avoid.
Now imagine that instead of plugging in your cell phone, laptop or mp3 player to
recharge it, it could receive its power wirelesslyquite literally, out of thin air. Sound
like science fiction? Its much closer to reality than you might think.
The technique being used for Wireless Electric Power Transfer is Resonant Coupling.
This technique introduces a concept called Resonance to the wireless energy equation.
Similar to mutual induction, wherein electricity traveling along an electromagnetic wave
moves between coils on the same frequency, Resonant Coupling functions on the concept
that if you make both coils resonate at the same frequency, electricity can be passed
between them at farther distances and without health dangers. Using this technique, one
can even send electricity to multiple devices at once, as long as they all share the same
resonance frequency.
Two objects of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently, while
interacting weakly with objects that have a different resonant frequency. In physics,
resonance is the tendency of an object to oscillate at maximum amplitude at a certain
frequency. If the object is excited with a different frequency, its oscillation will die down.
Coupling is particularly suitable for everyday applications because most common
materials interact only very weakly with electromagnetic fields, so interactions with
extraneous environmental objects are suppressed even further. This makes it a safe design
for people and other living creatures.
The crucial advantage of using the non-radiative field lies in the fact that most of the
power not picked up by the receiving coil remains bound to the vicinity of the sending
unit, instead of being radiated into the environment and lost. Although the two coils are
currently of identical dimensions, it is possible to make the device coil small enough to fit
into portable devices without decreasing the efficiency. Using a non-radiative field means
that most of the power not picked up by the receiving coil remains bound to the vicinity
of the sending unit, instead of being radiated into the environment and lost.
same physics performs at mid-range distances and, to our knowledge, there is no work in
the literature that demonstrates efficient energy transfer for distances a few times larger
that the largest dimension of both objects involved in the transfer. In the present paper,
our detailed theoretical and numerical analysis shows that such an efficient mid-range
wireless energy-exchange can actually be achieved, while suffering only modest transfer
and dissipation of energy into other off-resonant objects, provided the exchange system is
carefully designed to operate in a regime of strong coupling compared to all intrinsic
loss rates. The physics of strong coupling is also known but in very different areas,
such as those of light-matter interactions. In this favorable operating regime, we
quantitatively address the following questions: up to which distances can such a scheme
be efficient and how sensitive is it to external perturbations? The omni directional but
stationary (lossless) nature of the near field makes this mechanism suitable for mobile
wireless receivers. It could therefore have a variety of possible applications including for
example, placing a source (connected to the wired electricity network) on the ceiling of a
factory room, while devices (robots, vehicles, computers, or similar) are roaming freely
within the room..
No.
Elapsed
time
from start
(in
months) of
the project
Milestone
Deliverables
1 Months
2.
3 Months
3.
5 Months
Study of Resonant
Coupling
1.
Hardware Designing
4.
5.
6.
6 Months
10 Months
11 Months
Hardware Implementations
Compilation and
documentation
of the experimental results
and publication of research
paper
Fig. 2
[19]
10
have to face a decreasing trend in the development of power sector. The transmission of
power without wires may be one noble alternative for electricity transmission.
In the early days of electromagnetism, before the electrical-wire grid was deployed,
serious interest and effort was devoted (most notably by Nikola Tesla [1]) towards the
development of schemes to transport energy over long distances without any carrier
medium (e.g. wirelessly). These efforts appear to have met with little success. Radiative
modes of omni-directional antennas (which work very well for information transfer) are
not suitable for such energy transfer, because a vast majority of energy is wasted into free
space. Directed radiation modes, using lasers or highly-directional antennas, can be
efficiently used for energy transfer, even for long distances (transfer distance LTRANSLDEV,
where LDEV is the characteristic size of the device), but require existence of an
uninterruptible line-of-sight and a complicated tracking system in the case of mobile
objects. Rapid development of autonomous electronics of recent years (e.g. laptops, cellphones, house-hold robots, that all typically rely on chemical energy storage) justifies
revisiting investigation of this issue. Today, we face a different challenge than Tesla:
since the existing electrical-wire grid carries energy almost everywhere, even a mediumrange (LTRANS fewLDEV) wireless energy transfer would be quite useful for many
applications. There are several currently used schemes, which rely on non-radiative
modes (magnetic induction), but they are restricted to very close-range (LTRANSLDEV) or
very low-power (~mW) energy transfers [2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
Getting around these issues is tricky. There have been a number of moderately successful
efforts to make working systems, mostly based on near-contact (i.e., centimeter-range)
11
power transfer. These use the sort of magnetic field induction found in a transformer or
an induction motor, both of which rely on a non radiating evanescent field that reduces
the power lost to radiation. But the power transfer falls off very steeply and the range is
very short. The result is a powered pad on which a suitably enabled device can be placed
to chargewireless indeed, but not very mobile. These issues can be handled by making
both the sender and the receiver of electrical power operate at the same frequency.
