Classification of Stars:

1.) Spectral Classification

There are seven broad classifications and each is then subdivided into 10 sub-
classes. The classes are: O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. A phrase to remember them would be:
“Oh be a fine girl and kiss me.”

Classification Color Temperature (K) Example

O Blue-Violet 40,000-20,000 Mintaka
B Blue 20,000-10,000 Spica
Rigel
A Green-White 10,000-7,000 Vega
Sirius
F Yellow-White 7,000-6,000 Canapo
G Yellow 6,000 Sun
K Yellow-Orange 4,000 Areturus
Aldebaran
M Red 3,000 Betelgeuse
Barnard’s

A star’s color is dependent upon its surface temperature. The hotter the temperature, the
closer to blue the color becomes. The overall temperature is a function of surface area.
Therefore, if the star expands in size its temperature per unit of surface area will decrease
resulting in a change in color.

Hertzsprung - Russell Diagram

The Hertzsprung – Russell (H-R) Diagram is a basic scatter plot diagram that plots a
star’s color (temperature) versus its luminosity (absolute magnitude). There are various
forms of the H-R diagram, but the common version has the vertical axis representing the
star’s luminosity while the horizontal axis represents temperature in Kelvin.

Luminosity is defined as the total energy radiated by a star each second, at all
wavelengths. The units could be watts, similar to light bulbs, or more commonly, a ratio
to our Sun is used. The absolute magnitude of the star is also used in some H-R
Diagrams.

The horizontal axis shows the temperature in Kelvin although one could also use spectral
classification (O, B, A, F, G, K, and M), or both. Upon plotting the data of temperature
and luminosity of nearby stars one sees a pattern starting to emerge. The stars form a
band. This band is called the main sequence. The majority of stars, including our sun,
fall into the main sequence band. However, there are stars that are outside the main
sequence.

One sees a group that is very bright, but yet cool. These stars are red giants and super
giants. The other group of interest has a high temperature and is relatively dim. These
stars are called white dwarfs.

1
When the masses of stars are plotted versus their luminosity, on yet another form of an
H-R diagram an interesting pattern is shown. The more mass a star has, the more
luminous the star.

2
Source: http://cassofso@.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/HR.html

Questions:

1.) How do we determine the distance to the stars?

2.) Why are stars of different masses and sizes?

3.) How do we explain those outliners from the main sequence?

Stars: Brightness

When we view the stars at night some appear brighter than others. Astronomers, since
Hipparchus in 120 B.C. have referred to this system of comparison as apparent
magnitude. The apparent magnitude scale uses the stars themselves and the brightest
stars are said to one of first magnitude, the next brightest second magnitude. This
classification proceeds until the faintest of stars at registered as sixth magnitude.
Summary: The smaller the apparent magnitude, the brighter the star.

In 1854 the apparent magnitude system was made exact and it is now agreed that a
magnitude one star is exactly 100 times as bright as a magnitude 6 star. As there are 5
magnitudes between 1 and 6 and the total difference is 10^2, each whole number value
on the magnitude scale differs from the next by a factor of 10^2/5, which is equal to
2.512. To put it another way, a first magnitude star is 2.512 times brighter than a
magnitude two star. A first magnitude star is (2.512 x 2.512) times brighter than a third
magnitude star and so on.

Modern stellar magnitudes have been given values with two decimal places. For
example:
Deneb 1.25
Arcturus 0.00
3
Sirius, the brightest star has a magnitude of -1.46. Remember, the smaller the magnitude
number, the brighter the star appears, even if the numbers have to become negative.

Polaris, the northern Pole Star has a magnitude of 2.00.

Brightness is not kept to the stars; Astronomers also use the magnitude scale
relative to the planets.

Planet Apparent Magnitude

Uranus 5.7
Venus -4.4
Jupiter -2.6
Sun -2.7
Pluto 14

There is a formula that relates the brightness of objects with their magnitudes.

b1 / b2 = 10 ^ (2/5) (m1-m2)

Where:
b1 = brightness of star 1
b2 = brightness of star 2
m1 = magnitude of star 1
m2 = magnitude of star 2

4
 Stellar Brightness
The Brightest Stars, as Seen from the Earth
Adapted from Norton's 2000.0, 18th edition (copyright 1989, Longman Group UK) with
additional comments taken from Bill Baity's Sky Pages

Common ScientificDistance Apparent Absolute Spectral

Name Name (light years) Magnitude Magnitude Type
Sun - -26.72 4.8 G2V
Sirius Alpha CMa 8.6 -1.46 1.4 A1Vm
Canopus Alpha Car 74 -0.72 -2.5 A9II
Rigil G2V +
Alpha Cen 4.3 -0.27 4.4
Kentaurus K1V
Arcturus Alpha Boo 34 -0.04 0.2 K1.5IIIp
Vega Alpha Lyr 25 0.03 0.6 A0Va
G6III +
Capella Alpha Aur 41 0.08 0.4
G2III
Rigel Beta Ori ~1400 0.12 -8.1 B81ae
Procyon Alpha CMi 11.4 0.38 2.6 F5IV-V
Achernar Alpha Eri 69 0.46 -1.3 B3Vnp
Betelgeuse Alpha Ori ~1400 0.50 (var.) -7.2 M2Iab
Hadar Beta Cen 320 0.61 (var.) -4.4 B1III
B0.5Iv +
Acrux Alpha Cru 510 0.76 -4.6
B1Vn
Altair Alpha Aql 16 0.77 2.3 A7Vn
Aldebaran Alpha Tau 60 0.85 (var.) -0.3 K5III
Antares Alpha Sco ~520 0.96 (var.) -5.2 M1.5Iab
Spica Alpha Vir 220 0.98 (var.) -3.2 B1V
Pollux Beta Gem 40 1.14 0.7 K0IIIb
Fomalhaut Alpha PsA 22 1.16 2.0 A3Va
Becrux Beta Cru 460 1.25 (var.) -4.7 B0.5III
Deneb Alpha Cyg 1500 1.25 -7.2 A2Ia
Regulus Alpha Leo 69 1.35 -0.3 B7Vn
Epsilon
Adhara 570 1.50 -4.8 B2II
CMa
A1V +
Castor Alpha Gem 49 1.57 0.5
A2V
Gacrux Gamma Cru 120 1.63 (var.) -1.2 M3.5III
Shaula Lambda Sco 330 1.63 (var.) -3.5 B1.5IV
Source: http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~donlan/constellations/extra/brightness.htm
Magnitudes

5
The magnitude scale was invented by an ancient Greek astronomer named Hipparchus in
about 150 B.C. He ranked the stars he could see in terms of their brightness, with 1
representing the brightest down to 6 representing the faintest. Modern astronomy has
extended this system to stars brighter than Hipparchus' 1st magnitude stars and ones
much, much fainter than 6.

As it turns out, the eye senses brightness logarithmically, so each increase in 5

magnitudes corresponds to a decrease in brightness by a factor 100. The absolute
magnitude is the magnitude the stars would have if viewed from a distance of 10 parsecs
or some 32.6 light years. Obviously, Deneb is intrinsically very bright to make this list
from its greater distance. Rigel, of nearly the same absolute magnitude, but closer, stands
even higher in the list. Note that most of these distances are really nearby, on a cosmic
scale, and that they are generally uncertain by at least 20%. All stars are variable to some
extent; those which are visibly variable are marked with a "v".

What are apparent and absolute magnitudes? Apparent is how bright the appear to us in
the sky. The scale is somewhat arbitrary, as explained above, but a magnitude difference
of 5 has been set to exactly a factor of 100 in intensity. Absolute magnitudes are how
bright a star would appear from some standard distance, arbitrarily set as 10 parsecs or
about 32.6 light years. Stars can be as bright as absolute magnitude -8 and as faint as
absolute magnitude +16 or fainter. There are thus (a very few) stars more than 100 times
brighter than Sirius, while hardly any are known fainter than Wolf 356.

Questions:

1.) How much brighter does Arcturus appear than Denab?

2.) How much brighter does Sirius appear than Uranus?

3.) Compare:

Venus and Sirius

Jupiter and Pluto
Sirius and Polaris
Polaris and Arcturus

Alpha Centauri 1.4 and Barnard’s Star 9.5

6
 Distance to the Stars

It is time to use some of the geometry and trigonometry that you were taught. The
distance to the nearer stars is determined by a method called trigonometric parallax.
Let’s review a bit. Remember triangles? Take the one shown below for example.

