THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF TALL BUILDINGS

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in

the Faculty of Science of the University of London.

by

A P Jeary C. Eng. F.R.Met.S., M.I.E.R.E

University College London

March 1981

THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF TALL BUILDINGS

by
Alan P Jeary

ABSTRACT
A study of the measurement, prediction and characterisation of
the dynamic behaviour of tall buildings is presented. Initially
a review of the history of tall buildings and the study of their
dynamic behaviour is presented. The characterisation of tall
buildings by conventional means and by the use of spectral
functions is considered.

The results of tests on twelve tall buildings and one quarter-scale

model are presented. The response of twelve of these structures
to wind excitation has been monitored, and, for the purpose of
calibration, all but one of the buildings has been excited
artificially by the use of eccentric mass vibrators. The handling
of deterministic and random data is considered and some new
techniques for their reduction are presented.

The introduction of a new vibrator system has allowed the study of

the dynamic characteristics of tall buildings with a greater
precision than has previously been possible. The new precision
has suggested reasons for the confusion which previously existed
in the assessment of dynamic characteristics of tall buildings,
and a new rationale for the prediction of natural frequencies and
damping ratios is presented.

Finally, currently popular methods for the prediction of the

response of tall buildings to wind excitation are considered and
comparisons have suggested several areas where research is
urgently needed.

(i)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There is a large number of people who have helped or assisted with
some aspect of the study reported in this thesis. It would be
impossible to acknowledge the part played by everyone who has been
involved and so only those who have played a major part are mentioned
here. Suffice is to say that the author is very gratefulto everyone
who has played a part.

Sincere thanks are offered to the following for the much-appreciated

help they have provided:-

To the Building Research Establishment who have provided the

facilities, time and finance that has allowed the project to be
undertaken.

To Director, BRE, for allowing the work to be published.

To my tutors, Professor K 0 Kemp at UCL and first, Dr P R Sparks,

and later, Dr J B Menzies at BRE for their consistent interest and
helpful suggestions throughout the work.

To

.3

Paquet and

.3

Shipart of Centre Experimental du Batiments et

Travaux Publics of Paris for their collaboration with the early

tests at Wrexham, Northern England and Sheffield.

To Dr B E Lee of Sheffield University who was persuaded to collect

records of response to wind activity on many a weekend (when the
wind always seems to blow).

To my colleagues at the Building Research Station with whom I have

had many useful and stimulating discussions - DrN Cook, Mr RCurrie,
Mr B Ellis, Mr .3 Mayrte, Mr P Sims, Dr V de Souza and Dr P Sparks.

To the people involved with the detailed arrangements for the work
conducted on site - Mr R Hetherington of V C Curtin and Partners,
Mr A Grimes of Oscar Faber Ltd., Dr B Lee and Dr R Evans of
Sheffield University, Dr C Williams and Dr H Ward, both previously
of Plymouth Polytechnic, Mr D Lippard of Pell Frishmann and Partners,

(ii)

Mr D Hodson of Property Services Agency, Dr A Young and Professor

P McLellan of Leicester University, Dr R Tomlinson of Plymouth
Polytechnic.
To Dr C Ellison, Dr C Hargis, Dr J Parry and Professor R Severn
of Bristol University who designed and constructed the new vibrator
system to a specification that was difficult to achieve.

To a succession of people who have helped with the conducting of

the on-site full-scale testing at times when most people were on
holiday or asleep - M Beak, G Dupuch, B Ellis, P Ellis, K Fry,
B Lee, J Littler and C Williams.

To my friend and colleague, Brian Ellis, for the discussions on

dynamics conducted in the most unlikely places.

To the British Climatology Unit of the Meteorological Office who

supplied a great deal of information, both before and after wind
storms.

To the people who have transcribed an illegible manuscript into

this thesis - Mrs G Jordan and Mrs R Quarterman.

(iii)

CONTENTS

PAGE

(i)

ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

(ii)

(ix)

NOTATION
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Raasons for the significance of dynamic behaviour

1.2 Comparisons of theory and practice
1.3 This study

2. A REVIEW OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH

2.1 The development of tall buildings

2.2 The early years

10

2.3 Measurement techniques

12

2.4 The development of vibration generators

2.5 The use of naturally occurring forces

2.6 A Natural frequencies

13

2.6 Major results from 80 years of research

15

17

18

2.6 C Mode shapes and soil-structure interaction

2.6 D Torsional centre

16

2.6 B Softening spring behaviour

2.6 F Modal coupling

19

20

2.6 E The effect of varying the form of a tested building

2.6 G Damping

21
21

2.6 H Temperature effects

22

24

2.6 I Comparison of induced and ambient vibrations
2.6 J Comparison of theory and practice

25
25

3. A REVIEW OF THEORETICAL CHARACTERISATIONS OF TALL BUILDINGS 27

3.1 Theoretical principles for equations of dynamics

28

3.1 A D t Alemberts principle

28

(iv)

CONTENTS

PAGE

3.1 B The principle of virtual displacements.

29

3.1 C Hamilton's principle.

29

3.1 D Derivation of equations of motion.

30

3.1 E Lagrange's equation.

31

3.2 Methods for the theoretical consideration of dynamic

properties.
3.2 A The finite element method.

36

3.3 Use and abuse of theoretical methods.

37

4. MODAL REPRESENTATION AND THE SPECTRAL APPROACH

38

4.1 The implications of the complex frequency response equations 41

for forced vibration testing.
4.1 A Resonance.

41

4.1 B The static case.

42

4.1 C Decay of oscillation.

42

4.2 The implications of the complex frequency response equations 42

for random vibrations.
4.2 A Spectral estimates for the complex frequency response

43

function.
4.2 B Spectral estimates for the forcing function.

44

4.3 The theoretical estimation of response using the spectral

44

approach.
4.4 The modal representation of building dynamics.

45

4.4 A Mode shapes.

46

4.4 B Modal mass.

46

4.4 B (1)

Straight line mode

46

4.4 B (ii)

Cantilever mode.

47

4.4 B (iii) Shear mode.

4.4 B (iv)

47

Second translational mode.

48

4.4 C Natural (or resonance) frequency.

49

4.4 D Modal damping ratio.

50

(v)

CONTENTS

4.4 D (i)

PAGE

The half power bandwidth method

4.4 D (Ii) Rundown method

50

4.4 D (iii) Autocorrelation method

51

4.4 D (iv) The random decrement method

4.4 E Modal directionality

51

51

5. FULL SCALE TESTING OF STRUCTURES

5.1 Ins truinents and equipment used

52
52

56

5.2 mbient vibrations

5.3 Induced vibrations

50

58

5.3 A The vibrator system

59

5.3 B Induced vibration tests

61

6. PROGRM{ OF TESTS ON STRUCTURES

6. 1 The Post Office Tower, London

6.2 Police headquarters, Wrexham

63

63

6.3 Office block, northern England

64

64

6.4 Quarter-scale model of large panel building, Garston

6.5 Arts tower, University of Sheffield

6.6 Residential nautical college, Plymouth

6.7 British rail building, Plymouth

6.8 The civic centre, Plymouth
6.9 National Westminster Tower, London
6.10 Sutherland house, Sutton, Surrey

67
67
68

70
70

7.1 Deterministic data

66

69

6.13 Leicester University Engineering tower, Leicester

7. DATA RETRIEVA1.

65

68

6.11 Dunstan flour mill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne

6. 12 Exeter 6th form college, Exeter, Devon

71
73

73

7.1 A Mode shape measurement

7.1 B Estimating damping from decays of oscillation

(vi)

74
76

PAGE

CONTENTS
7.2 Random data

7.2 A Ensemble averaging

79

80

7.2 B Enhanced uncoherent output spectra

81

7. 2 C Estimation of damping by use of the autocorrelation technique

7.2 D Estimation of damping by use of the random decrement technique

82
82

7.2 E Simulation of damping estimation errors using a digital computer 84

8.

87

RESULTS FROM TESTS ON REAL STRUCTURES

8. 1 The Post Office Tower, London

87

88

8.2 Police headquarters, Wrexham

90

8.3 Office block, northern England

8.4 Quarter scale model, Garston

92

8.5 Arts tower, University of Sheffield, Yorkshire

92

97

8.6 Residential nautical college, Plymouth

8.7 British rail building, Plymouth

8.8 Civic Centre, Plymouth

98
100

8.9 National Westminster tower, London

102

105

8. 10 Sutherland House, Sutton, Surrey

8. 11 Dunstan flour mill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
8.12 Exeter 6th form college, Exeter, Devon

108

108

8.13 Leicester University engineering tower, Leicester

8. 14 Discussion of the tested buildings
8. 14 A General observations

111
113

113

116

8. 14 B Natural frequencies

117

8.14 C Damping

120

9. THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS OF RESPONSE

120

9. 1 The spectral approach to calculating response

9.2 The relationship between windspeed and response

122
123

9.3 Variation of turbulence with height

9.4 Variation of response with angle of attack of the wind

9.5 Recounxndations for the prediction of response

(vii)

124
124

CONTENTS
10.

PAGE

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

10.1 Data reduction

10.1 B Random decrement

10.1 D Stationary data

126

126

127

127

10.2 B Nodal response

128

128

10.2 C Natural frequencies

128

10.2 E Building stiffness

129

130

10.3 The response of structures to wind loading

10.4 Suggestions for further work
11. APPENDIX 1

126

10.1 E Ensemble averaging

10.2 D Damping

126

10.1 C Curve fitting to exponential decays

10.2 A Modal mass

126
126

10.1 A Enhanced uncoherent output spectra

10.2 Structures

130
131

132

Analysis of random data

REFERENCES
FIGURES

141

153

(viii)

NOTATION

A displacement

A generalised co-ordinate

Half power bandwidth

Damping force

Dynamic matrix =

E
F

Coefficient equal to K - w2m

A force

Frequency

f

G

Spectral density function

An integer

9,

Dynamic response factor

Height of a structure

H

Ho

Complex frequency response function

Identity matrix

I
2- An

integer
VI - 1

'-7

Stiffness influence function or spring constant

Flexibility influence coefficient;

Mass

M

N

An integer
An integer

A force

Quality factor =

Q
r

An integer

Laplace operator

S(f)

Spectral density of wind force

An integer

Kinetic energy

(ix)

Analysis time

Time

Strain energy

Potential energy

vw

Wind velocity
Work done

Wb

Width of a building
An integer

Amplitude displacement output of a system

Output of a system

-Y

Output of a system

Amplitude - output of a system

Height up a structure

(x)

Greek letters

A phase angle
2ir

Logarithm of decrement = ____

Distortion of an element
Damping ratio
2v

A rotation

A matrix

Density of air

Variance
A mode shape
A phase angle
Circular frequency =

2Trf

Specific Useages

Cc

Critical damping value

CDII

Aerodynamic drag coefficient for a building

-p2

Mean square modal force spectral density of mode

r
M
r

Modal mass of mode

MT

Total mass of a structure

N3

Number of stories of a building

pp

Peak to peak measurement

T
p

Record length

VII

Mean windspead at height H

'r'

Zero amplitude damping value

Damping increment per millimetre
wn

Undamped natural frequency

(xi)

'r'

Functions

Sum
J.
( )

Integral
Functions of term in bracket
Differential with respect to time -do

d2
Double differential with respect to time

-
A

A matrix
Peak value

in

Napierian logarithm

dB

Decibel

rms

Square root of the mean square

Subscript

no

Non conservative

Refers to damping

Refers to external forces

Refers to inertia

Refers to an output

Refers to elastic forces

(xii)

INTRODUCTION

In the real world, all objects undergo continual motion brought

about by the action of a multitude of forces acting on them. In
the case of man-made structures this movement is usually quite
small, but, occasionally, larger forces can cause motion that is
large enough to cause concern amongst those who must use these
structures.
Time-varying, or dynamic, movements, caused by earthquakes or
storms, have long been subjects of intense interest and fascination
to mankind, although it is only in the twentieth century that such
motion has been studied rigorously. Problems associated with
dynamic behaviour are potentially most severe in larger structures,
and it is only by an understanding of the dynamic movement caused
by naturally occurring forces, that these large structures may be
successfully and economically designed to withstand nature's
ravages.
The ability to measure or infer, the nature of dynamic response
with a reasonable degree of confidence, was lacking until the
recent advances in electronics techniques affected transducer
technology. Accordingly the time is now propitious for the study
of the dynamic behaviour of tall buildings, and this thesis seeks
to describe a large study carried out in this field, the concern
of which has been to acquire experimental data, to assess the
methods of their collection, to compare theory with practice and
to look for ways in which dynamic behaviour may be predicted
more accurately.

The question of the dynamic interaction of

structure and soil is left to another study. Because of the

location of the tested buildings, interest has naturally centred
on the response to wind activity, the methods and results are,
however, equally applicable in the field of earthquake engineering.

1.1 Reasons for the significance of dynamic behaviour

Increasing life-expectancy and the ensuing enormous increase in
population of the richer parts of the world led to a boom in
constructing tall buildings. In the light of present theories
about the ability of a certain area to support a particular
population it is surprising that tall buildings appeared in some
locations where it was equally possible to spread outwards at a
lower level. However, economic forces dictate that, at least at
certain times, large numbers of people must crowd together in
cities where space is strictly limited, and in response to these
forces cities like Chicago and New York led the way in building
what became known as 'skyscrapers'. Many other areas unthinkingly
followed this example, with the result that many central city
areas concede little to the original, natural, habitat. Increasing
sophistication in construction techniques and dominating economic
forces have, over the years, eroded safety margins by leaving out
supposedly 'non-structural' elements .hich had in practice
previously carried load. The ensuing decrease in the stiffness
of structures has brought us to the point where a consideration of
dynamic behaviour has become important, and is often, now, the
limiting consideration for safe design.
The subject, then, has achieved

an importance

because of the desire

of designers and purchasers of buildings to attempt to make

'graceful', 'slim' or 'beautiful' structures as well as to optimise
the financial benefits involved. As these considerations are all
beyond the scope of this work, it is not intended here to dwell on
these aspects, but rather to concentrate on one of the consequences
of the appearance of these structures. Structural dynamics of
buildings is inevitably bound-up with the development of large
structures, but also with the ability to measure and predict
response, to identify and characterise the forces which are likely
to act on a building during its lifetime, to produce theoretical
models of the structures themselves and. latterly to induce,
artificially, motion in a structure so as to compare real and
predicted behaviour.

Armed with a good. characterisation of a bu.ilding and. of the forces

that build.ing is likely to experience during its lifetime, a
designer may optimise his structure for efficiency or economy.
Characterisation of the input forces, then, is equally as
important as that of the building, but, because of their random
nature, these forces present not only difficulties for their own
description but also dictate the form of ch.aracterisation for a
building for that characterisation to be useful This charac-terisation is achieved, at present, by a use of spectral functions (Ic
describing a random variable as a function of frequency).
The importance of accurate mathematical models for buildings and.
input forces is witnessed not only by designers seeking the
information, but also by the significant number of structures which
have failed, partially or totally, when subjected. to naturally
occurring dynamic forces. For example the report by the U.S Department of Commerce on the 1971 San Fernando earthquake 1 states it
"killed. 58 persons, 47 in the collapse of the nonearth.quake-resistive Veterans hospital, and caused. over 2 500
hospital treated injuries .... the earthquake's strong motion
lasted. about 12 seconds, and its magnitude has been assigned

as 6.4 on the Richter scale. Direct damage to buildings and

other structures exceeded half a billion dollars. Except for
the financial losses, the foregoing statistics are not unduly
impressive in terms of a major earthquake. However, what a
impressive, and. disturbing, is the type and extent of serious
d.amage to earthquake - resistive buildings, to dams located
upstream from densely populated areas, and to public utilities
and roadways that are the lifelines of cities. An extrapolation
to the level of a maximum credible earthquake in the metropolitan
Los Angeles area indicates there would be a major catastrophe,
possibly exceeding the nation's capabilities to make an ad.equate
immediate response to such a disaster."

If the problem is serious for the richest nation it is positively

disastrous for the poorer ones. A magnitude 7.5 (Richter scale)
earthquake affected the central and north-western areas of
(iatemala, leaving 25 000 people dead and 77 000 wounded. The
damage to property was estimated as one billion dollars, which
represents half the gross national product of that country
Wind storms also present a significant problem for the designer
of buildings but in this case the nature of the problem is somewhat clouded by the emotional nature of the reporting of accidents.
For instance, the passage of Cyclone Tracy through Darwin on
December 25th 1971+3 was widely reported as having destroyed the
town. Whilst the damage was severe (estimated at the time as

300 million US dollars) and some 50 people lost their lives, the
damage was limited mainly to domestic dwellings. The building
regulations in force at the time were not adequate for tropical
cyclones, despite the fact that Darwin had previously been
subjected to cyclones (January 7th, 1897 and March 10th,

1937).

Damage to one type of cyclone resistant prefabricated housing

system and to some expensive privately constructed houses was
limited to some broken windows and wind-borne missile damage.
The damage to apartment buildings, government office blocks and
tall buildings was similarly limited to cladding damage and some
broken windows.
In Britain a government survey of wind damage 1+ showed there to be
at least 13 million pounds worth of damage per year in the period

1970-76. However, damage was mainly limited to private dwellings,

and damage to 'engineered' structures (those subjected to a
rigorous design process for horizontal and vertical forces) was
limited mainly to lightweight cladding, especially roofs, often
while under construction.
In isolated instances tall buildings have been damaged in severe
winds. The Meyser-Kiser building was severely damaged in the
Miami hurricane of 1926. The steel frame distorted plastically

and occupants reported severe swaying throughout the storm. More

recently the Great Plains Life building in lubbock, Texas, was
damaged in a similar way. 6 It is possible, then, that many
'engineered' buildings which are constructed in non-seismic zones,
are over-designed. However, the presence of human occupants

severely complicates the matter.

Naturally occurring forces induce dynamic response in the structures
on which they act. The design process seeks to estimate these
forces and to predict the nature and magnitude of the consequent
response of the structure. The dangers of total collapse in the
face of storms and earthquakes are obvious enough to be considered
carefully. However, there are levels of response less than total
collapse which normally have to be considered in design, and for
the cases of wind and earthquakes these levels can be summarised
as:-

(1) partial Collapse

(2) Permanent damage
(3) Slight structural damage

(k) Occupant discomfort

In the case of earthquakes it would be the object of the designer
to limit the response to level

3 in

which the slight structural

damage can be repaired. The occupants of buildings subjected to

an earthquake will tolerate a small amount of discomfort However,
it is unusual for occupants or users of buildings to accept even a
small amount of perceptible motion when the wind is the driving
force. This appears to be a function of people's expectations
that a building should be 'stationary' and it means that designers
are faced with the problem of limiting motion to a level which is
not normally perceptible for a chosen extreme event wind. Buildings
which do respond above the perception threshold are sometimes
evacuated during storms, and must therefore be considered to be
unserviceable for their intended purpose at the time of heightened
wind activity.

1.2 Comparisons of theory and practice

Theoretical predictors of response have progressed from early
attempts using crude approximations to the present use of complex
models which reflect the complicated structure of a building
rather more precisely.
The use of finite element techniques for the calculation of
stresses 7 was soon adapted to the calculation of dynamic behaviour,
and predictors using complex equations for each parameter assumed
to affect response, were introduced. 8 With the increasing complexity of the calculation methods, it has been possible to be
convinced that the estimates of response have been more accurate.
Unfortunately this idea loses sight of the lack of correlation
between theoretical estimates and actual behaviour. Problems of
non-linear behaviour, the uniqueness of any particular sequence
of forces and the general difficulty of accurately predicting
such basic parameters as natural frequency and damping ratio for
complex structures have conspired to decrease the confidence in
an ability to predict response accurately. Indeed, on the few
occasions when direct comparisons between theory and practice have
been made in the recent past, alarming differences have been shown.
These differences are in some cases the more disquieting because
of the difference in the basic nature of the response noted in
practice, from that predicted. 9 The errors involved are sometimes
greater than 100%.
1.3 This Study

The study being reported here started in response to an identification of gaps in present knowledge. These gaps were caused
by a lack of basic information about dynamic behaviour of structures
and about the acceptability of particular vibration levels.

It has attempted to add some new information to the already

existing work on tail buildings' vibration and to find common

threads running through all of the research. In this light the

commonly used predictors of dynamic response are assessed and
compared with the real dynamic behaviour encountered in some
tall buildings.

In an effort to understand the factors which affect dynamic

behaviour, buildings have been shaken, using eccentric mass
vibrators, to induce vibrations at well controlled frequencies
and forces. This is essentially a calibration exercise allowing
each building to be characterised by a theoretical model which
will then model behaviour as accurately as can be achieved by
present-day methods. These calibrated theoretical models have
then been used as the input parameters for several design guides
and the ensuing predicted responses have been compared with the
real, measured behaviour.

The concern here, has been with comparing the dynamic response
of buildings with others studied previously and with assessing
aspects such as damping and natural frequency to a greater
accuracy than has been achieved before. This comparison and
updating exercise has provided basic data for use as input
parameters to codes and design guides. In the normal design
situation estimated input parameters would be used and the ue
of reliable data means that the methods of calculation have themselves been assessed. In this light some recommendations for
alterations to currently used estimators of dynamic response have
been made and areas where more information is required have been
identified.
There are several important structural parameters which influence
the way in which a building responds dynamically. The more
important of these parameters are natural frequency, damping and
stiffness, and it is on these parameters, their identification,
and their variation, that this study has concentrated.

The natural frequency is important in that it not only defines

the natural period of the sway of an entire structure, but it
also gives an indication of whether the structure is likely to
?accept the energy emanating from the source. These sources
themselves have energy concentrated. in frequency bands and if
these bands should coincide with the natural frequence of the
building then there is a potential for a 'lively' reaction.
The dynamic stiffness of the structure defines the basic
deflection per unit force parameter in an analagous manner to
the statics case. The damping inherent in the structure is a
measure of the rate at which energy, once acquired, can be
dissipated. and therefore gives an indication of whether, or not,
the response is likely to persist or increase once it has been
initiated.
There are several other factors which have a part to play in
dynamic response and these are detailed in subsequent chapters.
Before presenting these results and their consequences the
context of the work is highlighted by considering the results
obtained in previous studies of structural dynamics (Chapter 2),
by reviewing ways in which tall buildings can be cha.racterised.
theoretically (Chapter 3) and a review of those spectral
techniques which are used in predicting response or assessing
dynamic behaviour together with an explanation of the modal
representation of dynamic behaviour (Chapter 4) which is currently
being used in several major design gnides.

2. A REVIEW ' PREVICUS RESEARCH

Practical investigations in the structural dynamics of buildings
are considered. in this section. The examples are taken from the
fields of wind and. earthquake engineering and. whilst there are a
few examples in other types of structure (such as dams and. space
vehicles) these are not considered. here because of very special
features about their behaviour which makes comparison with the
behaviour of tall buildings not a particularly useful exercise.
The development of those factors necessary for the research to be
undertaken is also considered. here as the research itself has been
a function of these developments. For instance, tall buildings
themselves had to be developed to a stage where &ynamic behaviour
became noticeable, for there to be an impetus to investigate the
subject. Several developments of measurement and interpretation
are also considered. here.
2.1 The development of tall buildings
The first tall buildings date back to antiquity. The Romans used
loadbearing wall structures 10-.storeys high, although it was not until
the last century that largescale migration of populations to cities
initiated the revival of the practice of constructing tall buildings.
Withincreasingheight, and.therefore weight, wall thicknesses increased
until the time of the construction of the 16storey Nonadnock building
in chicago in 1891 which required the lower walls to be some 2 metres
thick. At this time it was realised that a steel skeleton was the
answer to taller constructions; firstly, though, materials and.
techniques had to be developed.
As far back as 1801, a sevenstorey iron framed cotton mill was constructed in Manchester and this was probably the first instance of
the use of I beams. Techniques were developed with the construction
of the autonomously iron framed. Crystal Palance in 1851, the wrought
iron lighthouse at Black Harbour, Long Island, in 1843 and several
buildings employing both an interior skeleton and load. bearing
masonry facades, in the 1850s.
The introduction of elevators in 1851 (and in suspended form in 1866)
made conditions perfect for the large scale introduction of tall
buildings which began in earnest in the United States in the 1890s.
In particular the great fire of 1871, in Chicago, also provided an
impetus to new construction.
9

The Il-storey Home Insurance building constructed in Chicago, in

18 83, was the first example of a tail building totally supported
by the metal framework. This building was also the first to
use steel beams (in the upper floors), whilst the building had
self supporting masonry facade walls. The same designer
(William Jenny) produced the second Leiter building in 1889,
which was the first true skeleton building not using any selfsupporting walls. The year 1889 saw the introduction of the first
all-steel framed building in the 9-storey Band McNally building in
Chicago.
In the 1890s concrete established itself as a commonly used
structural material and in 1903 it was used for a skeleton building,
for the first time, in the rue franklin Apartment building in Paris.
later in 1903 the 16-storey Ingall building was constructed on the
concrete frame principle in Cincinnati. By 1905 with the introduction of the 50-storey Metropolitan tower building in New York the
age of tall buildings had truly arrived, and has developed through
the 102-storey flnpire State Building, of 1931, to the giants of
today such as the 110-storey steel frame World Trade Centre of
New York and the Ill-storey, Sears Robuck tower in Chicago.

2.2 The early years

It is a measure of the late development of this subject that it

was not until a conference, held in Germany, in 1901 that the
appearance of resonance of complete structures was noted, in a
.10
paper on applied seismology, by Omori This realisation that
the response of an entire structure could effectively be magnified
when it responded to natural forces initiated a new field of study.