12
And there is another likely benefit from the use of these resonances, which addresses the
possible health concern. Unlike a freely propagating electromagnetic wave (such as
sunlight), where the electric and magnetic components are always of similar intensity on
average, these resonances are overwhelmingly magnetic in character. This could be
extremely helpful in reducing the hazard to health, because most ordinary materials
(including people) interact far more strongly with the electric than with the magnetic
component of an electromagnetic wave [26], so the absorbed power can be much less for
a given amount of power transferred. This helps efficiency but, far more important, it
reduces the microwave ovenstyle heating within brain tissue that defines the known
hazard limits for all radiofrequency devices such as mobile phones. This effect has not
yet been proven by standard safety tests, but it looks very promising.
CHAPTER 2
13
HISTORY
Objectives
In this chapter, the need for a Wireless System of Energy Transmission and the various
earlier technologies available so far for wireless transmission of electricity and is being
discussed to find its possibility in actual practices, their advantages, disadvantages and
economical consideration. This chapter is mainly concentrated on:
1.)
2.)
3.)
HISTORY
2.1: INTRODUCTION
14
Today, portable technology is a part of every day life. Having your stereo, telephone or computer
tied to a wall is a thing of the past. But from portability emerges another challenge: energy.
Almost all portable devices are battery powered, meaning that eventually, they all must be
recharged, tying the user back to the wall he was trying to avoid.
Now imagine that instead of plugging in your cell phone, laptop or mp3 player to recharge it, it
could receive its power wirelesslyquite literally, out of thin air. The power is wirelessly
transmitted even if any thick obstacle is placed between transmitter and receiver.
15
distribute the electricity. Now- a- days global scenario has been changed a lot and there are
tremendous development in every field. If we dont keep pace with the development of new
power technology we have to face a decreasing trend in the development of power sector. The
transmission of power without wires may be one noble alternative for electricity transmission.
16
William C. Brown [21], the leading authority on wireless power transmission technology, has
loaned this demonstration unit to the Texas Space Grant Consortium to show how power can be
transferred through free space by microwaves. A block diagram of the demonstration components
is shown below.
The primary components include a microwave source, a transmitting antenna, and a receiving
antenna.
17
through free space to the antenna. The slotted waveguide rectenna is ideal for power transmission
because of its high aperture efficiency (> 95%) and high power handling capability. A rectifying
antenna called a rectenna receives the transmitted power and converts the microwave power to
direct current (DC) power. This demonstration rectenna consists of 6 rows of dipoles antennas
where 8 dipoles belong to each row. Each row is connected to a rectifying circuit which consists
of low pass filters and a rectifier. The rectifier is a Ga As Schottky barrier diode that is impedance
matched to the dipoles by a low pass filter. The 6 rectifying diodes are connected to light bulbs
for indicating that the power is received. The light bulbs also dissipated the received power. This
rectenna has a 25% collection and conversion efficiency, but rectennas have been tested with
greater than 90% efficiency at 2.45 GHz[22]. The transmission of power without wires is not a
theory or a mere possibility, it is now a reality. The electrical energy can be economically
transmitted without wires to any terrestrial distance, many researchers have established in
numerous observations, experiments and measurements, qualitative and quantitative. These have
demonstrated that it is practicable to distribute power from a central plant in unlimited amounts,
with a loss not exceeding a small fraction of one per cent, in the transmission, even to the greatest
distance, twelve thousand miles - to the opposite end of the globe. This seemingly impossible feat
can now be readily performed by electrical researchers familiar with the design and construction
of my "high-potential magnifying transmitter," There were three popular theories present in the
literature of the late 1800's and early 1900's. They were:
18
Fig.7: The Trans receiving circuit for wireless power transmission [6]
It has been proven that electrical energy can be propagated around the world between the surface
of the Earth and the ionosphere at extreme low frequencies in what is known as the Schumann
Cavity. Knowing that a resonant cavity can be excited and that power can be delivered to that
cavity similar to the methods used in microwave ovens for home use, it should be possible to
resonate and deliver power via the Schumann Cavity to any point on Earth. This will result in
practical wireless transmission of electrical power. The intent of the experiments and the
laboratory Tesla had constructed was to prove that wireless transmission of electrical power was
possible. Although Tesla was not able to commercially market a system to transmit power around
the globe, modern scientific theory [23] and mathematical calculations support his contention that
the wireless propagation of electrical power is possible and a feasible alternative to the extensive
and costly grid of electrical transmission lines used today for electrical power distribution.
Power transmission system using directional ultrasound for power transmission includes a
transmitting device and a receiving device. The transmitting device has a set of ultrasound
transducers forming an ultrasound transducer array, where in the array is a set of spaced
individual transducers placed in the X-Y plane disposed to generate an[27] ultrasound beam in
19
the Z direction (Fig.6). Another possibility is to use highly efficient fiber lasers for wireless
power transmission where the possibilities are similar to microwaves concept but lasers emit
energy at frequencies much higher that microwaves. For several years NASA, ENTECH, and
UAH have been working on various aspects of collection of the laser radiation and conversion to
electrical power for laser wireless power transmission.
Fig.8: System and method for wireless electrical power Transmission (directional ultrasound for
power Transmission). [5]
Laser technology can also be used to transmit electric power wirelessly over a long distance. This
technology is used by NASA to transmit high electric power to their remote satellite or to their
robots present on moon for the research work. [24] The only disadvantage of the Laser is that it
works only in direct line of sight so it can be interrupted by obstacle.