We have an angle P, aside A and another side called D. All three of these are related by
the trigonometric function called tangent. Tangent is defined in a right triangle as the
ratio of the length of A the side opposite an angle to the length of the side adjacent to the
angle. You may remember the formula: opposite over adjacent. In our above example
the tangent of angle P equal A divided by D.

Tangent of P = A / D

By algebra, we can rearrange this formula to become:

D = A / Tangent of P

Getting back to the stars and using our trigonometry. The earth rotates around the sun in
one year, so at six month intervals the Earth is to be found on opposite sides of the Sun.

7
 So this is how parallax works. In January we measure Star 1 relative to
background stars. Six months later, in our case July, we photograph Star 1 again against
the background stars. The change in position, measured as an angle is called 2P. If one
were to draw a line between the Earth in January and the Earth in July a triangle would be
formed. Further, if one draws a line from the sun to the Earth in January and then a line
that dissects the angle 2P into halves, we would have the following:

Just like our original triangle. We know the distance from the Earth to the Sun as 149
million km. So the distance to a star can be calculated as:

d = 149,000,000 / Tangent of P

Where P is half the angle of parallax.

Example:
Alpha Centauri has an angle of parallax of 0.76 arc seconds. (0.76”) To find the distance:

d = 149,000,000 / Tan(0.76/60/60)º

The question arises what is this (0.76/60/60)º thing?

8
 Let’s get back to the distance of stars a minute, because at this point, we need to
understand…….

Angles in the Sky:

The Earth revolves once on its axis every 24 hours. This spin is in a circle. By
definition, a circle is 360 degrees (360º). Further, it takes 24 hours to make the one
rotation. If we divided the 360º by 24 hours, we can determine that each how of rotation
covers 15 degrees of the total circle traveled.

360 degrees / 24 hours = 15 degrees/ hour

The distance, therefore, that the Sun appears to travel in one hour in the sky is 15 degrees.
The diameter of the sun or moon is about a half a degree of distance in the sky. As we
are traveling in the circular plane we refer to the distances as degrees of arc. A degree is
made up of 60 minutes of arc (º) and a minute of arc is made up of 60 seconds of arc (“).
A second (“), by definition is 1/(60x60) of a degree.

This is similar to time where 1 second is 1/ (60x60) of an hour. A quarter seen from 10
km will be about 1” (1 second) of arc. Back to our discussion of parallaxes.

As Alpha Centauri has an angle of parallax of 0.76 arc seconds and we need the angle in
degrees, we divide 0.76 by (60x60), resulting in:

d = 149,000,000 / Tan (0.76/60/60)

OR
4.04 x 10¹³ km
This is a large number and not easily handled, so astronomers have come up with other
measurements for distance.

Presenting…….. The Astronomical Unit

The astronomical unit is the average distance between the Earth and the Sun. Another
measurement is… The Light Year, which is the distance light, going 300,000 km per
second, travels in one year. This is 9,460,800 million km.
Getting back to our formula of:
d = A / Tan P /60 /60
Can be written to:
Distance = [1AU x 180 x (360/π)] / 0.76
Where:
au = astronomical unit = 1.4959 x 10^8 km
d = distance to the star
d = (180 x 1466.49) AU / 0.76
d = 206,265 AU / 0.76
d = 271,401 AU

In other words, Alpha Centauri is 271,538 further away than the Sun.

Using light years, 206,265 = 3.26 light years

9
We can further substitute our equation:
d = 3.26 LY /0.76
d = 4.30 LY

We can now introduce a new unit of measure used by astronomers – the parsec.
The parsec is defined as:
1.) 3.26 Light Years
2.) 206,264 AU
3.) If the parallax is 1”, then the distance can be determined mathematically as:
d = AU x 180 x (3600 / π)
= 206,264 AU
= 3.26 LY
= 1 parsec

Summary: When the angle of parallax is expressed in seconds, the distance in parsecs
will be equal to 1 divided by the parallax angle.
d(parsec) = 1 / P (in arc seconds)

Questions:
Given the following parallax in arc seconds determine the distance in both parsec
(pc) and light years (LY).

Barnard’s Star 0.545”

Wolf 359 0.425”
Lalande 21185 0.398”
Sirius 0.375”

10
 Absolute Magnitude

When one observes stars from the Earth, the brightness of the stars does not take into
account the distance of observation. If astronomers desire to compare the luminosity of
stars the concept of Absolute Magnitude must be introduced.

The concept of absolute magnitude is rather simple. Astronomers assume that the stars
all occupy spaces on the same plane, equidistant from the observer. The agreed distance
is 10 parsecs, or about 32 light years. The idea is to have all of the stars the same
distance to see and compare the luminosities.

The brightness of an object decreases with distance. It decreases by a function called the
inverse square law. If the distance is doubled, the brightness decreases by a factor of
four. The formula that relates absolute magnitude with apparent magnitude and distance
is:
M = m + 5 – 5 log d

Where:
M = absolute magnitude
m = apparent magnitude
d = distance

Interesting are the results of seeing the stars on equal footing, relative to distance.

Star Apparent Magnitude Absolute Magnitude

Sirius -1.46 1.41
Arcturus 0.00 -0.20
Aldebaran 0.85 -0.80
Deneb 1.25 -7.39
The Sun -27 4.71
Wolf 359 13.7 16.8

Luminosity:
Luminosity is the amount of energy given out by a star. If we know the absolute
magnitude of a star, the luminosity can be calculated.

Log 10 L = -0.4 M + 1.884

Where:
L = Luminosity
M = Absolute Magnitude

Example: Deneb’s Luminosity

Log 10 L = (-0.4 x -7.39) + 1.884
Log 10 L = 2.956 + 1.884
Log 10 L = 4.84
L = 10 ^4.84 = 69,183 Suns

11
Questions:
Determine the luminosity of the following stars.
Sirius
Arcturus
Aldebaran
The Sun
Wolf 359

Mass-Luminosity Law
For the majority of stars there is a simple relationship between mass and luminosity.
L = M^3.5

Where:
L = Luminosity (Suns)
M = Mass (in Suns, or Solar Masses)

Question:
Graph the change in luminosity from a mass of 1 to a mass of 10.

Radius of a Star

Now, back to geometry. If we could measure the diameter of a star and assume the
volume of sphere formula would be appropriate, much could be determined in the
physical sense about a star. However, stars cannot be observed as a disk because of the
distance.

Outlined below are two methods that astronomers use to determine the radius of a star.

Stefan’s Law

Stefan’s Law relates the radius to the temperature of a star. Assuming that the amount of
energy radiated by a square meter (1m²) of a star’s surface is dependent only on the
temperature:
R = sqrt. L / T²
Where:
R = Radius (Suns)
L = Luminosity (Suns)
T = Temperature (K) or (Suns)

This implies that the higher the temperature, the more energy emitted. When two stars
are the same temperature, but different in luminosity, then they must be of different size.

Question: Determine the radii of the following stars. Assume the following:
Diameter of the Sun = 1,390,000 km

Star Temperature in Suns

Sirius 2
Arcturus 0.66
12
 Interferometers

An interferometer is a device used to detect light emission from the opposite edges of a
star. Based on the properties of waves, these almost parallel light waves interfere with
each other. From this interference, and some very fine mathematics, the diameter of a
star can be calculated.

Density

Density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. For example, the density
of water is 1 gram per cubic centimeter. 1gr/cm³. For stars, once we have determined the
mass and radius, the density can be calculated.

Density = M / R³
Where:
M = Mass (Suns)
R = Radius (Suns)

Question:
Given: Sirius A Mass = 2.28
Radius = 1.6
Sirius B Mass = 0.98
Radius = 0.022
Determine the densities, in Suns.

13
 Distances to the Stars

Distance (pc) = 1 / parallax (arc seconds)

1.) The parallax of Sirius is 0.38”. Find the distance in:

a.) parsecs
b.) light-years
c.) kilometers

2.) Given the following parallax find the distance.

Barnard’s Star 0.549”
Atair 0.194”
Thuban 0.176”
Alpha Centauri 0.742”

3.) What constellations are the above stars located?

4.) What is the distance of an object given the following parallax?

a.) 1 degree arc
b.) 1 minute arc
c.) 1 arc second

5.) What is a parsec? Compare it to an astronomical unit.