Unfortunately, the lack of suitable measuring instruments and the

world-wide hostilities of the earlier part of the 20th century
reduced not only the amount of observation but also the reporting
of it.
The volume produced by the US Coast and Geodetic survey, on
arthquake investigations in California in 19314_35h1, lists the

10

results of period measurement in 212 different buildings and at

the same time reference was made by Taniguchi to measurements on
many buildings 12 . Ths latter work was also the first to propose
a very simple formula for the prediction of the fundamental
natural frequency of a complete structure.
The earthquake investigations in California 11 also prompted one of
the largest advances in the subject, with the introduction, in
1 934, of John Blume's vibrator. This was the first device to be
constructed. for the express purpose of causing artificially induced
vibrations in structures. It was first used on the 25 storey
Los Angeles City Hall and in Blurne's on words it was built 'to
learn whether or not the machine could vibrate such a large building,
and also to establish a precedent in the forced vibration of large
buildings in order that other building owners would feel secure in
allowing their buildings to be studied.'. Perhaps inevitably, these
first tests also highlighted the first problems associated with
induced vibration testing: 'on most of the records the forced
vibration was partly obscured by the large waves of the fundamental
mode excited by wind and other agencies'. In other words the
vibrator could only produce forces large enough to produce a
measurable effect on the building at frequencies which were higher
than the fundamental. As with the previous studies the investigators
were compelled to measure the fundamental natural period from the
response of the building to naturally occurring forces. The full
records of the following test performed by Bluine appear in
print. These were conducted on the Bank of America building
in San Jose, California. The building was a steel frame,
concrete fireproofed type with in situ concrete walls and. floors,
and. brick facing. The remarkable difficulties that the
investigator had can be appreciated from the large number
of failed. tests that are reported. This is perhaps not
surprising when it is realised that on several floors there
were separate instruments, each designed to record traces onto
photographic paper, and each putting timing marks onto this

11

paper. It seems that the timing-mark mechanism was somewhat

fallible and the calibration of each machine was rather ad hoc.
Despite these difficulties vibration modes were induced and
various measurements of them (frequencies and deflected mode
shapes) were inferred for the first time. The problems
encountered in these test have recurred in various forms to
the present date.
In Japan the response to the earthquake problem was similar and
early vibration tests in the immediate post-war era have been
detailed 13 . These generators, in common with some of those
produced later, were subject to a frequency stability insufficient
to resolve the type of detail which was required at the time.
(This did not prevent some authors ignoring the ramifications of
their measurement accuracy.) In the last decade improvements in
accuracy of measurement and of controlling vibrations have led to
a renewed effort in the field of structural dynamics.
2.3 Measurement Techniques
The impetus for the investigation of the behaviour of structures
has invariably come from some naturally occurring disaster, and
the two naturally occurring sources producing the most investigative
effort in the field of dynamics of structures have been earthquakes
and storms. Perhaps because Britain led the world in Civil
Engineering at the time when building dynamics started to become
important, the early impetus came from wind damage.
Despite the passage of 120 years since John Snieaton's measurementslk
showing that the force incident on a structure increased

as the

square of the wind velocity, little account was taken of the

variable nature of wind loading until the Thy Bridge disaster of
1 879. This incident prompted Benjamin Baker to make measurements
15
on the new structure , that can be seen with hindsight to have
been the first measurements of the effects caused by turbulence
in the natural wind environment.

12

Measurement techniques did not quickly respond to the demand for

new information created by the boom in building tail buildings
and this is perhaps because there was still a feeling amongst
designers that dynamics was not a particularly important design
consideration. Early seismic instruments all used some form of
pendulum, 11, 16, 17, 18 for measurement of acceleration, with
attendant difficulties of calibration and stability. The problem
was that of measuring motion at some position high in a building
where no convenient reference was situated.

.ectrical transducers

introduced in the 1950s did much to increase confidence in

calibration but it was not until the early 1970s that the advances
in electronic technology made available transducers which were
sufficiently accurate and stable to allow measurements which gave an
insight into the basic mechanisms involved. It seems that when
investigators are working at the limits of their measuring
instruments they tend to spend little time considering the meaning
of these measurements and consequently some earlier investigations
are of dubious merit. However, it is only the accuracy, and not
the mechanism of the instruments, that has changed radically.
Indeed, many currently used instruments differ in principle, very
lit tie from the peculiar rolling - ball - in - a - channel device
developed by Coyle in 1931.17
2.k The development of vibration generators

The use of vibration generators on buildings was prompted by their

use in Germany for compacting railway embankrnents, and progress
since the early 1930s to the less-than-perfect situation of today,
has been slow.

John Blume 'a efforts in California were paralleled in Japan and

in the 1930s, in response to the earthquake problem, a committee
was set up and was responsible for the introduction of a vibrator
capable of producing 1.5 tonnes at 1az 19 . However, the speed
could not be easily controlled and it was used. to develop a
force at a constantly changing frequency. This principle was also

13

used in a strange looking vibrator reported by Naito and Nasu

in 195213. This vibrator had 3 wheels and was used in a series
of tests which have been variously reported20' 21, 22
1958
California spawned another system and. this was to provide the first
to have reasonable frequency control. The system reported by
Hudson 23 used. a crystal standard of 0.01% accuracy and was capable
of developing 800 lbf (3560 Newtons) at 1 Hz. Four units were
designed into the system and so, potentially, it could produce
nearly a tonne and a half at 1 Hz. Unfortunately, the synchroriising
of the vibrators proved an intractable problem and no more than two
units have been used on any reported test. Nevertheless, this
system has been a general purpose workhorse for over 20 years and
has been used on at least ten buildings25' 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31,
32,
in California and Yugoslavia. The frequency control of a
single device is quoted as being 0.1% (of the maximum frequency),
although a recent modification has improved this slightly. It is
evident, and indeed reported, that this is not always sufficient.

The 1970s saw the introduction of several vibrator 5y5tem529

34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 and most of these have been of the
rotating eccentric mass type first introduced by Blume. There
have been attempts. though, to introduce a linear vibrator operated
by a servohydraulic system in which a ram acts on the building
and uses a large mass as a reaction. The first of these

was

used in England by a team from the Electricity Generating Board,

developed just over 11 tonnes at 0.46 Hz, and. represented the
first new departure in an attempt to provide a large force at
a low frequency. It was also the first time that frequency was
controlled to an accuracy of 0.001 Hz. A linear vibrator is
reported by Stephen, Hollings and Bouwkarnp 29 in one test but
appears to have been abandoned later and Galambos and ayes41
reported the use of this type of equipment in a test just before
the demolition of an appartment block in St Louis, issouri.
The obvious advantages provided by this type of system of generating large forces at well controlled frequencies are easily offset

14

by the experimental difficulties of setting up and operating

such a system on site (the CB system used at Fawley took
seven years in preparation for the experiment proper).
As late as 1971+ eccentric mass vibrators were being produced which
were capable only of a frequency accuracy of 0.01 Hz, and it was
not until 1977 that such a vibrator with a frequency stability of
0.001 Hz was produced. It is this vibrator system which features
in the work reported here. This vibrator system is also the first
in which four individual units can be synchronised to the demand
frequency (to an accuracy of 0.001 Hz), although it still produces
only about I tonne at 1 Hz.

2.5 The use of naturally occurring forces

Of course, use of vibration generating devices is, at present,

expensive and time-consuming and for this reason many investigators
have tried to obtain basic information about the dynamic behaviour
of tafl. structures by simpler and more ad-hoc tests. As well as
using natural or uncontrolled man-made excitation, researchers have

to induce vibration
used rockets, winches and men themselves 42,
of a structure. Originally the investigators contented themselves
with an estimate of the fundamental natural frequency of their
structures and the problem resolved itself to one of developing
instruments which were more capable of resolving frequencies
accurately.
The improvements in using naturally occurring forces have come in
two areas only. The first was, perhaps, an entirely logical
extension of existing techniques and involved an assessment of
deflected mode shapes. This became possible when instrumentation
became slightly more reliable but surprisingly was first achieved
with unsyncKronised transducers.1

The second improvement was more significant in that it allowed

an estimate of the damping of the building to be made, and the

15

techniques have developed in two major ways. Cherry and Brady

proposed, in 1965, that the use of the autocorrelation function
on response data generated as a result of a random excitation
could be used to provide an estimate of damping. Although they
showed theoretically that it was possible, their full-scale
results were unimpressive. It was left to Ward and Crawford1,
in

1966, to show that the method could

give a believable result,

and to Jeary and Winneyk6, in 1972, to show that it did, in fact,

give a similar result to that obtained in an induced vibration
test. The alternative is the random decrement technique
developed by cole ', in which the build-up of the same type of
information can, potentially, be accumulated far more quickly
than with the autocorrelation technique, although, so far this has
not been used on buildings.

2.6 Major results from 80 years research

The eighty years in which vibration tests on tall buildings have
taken place has seen various significant trends in the buildings
and the construction techniques as well as in instrumentation and
data processing techniques. Indeed, it is certain that the style
and nature of buildings will continue to change and that no
detailing of problems or even theories of mechanisms of behaviour
can be definitive. The most that can be achieved is that a
reasonable working hypothesis of the present state can be obtained.
Notwithstanding this, the major advances in understanding are often
achieved after a considerable period of careful observation has
taken place. This subject is one in which a considerable amount
of observation has been made and the usefulness of these observations
involves reducing the observed data to useful data, in the modern
context, and attempting to order them. From this respect, trends
such as changing of construction materials and improving transducing
techniques, have to be borne in mind when assessing old data. The
major results from eighty years of research are set out below and
are based on a search of the literature which has produced nearly
200 references to work performed in the subject.

16

2.6.A atura1 Frequencies

Not unnaturally, the relative ease of estimating the fundamental
resonance frequency led several authors to attempt to produce a
simple formula, based on experience, for this parameter. As early
as 193k, TaniguchikB proposed that the fundamental period (T) was
related to the number of storeys (N) of a building by the formula:

T = P1(0.07 to 0.09)

It is interesting to note that a similar formula is used today in

the US seismic code.

By 1952, the Japanese team at Waseda University had information on

the behaviour of some 60 buildings 13 and proposed a formula for the
fundamental period based on the height of a building. In 1960,
Takeuchi21 used the same buildings as the basis for a formula which
also involved a wall ratio term (the total length of all walls
divided by the sum of the floor areas of all floors). Despite the
fact that neither the thickness nor the positions of the walls was
considered, the formula gave a reasonable fit with the data.
In 1965, Karapetian5 claimed that measurements on 70 buildings had
led to his proposal that the second mode natural period is three
times the fundamental, and in 1977 Ohta et a151 suggested another
relationship between natural frequency and height and a simple
numerical relationship for first, second and third modes of
vibration. This latter group were the first to suggest a simple
multiplier for the calculation of the orthogonal fundamental period.
All of these results, together with new data have been reviewed
recently by

He showed that despite allusions to the accuracy

of computer based prediction techniques 53 , errors of more than . 50%

are likely, and the simple formulae are likely to give estimates that
are as accurate as any attainable at present, and that (based on a
sample of 163 buildings) the relationship between fundamental natural

17

frequency (f 1 ) and. the height of a building in metres (H) is most

accurately predicted by:

f1 - 46/H

2.6.B 'Softening-spring' behaviour

A building is described as exhibiting a 'softening-spring' type

behaviour if its behaviour in any mode of vibration is analogous
to that of a spring which becomes softer as its extension increases.
In practice this means that the natural frequency drops as the
amplitude becomes larger. This effect is accompanied, in practice,
by an increase of damping and the effect has been noted. in several
cases where it has been possible to excite a building at several
(25, 27, 30, 33, 54,
discrete amplitudes in any mode of vibration
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 6i) This change of amplitude is referenced
to any one position in a building and not to different heights as
one report has tried to suggest36.
62
Udwadia and. Trifunac found an interesting phenomenon when they
monitored the behaviour of the Robert Millikan library block at
UCLA, before, during and after the San Fernando earthquake of
February 9th 1971. They found changes of up to 50% in frequency
during the earthquake with no sign of structural damage having
occurred. After the earthquake the natural frequency immediately
started to recover, although two years after earthquake the recovery
was continuing. Amongst the reasons suggested. by the authors for
-this behaviour are soil-structure interaction and. non-linear response
of the structural elements.
Some work in Russia, performed with a very large vibrator 8 , and.
testing buildings to failure showed. a 30% reduction in natural
frequency for large panel buildings and up to 65% for large block
buildings at high amplitude. Prior to demolition the changes in
natural frequency were found to be irreversible and this is undoubtedly
a symptom of the actual damage caused.. Irreversible reductions of
natural frequency were also noted in large amplitude tests conducted. at

18

St Louis. Again, these teats were prior to demolition and the

time allowed for recovery was small.
The remarkable work reported by Taniguchi and Kobayashi, in 1955,
in a Japanese language publication6l, used term by term integration
on seismograms taken from three different buildings, to show a
change of period during an earthquake.
The difficulty of controlling the frequency input of vibratora, in
the past, has made the detailing of this type of effect somewhat
difficult in some instances, and whilst there is ample evidence to
show that the 'softening-spring' effect

is rca].,

there is a great

deal of variability about the results obtained and different types

of building have been shown to behave in different ways; indeed in
one series of experiments on a tall chimney up to large amplitude,
no such effect was noted at all

3k, k6

2.6.0 Mode shapes and soilstructure interaction

SuyehirolG, in 1932, suggested that investigation would find three
basic types of mode of vibration in a building, and that these would
beflexural, shearing and rocking modes. Since that time investigations
have chosen to describe these forms of vibration somewhat differently,
although the basic tenet still holds.
A 'mode shape' is the term used to describe the deflected form taken
up by a building when it is at resonance and at maximum dynamic
displacement. Thus, there is

characteristic mode shape associated

with each resonance. Nowadays it is normal to describe the mode

shape in terms of the deflection above ground level, and in terms
of movement at ground level. Despite the feeling amongst engineers
and researchers that they 'know' what form a mode shape is likely to
be, there is surprisingly little reporting of measurements (18, 20,
63, 27, 64, 65, 46, 66, 18, 27)

19

F\mdamental modes are reported by various authors to approximate

.20
a straight line 18, 27, and Kawasuna and Ka.uai reported a
coupling of slab modes (of floors) with whole building modes.
In the recent tests at St Louis , Ga].ambos and Mayes showed
that despite severe structural damage in which during the testing
'stairs buckled., walls cracked and then were battered to pieces',
the overall mode shapes remained, largely unaltered.

Of course the mode form is affected by the amount of movement

that occurs at the interface of building and ground. The subject
of soil-structure interaction is a large one and will not be
dealt with in depth here.
Several authors have noticed soil-structure interaction occurring
20, 31, 30,
to a measurable extent in induced vibration tests
52, 57, 67 and changes of frequency noted during earthquakes have
been ascribed to a reduction of stiffness of the soil in several
cases 20, '' Despite the insistence by some workers that the
effect is of paramount importance recent experience has shown
that under norma]. service conditions it may be neglected for the
purpose of calculation of response6.
2.6.D Torsional centre

For no apparently good reason, little effort has been put into
studying torsional response. Whilst the difficulty of synchronising
vibration generators has undoubtedly contributed to make investi28 39
gation difficult some results have been forthcoming25' 27,

The torsional centre has been found to be significantly offset

from the geometric centre in the Pioneer building25 , and the
Robert Millikan library 27 , whilst in one case2B a 'wandering'
of the torsional centre through the height of the building in
higher modes (2nd and 3rd torsion) is sufficiently large to be
independent of the high electronic 'noise' levels associated with
the measurements.

20

2.6.E The effect of varying the form of a tested building

The paucity of literature is evidence that there has been little
chance to study buildings at various stages of construction or
with alter ations or additions to their form. The reports that
have appeared

27, 39, 55, 60, 70 have tended to show that

addition of walls that take load tend to increase stiffness and

thereby raise the resonance frequencies and that masses, located
on the building, and not performing any work, tend to cause a
lowering of resonance frequencies. A test up to very large
amplitudes produced enough damage to cause a permanent reduction
of the translational natural frequency, although the torsional
natural frequency remained unaltered.
It can be appreciated that the tests performed so far on this
aspect of building vibration have been of an ad-hoc nature and
that the potential benefits to efficient construction have not
yet been pursued.

2.6.F Modal coupling

The often used assumption that each mode of vibration is independent
is just not true. However, the interference from other modes is
normally small and so for the purposes of analysis it can often be
assumed that no modal coupling occurs.

In some cases, however, severe modal coupling has been noted by

investigation. The term 'modal coupling' is taken to mean that
two modes of vibration are inseparable and an attempt to excite a
classical mode will result in the appearance of a complex mode.
Of course, by an altering of the distribution of exciting forces
it is often possible to suppress all but one mode and the definition
becomes somewhat obscured. Since, for design purposes it is
necessary to consider response to naturally occurring forces it is
considered here that modes are coupled if they are inseparable under
the action of random forces.

21

The offsetting of a torsional centre, referred to in the previous

section, is a readily identifiable mechanism for a linear coupling
between translational and torsional modes and has been reported by
several authors 25, 27, 28, 31,

and a coupling between trana-

lationa]. and torsional modes with in plane bending of floors has

also been observed 20, 36, 38, 55

The appearance of coupling makes the calculation of response a

much more difficult matter and it is likely that currently used
methods will under-estimate the dynamic deflection in this case.
It is surprising, therefore, that no attempt has yet been made to
identify types of building which are likely to exhibit coupledmode dynamic behaviour.

2.6.G Damping
In this section only measurements and their ramifications are
dealt with. The larger issue of theoretical characterisation
and mechanisms of damping is considered later.
The value ascribed to damping for each mode of a building's
vibration is a measure of the rate at which the building will
dissipate energy. The mechanism of this dissipation will fundainentally affect the way in which the damping can be quantified.
It is a lucky coincidence that most buildings have very ama].].
values of damping and that in this case it does not matter what
the mechanism of damping is as all can be characterised as
though they were an 'equivalent viscous damper'. This was first
72
stated by Jacobsen, in 1930 , and all modern investigations use
this principle. A viscous damper is an abstraction from the
mathematical concept of a visco-elastic system. Jacobsen stated
that if mixed damping was less than 10% of the critical value,
it could be treated as equivalent viscous damping.

Several authors have presented measurements of damping and these

(20, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36,

37, 43, 46, 54, 57, 59, 64, 67, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79)

appear in the following references

22

The first measurements ever presented8l, unfortunately used an

incorrect formula to calculate damping from the form of resonance
curves (the half power band-width method). It is, therefore,
impossible to judge these measurements in absolute terms. They
do, however, suggest that there is always a larger value
ascribed to orthogonal modes and that therefore damping increases
with frequency.
20
The work presented by Kawasurni and Kanai, in 1956 , was very
far-reaching and produced some remarkable results, the more so
when the authors' own words are considered: 'note that our accuracies
are not high owing to uncertainty in period determination'. Notwithstanding this, their conclusions are worth considering. A plot
of the logarithm of damping against period, for several buildings,
produced a remarkable negative correlation and accordingly they
proposed that the damping multiplied by the period is a constant.
They proposed that damping is proportional toT", where n is 1.5,
2 and

3,

for the

y and z directions respectively (where x is

the direction of the fundamental mode, Y is horizontally orthogonal

to this and

is the vertical mode), and that it increased with an

increasing periphery of the base of the building and with softer

ground. In this they were stating that damping increases for a
shorter wavelength of the a wave in the ground, and that the
damping value is largely dictated by the amount of loss of energy
into the ground.
Not until very recently 67 have any other authors proposed a
damping predictor based on their observations and this was actually
of the same form as Kawasumi and Kanai's. This is because of the
extremely large scatter of the results subsequently produced.
During the 1960s and early 1970s discussion centred around reliable
methods of estimating damping in structures, and gradually it was
realised that estimates based on the half power bandwidth or other
spectrally based techniques 55 were dependent on the frequency
resolution of vibrators and/or spectral analysis, and that use of
the autocorrelation method needed a certain amount of judgement and

23

luck (in obtaining suitable records). The 'free-decay' method

was reported first in 197O'
and has since been regarded as
the most reliable way of estimating damping. However, a certain
amount of luck (in that modes have to be well separated) is still
necessary.

It is to be regretted that occasionally the expectation of a

certain result seems more important than the result itself. In

1975, Stephen , Bouwkamp and. Jurukowski 31 presented two sets of

damping measurements from the same building (the Oak Center Tower)
in which the half power bandwidth results were

6.14

and 8.8%, for

the two orthogonal fundamental modes, whilst from a free-decay

assessment these figures were 1.7% and 2.2%. This large discrepancy
was erroneously ascribed by the authors to 'the flexible foundations'.
later, however, Stephen and Bouwkamp82 used the same results for a
publication from which they left out the smaller figures and
ascribed the large damping values (6. 1+ and 8.8%) to the flexible
foundations.

In 1973, a more realistic attempt to determine a relationship

between damping and frequency 75 showed that the scatter from the
linear relationship is much greater for concrete than for steel
structures and this variability is undoubtedly behind the proposal
of bands of damping values for certain types of structure.

Relatively little work has been done on the variation of damping

with the amplitude of response of a single mode

55, 59' but with one exception these tests have shown measurable
increase in damping with increasing amplitude. It seems that some
of the variability found in the assessment of damping may be
caused by a failure to consider the changes that occur with increasing amplitude. This is discussed in more detail later.
2.6.H Temperature effects
Wiss and Curth 8 reported, in 1970, that the temperature had a
significant effect on the dynamic response of a 56 storey building
in Chicago. This is the only reference in the literature to an

24

effect which may become increasingly important as heat flows

through buildings are considered in more detail.
2.6.1 Comparison of induced. and anbient vibrations
It is reassuring that some workers have gone to the trouble of
verifying the popular assumption that dynamic behaviour caused
by vibrators is very similar to that induced na turauyk 3i 62
The negligible differences shown in these tests are testimony to

the authenticity of currently used methods.

2.6.3 Comparison of theory and practice
Goldberg, Bogdanoff and Mh 6 , in 1959, used a very simple
calculation for the prediction of natural frequencies and mode
shapes, and produced a good correlation with the measured response
of a real building. They were the first in a short series to
produce a good correlation between some measurements and a theoretical assessment of dynamic behaviour. It is surprising that, despite
the wide acceptance of sophisticated theoretical models of building
behaviour, only a few have been tested against actual observed

63, 65, 70, 84, 85, 86, 87

behaviour 55,
The models used have
varied greatly but nevertheless a good correlation between calculated and measured natural frequencies has normally been obtained.
The fact that the calculations have always followed the measurements
probably has a bearing on this good correlation. On occasions
authors have pointed out some of those difficulties of calculation
which require that 'nonstructural items.., should. be included in the
calculations to obtain realistic values of the period 70 , and
'stresses predicted by the finite element method were up to 25%
65'
in error

The models that have been fitted to observed behaviour provide an

interesting insight to actual behaviour. Nielsen55 used the
measured response of a 9 storey steel frame building to calculate
the stiffness and damping matrices and concluded that there was
little joint rotation for one building and that the damping could

25

be idealised by 'inter-floor dashpots'. His results from a 5

storey building were not so conclusive and suggested 'absolute
plus relative dashpots' as a model for the damping behaviour.
lemura and Jennings84matched a calculated response of the
Robert Millikan library to the response noted during an earthquake and found that an equivalent linear model and a bilinear
hysteretic model both matched the observed response, if the
properties were changed at a particular amplitude. This change
was sud.d.en and. neither a linear nor a stationary
bilinear model matched the real behaviour. From their stud of
the JTL building no. 180, at Pasadena, Foutch and Jennings 8 preferred
a linear model to be used up to the point where yielding started
to occur. They do not comment on the identification of this point
in practice.

The system identification techniques used by Ibanez 8 to reduce

frequency domain data is a powerful technique that has since
become a 'package' that can be operated on many computers.

Ibanez's work remains, however, the only 'field trial' d the

techniques.

Despite the use, in the wind-engineering field, of spectrally

based prediction techniques based on Davenport's work 8 , no

comparisons of actual response with that predicted have been

made prior to the study reported in this thesis.

It can be appreciated from this review that there are several

areas where there are large gaps in the present state of knowledge.
The accumulated knowledge is most usefully used as the basis for
estimators of dynamic response and several of these exist as
codes of practice (eg Canada, Australia, Denmark), whilst others
have been used for guides to design (eg Engineering Sciences
Data Unit).

26

3. A REVIEW OF THEORETICAL CHARACTERISATIONS OF TALL BUILDINGS

It is important, when conducting any experimental program of research,
to have in mind theoretical models of behaviour which can be compared
with real measured behaviour. In turn the results of measurements may
be used to adapt and improve those theoretical models. More refined
techniques have tended to lose sight of the interaction between
theory and practice, that is so important for a better understanding
of the processes involved.
Theoretical models of dynamic behaviour are used extensively at the
design stage as it is then possible to subject the structure,
theoretically, to the range of forces that it is likely to experience
in the intended lifespan. In this way several possible designs can
be compared for a particular purpose and a decision as to which one
to choose can be made on the basis of extrapolated performance or
of economic design. Naturally the model of the building's behaviour
is of paramount importance as any departure from the real behaviour
can lead to overdesign and an economic penalty, on the one hand, and
poor performance, perhaps even with the building being declared
unserviceable, on the other.
The purpose of this chapter is to review those methods which are
currently used to characterise building response and to indicate the
strength and weaknesses of each. It is not intended that each method
will be described definitively, but rather that their use, abuse and
perspective should be considered.
The essential difference between dynamics and statics is that in
the former case inertia becomes an important consideration.
For this reason statics is a special case of dynamics and there is
an area between the two which involved dynamic response but of such
a slow nature that inertia can be ignored for practical purposes.
This type of response is often termed 'quasi-static' response. In
the treatments which follow emphasis is placed on the dynamic part
of the response.

27

There are several 'starting points' for theoretical models of

dynamic behaviour and these are considered first, followed by an
explanation of their utilisation for the production of different
solutions for dynamics problems.

Any detailed analysis of the dynamic behaviour of tall structures

is at some stage concerned with characterising the structure itself,
by considering its stiffness, mass, and mass distribution. Since a
system with continuously distributed mass has an infinite number of
degrees of freedom there is a premium put on idealising a structure
by a model which would behave in a very similar manner, but
which has fewer degrees of freedom. Idealisation of a structure
reduces the number of degrees of freedom and reduces calculation
procedures to manageable proportions. it is, however, necessary
to choose the discrete components of a structure in such a way that
no important aspect of the dynamic behaviour is omitted or obscured.
The principles, from which the models of behaviour are derived, are
now considered in turn.