20
21
dollar per year market. The increasing demand for electrical energy in industrial nations is well
documented. If we include the demand of third [28] world nations, pushed by their increasing rate
of growth, we could expect an even faster rise in the demand for electrical power in the near
future. These systems can only meet these requirements with 9094 %efficient transmission.
High Transmission Integrity and Low Loss: To transmit wireless power to any distance without
limit. It makes no difference what the distance is. The efficiency of the transmission can be as
high as 96 or 97 per cent, and there are practically no losses.
Demerits
Biological Impact
One common criticism of the Tesla wireless power system is regarding its possible biological
effects. Calculating the circulating reactive power, it was found that the frequency is very small
and such a frequency is very biologically compatible.
22
CHAPTER 3
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES
Objectives
In this chapter the reader may find a discussion of the issues involved so that one can
make an informed decision on the antenna type as per need. And the various wireless
technologies available so far for wireless transmission are being discussed. The chapter
includes:
Uni- Directional
Omni Directional
Resonant Coupling
Magnetic Induction
23
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES
3.1: Introduction
Concurrent with steadily increasing signal frequencies HF and microwave antennas get more and
more important for applications such as broadband transmission links, radar remote sensing /
navigation, and wireless transfer of high data rates. Most actual developments like satellite and
mobile communications are strongly expanding all over the world. Miniaturized antenna sensor
arrays support novel techniques of detection of earth resources, control of soil / water
contamination, robotics, etc.
Even though an antenna can be used to transmit or receive, it cannot be used for both functions at
the same time. The antenna must be connected to either a transmitter or a receiver.
3.2.2: Antenna Feed Point
Feed point is the point on an antenna where the RF cable is attached. If the RF transmission line
is attached to the base of an antenna, the antenna is end-fed. If the RF transmission line is
connected at the center of an antenna, the antenna is mid-fed or center-fed.
24
3.2.3: Directivity
The directivity of an antenna refers to the width of the radiation beam pattern. A directional
antenna concentrates its radiation in a relatively narrow beam. If the beam is narrow in either the
horizontal or vertical plane, the antenna will have a high degree of directivity in that plane. An
antenna can be highly directive in one plane only or in both planes, depending upon its use.
Omni- directional
Bi- directional
Uni- directional
Omni directional antennas radiate and receive equally well in all directions, except off the
ends. Bidirectional antennas radiate or receive efficiently in only two directions. Unidirectional
antennas radiate or receive efficiently in only one direction. Most antennas used in naval
communications are either omni directional or unidirectional. Bidirectional antennas are rarely
used.
Gain and directivity are intimately related in antennas. The directivity of an antenna is a
statement of how the RF energy is focused in one or two directions. Because the amount
of RF energy remains the same, but is distributed over less area, the apparent signal
strength is higher. This apparent increase in signal strength is the antenna gain. The gain
is measured in decibels over either a dipole (dBd) or a theoretical construct called an
25
isotropic radiator (dBi). The isotropic radiator is a spherical signal source that radiates
equally well in all directions. One way to view the omni- directional pattern is that it is a
slice taken horizontally through the three dimensional sphere.
Figure 10 [8] shows a unidirectional pattern such as found on Yagi and quad beams and
certain other antennas. The main lobe is the direction of maximum radiation or reception.
In addition to the main lobe, there are also sidelobes and backlobes. These lobes represent
lost energy so good antenna designs attempt to minimize them. In the unidirectional
antenna pattern, signals "A", "C" and "D" are suppressed, while signal "B" is maximized.
The beam width of the antenna is a measure of its directivity. In the case of the pattern of
Local installation factors can affect the radiation pattern. In "free space," i.e. the antenna
is installed at great distance from the surface of the Earth, trees, houses, wiring and so
forth, the pattern will be nearly perfect. But in practical situations, the two lobes might
not be equal, or the minima might be less distinct.
26
Fig. 11 [8] shows a bidirectional antenna pattern. This pattern is associated with half
wavelength dipoles, quad loops, and a number of other antennas. There are two preferred
directions (maxima) and two null directions (minima). In the half wavelength dipole the
minima and maxima are positioned as shown. For receivers, signals arriving from the
direction of the minima (Signal "A" and Signal "C") are suppressed because the antenna
is not sensitive in that direction. The suppression is not complete, but it can be
tremendous. The signals arriving from the direction of the maxima (Signal "B" and
Signal "D") are received the loudest. For transmitters, the radiated signal is the lowest in
the direction of the minima and greatest in the direction of the maxima. Again, the signal
level radiated off the ends of the antenna, i.e. in the direction of the minima, is not zero,
but is very low.
27
It is common practice to mount unidirectional antennas in a manner that allows the main
lobe to be positioned in any direction. This approach is easily achievable on the higher
frequencies of the HF shortwave bands and throughout the VHF/UHF spectrum. At lower
frequencies, however, the size of the antenna is usually too large. For example, the Yagi
beam uses elements about half wavelength long, so at 15-MHz the elements are about
9.5- meters (31.2-feet) long. At 4 MHz, on the other hand, they are 36-meters (118-feet)
long. For any given installation a decision has to be made on the mechanical aspects
because the larger beams are also very expensive to install.