6.) How do astronomers determine a star’s luminosity?

7.) How do we determine stellar radii?

8.) Describe the characteristics of a red giant and a white dwarf.

9.) Compare absolute with apparent magnitude.

10.) How is stellar temperature determined?

11.) A star has a temperature twice that of the Sun and luminosity 64 times greater.
What is the radius?

12.) D = 10pc x 10
A star has apparent magnitude of 10.0 and an absolute magnitude of 2.5.
Find the distance.

14
 Life Cycles of Stars

Plants, animals, and even rocks have life cycles. Stars are no exception. Stars are born,
live through a life, and have a death process. The final outcome of a star depends heavily
upon its mass. Up to that point, however, the life cycles of all stars are similar. How and
where do stars form? Why are there differences in mass and luminosities? These are
some of the basic questions astronomers ask.

Stars form in the matter among the stars called the interstellar medium. This interstellar
medium is a mixture of gas and dust. The gas is composed of 90% hydrogen, 9% helium,
and 1% heavier elements. The heavier elements include carbon, oxygen, silicon,
magnesium, and iron. The composition of the dust is not well known but the size of a
typical interstellar dust particle is about 1 x 10^-7 m.

When the dust and gas collect in an area; the area has an appearance of being “cloudy.”
These clouds of interstellar gas and dust are called Nebulae. Perhaps the reader is
familiar with the Orion Nebula or the most recently imaged Horsehead Nebula. Star
formation is most common to these areas of space because these vast areas of space
contain what stars are made of.

There are two basic types of Nebulae. First there is a reflection nebula which shines by
reflecting the light of nearby stars. An emission nebula emits light as electrons
recombine with protons to form hydrogen. The electrons were released by using the
ultraviolet light emitted by nearby stars shinning through the hydrogen gas of space.

There is also a nebula called planetary nebula which has resulted from the explosion of a
star.

Formation of Average Stars

(Our Sun is the Average Joe Six-pack)

Stage 1
A dense interstellar cloud starts to collapse. The clouds are vast, covering hundreds of
parsecs. At this point, the temperature inside the cloud is about 10K with a density of
particles of about 10^9 / m³. The cloud at this point forms small clumps perhaps forced
together by interactions created by nearby stars. As the clumps condense, the cloud
breaks apart resulting in many clumps of larger density than the original cloud. This
process, to this point, will take a few million years. There is little evidence that stars
form singularly. Usually many stars are born from these clumps.

Stage 2
Let’s now concentrate on a Sun size forming cloud. At this point it will still be cool but
in the neighborhood of 50 times larger than our solar system. The cloud fragment
continues to contract and the radiation, at the center, struggles to escape the dense cloud
and the center heats to 100K.

15
Stage 3
Tens of thousands of years after the occurrence of stage 2, the temperature has increased
to about 10,000K. The outer regions are still cool, but the size of the cloud fragment is
about the size of the solar system. In the center one will find a dense opaque area called a
protostar. The protostar’s radius is shrinking but its mass still continues to grow as
gravity pulls material in from the surrounding area. When this stage is completed, a
photosphere, or “surface” on the protostar can be distinguished. Inside the photosphere
the energy generated cannot escape.

Stage 4
The protostar shrinks, its density increases and the temperature rises, now at 1,000,000K.
The size is about the size of Mercury’s orbit and atoms are being disassembled into
subatomic particles. An accretion disk can be detected at this stage. The protostar is very
luminous at this point due not to temperature, for the star has yet to “light.” The
luminosity is due instead to the size of the star.

Although not technically a star, the protostar can now be plotted on the Hertzsprung –
Russell diagram. One would place it on the top quarter section. The protostar is
relatively cool, but with a high luminosity. As the star evolves it follows a path that can
be shown on the H – R diagram. This path of change is called the evolutionary track.

The protostar is doing a balancing act at this point. Gravity between the atoms pulls
inward while the temperature exerts an outward pressure. Still, the protostar continues to
shrink and heat up. On the H – D diagram, the star moves toward higher temperature (to
the left) and because of the decrease in size, downward to become less luminous.

Stage 5
The protostar has now shrunk to a size equal to 10 times the Sun and has a surface
temperature of 4,000K. The internal temperature has reached 5,000,000K and all of the
atoms are now ionized. Although the protons are free, their electromagnetic repulsion
keeps them apart.

On the H – R diagram, the protostar is near the main sequence line. The process of
contraction struggles. Contraction proceeds, but its rate is a function of the protostar’s
ability to dissipate its heat into space.

Stage 6
Grab the feet and slap. A star is born. Time has passed since conception of the star,
about 10 million years. But the star has shrunk to a diameter of 2,000,000km and more
importantly the internal temperature is now 10,000,000K. Nuclear burning can now start.
Fusion. A star is born. The star is a bit larger than the sun and its luminosity is a bit less
also.

Stage 7
Over 25 million years, the star contracts. The core becomes denser, and its temperature
rises to 15,000,000K. The surface is now 6,000K. Finally the star is on the main
sequence line. As the gravity pulling equals the pressure pushing out, the star shines.
But, death awaits this new born star.
16
17
 Stars / Chemistry / The Elements
Fusion

The Bobby Seals of the Universe:

“Burn Baby Burn”

Stars generate their energy by means of fusion. This is a very important concept and we
will detour from our star life cycle for a while to discuss fusion and its relationship to the
formation of the elements. You see, all the elements have been made by activity of the
stars. You are made of star stuff.

Recall that hydrogen is made of 1 proton and 1 electron. Helium, the next element is
made of 2 protons and 2 electrons. Lithium has three of each. Beryllium has 4 and so on.
Carbon has 6 protons and 6 electrons. The protons can be found in the nucleus of an
atom in close proximity. But how can protons, being of a similar positive charge, reside
so closely? What could have forced these protons together? Fusion is the force and
within stars is where it occurs. Fusion can be defined as the joining of objects.

The electrical repulsion created by the positive charge of protons can be over come if the
protons get very close. At 1 x 10^15 the “nuclear” or “strong” force can come into effect
and the protons will stay together.

To get fusion one must have high energies and a large density. At the core of a star, with
temperatures of 7,000,000K, the atoms have been stripped of electrons and have enough
energy to come close enough for fusion to occur.

Below are the two major reactions of fusion that main sequence stars use. Our Sun
“burns” hydrogen into helium and it is our first subject.

The Proton – Proton Reaction

At 15 million K our Sun has stripped the electrons from the protons in hydrogen atoms.
Also, at that temperature when the protons collide they fuse creating a nucleus with the
two protons. But one of the protons changes into a neutron through beta decay. This
forms 2H which is call a deuteron. Beta decay also releases a positron and a neutrino.
The positron, or positively charged electron, will collide with an electron and release 2
more gamma rays. Gamma rays are high energy photons. Neutrinos simply leave the
Sun.
Reaction #1
1H + 2H Æ 2H + position (B) + neutrino (V)

The next step can collide with another proton and form an isotope of helium, (3He) and
releasing a gamma ray.
Reaction #2
2H + 1H Æ 3He + gamma ray (y)

Lastly, when two 3He isotopes collide to form 4He, two protons are released.
Reaction #3
3He + 3He Æ 4He + 1H + 1H

18
Please note that Reactions 1 and 2 must be done twice to feed one reaction #3.
3He and 4He are stable isotopes and the process in most main sequence stars ends

at this step. Our Sun takes hydrogen, synthesizes helium and in the process, releases
energy.

Fusion: The C – N – O Cycle

The hotter, and more massive stars use the carbon – oxygen cycle. The end result is still
the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Remember hydrogen is still the most common
element. Although hydrogen is the most common, some heavier elements do exist and if
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are present at temperatures greater than 16 million K, the
following sequence of reactions will occur.

1.) 12C + 1H Æ 13N + gamma ray

2.) 13N Æ 13C + (B) + neutrino

3.) 13C + 1H Æ 14N + gamma ray

4.) 14N + 1H Æ 15O + gamma ray

5.) 15O Æ 15N + (B) + neutrino

6.) 15N + 1H Æ 12C + 4He

Carbon acts as the catalyst for this reaction. Appearing in both the first, and the last step,
but remaining unchanged.

19
 NUCLEAR FUSION IN STARS
The basic energy producing process in the sun is the fusion of hydrogen
nuclei into helium nuclei. This can take place in several reaction sequences,
the most common of which is the Proton - Proton cycle, shown below:

Q1) Draw out the diagram and label each particle , using the key.