3.1 Theoretical principles for equations of dynamics

There are three principles which are often employed in a study of
dynamics and these are considered here. Additionally an intermediate
stage towards the production of models of behaviour is the Lagrange
equation, which may be derived from any of these principles. Since
this equation is the basis for much of the rationale of the approach
adopted in this work, this is also considered here.

3.1.A D'Alembert's Principle

The equations of motion of any dynamic system are derived, at least
in part, from Newton's second law of motion, which states that the
rate of change of momentum of any mass m is equal to the force acting
on it.

This can be expressed mathematically as:-

P(t)

(1)

28

For all the structural dynamics problems considered here it is

assumed that mass does not change with time and so the equation
can be re-written as

P(t)

d2x

= mx

(2)

The right hand side of the equation is the inertia term, referred
to previously, which opposes the applied force.

The principle that a mass develops an inertia proportional to the

acceleration is known as D'Alembert's principle, and many formulations

of equations of motion only consider this concept. The term P(t)

then includes all forces which act on the mass.
3. 1 B The Principle of Virtual Displacements
This may be stated as: If a system is in equilibrium under the action
of a set of forces and is subjected to a virtual displacement, then
the total amount of work done by the forces is zero.

Thus equations of motion can be derived by considering all the forces

acting on a system (including the inertia forces), introducing a
conceptual virtual displacement (corresponding to each degree of
freedom) and equating the work done to zero. This approach has to
deal with forces which are vectorial quantities but the virtual-work
contributions are scalar quantities which can be added algebraically.

3.! C Hamilton's Principle

Making use of compatible scalar quantities is another way of avoiding
the use of vectorial equations and Hamilton's principle does just this.
It can be expressed as

t2

t
(T-V)dt^j

w dt

(3)

In words this states that the kinetic and potential energy plus the
variation of the work done by the non-conservative forces during any
time interval must equal zero.

29

3. 1 D Derivation of equations of motion

Any of the previously mentioned methods can be used to derive
equations of motion for any system. As an illustrative example
the equation of motion for a single-degree of freedom system will
be derived using D'Alembert's principle:

We start with the proposition

P(t) =

(4)

rn

The forces are comprised of damping

elastic spring

'8)

and an external force (f(t))

Thus

p(t) = f(t) * f + f

(5)

The elastic force may be

f8

= - Xx

(6)

where K is the spring constant and the force opposes motion.

The damping force may be

= -c

(7)

where viscous damping is assumed and is proportional to velocity.

Thus

f(t)-Xx-c!c =m

or

m+c3#Xx

= f(t)

(8)

If other mechanisms are assumed or different forces are considered

then a different equation of motion can be produced, but in fact
equation (8) above, is often used to represent a single degree of
freedom system.

30

3.1 E Lagrange's Equation

Whilst the preceding methods are useful in many circumstances a
solution for a generalised multi-degree-os-freedom system is more
conveniently derived using Lagrange's equation.

Lagrange's equation can be stated in the form:

d '3T \ 32' +
I -
(
\ I
2.

3W

3W
e

9a. -
2.

2.

(9)

2.

This equation may be produced using several different methods and

is detailed in standard literature. It is based on energy
considerations where

2'

is the kinetic energy

1/

is the strain energy

is the work done by damping forces

W9

is the work done by external forces

and all of these are in terms of generalised co-ordinates a2, ....aN.

We now consider a system having j masses, S springs, W dampers and

N normal modes, in which relationships for 2', U, W, and W9 are as
follows:-

(a) Kinetic energy 1'

M(

-
i'-1

zrn)

(1 0)

72=1

where & is the velocity component of mass associated with the

r2

nth mode.

31

(b) Strain energy U

2

i<g(

(II)

g=1

n-I

is the distortion of the spring g in the nth mode, and Kg

where

is the stiffness of that spring.

(c) Work done by damping W

If we assume that the damping force is proportional to velocity
(ie viscous damping) then

Where C

is the damping constant of dashpot

(12)

in the nth mode.

(d) Work done by external forces

N

(13)

W =

r=I

Where

n=1

are the external forces.

For each mode it is convenient to select a displacement A of an

arbitrarily chosen mass, and write equations 10-13 in terms of
this variable.
Thus we have:

-A

a
rn - A q
n

(14)

32

'a

rn

gn

C vn

Irn
A '-' Anm
4
U
mn I

(15)

A (.) = A

(16)

,' C\
= A 1=
A
nA I
n Cvn
' n'

(17)

1= A

(18)

(C\
n

nC

Additionally it is assumed that the modes of vibration are normal

modes and that the principle of orthogonality applies.
This implies that

(Am)

becomes

n= 1

rn

n= 1
2

and

N
2

) becomes

gn

(
n1

?2=1

Thus equations 9-13 can be reritten as:-

I -

Mr
r=1

n=1

U -

Kg

91

A2

(19)

A2

(20)

n=1

33

(21)

j
W -

n-I

n-I

V-I

Aq

(22)

n-I

r= l

It can be seen then that:-

j
'V.'
= L.. M
rl

(23)

2
dt aA) = XM r rn
r=I

Kg A

2Lgn

Kg

= A

g=1

(24)

g=1

j
=

(25)

Additionally the assumption is made that --- 0 (this is justified

provided that the 'equations of constraint' (ie the generalised
co-ordinate system) involve time explicitly. As we are dealing with
time varying dynamic variables, the implication is that:-

(26)
n
W
and

(27)

c,

n
Whilst standard texts often assume eqtion (26) they do not include
equation (27) and merely assume that is small. The reason for
this will become apparent later.

34

Equations 23 - 27 are now substituted into equation (9) (Lagrange's

equation), with the following result:W

4)2

Exg

+A
n EMr 4)2+AEC
n
v cvn n
rn
v1
r1
g=l

r 4) rn

(28)

4EF

r1

When this is compared with equation (8) for a single degree of freedom
system m3 ^

c.i +

K.c =

f(t)

it can be seen that we have

equivalent or modal mass

4)
E M

c.,

equivalent or modal damping

equivalent or modal stiffness

v= I

Kg
g I

Fr

4)

equivalent or modal force

The solution of equation (28) is complex, but, if all elements in

it were known to a reasonable degree of accuracy then an accurate
solution for any force could be obtained. In practice very little
information about damping is available and designers often content
themselves to a solution of equation (28) in which it is assumed
that damping is neglectable and that no external forces are acting
on the structure. This implies a solution to a free vibration
situation in which motion already exists. Normal eigenvalue routines
can then be used on a computer to produce solutions for natural
frequencies and mode shapes. Equation (28) provides the basis for
the modal and spectral techniques discussed in subsequent chapters.

35

3.2 Methods for the theoretical consideration of dynamic properties

The advent of the digital computer has meant that designers are no
longer restricted to the handling of a small number of equations
which have to be manipulated by hand. Nowadays large numbers of
equations can be handled quickly and cheaply by computer. This
revolution had led to the use of methods for the calculation of
dynamic properties which, although known for a long time, had
previously proved too cumbersome to be practicable.

3.2 A The Finite Element Method

The finite element techniqu.e has become popular recently because it
provides a more realistic method of realising distributed, continuous
or non-homogeneous systems. The method consists essentially of three
steps.

The first step is the idealisation of the structure in question.

This is idealised as an assemblage of discrete elements connected
only at nodes. The nodes are chosen such that one occurs at each
point where a load or reaction occurs. The individual elements
may be any of a number of different types of 2 or 3 dimensional
characteristics, and may be of different shape or size within the
structure. Thus if a certain position requires a detailed study
many small elements may be used to describe the region.

The second step involves specifying the relationship between the

internal displacement and the nodal displacements of each element.
A displacement function is used to specify the pattern of the
deformations. In this way the element stiffness, stress and strain
matrices can be assembled. The displacement function has been found
to lead to exact solutions if it and its' first derivatives should
be continuous within each element, if it allows nodal displacements
caused by rigid-body translations and rotations to occur without
straining the element, if it allows all states of uniform strain
within elements and if it satisfies internal and inter-element
compatibility requirements.

36

The final step is the assembling of an overall stiffness matrix

for the structure, from the individual element stiffness matrices.
For some types of element it is necessary to use a transformation
matrix to convert the local axes to structural ones. (This is not
normally necessary for triangular elements because it is always
possible to select the local axes to be the same as the structural
ones.) The nodal displacements are then computed by manipulation
of the stiffness matrix. Finally the elemental stress and strain
matrices can be used to determine the stress and strain at any
point in the structure.

3.3 Use and abuse of theoretical methods

Many of the methods discussed in this section lend themselves to
implementation on digital computers and this fact has made the use
of such methods cheap and popular for the analysis of dynamic problems.

However, the models of the structures used all have approximations incorporated into them and it is only by continued comparison of the results
of theoretical analysis with real measurements that the importance of
the approximations can be realised. The use of discrete idealisations
often leads to the neglect of parts of a structure which are assumed
not to play an important role in the dynamic behaviour, but which have
been shown recently to be significant. There is also a tendency to
assume the linear-visco-elastic model is a good idealisation of real
behaviour. The incorporation of more complex models of behaviour still
tends to mean that the available space in a computer limits the number
of degrees of freedom that can be considered. The computation of
torsional response limits the number of approximations that can be
made and so, for instance, the Holtzer and Stodola methods cannot be
used, and, if the finite element method is used, it is safer to employ
three dimensional elements if an accurate solution is to be found.

As a guide to real behaviour, the methods discussed in this chapter,

are a powerful tool for the designer, but they are no more a
panacea than were those methods that preceded them. They are,
however, in a format which will allow more accurate predictions of
dynamic behaviour if they are compared carefully with practice. This
comparison has yet to be satisfactorily made.

37

4.

MODAL REPRESENTATION AND TUE SPECTR.MJ APPROACH

The purpose of this chapter is to develop the equations of chapter 3

into the form in which they are often used in design and codification.
This often involves the use of frequency domain equations and the
spectral approach, and the equations are developed into this form.
Also, deterministic responses are considered as a necessary prerequisite for a consideration of a particular fallibility of the
spectral approach. Finally the ramifications of the use of modal
properties for a building are considered in turn.

Equation (28) in chapter 3 is a representation of the behaviour of a

structure in terms of its modal properties. It was pointed out that
this is similar to a solution for a single degree of freedom system.
If the principle of superposition can be applied then the full
equation (28) can be considered to be composed of a series of equations
of the form of equation (8), each of which represents a single degree
of freedom of the structure. If the response in each of these modes
is considered, then the total response is also a superposition of all
these responses.

Equation (8) is written in terms of quantities which are not easily

measured directly, but this can be re-formulated by considering the
equation in more detail. If the function f(t) is defined as a unit
step function then there are three possible types of solution
depending on the value of damping. These are (1) overdainped

(ii)

(iii) underdainped, and the category is

critically damped, and

defined by the value of the complementary function:-

4m 2

Thus the value of critical damping is defined as

C 2 K
-

4m2
K

If ->

or

Th

a 2

m 4in2

2V

C2

the system is said to be underdamped and if - m 4m2

the system is said to be overdamped.

38

We can now turn our attention to the underdaxnped case, which is the
one of particular use in structural dynamics.

The complete response is

-c
e

___
________

/
XE'-/1 -

K C2
Sin(--.t # cos 1

c2

Cl
21)j

(29)

If the damping term becomes zero then the system oscillates with a
response of:-

_Sin/i]

This, then, is defined as the undamped natural frequency

or W
n

=,/i m

and

= 2rrf

Thus the complete response can be re-written if we use the definition

that

Actual damping
Critical damping

Then

____

I-rw,t
x

= x

(Sin w

i-.t ^ cos 1

which defines oscillation with an envelope of equation

S =

wnt

39

(30)

Equation (8) can now be re-written as

F (t)

(31)

or for the case of mode 'r' as:-

F
r
-

r r
r r r #4Tr2f2x

(32)

mr

The Laplace transform 9 can be used to transform the equation into

the frequency domain. For this purpose the Laplace operator S is
a derivative with respect to time (in this case

thr) and

82 is the

second derivative (i). Thus

[S2 #4 7rf

F
= -

S#4 7r 2 f 2 Jx

(33)

mr

r r

For this purpose the real part of S is neglected since only real
systems are considered (sic). Therefore s jw, and equation (33)
can be reformulated as:-

[(jw)2

[_4T.2

f2 +

'r

87r2

+ I + 2j

42

'r2J r

47y2

fr2x
r

(34)

mr

r
mr

(35)

r fr X

(36)

If the relationship of force to output displacement is required then

the building can be characterised by a complex frequency response
function

11(f) where for a single mode

x (f)

(f)

(37)

40

and so substituting equation (36) into this equation we find that

1/K

(38)

E1'f)

2 '
-"r f
r

which defines the frequency domain characteristics of the structure

in terms of a natural frequency and a damping ratio. H('f) is often
(incorrectly) termed the transfer function. A transfer function
must, by definition, be defined in terms of Laplace operators92.

Equation (36) has some interesting ramifications for deterministic

forces (eg when a vibrator is being used) and in conjunction with
equation (37) forms the basis of the spectral approach to calculation
of response. Because equation (36) contains phase information it
defines response more rigorously than the case in which spectra
are used. In this latter case some form of the modulus of response
is taken, and phase information is neglected.

4.1 The implications of the complex frequency response equations

for forced vibration testing
Equations 36-38, together are used as a definition of complex
frequency response, and figure 1 is a representation of this equation,
and its use for assessing an output of a system as a result of an
input.

If the forcing function Fr is considered to be sinusoidal then it is

instructive to investigate the response when =
and the static

case when f = 0.

4.1 A Resonance (f = f)
In this condition the vibration source operates at the natural
frequency of the system, then H(f) becomes

1/K

j2

=
r

1
2X

(39)

r r

The factor

is often called the dynamic magnification factor (or

2
r
the j indicates that the phase of the response is at
Q factor) and
900 to the forcing function. The factor IP'ECr is regarded as a constant.

41

4.1 B The static case

(f

0)

In this condition the complex frequency response becomes

11(f)

I/K

and if this is substituted into equation (37) we have:-

x (o) K (o) = F (a)

r
r
r
which is the relationship normally used for the study of statics.

This means that the static stiffness value Kr can be measured in

tests in which sinusoidal vibrations are induced, since the total
response at zero frequency is the sum of contributions from all
modes and in practice second and higher order modes normally
contribute only about 2 percent to the overall static displacement.

4.1 C Decay of oscillation

Equation (29) gives the relationship for the output of a single
degree of freedom system in terms of its natural frequency and
damping ratio. (The equation for a decay of oscillation merely
involves the negative part of the right hand side). It can be seen
that the envelope of this response is defined in terms of the damping
ratio and an inspection of a decay of oscillation can be used to
estimate the damping ratio if the response occurs in one mode only.

4.2 The implications of the complex frequency response equations for

random vibrations.
When dealing with random vibration it is no longer feasible to use
equations 36-38 in the same deterministic manner. Input and output
functions may be expressed in statistical terms and this is the basis
of the spectral approach.

There are several functions which are commonly used in the spectral
approach and these are detailed in the appendix on spectral functions.
Of most use in the prediction of building response are power spectral
density functions. (The term 'power' is merely a legacy from the
early use of the techniques in electronics.) Spectral density functions

42

represent a function of amplitude squared, norinalised and plotted

against frequency and accordingly equation (37) can be formulated into
two different spectral forms:-

(f)

G (f)

= H (F) 1 2 f

(40)

where G and Gf are spectral densities of the response and the force
respectively, and

G f

(f)

= E(f) G f

(f)

(41)

in which Gxf is the cross spectral density between the force and the
response.
In equation (40) all phase information is disregarded and it is this
form which is normally used in design when the spectral approach is
being used. In equation (41) the phase information is retained and
accordingly the function G f (f) has real and imaginary parts to it.
As is explained in the appendix, spectral density functions are only
estimates of a process and there are always errors associated with
them. The correct estimation of error bounds is, of course, crucial
when utilising the spectral approach. However, this factor does not
invalidate the techniques and indeed they are extremely powerful if
used with caution. There are two ways in which the spectral approach
has been used practically in this study, and these are both based on
the use of equation (40). In the first case an assumption is made
about Gf (fL and G(f) is measured so as to give an estimate of
11(f). In this way building properties may be inferred without
recourse to induced vibration testing. In the second case the
properties of

11(f) are

measured in induced vibration tests on

buildings and the response to wind excitation G(f)), is measured.

In this way the third term in the equation

G f (f) can

be estimated,

and the buildings themselves are effectively used as force

transducers. These techniques are considered in turn:

4.2 A Spectral estimates for the complex frequency response function

The measurement of the spectra of responses of buildings to random

vibration is a technique which has been used since the mid 1960's. The
43

analogue machines used in those days made the process a cumbersome

and lengthy procedure. The re-invention of the fast fourier transform
in 1965, has led to spectral techniques being easily formulated
on digital computers, although it was not until the mid 1970's that
purpose built computers became available. The universal assumption
made, when using spectral techniques, is that the function

F(f) varies

slowly with respect to frequency and that accordingly the form of

the spectral density of the response, is of the same form
as

In this way estimates of natural frequencies and damping

11(f).

ratios may be obtained. Also it is not impossible to estimate

damping ratios (Chapter 8). The information which it is possible
to collect in this way is not complete nor does it fully identify
11(f).

4.2 B Spectral estimates for the forcing function

Because the measurement of response does not give a full picture of
the

11(f)

function, induced vibration tests have been used to estimate

this function. This has allowed the calculation of the spectrum of

the forcing function as 'seen' by the building. In this way this
study has been able to compare forces actually experienced by
buildings in the natural wind environment with those which are
predicted theoretically. This has allowed the effects of building
geometry and of the effect of winds which are not normal to a face
of a building to be assessed.

The major problem associated with this technique is that of obtaining

stationary data. The natural wind does not blow steadily for long
periods and because of the very long records required to achieve
acceptable statistical accuracy the technique of ensemble averaging
has been adapted to the problem. This is discussed in detail in
Chapter 8.

4.3 The theoretical estimation of response using the spectral

approach.
It can be seen from an inspection of equation (40) and (41) that a
spectral representation of response can be obtained if an accurate
estimate of the forcing function and of the complex frequency response
function are obtained. The use of these techniques was first realised
by Davenport 89 in 1967 and his early work pioneered an entirely new
concept in the estimation of dynamic response. The equations used for
44

these calculations contain elements to take account of the wind

environment as well as of the building properties and are the
basis for the more advanced dynamic design guides. This does not
detract from the generality of the methods and indeed similar
spectral techniques are used in earthquake engineering. In this
case an earthquake spectrum has the assumed building's characteristics
superimposed on it for the purpose of certification in earthquake zones.

All of these spectrally based methods at present disregard such factors

as directionality of the random processes, non linearities of the
buildings, and spatial and phase distribution of the forces.

Figure 2 is a represenation of the spectral approach as it is normally

conceived at present. The response can be obtained by performing an
integration of the area under the curve. In practice most energy is
concentrated in the spectral peak and this may be evaluated by
performing a Riemann integration in this region. One major design
guide uses this approximation. The value of response obtained by
these methods is a spectral density representing a mean square modal
response and naturally the designer is interested in a maximum
excursion of vibration. For this reason a resonant response factor
() is used to estimate the relationship between mean square and
maximum excursion. Methods based on this approach are considered
in Chapter 9.

4.4 The modal representation of building dynamics

Equation (32) represents a series of equations which when superposed
represent the complex frequency response function

11(f).

(In the case

of a torsion response the displacement parameter is replaced by a

rotation,

and the force by a torque Tr) The implication of this

0r'
equation is that there are properties associated with each mode of
vibration and an estimate of each of the modal parameters of the more
important modes of vibration will give a good approximation to the
complex frequency response

11(f).

Often, only a few modes of vibration

need to be characterised in order to give a good estimator for the

dynamic behaviour. However, the accuracy of estimating and measuring
these and associated parameters is of paramount importance and
accordingly each is considered in turn here:

45

4.4 A Mode shapes

4r

The deflected dynamic shapes, or mode shapes, shown in this and other
works, give an idea of the types of mode encountered in practice. For
tall buildings these shapes often approximate to a straight line with
the shapes shown in Figure 3 also occurring, but somewhat less
frequently. Because the elements in a building which are considered
to be non-structural often play a part in the dynamic structural
behaviour, matrix analysis of structures does not always give an
accurate estimate of mode shapes and 'engineering judgement' is
quite often sufficient.

The measurement of mode shapes is comparatively easy when in an

induced vibration test a steady state vibration can be investigated
by placing a single transducer at many different positions in turn.

4.4 B Modal Mass (m)

Equation 28 defined a modal mass as
may be computed for a discrete set
mode shape

r=I

in

2 and this function

r -'-,
of masses and an assumed

4. Unfortunately, the mass of a building is often not

known accurately as many items are installed in a building which do

not appear on the design drawings. Notwithstanding this, it is
interesting to consider that the mass/unit height of a building is
constant, since this is a reasonable approximation for many buildings.
In this case

= -t m(z) (z)
where

zn(z)

dz

is the mass per unit height of the structure.

The three major types of mode are considered in turn and the mode
shapes are idealised for them:-

4.4 B (i) Straight line mode

z

qCz) - Hm =

[m(z)

3 1H

3fl2

= mT

where niT is the total mass of the building.

46

4,4 B (ii) Cantilever mode

- cog

(z) -

H
'Ira

m = 1fm(z) L' - 2 cos

(1 + cos

ira1

-r .)J

0
4H . 712
zSin.---+

= m(z)

2H

E
=m(z)

.. m

71

z+

- 4H

= 0.227 mT

mT
mr = T

Or approximately

4.4 B (iii) Shear mode

z) - [Sin

mr

_Jm(z) Sin2 (!) cia

- cos

_fm(z)

[2

m(z) -
2

II . 7121
2w S1nTJ

47

1r

dz

= m(z)

H
I

mT

m = -

Also the case of second mode vibration can be considered:

4.4 B (iv) Second translational mode

3irz
z) = I - cos --

H
mr

= fm(z) [i - cos

()J

37rz

dz

= fm(z)

-2cos

- m(z) [z -

4H .

3rrz

37rz
Sin (--) +

(I + cos

(z

or approximately

m = 2m
r

48

dz

H
I

= m('z) [1.924 H]

3irz

In an induced vibration test a building can be 'weighed', or more

accurately, the modal mass can be measured since at resonance

F
r

= j8ir2 m

x
r r r

(42)

Thus, with a knowledge of the force, the damping ratio, and the
displacement, the modal mass can be calculated.

4.4 C Natural (or resonance) frequency

(4)

As has been pointed out in chapter 3, there are several theoretical

methods for predicting natural frequencies, but, it was argued
in Chapter 1 that these estimates can often be as much as 50% in
error.

A useful guide to the prediction of natural frequencies is used in

the California earthquake code

and has proved to be as accurate

as more elaborate methods. It is the following:

10

where N3 is the number of stories of the building.

In chapter 1 mention was made of several simple empirical estimators

based on many measurements and these are all likely to be as accurate
as any methods that are available at present.

49

With modern electronic equipment, natural frequencies can be

measured to a far greater accuracy than is necessary in structural
engineering.

4.4 D Modal damping ratio ()

There is no theoretical estimator of damping ratios that has been
well proved against measurements, and the best that can be achieved
at present is a guessed value for any structure.
Damping for any particular mode may be estimated by one or more of
several different methods depending on the nature of the forcing
function. These methods are:
4.4 D (1) The half power bandwidth method
If the response of a building as a function of frequency is plotted,
then the shape and height of the resonance spectral peak is governed
by the damping ratio. It is convenient to select the positions of
'half power', that is the two frequencies at which the response is
1 /12 times the maximum amplitude. The frequency interval between
these two points is termed the half power bandwidth (Br) and its
relation to damping is:

Br

(43)

The spectral response may be obtained either in an induced vibration

test or from random vibration. In the latter case the error bounds
must be reduced to acceptable proportions.
The choice of the half power baadwidth for this estimate is governed
by the relative ease of measurement but there is no reason why any
other points, or indeed the entire resonance response, should not
be chosen. It is probable that regression analysis utilising the entire
resonance region of the spectrum would give more precise results
than the 10-50% achieved conventionally.

4.4 D (ii) Run down method

In an induced vibration test a sudden cessation of excitation of
resonance produces a decaying oscillation with an envelope of the
50

-rwflt

form

and if the response caused by other modes of vibration

is small then the damping may be estimated to a 5-10% accuracy.

Regression analysis on the entire decay curve can give estimates to
within 1% precision in some cases. This type of analysis is
considered in detail in Chapter 8.

4.4 D (iii) Autocorrelation method

It has been shown 46 , that when dealing with the random response of
a single degree of freedom system, the autocorrelation of a stationary
sample of data gives a waveform which is directly analogous to that
produced in a run down test. Whilst the detailed conventional
mathematical treatment is available in the literature a simpler method
using fourier transform considerations enables understanding at an
intuitive level and Fig. 4 demonstrates this. The accuracy to be
expected from this method is about 10% but larger errors abound where
no checks on the stationarity of data are performed.

4.4 D (iv) The random decrement method

Cole 47 , has shown this method to work for integrity monitoring of
spacecraft. However, it is possible also to use it for estimating
damping, at various amplitudes, from a building's response to
random excitation. The method depends only on averaging sequences
of data which start at the same amplitude. Cole considered that the
response occurring after such a point could be split into three basic
parts. These are transient, random and steady state, and when
sufficient data have been taken the random and steady state will
average to zero and the resultant is the same transient waveform as
used in the previous methods. It is believed that this method has
been used for the first time with building dynamics in the study
reported here and the precision is estimated to be in the region of 10%.