28
Magnetic Induction
Resonant Coupling
29
Applications
30
It can be argued the cookware part of an induction cooker is not a secondary in the strictest sense
of the term. It is more accurately described as the non-laminated core of an alternating-current
electromagnet, in which eddy currents are induced resulting in the heating effect.
Devices using induction to charge portable consumer electronics such as cell phones.
"Resonant inductive coupling" has key implications in solving the two main problems associated
with non-resonant inductive coupling and electromagnetic radiation, one of which is caused by
the other; distance and efficiency. Electromagnetic induction works on the principle of a primary
coil generating a predominantly magnetic field and a secondary coil being within that field so a
current is induced within its coils. This causes the relatively short range due to the amount of
power required to produce an electromagnetic field. Over greater distances the non-resonant
induction method is inefficient and wastes much of the transmitted energy just to increase range.
31
This is where the resonance comes in and helps efficiency dramatically by "tunneling" the
magnetic field to a receiver coil that resonates at the same frequency. Unlike the multiple-layer
secondary of a non-resonant transformer, such receiving coils are single layer solenoids with
closely spaced capacitor plates on each end, which in combination allow the coil to be tuned to
the transmitter frequency thereby eliminating the wide energy wasting "wave problem" and
allowing the energy used to focus in on a specific frequency increasing the range.
32
CHAPTER 4
RESONANT COUPLING
Objectives
In this chapter, we are focusing on Resonant Coupling, the Technique being used in our
Project. This chapter is mainly concentrated on:
1.)
2.)
3.)
33
Resonant Coupling
4.1: Introduction
Wireless Electric Power Transmission System is based on using coupled resonant objects.
Two objects of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently, while
interacting weakly with objects that have a different resonant frequency. In physics,
resonance is the tendency of an object to oscillate at maximum amplitude at a certain
frequency. If the object is excited with a different frequency, its oscillation will die down.
Think of a swing for example - a kid needs to pump his legs with the right rhythm in
order to gain more momentum from it. Two objects with the same resonant frequency,
allowing them to exchange energy efficiently, while not interacting strongly with
extraneous off-resonant objects. Such strongly coupled systems have the ability of
allowing relatively efficient energy transfer.
Another example: weve all heard the myth about the opera singer breaking the glass with
a high note, but has anyone ever seen it happening in real life? Its not actually a myth,
though - if the singer sings a sufficiently loud single note of the same frequency as the
natural frequency of the glass, the latter will accumulate energy until it finally explodes.
The example of a room with 100 identical water glasses each filled with water up to a
different level, so they all have different resonant frequencies. If an opera singer sings a
sufficiently loud single note inside the room, a glass of the corresponding frequency
might accumulate sufficient energy to even explode, while not influencing the other
glasses.
34
While there are few different kinds of resonant systems, our team focused on one
particular type: magnetically coupled resonators. We have explored a system of two
electromagnetic resonators, each consist of a helical copper coil placed about 2.5-feets
apart, coupled mostly through their electromagnetic fields. Using the mathematical
theory, we calculated the optimal sizes of the coils in order to match their frequencies and
maximize the energy transfer efficiency.
4.2: Resonance
It's hard to grasp the idea that electric circuits can resonate because we can't see it
happening. Still, it's one of the most useful and common forms of resonance.
Resonance can occur in something called an RLC circuit. The letters stand for the
different parts of the circuit. R is for resistor. These are devices which convert electrical
energy into thermal energy. In other words, they remove energy from the circuit and
convert it to heat. L stands for inductor. (How they came up with L for inductor is hard to
understand.) Inductance in electric circuits is like mass or inertia in mechanical systems.
It doesn't do much until you try to make a change. In mechanics the change is a change in
velocity. In an electric circuit it is a change in current. When this happens inductance
resists the change. C is for capacitors which are devices that store electrical energy in
much the same way that springs store mechanical energy. An inductor concentrates and
stores magnetic energy, while a capacitor concentrates charge and thereby stores electric
energy.
35
(A)
(B)
Fig. 16 LC switching circuit [12]
We can make a circuit oscillate at its natural frequency by first storing electrical energy
or, in other words, charging its capacitor as shown in Figure 16 (A). When this is
accomplished the switch is thrown to the position shown in Figure 16 (B).
At time = 0 all of the electrical energy is stored in the capacitor and the current is zero
(see Figure 17). Notice that the top plate of the capacitor is charged positively and the
bottom negatively. We can't see the electrons' oscillation in the circuit but we can measure
36
it using an ammeter and plot the current versus time to picture what the oscillation is like.
Note that T on our graph is the time it takes to complete one oscillation.
Fig.17 [12]
Current flows in a clockwise direction (see Figure 18). The energy flows from the
capacitor into the inductor. At first it may seem strange that the inductor contains energy
but this is similar to the kinetic energy contained in a moving mass.
Fig. 18 [12]
Eventually the energy flows back into the capacitor, but note, the polarity of the capacitor
is now reversed. In other words, the bottom plate now has the positive charge and the top
plate the negative charge (see Figure 19).
37
Fig. 19 [12]
The current now reverses itself and the energy flows out of the capacitor back into the
inductor (see Figure 20). Finally the energy fully returns to its starting point ready to
begin the cycle all over again as shown in Figure 17.