Q2) Write equations for the second and third reactions. The first has been
done for you.

Q3) Why is this a 'cycle' ?

On the earth, 150 million km from the sun , each square metre receives
energy at the rate of 1.4 kW.

Q4) Calculate the total energy radiated by the sun per second.What has
been assumed here ?

Carefully examine the three stages of the cycle. If we ignore the

contribution of the gamma rays and the antineutrinos ,then the energy
evolved per cycle is given by

E = (Δm)c2 , where Δm is the net mass difference.

20
 Mass-Energy Equivalence
.

Q5) Explain why Δm = 4Mp - (Mα + 2 Me).Show that this mass difference
evaluates
to about 24.7 MeV.(Note: Most data books gives masses for isotopes , not
nuclei - ie the relevant numbers of electrons are included. Compare Eg 1H
with proton mass)

Q6) Fom your answers to Q4 and Q5 show that the p-p cycle must occur
approximately 1038 times a second

Q7) The mass of the sun is 2x1030kg. Assuming that initially all the mass
of the sun was protons, how many does this correspond to ? If four are used
up each time, show that the total possible energy release is about 1.2x1045
J

Q8) Using your answers to Q4 and Q7 show that the lifetime of the sun
could be 3x1018seconds . How many years is this ? Comment.

(Shine on you crazy diamond!!)

Self sustaining fusion reactions can only occur under conditions of extreme
temperature and density. The core of the sun is believed to be at a
temperature of about 1.5 x 107 K which is sufficient for the p-p cycle to
occur there.

21
Q9) How does this temperature compare with the ' threshold '
temperatures for the elementary particles that calculated in the 'Big Bang
' exercise ? Comment.

CARBON CYCLE IN STARS

Hotter stars than the sun can sustain the Carbon cycle; this is pictured
below:

Q10) There are six different nuclear reactions occurring in this cycle.
Write full nuclear equations for them. One has been done for you .

Q11) Which species acts as a 'Catalyst' for the process? What is the net
result of this cycle ? Calculate the energy output per cycle in MeV and
comment.

Q12) When much of the hydrogen has been used up, the radiation pressure
in the star will drop. Which force will now become important ? What effect
will this have ?

A temperature of about 108K is needed for helium fusion to begin an

example is

3 4He --> 12
C

22
Q13) Show that the energy evolved from this process is about 7.5 MeV

Other examples include 4

He +12C -> 16
O and 2 12
C --> 20
Ne + 4He

Calculate the energy for these processes.

BINDING ENERGY CURVE

In heavier stars the temperature is higher. In stars of about 10 solar

masses , the iron isotope 56Fe is reached. This is the heaviest nucleus that
can be formed in the core of stars by nuclear fusion.

Q14) The binding energy per nucleon is found by dividing its total binding
energy by the number of nucleons it contains.

Show that the binding energy of deuterium is 2.2MeV.(Assuming it is made

from a hydrogen isotope plus a neutron) and that its binding energy per
nucleon is thus 1.1MeV

Q15) Suggest what nucleus gives the sharp spike on the graph. What
nucleus will yield the maximum on the graph ? What consequences does this
have for nuclear fusion and element synthesis inside stars ?

23
Q16) Show that for your chosen maximum element that the binding energy
is 492.5 MeV and that the binding energy per nucleon is 8.8MeV. State
clearly any assumptions you make. Repeat this calculation for a different
element in the 'Fission' range and comment.

Q17) Try to find out how heavier nuclei are made. Encarta and Redshift 2
software are useful.

Q18) The isotope of Bismuth 209Bi contains the largest known binding
energy. Calculate this value and show that its binding energy per nucleon is
considerably less than 8.8MeV.

Q19) This bismuth isotope is thought to be the heaviest that can form in
the cores of stars. Why ? Isotopes of masses up to 260 amu may form.
Where ? and why ?

Q20) Try to find out what you can about Solar Neutrinos and their
importance.

Source: http://www.egglescliffe.org.un/physics/particles/sun/sun.html

Questions:

1.) Why are high temperatures and densities required for fusion?

2.) Which process is used by our Sun?

3.) Describe the proton – proton reaction.

24
 Stars of Other Masses

It should be emphasized that stars evolve to the main sequence, not along the line.
Reason would suggest that the more massive stars were born from more dense cloud
fragments. This is true. Furthermore, if the clouds also contained heavier elements, they
will find themselves captured by the forming stars.

But not all stars ignite. Jupiter, our solar system’s massive planet is thought to be a failed
star. Although it generates heat from within it became stabilized by heat and rotation
before the central temperature became hot enough to start fusion.

There are numerous objects similar to Jupiter in the universe. They are small, faint, and
cooling. A brown dwarf is the collective term. They are failed stars.

Stellar Evolution

Stars spend tens of millions of years forming before joining the main sequence. Many
will spend billions of years on the main sequence. What happens then? What determines
the amount of time spent on the main sequence? These questions can be answered by the
study of stellar evolution.

A star, on the main sequence, uses the process of fusion to burn hydrogen into helium.
This process is called core hydrogen burning. The amount of time spent burning is a
function of two variables: the rate of burning and the amount of hydrogen. This implies
that the larger, brighter, and hotter stars reach the point of fuel exhaustion earlier than
smaller cooler stars. This assumption would indeed be true.

As has been pointed out, a star is in hydrostatic equilibrium. The pressure generated by
hydrogen fusion, which is an outward push and an inward pull of gravity become
equivalent to one another. A star’s behavior as it ages can be understood with this basic
concept held in mind.

As stars on the main sequence age their core temperature rises and their radius expands.
This occurs very slowly. The luminosity, as a function of the temperature and radius also
increases. Eventually the hydrogen at the core is consumed, resulting in changes, both
externally and internally. Relative to the H – R diagram, the star leaves the main
sequence. The star’s days are numbered.

The type of death that the star will experience will depend on the mass of the star itself.
There are two basic outcomes of a star’s death with a dividing line between the two lying
somewhere around a mass of 8 solar masses (low mass stars) the stars die a gentle death.
With a mass of 8 or more (high mass stars) the end is extremely violent. Within each
group, high mass or low mass stars, there are variations. These variations will be pointed
out later on.

25
 Sun-like Stars

Our Sun was formed some 5 billion years ago. The surface area has remained constant
but the luminosity has increased by about 30 percent. As our Sun runs out of hydrogen,
the interior will change. Quantitatively speaking, the amount of hydrogen decreases
while the amount of helium increases. Helium accumulates in two areas of the star, at the
core and at the edge of the core. In time, the center becomes completely depleted of
hydrogen. The fusion at the core stops at this point and the burning now occurs at a
higher level in the core. The core now has a high amount of non-burning pure helium.

Because the core, at the center, is no longer burning the outward pressure is slacked a bit.
The inward pressure of gravity has not been relieved and something has to give; as the
hydrogen is consumed, the inner core contracts. With depleation the contraction
accelerates. If the helium-composed core could start fusion into heavier elements, the
star can regain stability. The problem is, however, that hydrogen can undergo fusion at a
temperature of 10^7K while helium requires a temperature of 10^8K for fusion.

The shrinking core releases gravitational energy and drives the core temperature up. This
causes the hydrogen to burn even faster. While the center of the core isn’t burning, the
shell of the core is, and at a furious rate. This stage is referred to as the hydrogen-shell
burning stage. So we have the core shrinking and the outer shell of the core producing
more energy resulting in the star getting brighter.

Pressure created by the enhanced hydrogen burning expands the outer layers of the star,
while the core is shrinking and heating up. The star is becoming a red giant. From the
main sequence to a red giant will take 100 million years. Back to the H – R diagram.
The star has left the main sequence line and now inhabits the area in the upper right hand
quarter, cooling slightly but also becoming more luminous. Our sun, at this point will be
three times its normal size. Gone will be all of the terrestrial planets. The Sun will
occupy what is called the red-giant branch of the H – R diagram.

For a star the size of our Sun, the shrinking and expanding do not go on indefinitely.
Next, in our chain of events, the helium begins to burn at the core, making carbon.
Below is the reaction.
4He + 4He Æ 8Be + energy

8Be + 4He Æ 12C + energy

This series of reactions is called the triple – alpha process.