4.4 E Modal directionality

It is often assumed that translational modes are governed by building
geometry. This study shows that this is not always the case. It is
the direction of least stiffness which governs the direction of the
lowest frequency mode. The directionality of the orthogonal translational
mode is then also fixed if it is, to a good approximation, a normal
classical mode. The importance of the directionality of modes to the
calculation of response is evident.

51

5. FULL SCALE TESTING OF REAL STRUCTURES

In this section the instruments and testing equipment are first
considered, followed by a description of the testing procedures used
in induced and ambient vibration studies.

5.1 Instruments and equipment used

In modern times the taming of electricity has placed at man's
disposal the use of a very convenient medium for the measurement
and interpretation of the physical processes with which he concerns
himself. In many fields of scientific research the electrical
transducer is the first link in the chain that leads to an understanding of these physical processes, and structural dynamics is
no exception. These electrical transducers are designed to produce
an electrical output which is proportional to the physically varying
quantity, and this output is subsequently recorded, stored and
analysed in any of several possible forms.
Because an electrical signal is an analogue of a physical process,
it means that, by definition, it cannot be an exact representation
of that process. The electrical transducer is itself a physical
system, and given different circumstances, could itself be the
subject of an investigation. it is normal, therefore, to use a
transducer to provide an analogue only in a limited range. This
range limitation may be explicitly governed by amplitude, frequency,
temperature and electrical constraints, as well as implicitly by
time.
The problem of producing an electrical analogue of structural
vibration is normally solved by using a single mass, single spring
type instrument. Fig. 5 is a resonance diagram showing the
absolute motion of a mass which experiences a force of variable
amplitude m w2 a0.

52

At A the frequency is very low; the top of the spring is moved up

and down at a very slow rate. The mass follows this motion and the
spring does not extend, and so y0 , the relative motion between the
mass and the top of the spring, is 0. At B the motion of the top
of the spring is rapid and the mass cannot follow it, so

is 1.

At C the height and width of the curve are governed by the quantity
of damping in the system and the mass-spring system is at resonance.
A seismic instrument can be chosen to operate in the A, B or C
regions.

In the B region the recorded amplitude y 0 is similar to a0 , and an

instrument operating in this region would operate as a relative
displacement measuring device. However it can be seen that the
resonance frequency of the instrument must be well below any
frequencies which are of interest.

In the A region the curve follows an approximately a 0 w2 characteristic

which is equivalent to the acceleration response. An accelerometer
must operate well below the natural frequency of the instrument. The
amount of damping in the device dictates how well the curve in the
region approximates to the parabola, and a value between 0.5 and 0.65
approximates this up to about 70% of the natural frequency.

When operating as a relative displacement measuring device

is in

phase with a0 , and when operating as an accelerometer it is antiphase

as an acceleration response should be. In traversing the C region
the phase changes through 90 towards the antiphase condition. This
corresponds with the velocity response, and an instrument operating
at its resonance has an output which is proportional to the velocity
of the response. If the resonance of the response is broadened by
increasing the damping then a frequency region is available for
velocity measurement.

53

Each of these configurations has operational difficulties associated

with it. A relative displacement measuring device needs a resonance
frequency below the frequencies of interest, arid since natural
frequencies for large structures tend to be very low this is not a
practical proposition in this case. (Measurement of absolute
displacement needs a reference from which to work. This reference
can be either the earth, which is often impracticable for large
structures, or an inertia platform controlled by gyroscopes. This
latter solution is very expensive.) A velocity measuring device can
only be used in a small frequency range and presents difficulties
of absolute calibration. However, once it is calibrated it gives
a large output for low frequency vibration. n accelerometer gives a
small output at low frequencies and a relatively large one for higher
frequencies. However, they may be used down to zero frequency and hence
may be calibrated directly against Earth's gravity. Small vibrations
occurring at higher frequencies give a large output and may swamp
smaller, lower-frequency responses of interest.

When considering the use of any of these devices attention should be

paid to the probable operating -conditions and a choice made accordingly..
However, when dealing with large structures with very low natural
frequencies, accelerometers are very often the most convenient solution,
since they can be calibrated directly, troublesome higher frequencies
can be filtered and the small signals at low frequencies can be
amplified.

Early electrical accelerometers utilised a coil wound around the

seismic mass of the device with a static coil around the outside of
this. As the seismic mass moved, the self inductance induced in the
outer coil varied. This was then decoded by incorporating this device
into an electrical bridge network.

54

More recently devices have appeared which, for convenience, will be

called servo-accelerometers. In these devices the seismic mass is
kept static by a small control system, and the current necessary to
maintain this position which is proportional to the acceleration
is monitored.

It is necessary for the mass of the seismometer

to be small compared with the system to which it is attached. In

the case of structures this rarely presents any difficulties.

In the tests reported here, Schaevitz servo type accelerometers have

been used as the basic transducing mechanism. Fig. 6 is a
representation of the internal mechanism of this type of transducer.
It has been found that on-site measurement can achieve a measurement
resolution of about o-6 g and that using computer enhancement (as
8
described in chapter 8) a resolution of 10
g is possible.
Fig. 6 shows that the cable attaching the accelerometer to the
measuring site takes only power supplies and the low frequency
vibration signals. For this reason it is possible to make these
cables very long with no degradation of the signal. (The earlier
inductive accelerometers used a carrier frequency which was difficult
to use over distances greater than a few meters.) This allows the
use of a 'travelling' accelerometer, and a freedom to investigate
positions in a building hitherto unapproachable.

Pig. 7 shows the normal arrangement of signal conditioning used for

one charirLel of information, in the tests reported here. The gains
of the amplifiers can be changed if the signals become particularly
large or small. Buffer amplifiers are used so as to avoid electronic
mis-matching, and d.c. offsetting of signals is necessary as each
electronic device itself changes the mean level. At the start of any
test, the accelerometer is levelled and the output of the entire system
is adjusted to zero. A small tilt is then introduced into the
accelerometer's orientation (normally about 30 minutes) and a noting
of the ensuing output enables a calibration of the entire measurement
system under operating conditions. The electronic systemsused are
all based on 741 integrated circuit operational amplifiers. The tape
recorders used are Sangaxno Sabre VI, 14 channel FM type, a Sony type
314 storage oscilloscope and a Watanabe (type WTR 751) heated stylus
chart recorder are also used for monitoring and measuring the
transduced and conditioned signal.
55

When the record obtained has included random signals, analysis

has been performed on a General Radio type TD 516 spectrum analyser.
This minicomputer has a hard wired fast fourier transform processer
and 28K of core storage. This is backed by disc units of one
megabyte each, any two of which may communicate with the processor
at one time. The system uses a special 'time series language' which
is adapted to the needs of processing random data. Several programs
have been developed especially for the study reported here and are
written in this language.

There are two different situations in which the monitoring of

structures has been conducted, those of ad hoc tests of the response
to ambient induced vibrations and of induced vibration:

5.2 Ambient vibration

The measurement and analysis system as described so far is the basis
of the measurements of the response of structures to the natural
wind environment.

In addition measurements of wind speed and wind direction have been

sought. At the University of Sheffield Arts tower it has been possible
to erect an anemometer on the roof of the building and measurements
have been taken from this. At most sites, however, it has not proved
possible to obtain wind speed and direction records, and in these
cases data from the closest meteorological sites have been used.
A wind tunnel study of the positioning of the anemometer at the Arts
tower, University of Sheffield, showed that a correction of the
measured data was necessary and this has been applied. It is to be
regretted, though, that the same wind tunnel study has shown that the
uncorrected data taken from the same locale by the meteorological
office should also have a correction applied.

Before performing any statistical analysis on random data, it is a

wise precaution to check whether the data being used form a stationary
sample. This means that all statistical properties remain invariant
with time, and spectral analysis techniques can then be used to give
results in terms of mean levels, resonance frequencies, and damping
values. Should the samples used not be stationary then it is possible
to obtain misleading results. In the case of wind or wave excited

56

structures it is very difficult to obtain continuous records which

remain stationary for a sufficient time. This problem is discussed
further in Chapter 7.

There are two types of error associated with the estimation of.
spectral ordinates and these are termed variance and bias errors.
Variance errors occur because analyses do not use infinite record
lengths and infinitely short sampling times. Any real quantities
(eg less than infinite) for record length and sampling frequency,
introduce variance error. If the record length is termed T and
the sampling frequency B then the variance error is (BT).
Practically a BT product of 100 is often found to be achievable and
this results in a variance error of 10% (0.1).

Bias error is caused when there is a rapid change of amplitude with

respect to frequency in a spectral density function, this is normally
caused by the presence of a resonance peak in a spectrum. Bias errors
are caused by having too few points of resolution in a spectrum in
the region of a resonance. Each point gives an average for the region
in which it is situated and if the amplitude changes rapidly in this
region then the average value is not representative.

These two types of error constrain the lengths of data that must be
used. To give an example of how to calculate these errors,assume
that BT 100, ie that a variance error of 10% is acceptable.

Next, assume that B - Br!4

where

Br is the half-power bandwidth of a response in mode r.

This implies that the bias error will be about 4%.

Now

T =

100

400

and

Br

57

where

is the natural frequency of mode r

is the 'quality factor' of the mode r

and

where

and Cr is the ratio of actual damping to critical damping in mode r.

______
Thus

200

=
=

r1r

This length of record T will give a total error () of

c =

V (variance error) 2 + ( bias error

= /1O 2 +4

= 11%

Typically for a large structure the value may be

C = 0.01

This implies that

and

f = 0.6Hz

200
= 0.01

0.6 secs = 33333 sees

9.3 hrs of stationary data

to give a total error of lIZ.

5.3 Induced vibration

The centre piece of this work is the induced vibration tests that have
been conducted on a number of large buildings. For this purpose a
vibrator system has been developed. It was constructed at Bristol
University by an interdisciplinary group under contract to the
Building Research Establishment.

5.3 A The Vibrator System

The major features required of the vibrator system were

(i)

The frequency range was to be 0.1-10 Hz with steps of

0.001 Hz.

(ii)

Each exciter was to produce 1 k.N force at 1 Hz.

(iii) The phase of the force produced could differ by 180

between exciters.
(iv)

Construction must be such that each exciter could be

broken down into components which could be easily
carried by two men.

(v)

The attachment of exciter to structure must be such that

the sinusoidal force could be applied in any vertical plane.

(vi)

The system was to operate on 240 V, 13 A, single-phase

domestic supply.

In view of the above specifications, both the mechanical and electrical

aspects were approached from first principles, with the outcome shown
in Figure 8. The complete system consists of four exciters, each
with its own 'slave' control unit, together with a 'master' unit which
controls the whole system. Of particular interest is the small
physical size of the slave and master control units; the former is
40 x 30 x 15 om and the latter 50 x 35 x 15

. The exciters are

colour-coded orange, blue, green and black, as are the slave units,
and since precise calibration has been carried out, this affiliation
should be adhered to if at all possible, although in an emergengy
little loss of accuracy would result if a switch became necessary.

Referring to specification (i), the range was set to cover most

prototype structures, including tall buildings, dams and offshore
structures. On the master control the required frequency is dialled
for the master oscillator, and L.E.D. indicators for each exciter
warn when the particular exciter is not synchronised with the master
oscillator. The time required for this synchronisation may be as
much as one minute if the exciter is started from rest in the fully
loaded state, but is usually only a few seconds. Interchange between

59

in-phase and anti-phase operation may be carried out at any time,

with drives running or stationary, by pressing buttons on the master
control.

The system has been designed on a fail-safe basis. Trip-speed buttons

are provided on the master control at 2, 5 and 10 Hz. The 2 Hz control
is effective unless special action is taken to circumvent it, which
consists of depressing the 'run' button simultaneously with either the
5 or 10 Hz trip-buttons. In other words conscious action has to be
taken to run the system above 2 Hz, thereby guarding against the
generation of excessively large forces. Furthermore, each exciter
can be stopped, independently of the master control, by simply
pressing a large red button on the slave control, which is placed
within a few metres of the exciter itself.
Regarding specification (ii), the force at any frequency is varied by
adding additional weights to the four spigots on the contra-rotating
arms. A typical calibration curve is given in Ref 40

which was

obtained in the laboratory by running the exciter against a calibrated

load-cell. With the maximum number of weights attached (140 kg) the
maximum safe speed is 2 Hz, which gives a force of 4.3 kN from each
exciter.

Specification (v) was dictated by the fact that in some structures,

buildings particularly, the lack of axes of symmetry means that the
most effective direction for the sinusoidal force must be found by
experiment; an infinitely variable azimuth for the force direction
is therefore an advantage. This was achieved, as can be seen from
Figure 8 , by welding spacers of length 3 cm to the underside of the
circular base-ring, so that when bolted to the structure it stands
proud by this amount. Three pairs of claws, one on each arm of the
main-frame, then locate the underside of the ring. A strong mesh
guard surrounds each exciter, and a 'plastic cover enables the
exciters to be run in the rain.

60

5.3 B Induced Vibration tests

Equation (28) shows that modal forces have their greatest effect if
applied at a position where is largest. Since the requirements
for several modes may be different the four exciter units are
deployed in an attempt to optitnise the forcing for as many modes
as is possible. This normally involves locating the exciters as
high in the building as is possible and at positions which will
produce large torques when required.

The modal information is then obtained in the following way:

1. Arbitrarily orientate the vibrator, increment the frequency
sequentially and produce a response/frequency curve.
2. Select a frequency of resonance and set the vibrators to
operate at this frequency.
3. At this resonance frequency, monitor the directional response,
by incrementally rotating an accelerometer. Establish the
direction of the minimum response.

4. Set the vibrator to a direction which is orthogonal to this

minimum response and incrementally increase the frequency
of the vibrators through the range 0.1-10.0 Hz, taking
measurements of vibration amplitude at each frequency for one
reference location in the building. In the jargon of
vibration testing this operation is termed 'frequency sweeping'.
5. Repeat this operation for the orthogonal set of modes.

6. Repeat this operation for the torsional set of modes. This

involves setting the vibrators on opposite sides of the building,
to operate in anti-phase.

7. Set the vibrators to a frequency of resonance, take an accelerometer to various locations throughout the building in turn, and
measure the vibration amplitude at each position.

61

8. Repeat (7) for each mode of vibration in turn.

9. Tune the vibrators to a frequency of resonance, and monitor the
decay of oscillation resulting when the vibrators are suddenly
switched off (the rotating weights come to rest in a few
seconds). Modal damping values can be calculated from the
decay.
10. Repeat (9) for each mode of vibration in turn.
11. Repeat (10) at various amplitudes of interest.

The results obtained in this way are returned to the laboratory for
more detailed analysis, although on site checking of measured data
has been found to be a very useful exercise.

62

6. PROGRAM OF TESTS ON STRUCTURES

A description is now given of the structures that have featured in
this investigation, together with a description of the scale of the
investigation in each case. Also, the equipment used, was changed
after the early testing, and reference is made to this. In all,
thirteen full scale structures have been included in this study and
they have ranged, in size, from six stories to forty six. Whilst
some of these structures are of the more prestigious type, there is
a group of six buildings which represent the sort of structure which
is at present popular in this country for office or general living
accommodation. Each will be considered in turn in the chronological
order of testing:

6.1 The Post Office Tower, London (Fig. 9 & 30)

This 177 m high tower consists essentially of a hollow reinforced
concrete shaft nominally 7.0 m in diameter widening to 10.8 m near
the base. Annular reinforced concrete floors are cantilevered from
the shaft. The exterior of the building is formed by a glass
envelope, 15.8 m in diameter, from the 8th to the 22nd floor and
between 15.5 m and 19.5 m in diameter between the 31st and 36th
floors. Floors 23 to 30 are unclad and below the 8th floor the
widened concrete shaft forms the building exterior. The building
is stiffened by a link to an adjacent building at the 4th and 5th
floor levels.

The structure has a 10 m deep segmented foundation, 30 m square,

bearing directly onto clay.

The natural frequencies of the building were obtained from spectral

analysis of wind response measurements and damping values by the use
of the autocorrelation technique (2). Estimates of the modal masses
were made from working drawings.

63

6.2 Police Headquarters, Wrexhain. (Fig. 10 & 32)

This 15-storey, 42 m high, office block has a rectangular reinforced
concrete, tubed core 4 m x 10 m containing lifts, stairs and services.
The hollow pot floors have reinforced concrete edge beams and span
from the core to the 4 columns near the corners of the building.
These columns are supported by a deep cantilever at the 5th floor
level. Below the 4th floor the building is connected to an adjacent
building. The building is clad in glass and pre-cast concrete panels,
and is founded on a solid concrete raft which sits on piles which
extend 8 m into sand and gravel.

The induced vibration tests were conducted in collaboration with the

Centre Experimental du Batitnents et Traveaux Publics, of Paris and
the vibrator used was an otnni directional type which was capable
of developing about IKN at 1 Hz. Fortunately the modes of vibration
were well separated and no major problems (caused by the vibrator
exciting more than one mode at a time) were encountered.

These tests were conducted using inductive type accelerometers in

fixed positions. The mode shapes are therefore defined only by three
points. Derived values of total mass and density from the y-y
direction conformed closely with the values obtained from working
drawings. This density and the appropriate mode shapes and mass
distribution have been used in the calculation.

6.3 Office block, Northern England (Fig. 11 & 35)

The Office Block is rectangular on plan, approximately 50 m long by
12 m wide with its long axis in a north-south direction. It has
six 3 m storeys of office accommodation of reinforced concrete
construction above a shopping precinct where, apart from the area
immediately around the lift shaft, it is carried on eight transverse
reinforced concrete portal frames at 6 m centres along the building,
the columns of the portal frames being at a considerable rake. The
portal frames occur on the upper shopping area of the precinct, the

64

feet of which are directly above vertical columns which carry on down through
two levels of a car park to the foundations which consist of a massive raft set
intosandandgravel. Above general roof level is a structural
steel pergola,part of which is only decorative, a caretaker's
flat, tank room and lift-motor room at the north end and an access
enclosure at the top of the staircase at the south end.

The construction of the floors of the six storeys above the portal
frames consists generally of 12 in thick hollow tile reinforced
concrete floor slabs incorporated within the depth of which are
reinforced concrete beams spanning between the columns. At the north
end, where two reinforced concrete lift shafts and a staircase are
situated, there is a substantial area where solid reinforced concrete
floor slabs are used instead of hollow tile. There is also a
reinforced concrete staircase at the south end.

The asyinetric arrangement of stiffening elements results in a distorted

translational mode shape in the x- direction and some translational
movement in the torsional mode. The y-y mode, however, contains little
torsion and this mode has been used to derive the mass of the building
and subsequently the modal stiffnesses.

6.4 Quarter-scale Model of Large Panel Building, Garston (Fig. 12 & 36)
Although only a model, the results of the tests on this building are
included for two reasons. Firstly, no full-scale tests have
been carried out on this type of building and secondly the building
possessed a most alarming coupling between a torsional mode and a
translational mode.

The model, constructed in the laboratory of the Building Research

Establishment, was of an 18-storey large-precast--panel building. It
had a central core, a spine wall, and 4 cross-walls dividing the
building into 5 x 2 bays, Flank walls were formed by large panels on
the two smaller faces of the buildings. The longer faces were unclad.
The suspended floor of the laboratory provided an essentially solid
foundation.
This building was first tested using an omnidirectional vibrator mounted
on the top of the building's core. Despite its symmetrical
construction the y-y mode exhibited considerable response due to
torsion and the x-x mode was completely coupled with the torsional
65

mode sharing precisely the same natural frequency. The laboratory

air conditioning was used to simulate wind loads on the structure
and analysis of the response of the building to these loads confirmed
the existence of the completely coupled torsional/translational mode.
Thus even a uniform load applied at that frequency to one of the
larger faces of the building would produce significant torsional
movement of the building.

Since none of the modes was pure, the modal mass was determined from
the design mass of the building.

6.5 Arts Tower, University of Sheffield. (Fig. 13 & 38)

This 80 in high tower block consists of a series of cast in-situ
reinforced concrete cores with deep floor slabs spanning between the
core and the external reinforced concrete columns. Above the first
floor there are 88 columns each 203 mm x 406 mm, evenly spaced around
the periphery. Below the first floor level this is reduced to
16, each 965 mm x 965 mm. The building which is clad in glass and
lightweight panelling, is linked to an adjacent building at a
mezzanine level, between the ground and first floors. There is a
deep basement and the building is founded on piles driven into shale.

At roof level water tanks and lift motors are enclosed and 5 in tall
steel shutters around the entire periphery of the building provide
an architectural feature.

A unidirectional vibrator (in collaboration with CEBTP) was used on the

building in the first series of tests in which some coupling of modes
was found. Subsequently the four units of the BRE vibrator system were
used to decouple the modes and to provide information at different
amplitudes. A number of partitions were removed from the building at
the 10th floor level between the two series of tests.

Because of the ease of access,the provision of anemometry,and the

willingness of the staff at the University to switch on recording
equipment during times of wind activity the building was selected
for a detailed study of response to wind action.
The mass of the building was calculated from the first vibrator test
and from the design figures, with a very good agreement between the
two figures.
66

6.6 Residential Nautical College - Plymouth (Fig. 14 & 41)

This building is constructed with 20 concrete columns along the two
longer peripheral walls and with shear walls integral with the
smaller perimeter walls, 8 larger columns form one row internally
and a second row, of 4 columns, is interrupted by the lift shaft.
The opportunity has been taken to surround the lift well with shear
walls on three sides. At the top floor level a walkway is open to
the air with a roof set above this. The building is founded on a
massive concrete raft which sits on piles driven into sandstone.

The tests on this building, and on the two others at Plymouth, were
conducted with a small unidirectional vibrator which was capable
only of providing a small force. Whilst it was of sufficient power
to enable the fundamental natural frequencies to be determined, the
wind caused a significant proportion of the excitation, and so
working drawings were used to estimate the mass of the structure.

This building is in an exposed position and several cracks are to

be observed in shear walls and in partitions throughout the upper
levels.

6.7 British Rail Building - Plymouth (Fig. 15 & 43)

This 35 m reinforced concrete building has three sections to it.
At either end semi boxed shear wall sections are used as integral
parts of the lifts and services, whilst the centre section is used
for open plan office accommodation and has two rows of five concrete
columns. The long dimension exteriors are merely concrete panel
cladding and glasswork. The shear walls at both ends of the structure
are constructed as two separate parts. At top floor level the centre
section is open to the atmosphere and a second roof spans between two
plant rooms at that level. The floors are of hollow pot construction
and the concrete topping is thickened to form reinforced concrete
beams spanning between the internal columns. Thebuildingis constructed
on a massive (3.106 kg) concrete raft which bears through alluvium
onto sandstone.
Although the tests on this building also sufferedfromwindinterference,
a second translational mode was identified and from this the mass of the
building was calculated. This calculation agreed well with that
predicted from the working drawings and was therefore used as the basis
for the calculation.
67

6.8 The Civic Centre, Plymouth (Fig. 16 & 45)

This reinforced concrete, 57 in tall building, utilises a combination
of columns and shear walls to provide stiffness. At both ends of
the structure there are blocks of lateral shear walls containing
services, and transverse shear walls are cleverly hidden within an
architectural feature at both ends, 12 columns are spaced at uneven
intervals along the long perimeters of the building whilst four larger
ones are located within the open-plan centre sections. At ground floor
level the building is extended over a much larger area for car parking
and service facilities. At top floor level a paved walk-way extends
around the structure and this is covered by a further architectural
feature in a rather unusual shaped concrete roof. The floors are of
conventional, slab type. The building has a deep basement which serves
as a car park and this is supported by piles driven into sandstone.

As this was the last test with the very small vibrator it was strained
to its limit and a greater force was developed than in the other tests
at Plymouth.

The wind excitation during the vibrator tests was quite significant
and this created some difficulty in measuring the damping even in the
second modes. The values obtained for the building mass from the
second modal masses appeared slightly high in relation to the working
drawings and so the values obtained from the working drawings have
been selected for the calculations.
6.9 National Westminster Tower, London (Fig. 17 & 46)
This building is a 190 m tall, 46 storey, reinforced concrete office
block. It consists of a massive heavily reinforced core, with three
'leaves' attached and supported by large concrete corbels at their
bases. Service ducts and lifts are provided inside the core, and the
leaves are mainly for office usage. The three leaves are each of
different height. Leaf 'A' extends from the 1st to the 43rd levels,
leaf 'B' from the 3rd to the 41st, and leaf 'C' from the 5th to the
39th. The exterior of the leaves consists of steel columns, onto
which are attached the cladding panels. The concrete floors are
cantilevered from the core, and are attached to the steel columns at
the periphery. Expansion joints are provided at the interfaces
between leaves. Massive deep beams are provided at the base of each
of the leaves, to provide support.

68

The building is founded on a massive basement which sits on piles

driven into clay. The top of the core is approximately 187 m above
ground level and at the time of the forced oscillation tests the building
was structurally complete, with the sole exception of the 46th floor.
Additionally, the upper three floors were open to the atmosphere, and
several minor items at or near ground level were not complete.

This test was the first in which the new vibrator system was used
although only a single prototype was, in fact deployed. This was
at 43rd floor level.

Because of heightened wind activity at the time of the first test a

wind record was taken and the response of higher modes (where wind
forces are smaller) was investigated. Shortly afterwards the tests
were completed during a calm period and first mode activity was also
studied. The mass of the building was calculated from the dynamic
tests and was close to that estimated from design drawings.

6.10 Sutherland House, Sutton, Surrey. (Fig. 18 & 51)

Sutherland House is a 10 storey reinforced concrete building with
21 columns along the periphery of both longer edges. At one of the
shorter edges there are 6 perimeter columns, whilst at the other end
an emergency staircase is used as a disguise for a shear wall system.
The stairwells and lift shafts inside the building, at the opposite
end from the emergency stairwell, also afforded the opportunity of
including shear walls. The interior of the building has two rows of
10 columns and lightweight partitions are attached to these. The
building is founded on a massive concrete raft which is supported by
piles driven into sand and clay.