Fig. 20 [12]
In real-world LC circuits there's always some resistance which causes the amplitude of
the current to grow smaller with each cycle. After a few cycles the current diminishes to
38
zero. This is called a "damped sinusoidal" waveform. How fast the current damps to
zero depends on the resistance in the circuit. However, the resistance does not alter the
frequency of the sinusoidal wave. If the resistance is high enough, the current will not
oscillate at all.
Obviously, where there's a natural frequency there's a way to excite a resonance. We do
this by hooking an alternating current (AC) power supply up to the circuit as shown in
Figure 21. The term alternating means that the output of the power supply oscillates at a
particular frequency. If the frequency of the AC power supply and the circuit it's
connected to are the same, then resonance occurs. In this case we measure the amplitude
or size of the oscillation by measuring current.
Fig. 21 [13]
Note in figure 21 that we have put a resistor back in the circuit. If there is no resistor in
the circuit the current's amplitude will increase until the circuit burns up. Increasing
resistance tends to decrease the maximum size of the current's amplitude but it does not
change the resonant frequency.
As a rule of thumb, a circuit will not oscillate unless the resistance (R) is low enough to
meet the following condition:
39
The same information is given graphically below. It is easy to remember the frequency
dependence by thinking of the DC (zero frequency) behavior: at DC, an inductance is a
short circuit (a piece of wire) so its impedance is zero. At DC, a capacitor is an open
circuit, as its circuit diagram shows, so its impedance goes to infinity.
40
The Q is a commonly used parameter in electronics, with values usually in the range of
Q=10 to 100 for circuit applications.
42
current cycles. If we assume that both components are subjected to a sudden application
of voltage (say, from a momentarily connected battery), the capacitor will very quickly
charge and the inductor will oppose change in current, leaving the capacitor in the
charged state and the inductor in the discharged state: (Figure 24)
The capacitor will begin to discharge, its voltage decreasing. Meanwhile, the inductor
will begin to build up a charge in the form of a magnetic field as current increases in
the circuit: (Figure 25)
The inductor, still charging, will keep electrons flowing in the circuit until the capacitor
has been completely discharged, leaving zero voltage across it: (Figure 26)
43
Fig. 27 Capacitor charging: voltage with opposite polarity (-) and inductor discharging
[16]
When the inductor is finally depleted of its energy reserve and the electrons come to a
halt, the capacitor will have reached full (voltage) charge in the opposite polarity as when
it started: (Figure 28)
Fig. 28 Capacitor fully charged (-) and inductor fully discharged [16]
44
Now we're at a condition very similar to where we started: the capacitor at full charge and
zero current in the circuit. The capacitor, as before, will begin to discharge through the
inductor, causing an increase in current (in the opposite direction as before) and a
decrease in voltage as it depletes its own energy reserve: (Figure 29)
Fig. 30 Capacitor fully discharged and inductor fully charged (-) [16]
The inductor, desiring to maintain current in the same direction, will act like a source
again, generating a voltage like a battery to continue the flow. In doing so, the capacitor
will begin to charge up and the current will decrease in magnitude: (Figure 31)
45
Eventually the capacitor will become fully charged again as the inductor expends all of
its energy reserves trying to maintain current. The voltage will once again be at its
positive peak and the current at zero. This completes one full cycle of the energy
exchange between the capacitor and inductor: (Figure 32)
Fig. 32 Capacitor fully charged (+) and inductor fully discharge [16]
This oscillation will continue with steadily decreasing amplitude due to power losses
from stray resistances in the circuit, until the process stops altogether. Overall, this
behavior is akin to that of a pendulum: as the pendulum mass swings back and forth,
there is a transformation of energy taking place from kinetic (motion) to potential
(height), in a similar fashion to the way energy is transferred in the capacitor/inductor
circuit back and forth in the alternating forms of current (kinetic motion of electrons) and
voltage (potential electric energy).
46
At the peak height of each swing of a pendulum, the mass briefly stops and switches
directions. It is at this point that potential energy (height) is at a maximum and kinetic
energy (motion) is at zero. As the mass swings back the other way, it passes quickly
through a point where the string is pointed straight down. At this point, potential energy
(height) is at zero and kinetic energy (motion) is at maximum. Like the circuit, a
pendulum's back-and-forth oscillation will continue with steadily dampened amplitude,
the result of air friction (resistance) dissipating energy. Also like the circuit, the
pendulum's position and velocity measurements trace two sine waves (90 degrees out of
phase) over time: (Figure 33)
47
the oscillations decrease in amplitude. The oscillation rate is independent of the amount
of energy stored in it.
The same is true for the capacitor/inductor circuit. The rate of oscillation is strictly
dependent on the sizes of the capacitor and inductor, not on the amount of voltage (or
current) at each respective peak in the waves. The ability for such a circuit to store energy
in the form of oscillating voltage and current has earned it the name tank circuit. Its
property of maintaining a single, natural frequency regardless of how much or little
energy is actually being stored in it gives it special significance in electric circuit design.