At the core, electrons from the atoms have been stripped and are now supporting the core
from further contraction by a process called electron degeneracy. Imagine the electrons
being compacted together but the electrons, themselves, are incompressible. For a few
hours, the helium burns. This creates a “helium flash”. The heat generated restores the
outward pressure created by a high temperature. The core expands and equilibrium
between the inward pull of gravity and the outward push of gas pressure is reestablished.
The core burns helium into carbon at temperatures well above 10^8K.

26
On the H – R diagram, the helium flash expands and cools the core thus reducing the
luminosity. The temperature does increase. On the diagram, the star moves downward
and to the left.

After a few tens of millions of years, the helium is consumed. When the helium is gone,
fusion stops yet again. The core shrinks again causing the outer layers of the core, where
the hydrogen to helium burning is still taking place, to increase their rates of burning.
Imagine the following:

The star now has a shrinking carbon core surrounded by a helium burning shell which is
in turn, surrounded by a hydrogen burning shell. The outer parts of the star are starting to
expand, similar to the first time it became a red giant. The star has become a red giant a
second time. The star is a red Super giant.

On the H – R diagram our red super giant now resides vertically upward from where it
was located. Luminosity, but no temperatures have been increased. This is caused by the
shrinking core which drives the outer core layers to higher temperatures.

The core becomes too cool for fusion in our sun-size star. If the central temperature
could become high enough however, further fusion into heavier elements could occur. A
temperature of 600 million K would be required for elements heavier than carbon to be
synthesized. With a solar mass of less than 8 this re-ignition does not occur. Total mass
of the star creates the downward pressure of gravity and with low mass stars there simply
isn’t enough mass pushing down to build up enough heat to reignite. There is enough
heat and pressure for one last fusion at the edge of the carbon core and the helium
burning shell.
12C + 4He Æ 16O + energy

Let’s summarize the state of our star.

1.) The inner carbon core no longer generates energy.
2.) The outer core shells continue to burn hydrogen and helium.
3.) The core is shrinking.
4.) The outer envelope of star continues to expand and cool.

In time, an object that many are familiar with emerges: a planetary nebula. Seen with a
core of carbon and cooling rings surrounding it, planetary nebulae are perhaps some of
the more artful creations in the universe. The “ring” of the planetary nebula is really a
three-dimensional shell of cooling gas surrounding the core. The shell continues to
expand over time leaving the core to cool, alone.

The core for our sun will be the size of the Earth and will shine from stored heat and will
appear to be white. It is called a white dwarf, composed of carbon and oxygen usually.
For stars larger than our sun, but yet smaller than 8 solar masses, an additional fusion
process;
16C + 4He Æ 20Ne + energy

may have occurred before the planetary nebula stage resulting in a neon – oxygen white
dwarf.

27
The white dwarf does not contract as it cools but simply darkens to the characteristic
blackness of carbon. Over time it becomes a black dwarf.

White Dwarfs and Novae

Nova means “new” in Latin. Early astronomers saw bright flashes of what they thought
were new stars. In reality, a nova is a white dwarf undergoing an explosion on its surface
which dramatically increases the luminosity for a few days. How does this happen?

Many stars are but one of a pair. Called a binary system, they orbit each other, or around
a fixed point. If one of the stars has become a white dwarf and is close enough to the
still-burning star, then the dwarf may pull some of the hydrogen and helium from the star
by means of gravity.

As the gas accumulates on the white dwarf, it gets denser and hotter. When the
temperature of the dwarf reaches 10^7 K the process of fusion stars, creating helium.
This burning on the surface is hot and luminous, but brief. Recurrent novae repeat the
process many times.

High Mass Stars

High mass stars evolve faster than low mass stars. Our sun will spend some 10 billion
years in the main sequence. A 10-solar-mass O-type star will last only about 20 million
years. Evolution of higher mass stars is the result of the high mass and stronger
gravitational pull, which generates more heat. This increase in heating speeds up the
nuclear reactions in the star. Similar to the low mass stars, the high mass stars leave the
main sequence to join the red giant section of the H – R diagram. From there, the tracks
of the low and high mass stars diverge.

For stars at and above 8 solar masses, they can fuse carbon, oxygen and even high
elements, as the core contracts and the temperature exceeds 600 million K. All the
elements on the periodic table are synthesized until the element iron is made.

Once the core begins to become iron, the process of fusion becomes difficult for iron is a
very stable element. Fusion of 3helium releases energy to form carbon, because there is a
net loss in the nucleus. To combine iron nuclei requires input. The center of the core no
longer burns when iron is formed. Equilibrium, just like the lower mass stars is gone.
Even though the core is several billion Kelvin, the gravitational pull of matter overcomes
the outward gas pressure and the star implodes upon itself.

At 10 billion K and with the energy of implosion, iron is split into lighter nuclei and those
nuclei into lighter nuclei until only protons and neutrons exist. This process is called
photodisintegration. With the iron broken down, the core is compressed to a great
density.

But as Newton would remind us, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
When the iron core is compressed to the maximum it rebounds, violently. A great
energetic shock wave resonates from the center of the star blasting all of the outside
28
layers containing heavier elements into space. A core-collapse supernova has just
happened.

The Element Beyond Iron

If the largest of stars have the synthesis of elements stop at iron, how did the heavier
elements form? They formed by the process of neutron capture.

Deep in the core of a star neutrons are produced as by products of nuclear reactions.
Because neutrons don’t have a charge, they are absorbed by the iron nucleus. At this
point we simply have isotopes of iron, not a new element, but the new iron element
undergoes radioactive decay and becomes a new element. The process could work as it is
illustrated below:
56^Fe + n Æ 57^Fe
57^Fe + n Æ 58^Fe
58^Fe + n Æ 59^Fe

Iron-59 is know to be radioactively unstable and will decay to form Cobalt-59. Cobalt-59
captures a neutron and it decays to form Nickel-60, and so on. This process is slow and
is called the s-process.

The s-process can be justified in the explanation, by experimental evidence, for the
creation of heavier elements is up to Bismuth-209. Beyond that element however, the
explanation does not work for the isotopes formed at that point decay back to Bismuth-
209 as quickly as they are formed.

The r-process, or rapid process, explains the formation of the heavier elements such as
Uranium-238. During the first minutes of a supernova blast, there are a great number of
neutrons produced. These neutrons are jammed into the heavy and middle weight nuclei
forming the heaviest of the elements.

Novae and Supernovae

Like a nova, a supernova is a star that suddenly increases in brightness and then dims.
The exploding star is called the supernova’s progenitor. And although both nova and
supernova give a brief brightness, the supernova has much more energetic events.

Within the classification of supernovae, there are two subclasses: Type 1 supernovae and
Type 2 supernovae. Type 1 supernovae is a hydrogen poor environment whereas a Type
2 supernovae environment has a hydrogen rich environment.

A Type 2 supernovae is the same at a core-collapse supernova. This is when the star
collapses into its iron core and then rebounds sending material into space.
Type 1 supernova, the type with out hydrogen, are further subdivided into three
classes:
Type 1a: no hydrogen lines, no helium lines and strong silicon lines.
Type 1b: no hydrogen lines, but strong helium lines.
Type 1c: no hydrogen lines, no helium lines, and no silicon lines.
29
Having dissected the types of supernovae, a bit of clarification is in order. Type 1b and
1c supernovae are massive stars which lost their outer layers before they collapsed. Type
1b and 1c are basically the same as type 2 supernovae. The only differences are the
contents of the outer part of the star before the collapse.

Type 1a supernovae involve a white dwarf in a binary system. As the main sequence star
expands into a red giant, the white dwarf will accumulate material. The mass of the
white dwarf increases. As the mass increases:
1.) The radius decreases.
2.) The temperature increases.

At this new and higher density, the temperature of the white dwarf starts the fusion of
carbon and oxygen to create iron. The result is a fusion explosion, emitting vast
quantities of energy.

Chandrassekhar Limit
The Chandrassekhar Limit is a limit which mandates that no white dwarf can be more
massive than 1.4 solar masses, and a degenerate object (collapsed star) more massive
must inevitably collapse into a neutron star.

Neutron Stars

It is doubted that Type 1 supernovae leave anything of the core after the explosion. Type
2 however, could leave part of the center. Models suggest that the only particle left in the
core would be neutrons. This core remnant is called a neutron star, although all of its
nuclear reactions have stopped.