The full new vibrator system was operational for the first time,
although only two exciters were placed in the building (at opposite
ends). The force generated by the vibrator system was sufficient to
overcome the slight wind activity. This activity did allow overnight
recordings of random excitation to be made.

The mass of the building was calculated from the results of the induced
vibration tests at various amplitudes and were consistent throughout.
No design drawings were available.

69

6.11 Dunstan Flour Mill (Fig. 19 & 54)

The silo tower of Dunstart flour mill was built in 1938-9 on the south
bank of the river Tyne. It had not been used since early 1978, and
all equipment and fittings, apart from the steel stairs, had been
removed from the tower before the tests were conducted.

The main part of the tower consisted of twelve vertical reinforced

concrete, storage shafts, 4.6 x 2.7 in in section and 36.6 in tall
(see Fig.54). At the top of these shafts was an unobstructed solid
reinforced concrete distribution floor (the 7th floor), whilst at the
lower ends

in above ground level) they were supported by the external

walls and concrete columns (approx. 0.5 in square) at the intersection

of the shaft walls. The stairwell was housed in an extension to the
storage silos (approx. 49 in x 12.2 in x 6.7 in) and consisted of eight
5.2 in stories and a basement. The structure was constructed from
in-situ reinforced concrete, and stood over a 16 in thick deposit of
alluvium (sand, gravel, clayey sand and silt). The whole structure
was supported on concrete piles which passed through the alluvium into
a layer of boulder clay.

A major feature of the behaviour of this structure was the dependence

of the natural frequency on the water height in the tidal river Tyne.
This meant that the induced vibration tests had to be performed in
rapid succession. Notwithstanding this, estimates of modal mass
calculated from these tests were consistent over a range of amplitudes.
Because the structure was to be demolished shortly after the testing,
the range of amplitudes of vibration was large.

6.12 Exeter 6th Form College, Exeter, Devon. (Fig. 20 & 56)
This 10 storey, 38 in tall, reinforced concrete building is basically of
the columns and slab type, with lightweight concrete and glass cladding
panels. Two stairwells are used to provide some shear walls inside the
building, although the quantity of these is not great. There are
12 columns along each long periphery wall and seven larger columns
along the spine of the building. The concrete floors are of hollow pot
type construction. Whilst a casual inspection of the building seems
to show that it is of a fairly standard construction, it can be seen
from the plan view, in Fig. 56, that there is not a great deal of
structural stiffening present. Indeed there are numerous cracks
throughout the internal blockwork partition walls. At ground floor

70

level there are short peripheral buildings attached. The building

is founded on a concrete raft which bears directly onto sandstone.
Two of the BRE vibrators were used in the tests on this structure
and modal masses were estimated from these tests. There was a large
scatter in the values of calculated masses at different amplitudes
and the reasons for this are discussed later.
6.13 Leicester University Engineering Tower (Fig. 21 & 58)
This tower is of striking appearance and is most easily described in
terms of its East and West sides, which form two separate though
interconnected buildings.

On the East side is a smaller structure which is connected to the

tested tower (West side) up to the sixth floor by solid reinforced
flat slab concrete floors which also form the area between the two
parts of the structure. In the interconnecting area are two staircases and a lift. The lift and stairs are carried in two separate
in-situ concrete towers of approximately 2 m squasi-square shape,
with 150

walls.

The West side is formed on four in-situ concrete columns, which are
free standing above first floor level and carry a large lecture
theatre which is cantilevered out 6 in. This theatre is a reinforced
concrete box with 220 mm thick walls and slabs.
At fourth floor level the four reinforced concrete columns project
above the theatre roof to support the main tower which starts at
fifth floor level.
The tower dimensions are 12 in by 6 m and it rises to twelfth floor
level at 36 in above ground. At fifth floor level a 200 mm in-situ
concrete slab is supported by a central spine beam with bifurcations
at both ends (in the form of a Y) so as to support the four corners
columns. Between fifth and sixth floor levels these columns gradually
change section until above sixth floor level they become twin triangular columns. Above this level one side is supported by staircase
tower walls whilst on the other three corners the triangular columns
continue upwards. The floors from sixth to tenth levels are 200
hollow tile slabs which are carried by upstand edge beams. Above the
eleventh floor is a tank room which has solid concrete walls 150 nn
thick. Lightweight aluminium and glass cladding is provided. The

71

building is founded on a complex of individual reinforced concrete

rafts which sit on boulder clay.

Two BRE vibrators were installed at tenth floor level for these
tests which were conducted during a single weekend. The complexity
of the structure led to a number of rather complex mode shapes,
but the modal mass, calculated from the fundamental translational
modes gave consistent estimates at various amplitudes. The investigation of dynamic behaviour was limited to the main tower and
staircases, although the effects of the east side on the dynamic
behaviour of the west side were plain to see. The good auspices
of the staff at Leicester University allowed tests to be performed
both with the water tank on the 11th floor full and with it empty.

72

7. DATA RETRIEVAL
The end product of measuring the dynamic behaviour of any system, is
a better understanding of the way it responds or is likely to respond.
In the case of the dynamic behaviour of tall buildings it is currently
considered that a description of motion in terms of its' frequency
characteristics allows a model to be formulated which allows the user
to predict, reasonably accurately, the response of the building to a
given set of forces. The equations for the model have been discussed
in Chapters 3 and 4, and the object of this section is to show how
monitoring of the motion of a structure can lead to estimates of
those parameters which made up the model of dynamic behaviour. In
this case motion data for a single building are converted to estimates
of parameters such as natural frequency and damping ratio, whilst the
question of predicting these parameters for an untested building as
a result of data obtained from tested buildings is left to Chapter 9.

In this type of testing of full scale structures, data are retrieved

in two quite different circumstances. These are concerned with
deterministic and with random data. The techniques for dealing with
these data are described, to a large extent in Chapter 5 for the
deterministic case, and in Appendix I for the random case and so
these methods will not be dealt with in detail here. There are,
however, some developments from these cases and some special
problems which have come,.to light in this study, and it is these
aspects which are considered here.

7.1 Deterministic data

Deterministic data derive from induced vibration tests and only single
frequency data are measured at any time. Accelerometers are used as
the measurement transducers and it is assumed that the motion is simple
harmonic so that there is a frequency squared relationship between
acceleration and displacement. Since sine waves are being measured
simple measuring instruments can be used, although because of the very
low frequencies involved measurements are normally taken from a

73

storage oscilloscope. Using a reference accelerometer, the amplitude

and phase of the output of a 'traveller' are noted. In this way
mode shapes and natural frequencies are measured and when the
exciters are stopped the decay is recorded for assessment of the
damping ratio. This leads to two associated problems, the first of
which is specific to measurement of mode shapes and the second
to the assessment of the damping value from a decay of oscillation.

7.1 A Mode shape measurement

The mode shapes depicted in this and other work on the subject show
nodal positions in which the movement is noted as zero, as the
response passes from being in-phase on one side of the node to being
anti-phase on the other side. The situation represented in mode
shape diagrams rarely occurs. It is more normal for there to be
a small residual vibration through an area around the nodal position
which is close to 900 out of phase. it is shown below that this
situation should be expected for a multi-degree of freedom system.

First it is necessary to consider the transfer function of a single

degree of freedom system.

w2

H(S) =

(44)

S2+2wS#w2

and a sine wave may be represented in terms of Laplace operators

as : - (95)

w
S2 + w2

(45)

and the response of the system driven by a sine wave of frequency w

is:-

w2
n
(S #

+ w2(1 -

74

2)

.#.

W2

(46)

Standard Laplace operator tables can be used to show the time history
of the response is:-

[(w 2 -

ww -rwt

w2 ) 2 + 42w2w

2]

[Sin (wt-ipJ #

___
_____
2 t_J (47)
[Sin w/i

e
vf,_2

72

The second part of this equation is a transient and is neglected now

since induced vibration tests are conducted under steady state
conditions. It does however show the necessity of allowing the
building to reach steady state over a period as long as five minutes,
when starting a test.

The steady state response is therefore:

4' -

___________

1 [2
2 Sin wt - tan
I i - __
W
I
w
L

1\
i

( 48)

I/

If this response of a single mode of vibration is termed A1, then the

total response considering all modes is:

A1 # A2

# 443

............ + A72

The first part of equation (48) has the same form as 111i(ffl and
the total response may be written as:

x(f)

[s(f)]. K Sin

(wt-.).f(.[HJ).f(.[x,yJ)

j='

since the modes shapes are functions of height and horizontal position
in the building.

Now consider that mode I is being excited at resonance and consider

a nodal position for that mode. Then

75

(49)

f(4 [HJ) . f(4)itx,yJ) - 0

Then the total response at this position will be

(f)J. X. Sin(wt-4)) . f(4)HJ . f[4) (x,y)

x(f) =

(50)

j=2

In the case where only the second mode gives significant interference
the response is

x(f) = [(f)] 2 K 2 Sin (wt-$2) . f(4) 2 [H]) f(4)2ExyJ)

(5)

and the phase angle is given by

w
1 2
-ii _;l
4 2 = tan
W21

(52)

L'

Because is small, 4 is always a small angle, for a response which is

well off resonance, (the response at resonance is 900). The appearance
is, therefore, of a response at 900 to the phase of the responses at
surrounding positions. Equations (51) and (52) have been used on data
from tests on the Exeter 6th form college and give good predictions of
these nodal responses.

7.1 B Estimating damping from decays of oscillation

Damping measurements are often made from a consideration of the form of a
decay envelope. Fig. 22 shows the conventional method of performing
this calculation. However, digitisation of data in a computer, leads to
consistent underestimates of peak values and so a method has been
implemented which performs a regression analysis on all the digitised
points. This method is useful when transient data have to be recorded
in digitised form, but finds its major application when assessing
damping values from data which were originally random ie when using
the autocorrelation and random decrement methods.

76

It is assumed that the form of the decay curve is

- A 0 e cos (27r.)

(53)

and a least squares regression analysis is performed by squaring the

function and finding minimum solutions with respect to A0 and 6:-

-,

2x6
2
= A 2 cos (2x)

(54)

in y 2 = 2 in(A) # 2x6 + in Ecos2 (2Trx)J

= in y2;

Let

x =

in [cos 2 (2irx)J;

(55)

A = in A0

... I = 2A+2x6+X

and now we minimise

- (2A + 2xcS + x)J2

...

41i

with respect to A and 6

+ BA + 8.x6 + 4X = 0

1.= I

And

_4XY+8Ax+8x26+4xXO

... -EY#2nA+26Zx+ZX=O

And

LxY#24Zx+26Zx2+EXx - 0

77

From which

6 = nExs+ZYEx-ExEx-nExl
- 2n Es2 # 2('Ex)2

(56)

and

44=

El - 26 Es - EX
2n

(57)

Use of equations (56) and (57) has been found to allow slower
digitisation rates and an order of magnitude greater accuracy in
estimating damping values from any particular decay curve.

A numerical example of its use for a known curve (6 - 0.03 and

A0 = 1) when the digitisation rate is so slow as to make the original
curve almost unrecognisable follows:-

The equation simulated is y = 1. e

-x 0.03

cos (2irx)
Xx

1.0

0.3

- 0.306248

- 2.36670

- 2.348718

- 0.710016

- 0.704615

0.6

- 0.794585

- 0.459871

- 0.423871

- 0.275923

- 0.254323

0.9

- 0.287466

- 0.477870

- 0.423871

- 0.430083

- 0.381484

1.2

0.298090

- 2.420720

- 2.348718

- 2.904864

- 2.818462

1.5

- 0.955997

- 0.090001

n
Es

= 4.5

El

= - 5.815182

Es2 = 4.95
EXs = - 4.158884
U = - 5.545178
Us = - 4.455888

78

- 0.135002

5(-4.158884) + (-5.815182) (4.5) - (-5.545178) (4.5) - 5(-4.455888)

- 2(5) (4.95) + 2(20.25)
= - 0.0300002

= - 5.815182 - 2(-0.03)(4.5) - (-5.545178)

2(5)

= 410.106
10

.. A

= 0.9999996

The conventional calculation would be as follows:-

= in

and A

0.787466 1.0
-

-0.239

= 1.0

The large error in being caused by the lack of resolution around the
peak in the conventional case, is seen to be reduced to negligible
proportion with the regression on the whole curve.

7.2 Random Data

The purpose of analysing random data emanating from the measurements
of a building's response to naturally occurring forces is to estimate
as many parts of the complex frequency response function as possible.
If the forcing function was to have a constant power spectral density
(PSD) then the PSD of the response would be a good estimate of the
complex frequency response function, and in most cases of this type
of analysis it is tacitly assumed that this is close to the actual
case and that therefore natural frequencies can be estimated easily,
and that damping ratios may also be estimated. All spectral analysis

79

techniques require that the time history forms a stationary set of

data and this causes several problems when dealing with the natural
environment. The property of stationarity, when applied to random
data, means that all statistical quantities remain invariant with
time. This idealised concept itself poses problems because
statistical quantities can be measured with greater or lesser
accuracy and resolution, and one set of data may pass one test for
stationarity and fail another. It is assumed here that a test for
stationarity must use the same digitisation rate and resolution as
the analysis will do and accordingly data have been tested for
stationarity by taking a mean square value from each block of
sequentially digitised data. Unfortunately, for the case most often
dealt with here, that of wind excitation, this means that there are
very few sequences of data which pass a stationarity test for sufficiently
long to allow an acceptable statistical accuracy to be obtained. This
problem has been overcome by using the technique known as ensemble
averaging, in which data are forced to form stationary samples. This
technique is discussed in detail below.

During this study, techniques have been evolved for retrieving data
about a structure from the record of random response and these are
discussed in turn here. Finally a particular problem associated with
estimating damping values from the half power bandwidth method for
buildings with small damping values is considered.

7.2 A Ensemble averaging

Ensemble averaging involves the labelling and storing of data, and
subsequent averaging of data that have similar labels. In the case
of wind excitation the necessary labels are wind direction and wind
speed. The spectra from short periods are stored on disc files with
labels attached to each section. Subsequently intervals for each
label are selected and a search is made for spectra which all have
labels within similar bands. These spectra are then added and
averaged in the normal way. Since the short period spectra are selfstationary, this technique forces the data to form stationary samples
(with the proviso that sections with large trends are excluded) and
normal statistical inferences can be made. This type of analysis
increases the number of data required, by a large amount.

8o

To give an example of the record lengths necessary for a rigorous

analysis, consider a building which the BRE have been observing
recently. The building is the Sheffield University Arts Tower96,
and the lowest natural frequency is 0.68 Hz with the corresponding
damping ratio = 0.86% critical. Using the calculation for
record length (Tn ) detailed in Appendix 1 we have

Now

T
p

200
0.0086 x 0.68

x 34199 secs

9.5 hours for c = 11%

The range of directions recorded was 255 0 - 3500 and the range of
wind speeds was 8.5 - 13.3 mis.

If the resolution of wind speed is 0.1 rn/s and of wind direction 50,
then the minimum record length required to compute spectra for all
the options is

4.8 2.. p T 5 -

T = T

8664 hours.

However if a BT product of 50 is acceptable (Variance error = 14%),

wind speeds are resolved to 0.5 mis, and directions .100, then the
record length necessary is at least

T = -.

4.8 95

T =

433 hours.

In practice, the wind blows more often from some directions, and in
this case a BT product of 50 can be obtained for certain combinations
of wind speed and direction in much less than the time noted above.
In the case of the Sheffield Arts Tower 200 hrs has been sufficient.

7.2 B Enhanced Uncoherent Output Spectra

Occasionally circumstances conspire to allow the collection only of
very small amplitude random signals. In this case the structural

81

data can be swamped by noise signals from a tape recorder. A technique

(97)
has been developed during this study
which allows an extra 25dB of
dynamic working range to be used.

7.2 C Estimating of damping by use of the autocorrelation technique

As noted in chapter 2, this technique has been detailed previousiyt46)
and it is not intended here to repeat this. However, the use of the
technique has been improved in that the regression technique noted in
section 7.1.B has been used with it, with a consequent improvement
of the accuracy of the estimates obtained from it.

It is intended that the technique will be used with ensemble averaging

techniques, but to date no appropriate data have been collected. It is
expected that this will obviate the stationarity problems which often
make the technique difficult to use.

7.2 D Estimation of damping by use of the random decrement technique

The method proposed by Cole (Section 4..4.D. (iv)) used random decrements
as a method of integrity monitoring for space craft components. Cole
observed that the signature did give an estimate of damping values
but he left the proof of this at the intuitive level.

The following gives a rationale for the method. Two assumptions are
necessary to begin with, and these are that the system has a single
degree of freedom, and that the data set being analysed forms a
stationary sample.

In terms of Laplace operators the response of a single degree of freedom

system to a random input is:-

w.

w2(1 -

(58)
2)

L(5

+ w.z
w=1

'2-

m=1

since a stationary random sample can be represented by a series of sine

waves (Fourier series)

82

The response is then

j1

Aw2
m n

Sin (wi t

w 2 ) 2 + 4 2 w w]

m1

w w.A
fl L

-wt

Sin

Ew1 -2t-q

(59)

f1-

The former part of this equation is a series of sine waves of random

amplitude and phase. In the limit the summation tenis to zero.

The latter part consists of a series of exponential decays which

oscillate at the natural frequency of the system under test. The
phase angle q in equation (59) is given by:-

/_2w 2 /1_ 2
= tan'

\
(60)

2 2 w 2 w 2 + W2)

At resonance this is approximately - , since

is small. Thus when

the excitation is off resonance the phase is a random variable and in

the limit will tend to zero.

The remaining portion is the random decrement signature and has the form

w2 Am

_le
m=i

Cos (w /i-

' t)

(6 )

If Am is limited to a specific value then the random decrement signature

is appropriate to that amplitude. TJnfortunately Am is associated with
the input function whilst the level selection is performed on the output
and stationarity is not a stringent enough requirement to create a one
to one relationship between these quantities since a system requires a
certain time (dictated by its time constant) to reach this steady state
response. The random decrement can, therefore, be used to find damping

83

values, by a measurement of the form of the signature, but the values

of damping will actually be an average of those values applicable to
a small range of amplitudes in each case.

The technique has been used on wind excited responses from the
National Westminster tower and from Leicester University. Fig. 23
shows random decrement signatures in these two cases. It can be seen
that these signatures give values of damping which are in close
agreement with the values derived from a sudden cessation of vibration
and so the technique has been proved. However, it should be mentioned
that much difficulty was experienced with obtaining stationary single
mode data, and that the attempt to use the technique to obtain values
of damping at different ranges of amplitude has proved fruitless.

7.2 E Simulation of damping estimation errors using a digital computer

A single degree of freedom system was simulated using the modal equation
( 57). This was then modified slightly to reflect the results of
induced vibration testing at various amplitudes. In this case the
damping value was kept constant at all amplitudes, but the natural
frequency was reduced as the amplitude increased. The effect of various
loading sequences was then considered, and in particular the apparent
damping ratio was estimated for each case.

Fig. 24 shows the simulation used in one particular case. The undamped
natural frequency was assumed to be at 1.01 Hz, and the hypothesised
response for successively larger forces are shown ranging down to
0.95 Hz, for an order of magnitude increase in response.

A load of a particular amplitude was assumed to cause the response shown

in each appropriate spectrum, and where combinations of loads were
assumed to occur then the appropriate responses were averaged. In other
words each load was assumed to occur for a discrete period and to
produce a steady state response during that time.

Two systems were considered, the first with 0.IZ of critical damping
and the second with 1%. The load sequences considered were not all
typical of those occurring naturally, but without exception they could
be made to pass or fail a test for stationary, depending on the order
of the individual loads assumed.

84

Fig. 25 shows typical results obtained and the table below

summarises the results
Case 1.

Actual

0.1% of critical

Apparent
(z)

Loading proportion at each level

Level

1
1

20

5

5

5

30

10

5

5

10

Case 2.

50

10

10

30

10

40

10

10

10

1 .44

0.979

0.968

1 .38

10

2.27

0.959

0.947

2.02

0.938

= 1.0% of critical

Actual

Apparent
frequency
(Hz)

Apparent
(%)

0.93

1 .01

1.15

1.00

1 .05

0.99

10

30

50

30

10

2.01

0.98

5 30 50 40 50 30

2.57

0.96

10

30

50

50

10

1 .90

0.96

50

50

1 .37

0.96

Loading proportion at each level

Level

1 .01

1 .50

30

0.30

0

5

20

50

50

50

50

10

20

30

20
30

Apparent
frequency
(Hz)

The values of damping were, in each case, estimated using the half
power bandwidth method and the natural frequency was taken as being
where the maximum response in the spectrum occurred.

There are a number of observations to be made on these results:

In the cases where a single loading value is used then the apparent
frequency and damping values are a measure of the accuracy of the
analysis used. It can be seen that in case 1 there is a significant
error in the estimate of damping. This is caused by bias error
(cf appendix). As the damping values increase the bias errors decrease,
85

and the estimate of higher damping values are therefore more

accurate.

In case I the apparent natural frequency actually drops below the

lowest value possible in two cases. The large bias errors inherent
in this particular analysis are the cause of this seemingly strange
result.

It is apparent from both case 1 and 2 that as the loading sequence

spreads over a larger range then the errors in estimating the value
of damping increase, and the result can become very misleading for
a low damping system.

A loading sequence which spends a high proportion of time at two

separated levels can actually cause an apparent bifurcation of a
spectral response which may appear to be two completely separate
responses.

It is concluded from these results that when making measurements

from random data stationarity alone is an insufficient criterion
for accurate assessment and that the variance of response should
be reduced as well. In the case demonstrated here the actual
damping values were assumed constant and the effect of changing
frequency with amplitude was investigated. In practice, the picture
is complicated further by the fact that damping values also vary
somewhat with amplitude, and accordingly assessment of damping from
random data in this study have been made using stationary data with
only a small variation from some selected rms value.

86

8. RESULTS FROM TESTS ON REAL STRUCTURES

In this chapter the results obtained from the series of tests on
full-scale structures are presented. The results are presented in
tabular form, in which all the major measurements are presented,
and as diagrams showing the modes of vibration. A discussion of the
significance of each set of results in included.

8.1 The Post Office tower, London (Fig.9 & 30)

Since no induced vibration tests have been conducted on this structure,
the results presented have been obtained only from analysis of the
response of the tower to wind excitation. Fixed pairs of accelerometers at the 168 m, 145 m and 76 m levels have been used to give
indications of the natural frequencies and responses of the tower, and
an anemometer at the 195 m level has been used for wind data. Figs.
26-28 show spectra of the response recorded at three levels in which
the major resonances below 1 Hz can all be identified. The majority
of energy is dissipated by bending in the first translational modes
(both at 0.15 Hz). This is shown in the spectra by the response at
0.15 Hz being more than two orders of magnitude larger than Lhe next
largest response. Inspection of the relative magnitudes of the
responses at different heights in the 0.80 Hz mode indicate that
this is a second translational bending mode and that a response at
1.40 Hz is the first torsional response. The use of Enhanced Uncoherent
Output Spectra 97 for these analyses has made the identification of these
responses possible. The conventional signal reduction techniques92
used originally were inconclusive because of interference in the
recordings induced by a combination of a great deal of microwave and
switching activity and the use of a poor quality tape recorder.

Autocorrelation analysis, in conjunction with the cosine regression

analysis was used to estimate the damping associated with the first
mode bending. Fig. 29 shows the result of such an analysis in which
the figure of 1 .25% of critical has been obtained. Values between
1.0% and 1.8% have been obtained although this should not be taken as
necessarily indicative of a change of damping with amplitude. This
is because the very low frequency of the fundamental mode makes very
lorg data records (40 hours), a requirement for a good statistical
accuracy to be obtained. The estimates of damping that have been

87

obtained therefore have a wider confidence limit associated with them,

than would have been liked (18% at one sigma deviation). These factors
were an impetus to the ensemble averaging and random decrement
techniques developed for later tests.
There are indications from the spectra that there is a difference of
natural frequency of about 0.002 Hz between the two orthogonal
fundamental translation modes, and Fig. 30 shows the measured mode
shapes for these two resonances.

TABLE 8-1 - POST OFFICE TOWER, GENERAL SUMMARY

Mode Frequency Damping Modal Mass

(Hz)
(x io6 kg)
Z
NSI

0.148

1.23

4.33

EWI

0.150

1.23

4.33

NS2

0.79

EW2

0.82

ei

1.40

2.04

3.6

4.8

Damping measurements for the higher frequency modes are from half
power bandwidth analysis.

The very low frequencies measured for the fundamental modes is an

indication that this building is not very stiff and explains why
motion can be felt at the top of the structure in
strong winds. The levels of damping measured can be seen with
hindsight to be high for this type of structure.

8.2 Police Headquarters, Wrexham (Fig. 10 & 32)

For these tests a unidirectional vibrator capable of operating only
up to a maximum of about 2 Hz was used and the two fundamental

88

translational modes of the building were identified. Dainpingmeasurecnents

were obtained by monitoring the decay of oscillation resulting from
suddenly stopping the vibrator. Fixed pairs of accelerometers at
three heights in the building allowed only poor estimates of the mode
shapes to be made. Subsequently the response of the building to wind
excitation was monitored with the same accelerometers.

The construction of the vibrator dictated that few tests at different

amplitudes could be conducted, but nevertheless, there were indications
that the damping values changed slightly during these tests. Figure
31 shows a time history of the acceleration at 14th floor level, EW
orientation, after a cessation of excitation at 1.165 Hz (mode EWI).
The damping was found to be 0.87% in this case and the values obtained
in several similar tests ranged from 0.7% to 1.05%. Figure 32 shows
the measured mode shapes of the building.

Fig. 33 is a spectrum derived from the response of the building to wind

excitation in which the major resonances can be seen. A spectrum of
the frequency range around the fundamental mode for wind excitation is
shown in Fig. 34. This shows that the natural frequency is 1.189 Hz.
The standard error for this spectrum is 0.19 and the frequency
resolution is 0.01 Hz (cf Appendix 1). This means that the natural
frequency is most likely to lie between 1.179 and 1.199 Hz, with 1.189
being the preferred value. The natural frequency is therefore shown to
be at a higher frequency than in the induced vibration. The frequency
in the N-S direction rises to 2.0 Hz for the wind excitation.