However, this tendency to oscillate, or resonate, at a particular frequency is not limited to
circuits exclusively designed for that purpose. In fact, nearly any AC circuit with a
combination of capacitance and inductance (commonly called an LC circuit) will tend
to manifest unusual effects when the AC power source frequency approaches that natural
frequency. This is true regardless of the circuit's intended purpose.
If the power supply frequency for a circuit exactly matches the natural frequency of the
circuit's LC combination, the circuit is said to be in a state of resonance. The unusual
effects will reach maximum in this condition of resonance. For this reason, we need to be
able to predict what the resonant frequency will be for various combinations of L and C,
and be aware of what the effects of resonance are.
REVIEW:
48
frequency, energy is alternately shuffled between the capacitor and the inductor in
the form of alternating voltage and current 90 degrees out of phase with each
other.
When the power supply frequency for an AC circuit exactly matches that circuit's
natural oscillation frequency as set by the L and C components, a condition of
resonance will have been reached.
The technical mechanism uses a capacitor to "enlarge" the antenna and bring it to
resonance. The disadvantage of this method is the low bandwidth of the antenna, also
known as high Q, which limits efficient operation to a narrow frequency range. A high-Q
can be advantageous, however. Since well-tuned magnetic loops function best within a
narrow frequency range when tuned, they tend to reject harmonic noise from other RF
sources. This keeps the level of unwanted noise down as compared with wider-bandwidth
antennas.
49
The magnetic loop antenna is an old antenna; however, many military, commercial, and
amateur radio operators still use them today. The Magnetic Loop was widely used in the
Vietnam War due to its high portability.
50
51
52
CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM DESIGN
Objectives
In this chapter, Hardware Design of WET System is being discussed. Different System
Components and Parameters are described in detail. This chapter is mainly concentrated
on:
1.)
System Components
2.)
Mathematical Work
3.)
Cost of Design
4.)
Circuit Diagrams
53
SYSTEM DESIGN
5.1: Development / Research Methodology
Efficient mid-range power transfer occurs in particular regions of the parameter space
describing resonant objects strongly coupled to one another. Using coupled-mode theory
to describe this physical system, we obtain the following set of linear equations:
is the
due to absorption and radiated losses). In this framework, an uncoupled and undriven
oscillator with parameters
and
mn
nm
are coupling coefficients between the resonant objects indicated by the subscripts, and
Fm(t) are driving terms.
We limit the treatment to the case of two objects, denoted by source and device, such that
the source (identified by the subscript S) is driven externally at a constant frequency, and
the two objects have a coupling coefficient . Work is extracted from the device (subscript
D) by means of a load (subscript W) that acts as a circuit resistance connected to the
device, and has the effect of contributing an additional term
object's decay rate
work extracted is determined by the power dissipated in the load, that is, 2
. The
|aD(t)|2.
54
, given Eq., is
equivalent to solving an impedance-matching problem. One finds that the scheme works
best when the source and the device are resonant, in which case the efficiency is
=[1+ ( 2/
D
2
S D
S D
strong coupling regime. Resonance plays an essential role in this power transfer
mechanism, as the efficiency is improved by approximately
2
D
55
case of infinitely long coils, the solutions rely on assumptions that are inadequate for our
system.
We start by observing that the current must be zero at the ends of the coil, and we make
the educated guess that the resonant modes of the coil are well approximated by
sinusoidal current profiles along the length of the conducting wire. We are interested in
the lowest mode, so if we denote by s the parameterization coordinate along the length of
the conductor, such that it runs from l/2 to +l/2, then the time-dependent current profile
has the form I0 cos( s/l) exp(i t). It follows from the continuity equation for charge that
the linear charge density profile is of the form
coil (when sliced perpendicularly to its axis) contains an oscillating total charge (of
amplitude q0 =
other half.
56
As the coil is resonant, the current and charge density profiles are /2 out of phase from
each other, meaning that the real part of one is maximum when the real part of the other is
zero. Equivalently, the energy contained in the coil is at certain points in time completely
due to the current, and at other points it is completely due to the charge. Using
electromagnetic theory, we can define an effective inductance L and an effective
capacitance C for each coil as follows:
where the spatial current J(r) and charge density (r) are obtained respectively from the
current and charge densities along the isolated coil, in conjunction with the geometry of
the object. As defined, L and C have the property that the energy U contained in the coil is
given by
Given this relation and the equation of continuity, the resulting resonant frequency is f0 =
1/[2 (LC)1/2]. We can now treat this coil as a standard oscillator in coupled-mode theory
by defining a(t)=[(L/2)1/2]I0(t).
57
We can estimate the power dissipated by noting that the sinusoidal profile of the current
distribution implies that the spatial average of the peak current squared is |I0|2/2. For a coil
with n turns and made of a material with conductivity , we modify the standard formulas
for ohmic (Ro) and radiation (Rr) resistance accordingly:
The first term in Eq is a magnetic dipole radiation term (assuming r << 2 c/ , where c is
the speed of light); the second term is due to the electric dipole of the coil and is smaller
than the first term for our experimental parameters. The coupled-mode theory decay
constant for the coil is therefore =(Ro + Rr)/2L, and its quality factor is Q = /2 .