Neutron stars are very small and very massive. Only about 20km, in diameter they are
composed solely of neutrons. Their density can reach 10^17kg/m³. This would imply an
intense gravity. Neutron stars rotate rapidly and have very strong magnetic fields.

Pulsars

Objects that emit radiation in the form of rapid pulses with a characteristic pulse period
and duration is a pulsar. Pulsars are still not completely understood. It is reasoned
however, that the high-energy radiation emitted is due to a misalignment of a neutron
star’s rotation axis with its magnetic field. This release of energy results in pulses of
energy, or beams, sweeping through space, similar to the beams of light from a
lighthouse.

All pulsars are neutron stars, but not all neutron stars are pulsars. This is because the two
ingredients for a pulsar, rapid rotation, and strong magnetic field, diminish over time.
Furthermore, only if the neutron star is oriented in just the right way can we offer
detection.

30
Pulsars have been detected at many wavelengths. The list includes the radio, optical, x-
ray, and gamma-ray wavelengths. The size limit for a neutron star is about 3 solar
masses.
Black Holes

Can gravity compress matter further than a neutron star? Remember that a neutron star is
a solid ball of neutrons. What are the limits of gravity? These questions are the cutting
edge of theoretical astronomy. Apparently, we don’t completely comprehend that force
on Newton’s apple.

If enough material is left behind after a supernova, such that it exceeds 3 solar masses,
then gravity crushes the remaining matter and the central core collapses forever. Theory
indicates that any star mass above 25 solar masses has this fate awaiting.

As the stellar core shrinks, the pull of gravity becomes so great, because of its density,
that even light is unable to escape. This is known as a black hole.

31
 Star Life Cycle

1.) Where are new stars born?

2.) List the 3 main steps in the birth of a star.

3.) What is the “main sequence”?

4.) What is the source of energy for stars in the main sequence?

5.) Relate mass to the length of a star’s life.

6.) What event causes a star to become a red giant?

7.) Carbon and Oxygen are made where in the universe?

8.) What determines the way a star finally dies?

9.) What is a planetary nebula and how is it formed?

10.) What is a white dwarf star?

11.) For a star about the same mass as our Sun, describe the life cycle.

12.) Describe the life cycle for a star 25 times the size of our Sun.

32
13.) Relative to stars, why is there more abundance of lighter elements than heavier
elements?

14.) Compare the gravity of a pulsar to that of the Earth. Explain your answer.

15.) High mass stars start off with more fuel than a low mass star. Why don’t they live
longer?

H – R Diagrams

1.) Using the given locate the stars on the H – R diagram.

Star Magnitude Spectral Class

Rigel -6.6 B
Vega 0.6 A
Sun 4.8 G
Betelguese -5.0 M
Barnard’s Star 13.2 M

2.) What determines a star’s location on the H – R diagram? Or, what determines a star’s
luminosity and temperature?

33
 Optical Telescopes

Since Galileo, astronomers have been using optical telescopes to observe the cosmos. An
instrument used to capture as many photons as possible from a given region in space and
concentrate them into a focused beam for analysis.

Optical telescopes fall into two basic categories: reflectors and refractors. Both have
their advantages as well as disadvantages. Both share common characteristics and
abilities.

Reflectors

A telescope is classified by the part of the telescope that gathers the light, or objective.
For a reflecting telescope a curved, or concave, mirror is used. The curved nature of the
mirror concentrates the beam of light. The mirror is called the primary mirror because
telescopes often have more than one mirror, concentrating the beam of light on a single
point called the focus. The distance between the primary mirror and the focus is called
the focal length. Astronomers call the focal point the prime focus.

Refractors

Refracting telescopes use a lens to gather and focus the incoming light. Refraction is a
term that refers to the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another. In our
case, the two mediums are air and the glass of the lens. In refraction telescopes, the
objective lens is convex. The first telescopes built were refractors.

There are advantages and disadvantages to both types of telescopes.

Refractor Telescopes

Advantages:
1.) Rugged. Once constructed they seldom require realignment.

2.) Because the lens is held at the end of a sealed tube from the eyepiece, this telescope
rarely needs to be cleaned.

3.) Because of the sealed tube, air currents and temperature changes that affect the focus
are reduced.

Disadvantages:
1.) Chromatic aberration. All refractor telescopes have this problem to some degree.
Chromatic aberration is a condition that creates a rainbow of colors around the image.
When light passes through a prism, a rainbow of color is created. The rainbow is a result
of the longer wavelength light (red) being bent less than the shorter wavelength light
(blue). This can ruin an image. There are two ways to control chromatic aberration. One
can use a set of lenses or make the focal length of the telescope very long.

34
2.) How well the light passes through the lens varies with the wavelength. Ultraviolet
light does not pass through a lens at all.

3.) The thicker the lens, the less light that passes through.

4.) It is difficult and expensive to build a high quality lens.

5.) The objective lens can only be supported at the edges and large ones have a tendency
to sag, creating distortions.

Reflectors

Advantages:
1.) Reflectors do not suffer from chromatic aberration.

2.) The primary mirror is at the end of the telescope so they can be made very large.

3.) Cheaper than refractors to make.

4.) Because light is reflecting off of the mirror, or objective, only one side has to be
perfect.

Disadvantages:
1.) It is easy to get the optics out of line.

2.) Because a reflector is open, it requires frequent cleaning.

3.) Often a secondary mirror is used and this secondary mirror can distort the image.

Common to both types of telescopes is a defect call spherical aberration. This is a

condition caused when not all of the light is focused at the same point. In mirrored
telescopes it occurs when the mirror is not curved at the proper angle. The Hubble had
this problem because of a curve defect the width of 1/50th of a human hair. In reflectors it
occurs when the lens is not shaped correctly.

Types of Reflecting Telescopes

Although there are many types of reflecting telescopes there are two basic designs that
are widely used. The Newtonian telescope intercepts the light from the primary mirror
before it reaches the prime focus and deflects it to an eyepiece located on the side of the
telescope. This type of telescope is named in honor of its inventor, Sir Isaac Newton.

If an astronomer wants to work from behind the telescope and desires a reflector, the
Cassegrain telescope design is his choice. After the light is reflected oof the prime
mirror, it is intercepted by the secondary mirror which redirects the light back down
through a small hole in the primary mirror to the eyepiece.

35
Telescope Types

What are those

numbers?

The f-ratio is the focal length divided by the diameter of the telescope. Magnification
is the focal length of the telescope divided by the focal length of the eyepiece.

Example:

To find the f-ratio of a telescope 10 " in diameter with a 45" focal length:

o Divide 45 " F.L. by10" D. to get an f-ratio of 4.5.

To compute magnification:

First, convert focal length to mm: 45" = 1146 mm; then:1146 mm focal length divided by
35 mm eyepiece equals 33 magnification.

36
Source: http://www.seattleastro.org/paths.html

Questions: Reflector and Refractor Telescopes

1.) What are the two basic types of telescopes?

2.) What are the advantages and disadvantages of both?

3.) Why are the large modern telescopes reflectors?

4.) Refractor telescopes sometimes produce rainbows around the image. Explain why
this occurs.

5.) How will spherical aberration affect an image?

37
 Magnification

Irregardless of which type of telescope is being used, the principle of observing the image
is the same. Light is focused and viewing is then done by looking at the image through a
lens called an eyepiece. The eyepiece is similar to those used in microscopes. Eyepieces
magnify the image. One can change the magnification of a telescope by simply changing
the eyepieces. Eyepieces have different focal lengths and the rule of thumb is that the
shorter the focal length the higher the magnification. The magnification of the image is
not solely dependent upon the eyepiece, however, because the total magnification of the
image is a function of both the eyepiece and the focal length of the telescope.

To find the magnification power of any telescope one divides the focal length (f.l.) of the
telescope by the focal length of the eyepiece.

Magnification = Objective f.l. / Eyepiece f.l.

OR
Magnification = focal length of the objective / Focal length of the eyepiece

Questions on Magnification:

1.) We have 3 telescopes that have the following focal lengths:

2000mm

800mm

450mm

Calculate the magnification power of each, using the three eyepieces below:
8mm

12mm

26mm

2.) Using the formula for magnification power, explain why astronomers want a long
focal length.