It seems likely from consideration of spectra produced from the response

of each accelerometer that the second bending mode in the E-W direction
occurs at 8.13 Hz and that a torsional mode appears at 3.91 Hz. The
major results are summarised in Table 8-2.

89

TABLE 8-2 - WREXHAN POLICE HEADQUARTERS. GENERAL SUMMARY

Mode Frequency
Hz
EWI

Force
(Np)p-p

Amplitude Damping Modal Mass

(x i06 kg)
(turn) p-p

1.165

3040

4.04

0.77

0.98

1.189

0.30

1.89

5100

0.78

2 .0

0.04

81

3.91

EW2

8.13

NS1

1.10

1.31

p-p indicates peak to peak measurement

8.3 Office block Northern England (Fig. 11 & 35)
The tests on this building were performed as a result of a dispute about
the dynamic behaviour. Accordingly access was limited and no response
to wind excitation was obtained.

The asymetric arrangement of stiffening elements in thebuildingresults

in a degree of coupling which was impossible to separate with the single
vibrator used. The EW1 and 01 modes interfered with each other and
accordingly the modal mass of the building was calculated using the NSI
mode. Fig. 35 depicts these mode shapes and shows the reason for
having adopted this approach. It also shows that there is movement
at ground level and this value of modal mass is an overestimate for
the EWI mode. The table below summarises the major results obtained.

The building has unusually high levels of damping, presumably influenced

by the complicated mode shapes.

90

1
I-i
c'J
O'-E

0
L1

r-. c
.,0
r-. co r-.

o.o o o o

-i

0 r-
c'i c.i

-.1

'.0

c'1

'-4
0,

(0

'.0

a)
'.0 '.0
'.0 C'4

,_I,_

c4

- 0

0
1.4
0s
4Z

('.1

0.
WI
I

09
I-4Z

0
'.0
0

C-,
..i co
WW - - -

e-.i

. '.-,
a)
14

T
a)

C,,
z

8.4 - Quarter Scale Model, Garston (Fig. 12 & 36)

This building was constructed in the laboratories of the Building
Research Station. It was first tested using a small omai-directional
vibrator mounted on the core of the building. Fig. 36 shows the mode
shapes obtained in this test. Despite the symmetry of the building
the y-y mode exhibited considerable response caused by torsion and
the .-a mode was completely coupled with the torsional mode and
occurred at precisely the same frequency. The laboratory air-conditioning system was used to cause wind excitation of the structure and
spectral analysis of the response confirmed the existence
of the completely coupled torsional/translational mode. The table
below summarises the results obtained.

TABLE 8-4 - QUARTER-SCALE MODEL

Mode Frequency
(Hz)

Amplitude Damping
(=)i'-p

Force
(N) p-p

Modal
Mass
xici6 kg

XXI

3.85

1.06

81

3.85

1.24

YY1

4.67

__________________________________

0.086

45.4
I

______________________________________________________________________

0.78
________________________________________________________

0.039
____________________________________________________

The torsional damping value was obtained using an angular accelerometer

mounted on the core of the building.

The value of modal mass calculated from the response in the YY mode
is close to that calculated using design drawings and the measured
mode shapes. Figure 37 shows a spectrum of the response of the
structure to wind excitation.

8.5 Arts Tower, University of. Sheffield, Yorkshire (Fig. 13 & 38)
Two series of induced vibration tests have been conducted on this building.
In the first series (made in 1976 in collaboration with cEBTP, Paris)
a single undirectional vibrator was used and some coupling of modes
was found. In the second series, conducted in 1977, the four units
of the BRE system were used to decouple the modes and eleven modes
92

were identified (as opposed to three using a single vibrator). In the

interim the useage of the building had changed and a number of
partitions had been removed from the building at 10th flow level,
Because of the willingness of the staff to co-operate in the tests
the building was selected for a detailed study of response to wind
activity.

The mass of the building was calculated from the first vibrator test and
from design figures, a very good agreement being obtained. No
assessment of modal mass was possible from the second series of
tests because of a fault in the control of the phase of the exciters
which was subsequentJ.y discovered.

Table 8-5 suuimarises the results obtained from the tests.

It

should be noted that the damping results for the EW2 mode are
unreliable because there was interference from a torsional mode
during the decay of oscillation. The values obtained for Gi suffered
from similar interference. Fig. 38 depicts the mode shapes of the
building as measured in the two sets of induced vibration tests.

The response of the building to wina excitation has been monitored

continuously for four years and the data obtained have been used to
measure the forces incident on the structure. The ensemble averaging
techniques previously described have been used on this extensive data
set and Fig. 39 is a typical ensemble averaged spectrum for the
frequency interval covering the three fundamental modes of vibration.
Equation 55 can be used to translate modal displacements into equivalent
modal forces once the natural frequency, modal mass and modal damping
ratio of the mode are known. This has been done for the Arts Tower
and the variation of force and torque with windspeed and wind direction
has been estimated and is shown in Fig. 40. The data set used for
these estimates is large and several hundreds of spectra like the one
shown in Fig. 39 are necessary to produce Fig. 40. These results and
their implications have been covered in detail in publications elsewhere, 96 ' 98 but the most significant conclusions can be gleaned from
Table 8-6.

93

Conclusions drawn from Table 8.6 must be treated with caution since,
despite the collection and analysis of more than 200 hours of data,
many of the spectral estimates still have confidence limits as wide
as 30 per cent. In addition some wind velocity data have been
acquired from anemograph chart records.
From the data in Table 8.6 the relationships between the wind speed
and the rms modal forces were calculated. After averaging the
relationships for all wind directions it was found that the N-S,
the E-W and the 0 modal forces are proportional to the velocity to
the power 1.93, 2.08 and 2.30 respectively.

A number of conclusions are apparent from this table and from Fig. 40.

(a) The form of the variation of the N-S 1 and E-W 1 modal forces with
wind direction is almost identical, where the magnitude of the
N-S 1 modal forces is in the region of four times that of the
E-W1 modal forces. These translational modal forces exhibit a
maximum when the wind direction is onto a corner of the building.
(b) The variation of the torsional modal force shows, two maxima, one
when the wind is directed onto the narrow face of the building
(2700) and one when the wind direction is onto the corner.

(c) The modal forces are greater when the wind is normal to the
narrow face than when it is normal to the wide face of the
building.

94

TABLE 8.5 - SHEFFIELD - General Summary

'ode

Angular
Torque
.
Force Freq.
disp.
(Nm)p-p (N)p-p (Hz) (Rads)p-p

NSI

.
.
Modal
Modal
mplitude Damping
mass
inertia
)i
(x lO 6 kg) : m2/rad)

-
-

0.665

1.59

1.18

0.670

1.12

1.16

0.672

0.63

0.99

538.7 0.678

0.23

0.8

6.35

-
-
-

1.05

0.725 2610r
0.779 1.45.10

1.34

* 9908.5

0.787 2.02.10

0.95

-
-

10.6.1010

-
-

0.849

0.44

1.43

0.853

0.24

0.78

0.856

0.21

1.16

0.859

0.12

1.27

868.8 0.861

0.24

1.3

5.84

ei

EWI

-
-
-

2.380

0.51

1.45

2.380

0.34

1.5

2.385

0.27

1.01

2.395

0.19

0.78

-
-

2.410 2.2.10

1.67

2.415 1.85.10

1.63

2.425 1.45.I0

1.41

1.41

2.435
2.450 6.5.106

1.29

-
-

2.825

0.14

1.14

2.830

0.08

1.03

2.840

0.05

0.93

2.860

0.02

0.92

NS3

- 5.61

0.05

03

- 5.66

0.03

EW3

- 6.6

0.003

NS4

- 7.54

0.02

NS2

02

EW2

* Taken from 1976 tests. All others 1979.

95

TABLE 8.6 - WIND CONDITIONS, FORCES AND BUILDING ACCELERATIONS

Arts Tower University of Sheffield

Mean
.
Mean
wind
wind
speed
direction

(I)

rms accelerations

r
N-S 1 E-W1

N-S1

E-W1

(kN2 /Hz) (kN2/Hz) (j2 m2 /Hz) (mm/s 2 ) (rmn/s 2 ) (mm/s2)

Wind excitation results

254

9.3

6.3

2.2

427

2.8

1.8

3.0

254

11.1

8.5

1.7

1012

3.2

1.6

4.7

275

8.5

3.4

1.8

324

2.0

1.7

2.6

275

11.8

35.2

6.5

3149

6.4

3.2

8.1

295

9.1

8.3

2.8

349

3.1

2.1

2.7

295

11.8

24.1

6.5

1671

5.3

3.2

5.9

305

7.0

3.4

1.5

174

2.0

1.5

2.0

305

9.6

15.2

4.3

920

4.2

2.5

4.5

305

11.4

23.4

6.1

1472

5.3

3.0

5.7

305

13.3

27.0

6.7

1564

5.7

3.1

5.8

338

10.0

3.4

0.3

133

2.0

0.7

1.7

338

11.9

6.7

1.1

216

2.8

1.3

2.2

338

13.3

8.4

1.7

400

3.2

1.6

2.9

350

8.1

5.8

0.6

156

2.6

1.0

1.8

96

The collection of data from the Arts Tower is continuing and the
accuracy of the estimates of the amplitude and variation of the
forces on the building will increase.

8.6 Residential Nautical College, Plymouth (Fig. 14 & 41)

This building, in common with the other two tested at Plymouth, was
excited with a small uni-directional vibrator originally intended
only for model work. The small forces developed were sufficient
to excite modes of vibration although it was not always possible to
maintain a steady state vibration in the presence of some wind acItivity.

Two modes of vibration were induced for this building and the response
to wind excitation was used to identify two further modes. The mode
shapes are depicted in Fig. 41 and the response to wind excitation in
the NS direction is shown in Fig. 42. Measurements of damping,
using the autocorrelation techniques on the wind record indicate values
close to those obtained from decays of oscillation despite the use of
non-stationary data. The fact that the modes are well separated in
frequency undoubtedly is responsible for this effect. Table 8.7 below
summarises the results obtained.

Table 8.7 - RESIDENTIAL NAUTICAL COLLEGE, PLYMOUTH

Mode Frequency
(Hz)

Force Amplitudi Damping Modal mass

(x 106 kg)
(NP)p-p (mm)p-p

EW1

1.33

514

0.086

1.35

1.73

NSI

1.99

1152

0.052

1.0

2.12

EW2

5.7

1.8

NS2

6.3

2.4

The modal masses have been calculated by distributing the masses from
a consideration of the design drawings and then using the measured mode
shapes. Table 8.8 shows these calculations.

97

TABLE 8.8
PLYMOUTH - RESIDENTIAL NAUTICAL COLLEGE

2(1 .33)

m 42(j .99)

1 .33)

1 .99) m

0.6401

1.0

1.0

0.6401

0.6401

10

0.3785

0.37

0.95

0.2812

0.3353

0.3715

0.77

0.90

0.2203

0.3009

0.3715

0.70

0.85

0.1820

0.2684

0.3715

0.62

0.75

0.1428

0.2090

0.3715

0.53

0.65

0.1044

0.1570

0.3715

0.44

0.55

0.0719

0.1124

0.3715

0.35

0.40

0.0455

0.0594

0.3715

0.27

0.30

0.0271

0.0334

0.3715

0.18

0.13

0.0120

0.0063

0.3715

0.08

0.05

0.0024

0.0009

Ground

0.3715

Basement 3.8742

Floor

Mass

11

4.7266.106 kg (not including basement)

1.7297
Zni q 2 (199) = 2.1231

8.7 British Rail Building Plymouth (Fig. 15 & 43)

Three modes of vibration were found in the tests on this building,
both from the induced vibration and from the wind excitation. The
table below summarises the results obtained in these tests.
TABLE 8.9 - BRITISH RAIL BUILDING, PLYMOUTH

Mode Frequency
(Hz)

Force Amplitude Damping Modal Mass

(N)p-p
(uim)p-p
Z
(x io6 kg)

NS1

1.25

628

0.058

1.47

2.73

EWI

1.32

238

0.099

1.0

1.99

NS2

3.85

2028

0.024

1.24

98

The mode shapes for this building are shown in Fig. 43 and in the same
way as for the Residential Nautical College the modal masses have been
estimated using the measured mode shapes and the design drawings for
the magnitude and distribution of mass. Table 10 shows the
calculation of modal masses.

lisingequation42 with the data from

the EWI mode gives a similar result for modal mass to that calculated
6
in Table 8.10 and gives a value of 1.74.10 Kg. Because of the
proximity of the NSI and EWI modes no autocorrelation analysis has
been used in this case. The spectrum of the response of the building
in the east-west direction is shown in Fig. 44.

TABLE 8. 10 - BRITISH RAIL BUILDING - PLYMOUTH

Floor

Mass
0. 6654

10

0.4953

9
8

0.5254

0.5254

0.5254

0.5254

0.5254

0.5254

0.5254
0.5254

Ground

0.6083

Basement

3. 1646

I 4)(1 .32
1 .0

Hz)

4,(1

0.89

0.77

0.72

0.55

0.44

0.33

0.23

0.12

0

0

0

.25 Hz)

m 4,2(132) tm 4,2(1.25)

1 .0

0.6657

0.6657

0.95

0.3923

0 .4470

0.90

0.3115

0 .4256

0.83

0.2724

0.36 19

0.78

0. 1589

0.3200

0.68

0.1017

0.2429

0.55

0.0572

0. 1589

O .40

0.0278

0.0841

0.23

0.0076

0.0278

Em = 5 . 9725 . 10 6 Kg (above raft)

Em

4)2

Em

4)2

(1.32) = 1.9951.106
(1.25) = 2.7339.106

The calculation of the modal mass for the EWI mode using the measured
results only, gives an estimate of 1.59.106 Kg, and so there is some
confidence in the accuracy of the quoted figures. Estimates of
damping for the two higher frequency modes have been calculated from
half power bandwidth measurements.

99

8.8 Civic Centre, Plymouth (Fig. 16 & 45)

This building was the last tested in a series that lasted five days
in Plymouth and it was decided to increase the force despite the
effect that this had on the small vibrator. Accordingly six modes
of vibration were investigated. No record of the response to wind
was obtained in this case as access to the building was strictly
limited. Table 8.11 suinmarises the results obtained and the mode
shapes are shown in Fig. 45.

The damping values are all obtained from decays of oscillation. The
modal masses are calculated as shown in Table 8. 12 in the same way
as for the other two buildings tested at Plymouth. Modal masses
calculating using equation 42 are all small and this effect is caused
by the large amount of wind excitation. It is expected, therefore,
that the figure for modal inertia is also small.

100

cc
,-4._1 I-i
- I.eJ

OWE

cCW
oE

lm

c',i
r
c..1
r1

c..J
C1
00
I 00 I
00

CN -
C'4 0
Lf

00

I
4

..4
' E

I
1-4
b0-4

I-I
U

08

c..i

Ct

C-)

C,-,
C'- -t m 0

ir, u.r,

0)
I-4
H
z
U
U

c1
1-40.
O.
4Z
0)0.
0.

HZ

C)

C..)
r- 0
..t

'.0
N.o
0

00
C'i
C'.)

Ci

N-

C') C'.)

zz
H

101

C..)

TABLE 8. 12 - CIVIC CENTRE, PLYMOUTH - CALCULATION OF MODAL MASS

Mass
4)(1.18)
in 4)2(1.13)
m 4)2(118)
4)(1.13)
(x 10 kg) ________ ________ ___________ ___________

Floor
15

0.5100

1.0

1.0

0.5100

0.5100

14

0.9055

0.95

0.90

0.8172

0.7334

13

0.9055

0.92

0.83

0.7664

0.6238

12

0.9055

0.90

0.75

0.7334

0.5093

11

0.9055

0.87

0.67

0.6854

0.4065

10

0.9055

0.80

0.60

0.5795

0.3260

0.9055

0.73

0.52

0.4825

0.2448

0.9055

0.65

0.44

0.3826

0.1753

0.9055

0.53

0.36

0.2543

0.1062

0.9055

0.37

0.28

0.1240

0.0710

0.9055

0.22

0.20

0.0438

0.0362

0.9055

0.06

0.13

0.0033

0.0153

0.9055

0.02

0.04

0.0004

0.0014

0.9767

0.9767

Ground

0.9767

= 11.45.106 kg
4)2 (1.13) = 5.3828.106 kg
4)2 (1.18) = 3.7592.106 kg

8.9 National Westminster Tower, London (Fig. 17 & 46)

This test was the first in which the new vibrator system was used
although only a single prototype was positioned at 43rd floor level.

During the initial testing the force developed by the vibrator was
insufficient to overcome the effect of wind activity in the fundamental
modes and induced vibration testing was limited to higher frequency
modes where the force developed by the vibrator was larger. A record
of the response of the tower to a strong wind was made at this time.

102

Shortly afterwards the tests were completed during a calm period

and the calibrated first mode response was studied. The mass of the
building was calculated from the dynamic tests and was close to that
estimated from design drawings.

Table 8.13 suinmarises the major results found, and Fig. 46

depicts the mode shapes of the building's resonances.

In practice, there are seldom more than three modes of significance for
buildings, and in this case only the first translational orthogonal
pair (both resonance frequencies being close to 0.440 Hz) play a
significant part in the response. This can be appreciated from
Figs. 47 and 48, where it can be seen that the acceleration responses
of the first translational modes are two orders of magnitude larger
than that due to torsion at 1 .553 Hz. (This is equivalent to more
than three orders of magnitude in terms of displacement.)

Figures 47 and 48 show the frequencies caused by wind excitation to

be the same as those discovered in the forced-oscillation tests, with
the exception of two modes occurring at 0.52 and 0.56 Hz. Figures 49
and 50 show an expansion of the 0 to 1 Hz part of the spectrum, where
these two responses can be clearly seen, at about one order of
magnitude lower amplitude than the fundamental response. Whilst it
is not known precisely what modes of vibration these are (they only
came to light after the tests had been performed), it can be surmised
that a likely explanation is that they are an orthogonal pair of
'local' translational modes not involving the whole body of the
structure. In this case the motion would be likely to be associated
only with one leaf (leaf 'A').

The torsional response can be seen at 1.553 Hz in Fig. 47 (N-S

orientation), but not in Fig. 48 (E-W orientation). This is because
the axis of the E-W oriented accelerometer passed close to the centre
of torsion.

The second translational modes can be seen to occur at approximately

1.67 and 1.69 Hz.

Further modes of vibration exist at 3.5 and 3.7 Hz, but do not play a
significant part in the response.
103

0
C
I

I.,
I
owE

.-lbO

00
C' C

'.0
N -

-..

00
.-

Lri ir r- o 0 0 0 NN

E
'-'

C.,

'00'
N N
0 0
00

0 '.0

0 0

0 0

'.0
0
-

I-I
.-s
c o
I

C'
0'

0
E-4
E-4
z

U
a-'
WN

0 0
.1- .1-t

W
I-t

0 0 - - -

UI

00

00'

- Z 00
-d N N

E-Z

0 0
r-. C
'0

C)
UP,
Lfl '.0

r z

iP, '.0

0'
N

iP,
'.0
N

N N

104

The incremental rotation of the accelerometers established the principal

modal directions as being + 30 and + 1200 (See Fig. 46). These
directions have been termed N-S and E-W for the sake of brevity.

The damping values measured for first translational mode activity were
approximately 0.5% of critical f or both N-S and E-W. These values were
backed up by measurements made from autocorrelation plots (eg Fig. 4).
The values obtained varied between 0.46% and 0.55% of critical, and it
is suggested that this is experimental scatter as there was no trend to
the variation. A value of 0.5% of critical was assumed for response
calculations. The torsional damping value was 0.7% and the two second
translational modes had 2.1% and 2.8%. These latter, values were
measured during the forcing tests.

Using Equation (42) the mass of the structure was established as

72.6.106 kg, with a tolerance of 9 . 10 6 kg on this result. This
same method then establishes the stiffness 'K' values at 185 MN/rn for
the E-W direction and 122.0 MN/ui for the N-S direction. However, as
these stiffnesses are calculated using the idealised mode shapes
depicted in Fig. 46, a large tolerance must be assigned to these
values, and t must be remembered that these values are
applicable to the mode of vibration as a whole. The very much
enhanced deflection near the top of the building for the N-SI mode
greatly affects the stiffness value and the lower value of 122.0 MN/rn
reflects this. (This value is still relatively high compared with
many other structures.) The inference is that the differences in
stiffness are caused by the different heights of the leaves (the
E-W modes being supported by leaf A) and the lower value attributed
to the N-S, mode is caused by the increased flexibility above the
43rd floor in this direction.

8.10 Sutherland House, Sutton, Surrey (Fig.18 & 51)

The new vibrator system was fully operational and was used for the
first time on a tall building for these tests, although only two
exciters were placed in the building (at opposite ends). The forces
generated by the vibrator system were sufficient to overcome the effects
caused by the wind. This wind was, however, adequate to allow an

105

overnight recording of wind induced vibration to be made. The mode

shapes measured in the induced vibration tests are shown in Fig. 51.

The recorded data formed a non-stationary set. This was caused by

a decrease in mean wind velocity as the night progressed. However,
the data were analysed spectrally so as to give a guide to the
response of the building to wind excitation. Figs. 52 and 53 are
typical spectra taken from a period when the mean wind speed (referenced
to a height of 10 m) was approximately 8.5 m/s and from the South-West.
It can be seen, from these spectra of acceleration, that the major
responses noted in the forced vibration tests are also induced by the
action of the wind. It can be appreciated from these spectra that
most of the movement occurs in the fundamental translation and
fundamental torsion modes. A large acceleration response can be seen
to occur at approximately 9 Hz. This mode was not discerned during
the forced vibration tests.

For the case of data averaged over a period of ten minutes or more,
the response can be characterised, to a good approximation, by
movement in the fundamental modes only. However, under the conditions
monitored, several examples of predominant second mode activity were
observed for short periods.

The spectra imply that during the period of measurement the response
was in the region 0.33 mm (mean peak peak) for mode EWI and 0.24 mm
(mean peak-peak) for NS1.

106

o'

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8.11 Dunstan flour mill, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne (Fig. 19 & 54)

The four units of the vibrator system were deployed along the edges of
each wall at the top of the structure and because the structure was to
be demolished shortly after the tests, it proved possible to vibrate
the building up to a large amplitude. The estimates of modal mass
calculated from the results of these tests were consistent over a
range of amplitudes. No recording of the response to wind excitation
was obtained. Fig. 54 shows the mode shapes measured and Table 8.15
suimnarises the major results.

8.12 Exeter 6th form College, Exeter, Devon (Fig. 20 & 56)
Two exciters were deployed at opposite ends of the building at top floor
level. The major results are set out in Table 8.16. These show a
variation of natural frequency and damping with amplitude for the first
three modes, as well as the response at single amplitude levels for
six other modes. Assessments of damping are all taken from the first
few cycles of a decay of oscillation resulting from a sudden cessation
of forced excitation. The damping values are therefore ascribed to
particular amplitudes.
Figure 55 depitts these decays of oscillation and show a graph of
peak amplitude on a logarithmic scale against cycle number.
Figure 56 depicts the shapes of each mode of vibration investigated,
together with estimations of values of modal mass and modal stiffness.

Figure 57 shows spectra of the response of accelerometers, placed on the

9th floor, to wind excitation.

A variation of natural frequency with time was noted. Table 8.17 shows
this variation.
Records of the response of the building to wind were taken on the nights
of August 23rd 1979 and August 24th 1979.

108

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109

NJ

TABLE 8.16 - EXETER 6TH FORH COLLEGE. GENERAL SUNMARY

Mode Torque
(Nm)p-p

Force Freq. Ang. Disp.

(Hz)
(rads)
(N)p-p

Amp

Damping

(mm)p-p

Z crit.

-
-
-
-
-
-

2.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0

80376
64962
49650
34134
18552
2798

-
-
-
-
-
-

1.206
1.207
1.210
1.212
1.215
1.215

3.3 .
2.8 .
2.0 .
1.1 .
0.4 .
0.7 .

NSI

-
-
-
-
-
-

4153.7
3346.7
2545.3
1751.8
948.7
143.0

1.393
1.392
1.392
1.395
1.396
1.396

-
-
-
-
-
-

0.432
0.357
0.250
0.141
0.046
0.008

2.3
2.3
2.3
1.5
1.5
1.5

EWI

-
-
-
-
-

5806.6
4690.9
3576.3
2450.8
1326.9
200.0

1.647
1.648
1.650
1.650
1.651
1.651

-
-
-
-
-
-

0.512
0.417
0.325
0.162
0.062
0.012

3.4
3.2
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.4

17752

4.33

i.i . io 6

1.5

NS2

2015.4

5.24

0.009

EW2

2164.2

5.43

0.011

1.6

NCI

3394.0

6.80

0.006

73325

8.80

2.1 .

6348.4

9.30

0.002

01

02

03
NS3

10
1O_
1O_
10

TABLE 8. 17 - VARIATION OF FREQUENCY WITH

TI FOR MODE EW1 EXETER 6TH FOR14 COLLEGE

Time

Frequency
(0.004 g p-p)

28 Aug. 79

15.10
15.25
15.40
16.00
16.10

1.614
1.618
1.621
1.625
1.627

30 Aug. 79

11 .00
11.40
11.50
12.05

1 .583
1.580
1.578
1.575

31 Aug. 79

09.15
10.10

1.568
1.575

110

8.13 Leicester University engineering tower, Leicester (Fig. 21 & 58)

Two exciters were located at top floor level at opposite sides of the
main tower. The tests were conducted at a weekend (Sept. 29/30 1979)
and the response to wind excitation was measured on the night of 30th
September.