We find the coupling coefficient
DS
to the device coil, assuming a steady-state solution in which currents and charge densities
vary in time as exp(i t):
58
Where M is the effective mutual inductance, is the scalar potential, A is the vector
potential, and the subscript S indicates that the electric field is due to the source. We then
conclude from standard coupled-mode theory arguments that KDS = KSD = K=
M/
[2(LSLD1/2)]. When the distance D between the centers of the coils is much larger than their
characteristic size, K scales with the D3 dependence characteristic of dipole-dipole
coupling. Both and are functions of the frequency, and / and the efficiency are
maximized for a particular value of f, which is in the range 1 to 50 MHz for typical
parameters of interest. Thus, picking an appropriate frequency for a given coil size, as we
do in this experimental demonstration, plays a major role in optimizing the power
transfer.
59
5.3.1 AC to DC Converter
"Electronic power converter" is the term that is used to refer to a power electronic circuit
that converts voltage and current from one form to another.
These converters can be classified as:
In our design, we can use an AC to DC converter that converts 220V AC supply into
different DC values of 12V, 18V, 24V, 36V.
In this project we are using 14V / 2A because of the Power limitations of the Oscillator
Circuit.
60
61
IC #
Normal use
Comment
SMPS
SG1524
ST
SG3525A
Maxim
Atmel
U2352B
PWM Generator
for speed control
of portable tools
TI
TL494
SMPS
TI
UC2638
PWM generator
for motor control
8 TO 35 V OPERATIONS
62
INTERNAL SOFT-START
PULSE-BY-PULSE SHUTDOWN
63
The speed demand signal is input at pin 2, the op-amp non-inverting input.
The frequency of the oscillator, and therefore the PWM signal produced, is
governed by the value of the resistor to ground on the RT pin.
The sync and osc out pins are not required for our purpose.
The soft start feature prevents the output from saturating at 100% ratio when the
chip is powering up.
The Shutdown input is an active-high input that immediately shuts down the
outputs, and resets the soft-start feature.
64
fo = 1/ 2 L C
L = 0.16 uH
Capacitance :
C = 390 nF
F0 = 640 KHz
Capacitive Reactance:
XC = 0.643022
Inductive Reactance:
XL = 0.643339
65
L = o N R[ln(8R/a)-2]
On the transmission side LC circuit we connected capacitor with value of 390 nF. A coil
with following parameters is used:
Outer coil:
No. of Turns
= 100
Radius of Coil
= 143.75mm
= 287.5mm
Wire radius
= 318um
Hence,
Value L = 11.18 mH
Middle coil:
No. of Turns
= 42
Radius of Coil
= 81.25mm
= 162.5mm
Wire radius
= 190.8um
66
Hence,
Value L = 1.104 mH
Inner coil:
No. of Turns
= 20
Radius of Coil
= 56.25mm
= 112.5mm
Wire radius
= 127.2um
Hence,
Value L = 0.2uH
L=0.16uH
5.3.4 The Receiver Circuit
Now calculate inductance of each coil and then Using resonance frequency equation we
calculate value of capacitors at resonance frequency of 640khz. Three capacitors with
values of (aprox) 330uF on each receiving coil are connected.
67
= 100
Radius of Coil
= 143.75mm
= 287.5mm
Wire radius
= 31.8um
Hence,
Value L = 15.34 mH
Middle coil:
No. of Turns
= 210
Radius of Coil
= 81.25mm
68
= 162.5mm
Wire radius
= 270.625um
Hence,
Value L = 26.043 mH
Inner coil:
No. of Turns
= 110
Radius of Coil
= 56.25mm
= 112.5mm
Wire radius
= 270.625um
Hence,
Value L = 4.632mH
Since both the Transmitter & Receiver are in the state of resonance, energy exchange will
take place b/w two sides of the system.
5.3.5 Frequency Converter
69
Frequency Conversion is necessary to make the system compatible with any type of load.
Since we are using a 22 Watt Energy Saver Bulb (Resistive Load), no Frequency
Conversion Circuit was deployed. However, for charging a laptop or mobile phone, this
conversion will be necessary.
Components List
Sr. #
Components Name
Qty.
Unit Price
(Rs.)
Total
(Rs.)