38
 Telescope Size

Astronomers like large telescopes for two reasons. First, the larger the aperture the mare
light it can collect. Secondly, the larger aperture has a larger resolving power.
Resolution, or resolving power, is nothing more than the ability to see details of the
image. Larger telescopes have a larger collection area for light. Remember that we are
talking in terms of the common reflector telescopes but the same applies for refractor
telescopes. Aperture is simple, the size of the mirror or lens, usually given by its
diameter.

When viewing distant, faint objects a larger aperture is needed to collect as much light as
possible from the selected section of the sky. The observed brightness of an object is
directly proportional to the area of a telescope’s mirror. Because area is equal to π times
the radius squared ( A= πR²). The brightness of an image will be the square of the
diameter of the aperture.

For example: Two telescopes. One with a 1m mirror, the other with a 5m diameter. The
5m telescope will have a brightness of 5² or 25 and the 1m will have a brightness of 1² or
1. Therefore, the 5m telescope will produce images 25 times brighter than the 1m
telescope.

Why should we care? The 5m telescope, in an astronomer’s terms, is “faster”. By faster,

we are referring to the amount of time needed to take a picture. Look at it this way, when
you take a picture in a dark room, your camera needs to leave the lens open for a longer
period of time than if the picture was taken outside on a sunny day. This is because the
photographic film needs time to collect enough photons of light to produce an image.
Astronomers take lots of pictures of astronomical objects. With a brighter image they
can take more pictures per unit of time and the movement created by the Earth’s rotation
is not as much of a problem.

The second advantage of large telescopes is angular resolution. Resolution is the ability
to distinguish between two objects close together in a field of view. Angular resolution
refers to how many arc seconds of distance between two objects can exist and the
observer still can see them as two separate objects.

One of the limiting factors on resolution is diffraction. Diffraction is the tendency of

light to bend around corners. When light enters a telescope, even a perfect mirrored one,
the rays spread out a bit creating some fuzziness. This fuzziness is caused by a loss of
resolution. The degree of fuzziness determines the angular resolution of a telescope.
Further, the amount of diffraction is proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
divided by the diameter of the mirror.
Angular Resolution = 0.25 Wavelength (um) / mirror diameter (m)
(arc seconds)
Where: 1um (1 micron) = 10^-6 meters
1 nanometer (nm) = 10^-9 meters
100nm = 0.1um
39
 Atmospheric Blurring

Stars twinkle. This change in the rays of light is due to the Earth’s atmosphere. Because
the light, if refracted, the star twinkles. Atmospheric turbulence has a lesser effect on
light of longer wavelengths, but the atmosphere sometimes raises havoc with ground
based observations. Astronomers refer to “seeing” as the effects of the atmosphere on
observing. One wants a night where the “seeing” is good.

f / Ratio

The f / Ratio of a telescope is the focal length divided by the aperture. The aperture
would be the diameter of the lens or mirror. This is an important number, as it tells a lot
about a telescope. The lower the f /Ratio, the faster or brighter the image will be. This
would be a good telescope for deep space object observation, but getting a brighter image
means that you loose some magnification.

f / 6 and lower = deep space observation

f / 7 to f /10 = mid range
f / 11 and up = slow but good for planetary work

Here is the formula for determining the f / Ratio of a telescope:

f / ratio = focal length / aperture

Questions:

1.) Which would give you a brighter image, an 8 inch f / 10 of an 8 inch f / 6?

2.) Which would provide more magnification a 6 inch f / 8 of a 6 inch f /5?

3.) Explain your above answers.

4.) Given three telescopes:

a.) Focal length = 2000mm

Aperture = 203mm

b.) Focal length = 800mm

Aperture = 60mm

c.) Focal length = 450mm

Aperture = 4 inches (convert)
Calculate the f / Ratio for each.

5.) Suggest ways that you could compensate of avoid atmospheric blurring.

40
6.) Calculate the angular resolution of a 1 meter aperture telescope observing at the
following wave lengths.
Blue Light 400nm
Red Light 700nm
Inferred 1000nm

Telescopes

1.) A pair of binoculars has the markings 7 x 50. What do the 7 and 50 mean?

2.) What is the focal length of a 5m f / 3.3 mirror on Mount Palomar?

3.) What determines the size of the image formed by a telescope?

4.) What is the essential difference between refractors and reflecting telescopes?

5.) Explain why what may appear to be a single star to the naked eye may resolve into
two close stars using a telescope.

6.) What is the magnifying power of a telescope related to the focal length of a telescope
itself and the focal length of the eyepiece?

7.) What is the magnifying power of a 150mm f / 8 telescope using a 12.5 mm eyepiece?

8.) How could you increase the magnifying power?

9.) What is the practical limit of useful magnification of any telescope, given its aperture
in millimeters?

10.) Compare and contrast chromatic and spherical aberrations.

11.) What is interferometry, assuming you were a radio astronomer.

12.) Compare and contrast radio astronomy with visual astronomy.

13.) List the two spectral ranges in the Earth’s atmosphere for observational astronomy.

14.) Star A is red. Star B is blue. Which is hotter? Explain how you know.

15.) What do all electromagnetic waves have in common?

16.) List the advantages of radio astronomy.

17.) Why do we put telescopes in space?

18.) Give two reasons astronomers want bigger telescopes.

19.) What and where are the largest optical telescopes in use today?

41
20.) How does the Earth’s atmosphere affect an optical image?

21.) What kind of objects are best observed with a radio telescope?

22.) Why are radio telescopes large?

23.) Interferometry solves what problem for radio astronomers? Explain.

24.) Are there any ground-based ultraviolet observatories?

25.) Why do astronomers observe objects at different wavelengths?

42
 Radiation

There are other types of telescopes, but before we can discuss them, we must first have a
working knowledge of the electromagnetic spectrum. And before the spectrum can make
sense, one needs to understand waves and radiation in general.

Astronomers use the laws of physics and parts of the electromagnetic spectrum to gather
information about stellar objects. Radiation is any way energy is transmitted through
space from point A to point B with out a physical connection between these two points.
Radio transmission is a form of radiation. Electromagnetic means that the energy is
carried in the form of rapidly fluctuating magnetic or electric fields.

Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation the human eye can detect. To
humans, much of the electromagnetic radiation is invisible. Radio, infrared, ultraviolet
waves, as well as x-rays and gamma rays exist, but escape detection by humans.

All electromagnetic radiation travels in the form of waves. A wave is a way in which
energy is transferred from one place to another without the displacement of the medium
in which the wave moves through. Your bobber while fishing moves up and down as
energy moves through the water in the form of a wave. Still, the bobber ends at the same
place that it started. A wave is the transfer of energy.

Waves have a pattern. Waves have parts. We can differentiate different waves by the
differences in their construction. Below is labeled diagram of a wave.

The wavelength is the distance from the crest to crest or trough to trough. Or one can
think of wavelengths as the distance a wave takes to repeat itself. The maximum
displacement from the rested state is called the amplitude.

The number of wave crests passing a given point per unit time is called the wave’s
frequency.

wave frequency = 1 / wave period

Frequency is expressed in cycles, or crests, per second. The unit is the Hertz (Hz). If a
wave has a period of 5 seconds then:

Frequency = 1 / 5 sec.

Frequency = 0.2 Hz

A wave moves one wavelength in one wave period. Therefore:

Wave length x Frequency = Velocity

If our above frequency of 0.2 Hz wave had a wavelength of 0.5m, its velocity would be:
0.5 m x 0.2 Hz = 0.1m/s

43
Wavelength and wave frequency are inversely related. If you double the wavelength and
remain at the same velocity, frequency must be halved.

Visible Light

White light can be spread into its constituent colors by a prism. What makes red light?
What makes violet light? Red is because of the wavelength. The wavelength of red light
is 700nm, violet 400nm. The other colors have wavelengths between 400 and 700nm.
The human eye is most sensitive to the middle wavelengths about 550nm.

Visible light is but a small fraction of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. But like all
radiation waves, it needs no medium to travel through. Sound waves need air to travel.
No air, no sound. Radiation waves need no medium.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Enclosed you will find a diagram depicting the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Please
note that as the frequency and wavelength or inversely related. As the wavelength gets
longer, the frequency decreases. Also note that the visible light spectrum is but a small
fraction of the entire spectrum. The increments of change on the spectrums are not in 10,
but factors of 10.

At the long wavelength, low frequency end of the spectrum one will find the radio and
infrared radiation. AM, FM, TV are all in the radio band of the spectrum. Infrared is
heat. Shorter wavelengths are characteristics of ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray
radiation.