Figure 58 shows the variation with height of the major modes of the
building. Figure 59 depicts the results of the directionality test
for the translational modes. The directions are taken from the
results in the two fundamental orthogonal modes. Figure 60 shows
the plan response at 10th floor level for the torsional modes. 01
is relatively uncomplicated and is a conventional torsional mode
involving the main tower and the staircase tower. The measured
centre of torsional activity was constant all the way down to ground
level. The second torsion mode essentially involves only the main
tower and stairwell tower above fifth floor level and as less inertia
is involved the frequency is higher than the 01 mode. Another
indication that this is a resonance of a different 'system' is that
the centre of torsional activity is different from that for 01,
although it is again a constant with respect to height. The third
torsional mode is rather more complicated, as can be seen from
Fig. SS . In this case there are two torsional centres and motion
essentially only above 6th floor level.

Table 8.l8gives a general summary of the measured dynamic properties

of the building from this series of tests. The modal masses can be
seen to be 0.744.106 Kg for the N-S modes and 0.856.106 Kg for the
EW modes. This difference is not surprisIng as the East side building
is more likely to play a part in the EW modes of vibration.

On the night of Sunday 30th September a recording of the response of

the tower to wind excitation was made. Fig. 61 shows typical spectral
responses from this time. An assessment of damping f or the 01 mode
was made from a half power bandwidth measurement. The value calculated
was 2.5% and accordingly an estimate of modal inertia was made using
this figure. This value was very low when compared with other
structures, although the fact that the fundamental torsional natural
frequency is higher than the translational fundamental ones, suggests
that the torsional stiffness is satisfactory.

111

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On the afternoon of Sunday 30th when the water tank had been emptied,
the natural frequencies were measured again. Table 8. 17 lists the
results from these tests and shows that the natural frequency
increased by between 0.01 and 0.07 Hz in each case. The reduction
of mass is calculated at 0.077.106 kg as there were 17,000 gallons
of water in the tank when filled. Calculations of modal mass for
the tank full and empty give results which show no trend at all.
It is concluded, therefore, that this quantity of mass is below the
level of resolution of the mass calculations. Additionally the
increase in frequency expected when the mass changes by this
quantity is shown always to be larger than the measured values and
this is presumably caused by inaccuracies in the estimation of the
modal masses . The small change in the torsional natural frequency
is evidence that the rotational inertia of the water in the tank
is not significant.
Damping values noted in Table 8.18 are shown to increase by up to 25% for
the range of amplitudes used, although, as shown in Chapter 9, the largest
amplitude expected for the once in 50 year wind is smaller than the
smallest vibrator-induced peak amplitude, and therefore the smallest
measured damping values are those which should be used in design.

8.14 Discussion of the tested buildings

In general the results from these buildings are self explanatory and
they can be regarded as being a vindication of the general methods of
analysis currently used,although in detail there are many differences
from what is normally expected, and there are some instances of wholly
unexpected behaviour.

8.14A. General Observations

An inspection of the original design data for the Arts Tower, at the
University of Sheffield, showed that the central core was intended to
take all the wind load. Despite this, it contributes little to the
total stiffness of the building, 2 per cent in the North-South
direction and 17 percent in the East-West direction of the stiffness
ascertained from the dynamic tests. When the stiffness of the external
columns is included this brings these figures up to only 25% and 60%
respectively of the measured stiffness values. These figures certainly
have a wide tolerance on them as the building's dimensions vary from
the intended dimensions and the calculation of stiffness
113

based on measurement is accurate only to about 20%.

(it was shown in the tests at Leicester that a change of
mass of 10% could not be detected using equation 61 to 'weigh' the
building). Nevertheless these differences in stiffness are too large
to be accounted for by inaccuracies in the experimental methods and
the conclusion has to be drawn that so called 'non-structural' elements
are taking load. Indeed the lightweight blockwork partitions are badly
cracked near the top of the building, and these cracks can be seen to
open during wind storms.

A further peculiarity, found at Sheffield, was repeated at Exeter

where, for what looked like symmetrical buildings, the shear centres
(the point about which torsional activity centres) are shifted
significantly from the geometric centres of the building. Calculation
of the shear centres of both buildings (even including 'non structural'
elements) shows the position to be close to the geometric centre. The
conclusion that must be drawn is that the structural elements do not
behave 'as designed' and that variations in the accuracy of construction
and of connection must be responsible for these differences.

The Exeter building has several surprises for the school of thought
that accepts theoretical calculation of dynamic behaviour as 'exact'.
Unlike any other building in this series of tests its' measured modal
mass varied with amplitude. It is unlikely that the mass participating
in the mode of vibration changed significantly for two reasons.

(i)

attempts were made to measure motion in the ground at, the

building and several meters from it. No measurable motion
was found.

(ii)

the apparent mass increases as the amplitude decreases.

This is contrary to what would be expected if the effective boundaries

of the building were to enlarge.

(iii)

an apparent 'jump' in the measured damping values against

amplitude characteristic, conspires to suggest that for this
building the model used and described by equation 55, does
not describe the building's behaviour satisfactorily.

114

Severe cracking was noted throughout the upper levels and the
repeated appearance of 'dust' from them suggests that these
cracks work during wind storms and that a mechanism for a
different type of behaviour is readily identifiable.
(iv)

Whilst not being particularly flexible torsionally, the

torsional fundamental resonance is the lowest frequency
mode of vibration. This is caused by the high translational
stiffness of the building.

The changes in natural frequency noted for the Exeter building whilst
being excited at the same magnitude are not directly correlated with
any discernible variable. The overall temperature of the building
was not monitored and is suspected as the primary cause of these
changes. The tests were conducted over a two week period at Exeter,
and whilst it may be thought that this longer period may be responsible
for the observation of the change of natural frequency, it should be
noted that the tests at Sutherland house took a similar time without
such an effect being observed. A change of natural frequency at the
Dunstan flour mill was correlated with the water height in the tidal
river Tyne.

A further unusual occurrence was noted at Dunstan in that the order

of the modes of vibration changed through the sequence, the second
torsional mode appearing below the frequency of the second E-W
translational mode. The small frequency ratio (1.99) between the 01
and 02 modes is a symptom of this, and the mode shapes show there to
be little or no motion in the ground for the 02 mode; whereas for
all the other measured modes significant motion was found at ground
level. This suggests that in the waterlogged clay soil, present at
that site, rotational stiffness increases with frequency.
There are some aspects of these tests that are more reassuring and
whilst some are dealt with in the next two sections, it can be stated
here that there is a general trend for the mode shape of the lowest
frequency mode of any tall building to be a straight line, in
elevation. The tests on the three buildings at Plymouth presented
some difficulties because such a small vibrator was used. However,
I 15

they did show that it is possible to obtain useful, although limited,

results rind that the calculation of modal masses from design drawings
is in reasonable agreement with the measured values using the
vibrator. Discussion on the response to wind excitation is reserved
for Chapter 9.

8.14B. Natural frequencies

The results from this series of tests, and others conducted at various
times throughout the world, have recently been used by Ellis 52 to
assess the accuracy of prediction of fundamental natural frequencies.
His conclusion was that fi = 46/H, where H is theheightof the building
in metres, is a 'best fit' for the data presented here. Fig. 62
shows the population of fundamental natural frequencies and the
regression curve. There are further observations, that can be made
as a result of this series of tests, about-natural frequencies. Table
8.19 lists the translational and torsional frequencies noted for this
set of buildings. The frequencies are all taken from the lowest
amplitude test possible. The averages of various ratios have been
taken for this data set and some conclusions can be drawn.

(i)

When considering all translational modes the ratio of the

2nd mode to the 1st mode frequency is 3.74, and the ratio
of the third to the first is 7.52. The Wrexhain building and
the London Post Office Tower are the only ones that differ
significantly from this result and they are both unusually
shaped.

(ii)

When considering the ratio between the frequencies of

orthogonal translational modes the average value is 1 .22.
There is no obvious correlation with aspect ratio for this
result and, indeed, there seems to be no correlation between
translational stiffness and the dimensions of a building. The
variation in this frequency ratio is not large though, and
varies only between 1.0 and 1.6.

(iii) The average for the ratio of the torsional frequency to that
of the lowest frequency translational mode is 1.94. The
variation in this ratio, however, is quite large, varying
between 0.87 and 3.52.

116

(iv) The average for the ratio between the second and first torsional
modes is 3.26 and the variation is small. The ratio of 1.99
found at Dunstan is low when compared with all other results.
These range between 3.1 and 3.9

The change of frequency with change of amplitude is a phenomenon that

is expected as a result of damping values changing with amplitude.
However, the linear visco-elastic theory developed in Chapter 4
suggests that the relationship between the natural frequency and the
undamped natural frequency (fe,) is

f = f0/1_2

(62)

(The undamped natural frequency is defined in Chapter 4.)

In all cases the change of frequency measured was greater than would
be expected from the change of damping measured.

8.14 C. Damping
Fig. 63 shows the variation of damping with amplitude for the fundamental
translational modes of the five buildings tested at various amplitudes.
The form of the variation with amplitude is different in each case and
at first sight it is difficult to draw any meaningful conclusion.
However, if the damping values are separated in a similar manner to
the frequency then a useful result is obtained.

Values of 'zero amplitude damping' () have been ascribed to each mode

of vibration depicted in Fig. 63. These have actually been obtained
by using straight-line regression on the low amplitude data, although
inspection of the characteristics tends to suggest a value in most
cases. These

values have then been taken, together with some

other data which can be guaranteed to be taken from very low amplitude
data, and have been plotted in Fig. 64. The regression line drawn onto
the figure takes the form

S,

(population)

(0.15 + 0.76

and the regression coefficient is 86Z.

117

f)%

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The suggestion that damping is proportional to natural frequency for

a population of buildings had been made previously by Japanese
workers 20 ' 67 . The result presented here lends weight to this argument
and puts forward a basis on which other investigators may assess their
damping data.

The rate of variation of damping with amplitude (C.) can be seen from
Fig. 63 to be variable. The large differences encountered for some
orthogonal pairs of modes (Sutherland House for example) makes the
search for a variable upon which this parameter lies a fruitless
task with the sparse data so far available.
The table below lists the values for
The valuesof

and

for the five buildings.

are only applicable to a small amplitude range.

TABLE 8.20 - VALUES OF

Building

FOR FIVE BUILDINGS

Mode

%/inm

(Hz)

LEICESTER

NSI
EW1

1.76
2.51

0.32
0.16

1.32
1.55

EXETER

NS1
EWI

1.42
1.03

2.33
4.19

1.396
1.651

SUTHERLAND

EWI
NS1

1.49
1.25

3.19
0.28

1.51
1.78

DUNSTAN

NS1
EWI

1.95
2.48

0.47
1.07

1.49
2.28

SHEFFIELD

NSI
EWI

0.89
1.05

0.20
0.28

0.672
0.859

119

9. THEORETICAL CALCULATION OF RESPONSE

In this section consideration is given to the calculation of the
response of a building to wind loading. The early work by Davenport8
led to an appreciation of the power of the spectral approach to
effecting this approach and accordingly the Canadian, Australian and
Danish codes of practice now give guidance on the calculation of
dynamic response. In the IJK no such guidance has been given in CP 3
Chapter 5, Part 2, although a committee has now been set up to
re-formulate this code and to include a section on dynamic behaviour.
At present the sole document available in the UK for this calculation


.


100
is that produced by the Engineering Sciences Data Unit
This
design guide is based on Davenport's spectral methods although it
only calculates the along-wind response of the structure. These past
approaches have been suggested as the basis for the new version of CP 3
Chapter 5, Part 2, although the work reported here has already been
responsible for an updating of these older approaches. Some of the
results presented have been used as input to the ESDU data item
(ESDU 7.6001) to assess the accuracy of the spectral approach. This
input is, of course, measured data and is therefore more accurate than
would be expected in the design process. The object of the exercise is,
therefore, to check the efficiency of the presently formulated spectral
approach as represented by the ESDU 76001 data item. For this purpose
the response of the-buildings-to wind-excitation has been compared with
the response that is calculated using ESDU 76001 for that windspeed.

9.1 The Spectral Approach to Calculating Response

Equation (41) forms the basis of this calculation method. Characteristics
of the spectral forcing function and the transfer function of the building
are first necessary. The buildings used here have been 'calibrated'
by the induced vibration process. The forcing function is characterised
by making use of standard aerodynamic parameters and then the two parts
are amalgamated into a single equation which represents the maximum
dynamic response. An assumption is made then that the response can be
characterised by a small frequency increment around the resonance
frequencies of the structure and spectral forcing functions are
computed at these frequencies. In this way a simplified predictor is
arrived at, which should give results in close agreement with the full
spectral calculation.

120

If the spectral forcing function is integrated around this small

frequency interval then the dynamic mean square response a 2 (x) is
evaluated' 00 as:f..S(f)

for mode

(63)

K2
a

and for all modes together

j,

(x) =

a
(2ff f/ M

f,7. S(f,)
j iLl

(64)

The mean maximum acceleration is then calculated by multiplying this

result by a peak dynamic response factor

where

is given by

0.577
i/2log (f) # v'log fT
e
0
0
e

(65)

and T0 is the time interval during which the maximum value occurs
(normally 3600 secs).

Thus the full response is evaluated as

j

lit f.S(f)'

=
max

M.J

jiLl

(66)

The spectral density force S(f) is evaluated by assuming that the

aerodynamic force is

is

H
a

PV2f
to

CDH

Wb.dZ

(67)

0
and that the spectral density force is this value modified by terms
for the intensity of turbulence, a turbulence admittance factor
(based on the building dimensions), the mode shapes of the building the
effect of the terrain on the wind structure and the wind speed for which
the calculation is to be performed. ESDU 76001 provides look-up tables
as well as the basic equations for each of these factors.

121

Equation 66 above has been used in conjunction with wind data

gathered from the nearest possible measurement site and Table 9.1
below give the results of these calculations.

TABLE 9. 1 - CALCULATIONS OF RESPONSE

Building

ESDU 76001 Ratio

ESDU 76001
50 year prediction Actual Measured prediction
wind for 5O year windspeed rense for actual Prediction
measured
wind
wind
V5m/s
sm/s
x
41.8 4.71.102
42.5 1.58.10_2

10.8

2.79.1O

6.l1.1O

2.2

8.4

2.11.10

3.29.1O

15.6

12.4

4.46.1O

4.09.1O

Sheffield

35.9 8.82.10
51.6 3.60.102

21.3

1.31.10 k 3.83.10

Nat.West

30.5 6.24.10

11.0

3.O7.10

Leicester
Exeter
Sutherland

0.92
29.2

1.85.10 k 6.0

At first sight it may seem that these results are reasonable

considering the approximations that necessarily have to be made.
However, a closer inspection shows that the largest error in the
estimation of response is for the Sheffield Arts Tower. This
building was used in the ESDU 76001 document to demonstrate the
manner of performing the calculations, although this was before
measurements from the building had been assessed. It is significant
that the comparison of prediction and measurement is at a high
windspeed (21 .3 m/s) and this is an indication of a basic fault of
the spectral method as it is presently constituted. The factors
which conspire to work against accurate prediction are now considered.

9.2 The relationship between windspeed and response

As has been shown in Chapter 8 the results presented for the Arts
Tower at Sheffield consistently show a response which is, to a good
approximation, proportional to the square of wind velocity for
in-wind directions. (The study of the Sheffield Arts Tower is the
first of its kind and this relationship may be different for
differently shaped buildings.)

122

The spectrally based estimators currently seek to compensate for a

shift in frequency of the energy content of the wind spectrum, by
estimating the mean square modal force to vary as a 7/3 power law.
The aerodynamic reasons for doing this are based on measurements of
wind pressure whilst a building responds to forces incident on it.
The conversion between wind pressure and forcing functions depends
on an estimate of a turbulence admittance function. In all the
calculations used to make up Table 9.1 this factor is taken from
data listed in ESDU 76001 as 'tentative'. It seems that there is
a case for aerodynamicists concentrating their efforts on extending
their knowledge of this factor, although it may only be possible
to assess factors like this by studies such as the one reported
here.

9.3 Variation of turbulence with height

Deaves and Harris' 0 ' have showr that the intensity of turbulence
decreases with height. The presently constituted spectral methods
do not take this into account. They consider that turbulence is
invariant with height. %hilst the figures in Table 9.1 obscure the
result somewhat, because they are taken from different parts of the
country, an extrapolation to a single high value of windspeed
clearly shows this height effect. In the table below the results
and predictions are all extrapolated to a position near Birmingham
for which the once in 50 year wind is considered to be 40 m/s.
TABLE 9.2 - CALCULATIONS OF RESPONSE FOR ALL BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED
NEAR BIRMINGHAM.

Building

Extrapolated
response
x

ESDU prediction

Ratio

3.83.1O

4.18.102

10.9

Exeter

4.78.1O

1.34.102

28.0

Sutherland

4.64.1O

1.17.102

25

.82.102

395

i.oi.io2

24.9

Leicester

Sheffield

4.61 .1O 4 I

Nat.West

4.O5.IO

123

In these calculations for the response at a different location

the assumed terrain around each building has been kept
the same as in its' original environment and so the response of the
Nat.West Tower is artificially suppressed. The two taller buildings'
response, however, is seriously overestimated by the prediction whilst
for Sutherland House the prediction is quite reasonable. The wind
data for the Leicester building were averaged from two locations both
distant about forty miles and this may well be the explanation for
the disparity in this case. The building at Exeter remains an
anomaly. The response spectra for Exeter show the torsional mode
to have dissipated most energy for this building and it may be that
the proximity of this mode to the translational modes means that
less energy is available in that part of the spectrum.

Whilst not conclusive these results suggest that the decrease of

turbulence with increasing height above ground should be considered
for the calculation of building response.

9.4 Variation of response with angle of attack of the wind.

Because of the use of the ensemble averaging technique it has been
possible to study the variation of response for any windspeed for
the case of the Arts Tower at the University of Sheffield. Fig. 40
shows there to be considerable response when the mean wind direction
is not normal to a face of the building. Indeed, the maximum response
occurs when the wind blows 'at a corner' of the building. All
spectrally based methods currently consider the wind blowing normal
to a face of a building to be the worst case.

9.5 Recommendations for the prediction of responseThe high cost and time consuming nature of this study means that the
results obtained here must be somewhat restricted, and it is hoped
that further study of actual response will be undertaken. However,
several factors do arise which have been shown to be necessary to
take into account for the calculation of response. These are:-

Ci)

The variation of response with windspeed for the in-wind direction

is more reasonably estimated as a square law than the currently
used 7/3 law.

124

(ii)

A response 'rosette' should be assessed for several building

types. The form of Figure 40 suggests a shape for one
windspeed for one building, but quite obviously this is not
sufficient. With such a rosette the calculation of the
response of a building could be assessed in terms of the
response of the major modes of vibration. At present such
rosettes could be determined by wind tunnel studies, although
their validation by full scale studies is essential.

(iii)

The decreasing force against height characteristic for taller

buildings suggested by Deaves and Harris 10 ' should be adopted.

(iv)

The natural frequency of a building should be estimated by

using Fig. 62 or assuming it to be H/46. Where H is the
height of the building in meters.

(v)

The damping ratio for the fundamental translational modes

should be considered to be (0.15 + 0.76 f)% Where f

is

the frequency of the fundamental translational mode in

question.

(vi)

The modal mass of the building may be assessed from design

drawings, with an addition being made for live-load contents
of the building. Values of 1.33 and 1.5 times the individual
floor masses for open plan and conventional office blocks
have been used successfully in this study.

125

10. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

The conclusions arising from this work are summarised here. The
work forms part of a larger program and as such the main investigative
effort is continuing. Accordingly some of the conclusions must be
regarded as being somewhat tentative and so some suggestions for
further investigations are included. The conclusions fall naturally
into three categories: those pertaining to the reduction of response
data, to the structures themselves, and to the response of structures
to wind loading. These categories are considered in turn.

10.1 Data Reduction

Various new techniques for the reduction of structural dynamic data
have been instituted and used successfully and a particular danger
with data analysis has been demonstrated. These are:-

10.1 .A Enhanced Uncoherent Output Spectra

These have been used to increase the.dynamic working range of
recorded dynamic data by 25dB.

10.1.B Random decrement

The random decrement technique, originally instituted by Cole 47 , has
been successfully used on structural response data.

10.1.0 Curve fitting to exponential decays

The accuracy of calculating damping from an assessment of the form
of an exponentially decaying oscillation has been increased by
performing a regression analysis which utilises every digitised
data point instead of merely considering the form of the envelope.
The technique has been used with the autocorrelation, random
decrement and free decay time histories.

1O.1.D Stationary data

An example using artifically produced data has shown that different
values of apparent damping could be estimated from a system for which
only the natural frequency actually changed. The data used could
have formed a stationary or non-stationary set depending on the order

126

of their occurrence. It is concluded that stationarity is a

necessary but not sufficient requisite for structural dynamic
data. This problem does not occur if data with a large range of
variances are excluded.

IO.1.E Ensemble Averaging

The ensemble averaging technique has been used to study the response
of one structure as a function of windspeed and wind direction. The
technique developed in this study, is the only one currently
available to overcome the problems of obtaining stationary data
from the response of a structure to wind excitation. It is
recommended that the ensemble averaging technique should be used
with many other buildings in order to be able to study the behaviour
of complete structures in detail.

10.2 Structures
The general form of structural dynamic behaviour is well understood
and the results presented here have, in general, shown that the
prediction of structural dynamic behaviour reflects the real
behaviour in form if not in detail. The example of the form of the
results coming from the Exeter 6th form college serves as a warning
to those who believe that there is nothing to be learned from real
behaviour. The appearance of a torsional mode as the lowest
frequency resonance, the sudden changes of damping values with
amplitude and the apparent change of mass with amplitude serve to
show that the linear visco elastic equations normally used to
describe dynamic behaviour are not always appropriate.
The calculation of the stiffness of the Sheffield Arts Tower has
shown an alarmingly large difference between that stiffness derived
from design drawings and the stiffness calculated from induced
vibration tests. The appearance of cracking during storms, in the
tower, is evidence that 'non-structural' parts of the building take
load. It is apparent that this type of load sharing needs further
investigation before design seeks to optimise building construction
further.
Modal coupling has been observed in several buildings. This had
taken the form of a coupling between torsion and at least one
127

translational mode caused by the shear centres of the buildings

involved being separated from the geometric centre. With the use
of four vibrators it has been possible to suppress this coupling
in the case of the Sheffield Arts Tower. This coupling of modes
tends to make response and, correspondingly stress, larger than
would be predicted in the non-coupled case.

Specific results for three structural dynamic parameters have

been obtained. In turn these are:

1O.2.A Modal Mass

Calculation of the masses of the tested buildings showed that the
'weighing' of buildings and the calculation of modal masses from
design drawings are well correlated when the mass of a building
is considered to be the dead load as a result of the structural
elements of the building with a factor added at each floor level.
This factor is of the dead load per floor for conventional office
accommodation and 1/3 for open plan offices.

1O.2.B Nodal response

The response monitored at positions which are ostensibly nodes have
been shown to be as expected and the magnitude and phase of this
response has been calculated, using laplace operator techniques,
and has correlated well with the observed behaviour.

1O.2.0 Natural frequencies

Natural frequencies have been shown to change with amplitude and
damping changes. The change of frequency is greater than is
expected using linear visco-elastic theory and assuming a change
of damping with amplitude.

Certain relationships between natural frequencies have been apparent

from this study, and whilst in some cases the variation from case to
case is quite large (particularly for n-), the relationship between
the fundamental translational response (TI), the orthogonal fundamental
translation (01), the fundamental torsion (el) and the higher modes
arc suggested to be the following for cases where full studies cannot
be carried out.

128

Ti = 46/H

02
T2
- - - - 3.74
01
Ti

(64)

T3 - 03

(65)

- - 7.52
- 01
= 1.22

(66)

(67)

- 1.94

(68)

= 3.26

The value for Ti has been shown elsewhere to be often more accurate
than expensive and time consuming computer based methods 52 . The
ratios for

and

show little variation from the

values noted above and so these simple relationships are also likely
to give more accurate results than computer based methods.

10.2.D Damping
The values of damping ratio for buildings should be separated into
two parts. These consist of a zero amplitude damping () which is
the value of damping at small amplitudes, and a rate of variation of
damping with amplitude. Regression analysis of
that there is a good correlation between

values has shown

values and resonance

natural frequencies. This relationship provides a basis for

estimating damping values for buildings of conventional construction
and takes the form:

= (0.15 + 0.76

f)%

This also suggests a new basis on which researchers should inspect

their data.

The previous disregard of the amplitude at which damping data were

taken is suggested as the reason for the present confusion.

129

1O.2.E Building Stiffness

The stiffness values derived from induced vibration tests have been
shown to include information which allows the conventional 'quasi
static stiffness' value to be assessed. Study of the energy
dissipation of buildings suggests that the stiffness value obtained
in this way is likely to be close enough to the conventional value
f or measurement accuracy to be the major accuracy limitation.

10.3 The response of Structures to wind loading

Large errors have been noted between the actual response of structures
and that predicted by the present generation of spectrally based
predictors, even in cases where wind data as well as structural
parametric values were of high quality.
It is suggested that the basic reason is the use of a 7/3 power law
for the relationship between windspeed and a spectral forcing function.
Measurements on the Sheffield Arts Tower using ensemble averaging
techniques have shown a square law to be a more accurate reflection
of the actual relationship. It must be stressed, however, that this
is only a single result and it is recommended that a great deal of
effort should be committed to measurement of this variation as it is
of paramount importance for the calculation of response.

The same building has been used to measure the variation of response
with angle of attack of the wind. The finding that the maximum
response occurs when the wind blows at a corner of the building has
serious implications for the present predictors of response as all
of these consider the maximum to occur when the wind blows
perpendicular to a face of a building. It is suggested that 'angle
of attack rosettes' may be calculatable or measurable for various
shapes of structures by the use of wind tunnels. This work also
should be undertaken as a matter of urgency.