2
3
4
POWER MOSFETS
PWM GENERATOR IC
SWITCHING TRANSISTORS
MOSFET HEATSINK
20PCS
2 PCS
6 PCS
6 PCS
400
900
125
100
8000
1800
750
600
5
6
7
8
9
AC TO DC CONVERTER
POWER CAPACITORS
CIRCUIT BOARD
RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS
SOLDER WIRE
2 PCS
4 PCS
2 PCS
800
250
250
600
10
4000
4000
11
12
13
HI POWER RECTIFIERS
HI FREQUENCY DIODES
SURGE CAPACITORS
1
ROLL
1
LOOP
2 PCS
3 PCS
10
PCS
1600
1000
500
600
600
800
400
70
1600
1200
700
70
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
CHOPPER TRANSFORMER
CHOPPER DRIVE CIRCUIT
LOOP STAND
LOOP CONNECTOR
LOPP TAPE HI FREQ
IC SOCKETS
VOLTAGE VARIATION CKT
VARIABLE RESISTORS
SHOTKEY BARRIER DIODES
23
DIODES HEATSINK
24
HOOK UP WIRE
25
HI VOLTAGE CAPACITORS
26
27
28
29
30
31
CHOPPER STRIP
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
CIRCUIT HOLDING BASE
CHOPPER WINDING WIRE
VARNISH CAN
MIXED COMPONENTS
2 PCS
2 PCS
1 PCS
2 PCS
1 PCS
2 PCS
1 PCS
5 PCS
10
PCS
10
PCS
10
FEET
14
PCS
2 PCS
2 PCS
2 PCS
2 PCS
1 PCS
550
600
610
150
350
15
1000
30
250
1100
1200
610
300
350
30
1000
150
2500
90
900
30
300
265
1060
250
50
250
650
250
1000
500
100
500
650
250
1000
1
2
3
4
5
LOOP WIRE
LOOP WIRE HOLDER
VOLTAGE FILTER CAPACITORS
LOOP TAPE
RELAY
1
1
10
5
5
2000
1000
200
500
150
2000
1000
2000
2500
750
43,700 /-
71
CHAPTER 6
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Objectives
In this chapter, we are focusing on EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS, these results are as
follows :
1.)
2.)
Is (A)
2
RECIEVER PARAMETERS:
At distance 10cm
Vr (V)
Ir (mA)
230
104.3
V(trans) (V)
14
I(trans) (A)
1.8
Pr (Watt)
24
P(source)(W) P(trans)(W)
28
25.2
Coil efficiency
(%)
95
Total efficiency
(%)
85
Total efficiency
(%)
82
Total efficiency
At distance 20cm
Vr (V)
Ir (mA)
Pr (Watt)
225
23.1
Coil efficiency
(%)
91
Pr (Watt)
Coil efficiency
102.2
At distance 28cm
Vr (V)
Ir (mA)
73
(%)
220
100
(%)
22
87
78
At distance 35cm
Vr (V)
Ir (mA)
Pr (Watt)
200
19
Coil efficiency
(%)
75
Total efficiency
(%)
68
Coil efficiency
(%)
69
Total efficiency
(%)
58
Coil efficiency
(%)
87
14.9
60
Table 6: Transmitter and Receiver Parameters
Total efficiency
(%)
53
95
At distance 45cm
Vr (V)
Ir (mA)
Pr (Watt)
180
16.5
91
At distance 55cm
Vr (V)
Ir (mA)
171
Pr (Watt)
CHAPTER 7
Objectives
In this chapter, we are focusing on ENHANCEMENTS AND APPLICATIONS of
project; following topics discussed in this chapter:
1.)
Enhancements.
2.)
Applications.
75
7.1 Enhancements
Following enhancements can be made in this project:
Circular
Rectangular
Square
Triangular
Spherical
76
Etc
7.1.4 Portability
By reducing the size of receiver, the factor of portability can be achieved. If this system
becomes portable then it can be tremendously in daily electronics or electrical
equipments.
77
7.2 Applications
Household devices
78
REFERENCES
[1] http://blog.melvinpereira.com/2010/02/08/one-ring-to-rule-them-all-wirelesselectricity.html
[2] www.linktostudy.blogspot.com
[3] www.us.123rf.com
[4] http://www.damninteresting.com/teslas-tower-of-power/
[5] www.veuphorik.wordpress.com
[6] www.hubpages.com
[7]http://www.thelivingmoon.com/46exuberant/03files/Laser_Power_Transmission_01.ht
ml
[8] www.wordpress.com
[9] www.explainthatstuff.com
79
[10] http://www.123rf.com/photo_4302903_hand-holding-one-glowing-light-bulbbetween-fingers.html
[11] www.4hv.org
[12] Fundamentals of electric circuits (Alexander Sadiku)
[13] www.bibliotecapleyades.net
[14] http://artsites.ucsc.edu/EMS/music/tech_background/Z/impedance.html
[15] www.hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
[16] www.wps.prenhall.com
[17] www.abitabout.com
[18] http://www.noding.com
[19] MS Paint
[20] www.alldatasheet.com
[21] Tesla, N. Apparatus for transmitting electrical energy. U.S. patent
number 1,119,732, issued in December 1914.
[22] Fernandez, J. M. and Borras, J. A. Contactless battery charger with
wireless control link. U.S. patent number 6,184,651, issued in
February 2001.
[23] Ka-Lai, L., Hay, J. W. and Beart, P. G. W. Contact-less power
transfer. U.S. patent number 7,042,196, issued in May 2006.
(SplashPower Ltd., www.splashpower.com)
[24] Esser, A. and Skudelny, H.-C. A new approach to power supplies
for robots. IEEE Trans. on industry applications 27, 872 (1991).
[25] Hirai, J., Kim, T.-W. and Kawamura, A. Wireless transmission of
power and information and information for cableless linear motor
drive. IEEE Trans. on power electronics 15, 21 (2000).
[26] Scheible, G., Smailus, B., Klaus, M., Garrels, K. and Heinemann, L.
System for wirelessly supplying a large number of actuators of a
machine with electrical power. U.S. patent number 6,597,076, issued
in July 2003. (ABB, www.abb.com)
80
APPENDIX A
Data Sheet of SG3525 [30]
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88