The calculation of response at present relies heavily on figures

for turbulence intensity and turbulence admittance factor (the
interaction between structure and atmosphere). These are extrapolated from data measured for a totally different aerodynamic
length scale and accordingly must be regarded as unreliable. It
is recommended that aerodynaxnicists should investigate these
parameters as a matter of urgency.
130

10.4 Suggestions for further work

Apart from the recommendations about the aerodynamic quantities of
turbulence and variation of force with windspeed and direction,
several other items are suggested as areas, which can be seen from
this study, to be worthy of further attention.

This work has provided more information about the damping behaviour
of real structures, but nevertheless much more work is necessary
investigating the nature of the mechanism of damping in real
structures.

It has been apparent from this study that structures do not 'work'
as they are expected to. There is a potential benefit to be obtained
from a study of efficient positioning of shear walls and nonstructural partitioning from the point of view of obtaining a more
acceptable dynamic response as well as controlling the positioning
of the shear centre of a building. The effect of the overall shape
of a structure on its modal directionality and its stiffness is an
investigation which also has potential f or economic benefit.

Finally, it is worth noting that a great deal of quite mundane

measuring of dynamic parameters is very useful for the designer as
well as for those concerned with estimating likely response. No data
batik of results exists at present, nor is there any mechanism for
them to appear routinely. This is unfortunate, as perhaps the biggest
conclusion from this study is that comparision of theory and practice
is of vital importance if the accuracy of predictive techniques is to
improve. The practitioners of one side of the field operating without
an intimate knowledge of the other are inevitably courting a disaster
that is avoidable.

131

APPENDIX I
ANALYSIS OF RANDOM DATA

I. INTRODUCTION
The collection of data has, in the last few years, become a practical proposition
in a large number of disciplines where it was not possible previously. With the
use of mini-computers becoming more popular data can be collected and analysed
far more quickly than was possible in the past.

This note describes the essential details of the processes involved in obtaining
meaningful information when dealing with any time varying quantity (or any
quantity where a linear substitution for time can be employed).

2. DESCRIPTION OF DATA
A single time history representing a random phenomenon is called a sample
record and the collection of all possible sample functions which the random

phenomenon might have produced is called a random process or a stochastic

process.

Time varying data fall into one of two classes

(a)

Deterministic

(b)

Random

Deterministic data can be described by an explicit mathematical term and include

sinusoidal and transient data. Methods of analysing these data are well known
and will not be dealt with here.

Random data have no explicit mathematical relationships, but may be dealt with
on a statistical basis. A random process may be either a stationary or a
non-stationary process, the definition of stationarity being that all
statistical properties are invariant with time. A sub-set of stationary data
is ergodic data, and occurs when time averages on individual records from the
same process, are the same for all records.

132

3. BASIC ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS

Here are set out the basic functions that are generally available for the
analysis of random processes. It is not normally the case that all will be
used with an individual set.

The functions fall into three categories and can be called time, amplitude and
frequency domain functions.

(a) Time domain

There are four basic functions used in the time domain those of Covariance
Autocorrelation, Crosscorrelation and Cross Co-variance. The only difference
between the Covariance and Autocorrelation functions is that the mean value of
the time history is removed before computing the Autocorrelation function.
Thus, for a zero mean time history the values are the same for the two functions.
The cross product terms are discussed at the end of the section.

If a time history

y(t)

is multiplied by a sequentially delayed version of

itself and averaged, the output is

R(T)

where

is the delay time. This is

the Autocorre].ation function

2'

y(t).y(t # r)dt.

R (r) yy

2'

Since it is not possible to average for an infinite time an estimate of

is obtained by the following process:-

R (T) -

if2'

J
0

y(t).y(t t t)dt.

This is the direct method of computing the Covariance function (and if

the functions are y(t) -

and y(t + T) -

the Autocorrelation function)

and is not generally employed when using digital techniques.

The Autocorrelation function is normally computed by an indirect route since

it is computationally faster to find the Power Spectral Density function

(PSD)

and transform to the Autocorrelation function by use of the Inverse Fourier

Transform. This process is suusnarised at the end of this section.

133

(b) Amplitude domain

In this domain we have probability distribution functions as well as quantities
such as mean and mean square values.

The Probability Density function p(y) for a single record represents the rate
of change of probability with amplitude.

Lt.

p(y) - y

-o

Lt. ^

Ztt:

where t: is the time that the varying quantity y(t) lies between amplitude
levels y and y

ty.

The Probability Distribution function P(y) is defined as:-

P(y)

-f

p(y)dt

Mean and mean square values can not be measured in less than an infinite time,
they can only be estimated, but they are very important quantities for determining whether or not data can be classified as statIonary. In particular
sequential estimates of the mean value can be used in a 'run test' as a
hypothesis test for stationarity (see section 4).

(c) Frequency domain

The quantity most useful for analysis of time varying data in this domain is
considered to be the Power Spectral Density (PSD).
It is defined as:-

G(f) - T t -

Bt
BT j
0

Where B is a bandwidth in which YB(f,t) is observed and T is the time for which
it is observed.

1 34

Again this can only be estimated and becomes:-

T
(f)

fr

f0

B2 (f,

t)dt

The function G (f) is the single sided PSD and this function is no longer computed
digitally by this means.

In practice the PSD can be found by taking the Fourier Transform of a time
history. This procedure produces a function S(f) which is the two sided PSD.

G(f) can be obtained from S(f) from the relationship

(f) - 4 G, (fe)

f >0

S(f)

Also S(f)

Note. Autospectrum functions are the non normalised double sided spectrum
function with the negative frequencies disregarded. To obtain a PSD the
autospectrum must be normalised by multiplying each term by

where fB is the

sampling frequency and N is the number of displayed points in the autospectrum.

G(f) gives individual estimates of mean square values centred at individual

frequency points and is normalised to facilitate meaningful comparison of
PSD's obtained using different values of B arid T.

Cross product functions giving relationships between two separate time histories
can be defined and these terms contain information about phase:-

The Cross Correlation function:-

T)

x(t).y(t # t)dt.

and the Cross PSD, obtained in two parts

(1) The Co-Spectral Density function

135

c
(f) a xy
B

(f3 t). YB ( f, t)dt

and (2) The Quadrature Spectral Density

2'

(f) -

(f, t +

"B

(f, t)dt.

Thus

and

(f)

C'

(f)

(f) + Q' (f)

tan

(f)

Again it is quicker to compute these functions by the indirect method. This

involves taking the real and imaginary parts of the Fourier transform of the
cross products of the two time histories.

When using a tape recorder as an intermediate data handling device, it is possible

to speed analysis by playing the tape more quickly. In this case, when using
energy density functions (PSD and cross PSD) the analysis output needs to be
multiplied by the speed up factor. This is because the speed up process has
itself reduced the density of the data before the normalising process.

When dealing with transient data one authority 92 quotes an Energy Spectral
Density function which is essentially the same as a PSD, with the exception
that no division by
the limit

le

2'

(the record length) is performed and it does not involve

2' . .

GE(f) -

2'

G(f)

The estimation of errors is not quoted in the literature and so the function
should be used with extreme caution.

The Coherence function y( f) is a measure of the efficiency of the transfer

of energy from one time history to another

(f)

= G

(f)21

(f) (f)

136

This is bounded by 0 and 1. A Coherence value of one means that energy

is transmitted from one time history through a linear system, with no noise
added, to a second time history. The Coherence function is a vital measurement
if realistic measurements of accuracy are to be made.

The following is a listing of some of the more useful spectral relationships.

General Spectral Relationships.

R (t) exp(-j2itft)dt

(f)

R(T) -

S(f) exp(#j2rfr)df

where j=/-1

The pair of relationships above are fourier transform pairs

G(f) = 2 S(f)

R (-'r)

Yb'

Yb'

(t)
for all T

R(0)

R (0) =
Yb'

The mean square value

Y

,.4.
p(b')dy =
J-

Y p(y)dx

mean

p(y)dy
Y

137

Variance

yp(y)dx -

,( G(f)df -

G(0)

Excluding zero frequency

Valueat

fo

The Fourier Transform can be expressed as

1(f) = TLt. +

r
./-T

y(t) exp(-j2rrft)dt

and its pair the Inverse Fourier Transform as

1(t)

= fEt

+

1(f) exp(j2irtf)df
-f

4. ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
When a set of data has been collected a fundamental decision has to be made
about the nature of the information that is required and the subsequent analysis
performed with this decision in mind. However a few items may be regarded as
the normal way in which analysis of time varying data will be performed and these
are discussed here.

The first step is very often a 'quick look' analysis. This involves using
analysis parameters (such as sampling frequency and number of data) which are
known to give large errors in the estimated function, but which will give an
indication of what parameters should be used or what type of analysis will be
most beneficial. It is at this stage that a necessity to change a test
procedure should be found.

138

The second step should not be left out except in the very rare case when a
priori knowledge of stationarity exists. This is the test for statiotiarity
and may be performed in many different ways. Essentially the time history
is split into convenient lengths (normally one data block for digital analysis)
and statistical quantities from each of these lengths are compared. A useful
test has been found to be the run test described by Bendat and PiersolW,
since it quantifies the confidence level at which stationarity can be claimed.
If several records from the same process exhibit stationarity at the same
confidence level, then these can be accumulated, to produce one of the basic
analysis functions, with a greater confidence. This is termed 'ensemble
averaging'.

After these basic tests for acceptance of data, it will normally be found
that a reduced set of stationary data have been obtained and these can be used
for basic analysis.
It is possible to use weighting functions such as hanning, and hamming. These
terms are useful f or presentation of data and if some negative values of
coherence are to be avoided, but they should not be used, or used with
correction factors, when making measurements from frequency or time domain
functions since they all involve the controlled 'leakage' of estimates from
one band to another.
At a later stage specialised analysis will be found to be necessary and this
will be determined by the user.

5. ERRORS
It has been emphasised in previous sections that the basic analysis functions
produce estimates of the real values which would ideally be obtained.
The errors occur in two distinct ways. These are characterised as bias and
variance errors.
If a quantity is estimated by E [] then the normalised standard error is
defined as
U

139

This is a dimensionless quantity which is equal to the square root of the

mean square error, divided by the true value. In practice the standard error
should be as small as possible and is used to estimate the confidence limits
that can be placed on a measurement. For example if t 0.1 then it can be
stated with approximately 68% confidence that the true value of the measured
quantity will be within 10% of the measured value.
The standard error (c) is equal to the sum of the bias Q,) and the variance (a)
errors.

The following table sunsnarises the values of bias, variance and standard error
for various functions.

Function

(f)

B2G'(f)
PSD [

24

BT

(f)
G(f)
G

,i

R(o)

Correlation [RU T)]

nofle

# R(T)]

. (

p2(y)

Probability Density p(y)

i/2B2'W (y)

(W is a small amplitude window)

Table I - Errors for various estimated functions.

In the case of PSD,

is the sampling time whereas in the case of the

Ai.itocorrelation function

represents the whole length of the time history.

The bias error in a PSD measurement can be avoided by choosing B such that
there are many estimates of the mean square value when

G(f) is

changing

rapidly. In practice this occurs when a resonant response occurs. If four

estimates are chosen throughout the bandwidth of the response then the bias
error is 5% and if 10 are used the bias error is 1%.
In the case of the autocorrelation function at values where R (r) R (o)
C

and similarly for the PSD when the bias is negligible c

The aim is normally to use a product of

more.

140

BT

at least 100 (giving

-i--

C 0.10

or

\4

If the requirement that

then

BT

00 is met

- 100
2'r

where

is the length of the time history required

Now

where Br is the bandwidth of a response, fr is the region of the response and

Q is a measure of the 'peakiness' of a response.

(the damping ratio)

Also Q is related to

1
2Q

B must be chosen to resolve Br (and reduce the bias)

B
if

then

2'

becomes

400Q

2'

When considering a single input - single output system it is more accurate to

estimate the system parameters by Cross-Spectrum analysis than by comparing the
ratio of the Power Spectral Densities of input and output.

In the case where time histories of the input and output of a system are obtained,
coherence measurements between the two can be used to estimate the confidence
with which gain and phase figures can be used. Details appear in the publication
by Bendat & Piersol92

41

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1 48

78. .Jeary A P. Damping measurements from the behaviour of several

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Book Co., New York, 1964.

2.

Coates R C., Coutie M G & King F K. Structural Analysis.

Thomas Nelson & Sons, London, 1972.

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Institute of Technology Press. 1958.
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Reinhold Co., New York. 1974.

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Science Publishers Ltd., London, 1980.
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Wiley & Sons, New York, 1972.
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9. Shinners S M. Control System Design. John Wiley & Sons,

New York. 1964.

1 52

1,
1k

+ [2 f]2

C)
C,

f2
=tan1

C,,

f
[t]2)

-C

1
1

FIG 1 Complex frequency response of single-degree-of-freedom system

I J.J

Input

/ f.
NNN

Complex
frequency
response

output

Input x complex frequency response = output

FIG2 The spectral approach

154

'V

straight cantilever shear

2 nd

FIG 3 Idealised mode shapes

nOise

time
varying
response

auto correlation
complex
frequency
response

impulse
response

__________

LmPulse
t
F fourier transform
FIG L The autocorrelation method

55

y.

FIG 5 General frequency characteristics of

vibration transducers

DC
POWER
INPUT

DC
OUT PUT
MODULE

I LI
ANGLE
-,. 8

Ro

I
NETWORK
rMP1

__
(B) POSITION
SENSOR

STOPS

'NN

I
SEALED
IiOUSING

"N
TORQUE MOTOR

(A) PADDLE
FLEXURE
TRUE VERTICAL

FIG 6 Internal mechanism of servo accelerometers

156

E
a)
Cl)
>Cl,

0
C
0
0
Co

C
D)
(I)

57

\1

. :
Figure 8 General view of vibrator, slave box and master control

Figure 9 General view of Post Office Tower, London

IL
I

-'

'Ii

iur i.ir
PU
ir
1j

IEIIIF'
ii'r1
r1 it'
4:

Lt

1I

J1

-'
;*
U

Figure 10 General view of Police Headquarters, Wrexham

i(

: .
Figure 11 General view of office block, Northern England

I.
k

.. 2.

d4

i(
._

It

ii*.

- -- i.. i

-.1

.I

..M

Al

:;---

F'

jr

'

t4Ii

Figure 12 General view of quarter scale model, Garston

. ,.

/'

Iii.
T-.

;;iiih, ,1,....:
,.IuIuft

!i 4b

1.1

.1.

Figure 13 General view of the Arts Tower, University of Sheffield

160

.,
-*

..,..#

,.
VI.

,.

.Figure 14 General view of Residential Nautical College, Plymouth

I
I t
I II
I
I

III
huuuIiii,IIIlIII1tIIl
IIbIIiiii
-..uu',llu,

IIIIIiiiii llhIIIIII1IIIIllI!I,IOI

'p
I_

flhIflIflhIIIunimiii;,unuu:
flh1111111H111111111111H111U1111h
ilollululIl
a-

Figure 15 General view of British Rail Building, Plymouth

161

Figure 16 General view of the Civic Centre, Plymouth

Figure 17 General view of the National Westminster Tower, London

I

:1

I
I
a

Figure 18 General view of Sutherland House, Sutton, Surrey

I'4

:;
3.

I
'I

Figure 19 General view of Dunstan Flour mill, Newcastle-upon-TYfle

163

'p.-

ilil illi
Ii!liulm

Figure 20 General view of 6th Form College, Exeter

Figure 21 Genera! view oi the Engineering Building, University of Leicester

1 C4

03
I-

a,

Ic

'I)

0
1
o

o
0

0
0
0

N
N

LL

1 65

National Westminster random decrement signature

time(secs)
Leicester University random decrement signature

FIG 23 Typical random decrement signatures

166

20

IC)

-C

E
U)
4-a

U)
U)
0
C,,
a,
-o
4-.

a
E

C.)
4-a

U)

Co
>
C.)
U)
C
a) C

Ia)
4-.
C.)
Co

>

Co
-c
C)

4-.
Co

a)

U)

4-a

0 a

Cl,
a)
I-

0
C
0

CO

E
(1)

Co

C.)
C
U)
0
a)
IICO

Co
C

N
U-

ZH/ (aPfl!IdWV)

1 67

0
IC)

t req uenCy

.5

frequency

FIG 25 Typical outputs from simulated non-linear system

168

OdE

- 5(
dB
0

.3

. 5

.6

.7

FIG 26 Spectrum of response P0 Tower 36th floor level

-1(
dE

-ec
de
FIG 27 Spectrum of response P0 Tower 29th floor level
-2 C
dE

-6 C
dE
FIG 28 Spectrum of response PC Tower 15th floor level

1 69

.10

COSREG
OUTPUT:

TIME

BT PRODUCT 28
LOG DEC .0787
REGRESSION COFFJCIENT .895

FIG 29 Autocorrelation of time varying response of

Post Office Tower & damping estimate from COSREG
ful(-curve regressian program

170

x -x1
elevation
f = 0148Hz
= 1.23/

r y-y1

elevation
f = 0150Hz
?;= 123%

158m

/
/

N
\\)

Plan mode shapes

not measured

/
y,u
\
/

\
/

Post Office Tower, London

rFl G 30

171

0001

c3

- 0001
Tu'lE (sECS)

FIG 31 Decay of oscillation - Wrexham

x--

-K

H
Hz

Planmodeshap$
not m.WSd

FIG 32 Mode shapes - Wrexham

172

0dB

0dB E 552

- 100dB
Frequency

FiG 33 Spectrum of response to wind excitation -Wrexham

885

119
Fre quency

FIG 34 Narrow-band spectrum of response to wind

excitation in first resonance region-Wrexham

73

163

jjj

JLi
_____ '-C

1
>C
C

4-

U
C'

a
-c

T r
--'.

H'

A__

-f-i

a
C'
C-

U
a
4-

C
r.c

I
U)
0)
aCD
U)
a)

V
0
E

IN

JH
i'-

V
CD

I,

E
N

C-)

0
-o
U)
C)
E
(N

0
LC)

(9
U-

I 74

It Jn

N
z

S
I.
S
I
U
U

5 '. 7

8 9 10

FT.qu.ncy (Hz)
W.st Accel eromtsr

C
0

I
1 a 3 4 s
Fr.qu.ncy (Hz)

i 8 10

?(orLh Accelero..tsr

FIG 37 Quarterscale model-wind response

1 75

81

(0775Hz)
NS1 (0665Hz)

EW1 (0849Hz)

NS2 (2395Hz)

82 (2435Hz)

EW2 (2 825Hz)

//
/

Mezzanine
Lower
nd

05

1 0

__
83

__

(566Hz)

05
4

NS4 (754Hz)

tTj
N

Roof 2
Roof 1
19
18
16
14

8omjJ

- 12
10

6
4
2

- - 36w

Mezzanine

Low.,
groozid
boor

1i :r
FIG 38 Arts tower,Shef field - mode shapes

176

I0
S
N
J
.7

I
N

West

cceterometer

1;
2

I
0

C
Feiqu.*cy

10

270....

jN-S

south
accelerometer
t

1

1.
SI

0-70

0-10

0-75
cr.quancy

FIG 39 Ensemble averaged spectra-Arts tower Sheffield

e

,PC/\

ii

1i/

a i

FIG 40 Variation of modal forces with direction

Arts tower Sheffield

1 77

lao.

33m

E-W1
elevati
f. 133Hz
.

E-Wi
plan

_____________

135.

elevation

f 199Hz
N-Si
plan

38m

-I

lOim

I.

FIG 41 Residential nautical college, Plymouth - mode shapes

C dB
-10
-20

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
0

Prequency (Hz)

FIG 42 Residential nautical college, Plymouth- spectrum of

response to wind in north- south direction

1 78

___E . .-W

I-wi

f132Hz
=ioZ

/
P

IPd-Si

pun
N

/1

NS2
.4.v.,ucn

\
\

147Z

I24Z

:I

45m

F-

1
-1

FIG43Britishrailbuilding,Plymouth-modeshapes

0d
-10
-20
-50
-40
-50
Frequency (Hz)

FIG 44 British rail building, Plymouth- spectrum of

response to wind in east-west direction

179

U)
a
Co
U)

0
w
0

4-.

4-.
U)
C

1:,

4-.
C')
w

Co
C
0
CO
z

i:.

(0
(9
LL

C')
w
a
Co
U)
a,

-D
0

-,; .

-C
E
0
- -

>0

-'.

I
J -

I.9-.
C
a,

p.
C.)

C-)
LC)

(9

130

2 10'

210'

210'
92/Hz
2 10

-7

2.10-s

-'
210

0
Frequsncy (Hz)

FIG 47 Enhanced Uncoherent Output Spectrum from

N-S accelerom,eter - National Westminster tower

4 10'

410

410'
Hz
410

410

4 10

0
Frequency (Hz)

FIG 48 Enhanced Uncoherent.Output Spectrum from

E-W accelerometer- National Westminster tower

181

-4

2 10

2 166

92 lO

2 10'

0
Frequency) Hz)

FIG 49 Spectrum of 0-1 Hz. range - National Westminster

tower E-W accelerometer

210

2 106

2 10

01

02 03

04
05 06
Frequency (Hz)

07

08

09

10

FIG 50 Spectrum of 0-1 Hz. range- National Westminster

tower N-S accelerometer

132

1.51 Hz

EW1

2nd

1 76Hz

NS1

3rd

222 Hz

81

4th
4225Hz
EW2

5th
606Hz
NS2

6th
848Hz
82

11
10
9
8
7
S

4
3
2

GRO
BAS
-05 0 05 10

0 0.5 10

0 05 10

-05 0 0.5 1.0

-0.5 0 05 1.0

43 m

.Li.
12m

FIG 51 Mode shapes and floor plan - Sutherland house

183

-0.5 0 05 1.0

0
I-

0)
G)
C,,

-o

1-C
Cl)
IC)

CD

C)

>-

C
C,

C)

C-,

U
U
U

z
>s

I,
C)
Cv,

E
0

S.-

E
5

0.

C,,

U,

I-

0
Cv)

134

0
U)

La-

0
I-

C)
ci,
0
-c

C
I
a)

-C
C/)
I-

CD

l.()

(.)
C
a)
a.

0
I0)
U

U.0

0)

0
0
U,
0)
I-

C4

0
E
U
0)

0.
cv,
LC)

0
0

0
cv)
I

0
I

oog000OO ai p

185

0
L)

U-

EW1
(222Hz)

NS1
50
(149Hz)
p

0
C

I'

Ei

&

J
0,

c.,1
.4

Hi _
.-6.7--.

[1__ _
FIG 5 4

EW2
(840Hz)

12.2 -.

(783Hz)
'

I
/

Basement

H-

82

1'

I
/
I

6
30 5

NS2
(646Hz)

1
E

81
(388Hz)

Dunstan Flour Mill - mode shapes, plan and elevation

1 36

1'

Peak
amplituc

Cycle number

20

10

Peak
amplitud.

FIG 55 Decays of oscillation from different amplitudes - Exeter

I 87

IJ

7TTLII

iJ
fl

U-

!:

I
I

a

S

.:
(0

L
C W - CO 1t

CD

Cfl CN - Vt

U-

183

0 dl

odi
231ci1 g2/Hz.

ods

0dB
e 2/
2 . 3.10 g1Hz.

-50dB

FIG 57 Spectra of response to wind - Exeter 6th form college

189

NS1
(1.28Hz)

EW1
(1.52Hz)

'

or 1 I
4.

NS2
(366Hz)

82

(2 72Hz)

(2.04Hz)

1r

83

(588Hz)

F/s

L'

EW2
(4.58Hz)

I/

1/

6L.

5L I

4L)

Li
L/

groUndf
0

1 -05

-0.5 0
0

I-

9.7

)th floors

FIG 5 8 Leicester University Engineering Tower - mode shapes, plan and elevation
190

P..IQ

modes

Lift shaft

Stairwell

FIG 59 Modal directions for translational modes- Leicester

28 H2
ode

1.52 H2
mode

FIG 60 Direction test for fundamental translational modes - Leicester

191

0
U-

C)
0)
0
4-

C)
a)
a'
C
C)
C
LU

I-.

C)
4-

(I,
a)
C.)

>

C)
L)

a)
-I

a,
C.

a,

V
V
0
IV
U)

I1

Cr)

0
V
0
0.

U..
U
U)

0.

Cl)
1

U-cp
LL

0

0 C)
C)

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
III

.0
0

192

200
Ita
ta

190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
c 110
100
290

50
40
30
20
10

* *

1.0

2.0

4.0

3.0

5.0

6.0

Fundamental Translation Frequency (H1)

FIG 62

Plot of frequency vs height for 163 rectangular plan buildings

1 93

27

iS

*
Suth.rlad

IL.

25

0,
/0

1'3

23

' 0

/
'S
-

21

02 04. 06 08

Sh.ffi.Id a-si

12
0
/
10

08

0-a

10

0-8

mm

Suth.rI,nd

1's.

ia

16

mm

11
0-wi

.0

23,

15 0 0'

0-L

mm
2-1

0/
/0
17

X
30

0-s

N-Si

Ex.t.r
26 '

1-5

04

o2. 0 .
mm

0/
/0

13 ________________
0 02 0-1. 06

22

mm

3.3

18

.0

27

.0

N
31

x
25

.0

0/

10

02 0-'.

2.

0/
/0
2.-,

.0

.0

Dunstan

'.0

I-WI

Dunstan a-si

2'I

25

0 05 10 j.

1S

os

10

mm

1 . 5 20 25 30

mm
x

23

2.9

.0

.0

21

1-?
x

0/
/0
1-9

as

a-st

I.icatsr

L.ic..tsr i-wi

17

2-3

02 0-4. 06 08 10 1 .2

1-i. 16

mm

0-2 0-4. 04 0-8 1-0 12

mat

FIG 63 Variation of damping with amplitude for five building's

fundamental translational modes

194

26
24
2.2
20
1.8
1.6
iL.
damping
1
(I)

12
1.0
08
06
04
0.?

0 I

02

0 . 1. 0 . 6 0. 8

10

l2

14

1.8 20 22 21. 26 28

Frequency

FIG 64 1. values for various buildings

1 95