Here is an example of the electromagnetic spectrum related to a common occurrence.

You place a pot on the stove and turn on the burner. As the pot absorbs energy it emits
some energy at the radio frequency. You cannot detect this, but with the pot left on the
stove, you can feel the next area of the spectrum, namely heat. You are at the infrared
zone now. Leaving the pot on the stove, it starts to glow red; then yellow, then blue.
You have moved into and through the visible light portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

The Earth is bombarded continuously by electromagnetic energy from space. Only a

fraction of the radiation reaches the surface because the Earth’s atmosphere. Opacity is
the opposite of transparency. The Earth’s atmosphere blocks most of the radiation. The
extent to which radiation is blocked is referred to as the opacity of the atmosphere. The
Earth’s atmosphere allows visible and radio wavelength from space through and to some
lesser extent some ultraviolet and infrared wavelength energy. Most electromagnetic
energy is absorbed by the atmospheric gases. Water vapor and oxygen absorb
wavelengths of less than a centimeter while carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiation.

44
45
46
Source: Chaisson, Eric. Astronomy today. McGraw Hill. 4th Edition.

47
 Doppler Effect

As an ambulance travels down the road you notice that the pitch gets higher as it nears
you and then lowers once it has passed. The same effect happens when a train passes.
This change in pitch is the result of the Doppler Effect. What causes the pitch to change
is a change in the frequency.

As the ambulance approaches you the sound waves are compressed. The intervals, or
frequency, between the waves diminish and the pitch rises. When the ambulance passes,
the sound waves are stretched out relative to you and the frequency decreases. The pitch
goes down. If you could measure the rate of the change in pitch, you could calculate the
speed of the ambulance.

In the same way, electromagnetic radiation can be compressed or stretched, exhibiting the
Doppler Effect. The radiation of an object approaching you is compressed into a higher
frequency or shorter wavelength, and is said to be blue shifted. Redshifting occurs as an
object moves away because the frequency is decreased and the wavelength is increased.
To – Blue Away – Red Shifted

The Doppler Effect applies to the entire electromagnetic spectrum and is used in
astronomy to measure the movement of stars and galaxies. Astronomers use the spectral
lines of the elements to determine the blue or red shifting of the stars.

The Doppler Effect

A Familiar Example
Heard an ambulance go by recently? Remember how the siren's pitch changed as the
vehicle raced towards, then away from you? First the pitch became higher, then lower.
Originally discovered by the Austrian mathematician and physicist, Christian Doppler
(1803-53), this change in pitch results from a shift in the frequency of the sound waves,
as illustrated in the following picture.

48
As the ambulance approaches, the sound waves from its siren are compressed towards the
observer. The intervals between waves diminish, which translates into an increase in
frequency or pitch. As the ambulance recedes, the sound waves are stretched relative to
the observer, causing the siren's pitch to decrease. By the change in pitch of the siren, you
can determine if the ambulance is coming nearer or speeding away. If you could measure
the rate of change of pitch, you could also estimate the ambulance's speed.

By analogy, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a moving object also exhibits the
Doppler effect. The radiation emitted by an object moving toward an observer is
squeezed; its frequency appears to increase and is therefore said to be blueshifted. In
contrast, the radiation emitted by an object moving away is stretched or redshifted. As in
the ambulance analogy, blueshifts and redshifts exhibited by stars, galaxies and gas
clouds also indicate their motions with respect to the observer.

The Doppler Effect In Astronomy

In astronomy, the Doppler effect was originally studied in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Today, the Doppler shift, as it is also known, applies to
electromagnetic waves in all portions of the spectrum. Also, because of the inverse
relationship between frequency and wavelength, we can describe the Doppler shift in
terms of wavelength. Radiation is redshifted when its wavelength increases, and is
blueshifted when its wavelength decreases.

Astronomers use Doppler shifts to calculate precisely how fast stars and other
astronomical objects move toward or away from Earth. For example the spectral lines
emitted by hydrogen gas in distant galaxies is often observed to be considerably
redshifted. The spectral line emission, normally found at a wavelength of 21 centimeters
on Earth, might be observed at 21.1 centimeters instead. This 0.1 centimeter redshift
would indicate that the gas is moving away from Earth at over 1,400 kilometers per
second (over 880 miles per second).

Shifts in frequency result not only from relative motion. Two other phenomena can
substantially the frequency of electromagnetic radiation, as observed. One is associated
with very strong gravitational fields and is therefore known as Gravitational Redshift .
The other, called the Cosmological Redshift, results not from motion through space, but
rather from the expansion of space following the Big Bang, the fireball of creation in
which most scientists believe the universe was born.

Spectroscopy

Starlight is composed of various wavelengths of light. Astronomers can determine much

about the source of the light by analyzing the light itself. Spectroscopy is the analysis of
the spectra of the light.

49
Spectra are of three basic types. Each type is produced by different conditions. Which
are as follows:
1.) Continuous spectrum is all of the colors that make up visible light.
2.) Emission spectrum is a pattern of dark lines, each from a different wavelength,
also called a bright-line spectrum.
3.) Absorption spectrum is a pattern of dark lines across a continuous spectrum,
also called a dark-line spectrum.

Emission and Absorption Lines

Homework for tomorrow's class

People have long known that the stars are far, far away; in the nineteeth century,
astronomers finally measured the distances to a few nearby stars with reasonable
accuracy. The results were so large -- thousand of trillions of miles -- that most people
figured we'd never be able to visit them or learn much about them. After all, we can't go
to a star, grab a sample, and bring it back to earth; all we can do is look at light from the
star. In fact, at least one prominent philosopher and scientist went on the record as saying
that we'd never be able to figure out their compositions.

Of all objects, the planets are those which appear to us under the least varied aspect. We
see how we may determine their forms, their distances, their bulk, and their motions, but
we can never known anything of their chemical or mineralogical structure; and, much
less, that of organized beings living on their surface ...
Auguste Comte, The Positive Philosophy, Book II, Chapter 1 (1842)

(Comte refers to the planets in the quotation above; he believes that we can learn even
less about the stars)

But, it turns out, light from the star encodes a wealth of information about the physical
state of its outer atmosphere. Light is produced in the inner regions of a star and works its
way out to the "surface" -- which is really a part of the gaseous atmosphere called the

50
photosphere. Photons produced in the photosphere have a good chance to escape
outwards into space and, eventually, reach us. As photons fly through the outermost
layers of the stellar atmosphere, however, they may be absorbed by atoms or ions in those
outer layers. The absorption lines produced by these outermost layers of the star tell us a
lot about the chemical compositition, temperature, and other features of the star.

Today, we'll look at the processes by which emission and absorption lines are created.
We'll also do a little bit of analysis, but leave most of it for a later day...

Emission-line spectra

Low-density clouds of gas floating in space will emit emission lines if they are excited
by energy from nearby stars. Planetary nebulae, for example, are the remnants of stars
which have gently pushed their outer envelopes outwards into space. Some of them are
very pretty:

See Astronomy Picture of the Day for Oct 31, 1999

51
 See Astronomy Picture of the Day for March 21, 1999

The hot central stars which remain irradiate these wispy shells of gas with high-energy
ultraviolet photons, which excite the atoms in the gas and cause it to glow. The spectrum
of a planetary nebula reveals almost nothing but very strong, narrow emission lines:

Remember that 10 Angstroms = 1 nm, so 4000 Angstroms = 400 nm = blue light ...

What exactly did I mean by the phrase excite the atoms in the gas? And what does that
have to do with these narrow emission lines? Let's take a look at the individual atoms in
the gas around a planetary nebula....

Atomic energy levels and transitions

Individual atoms consist of a nucleus of positive charge surrounded by one or more

negative particles called electrons. To a rough approximation, the electrons circle the
nucleus, somewhat as planets circle the Sun.

52
 Q: What is the force which keeps planets in
orbit around the Sun?

Q: What is the force which keeps electrons in

"orbit" around the nucleus?

The answers

Unlike the orbits of planets and asteroids around the Sun, which may be any size, the
orbits of electrons in atoms turn out to obey a rather peculiar set of rules.

1. Only orbits of certain particular radius are permitted

2. Each orbit has a different potential energy: small orbits have low potential energy,
large orbits have high potential energy
3. Electrons may jump between any two orbits, but do so instantaneously;
o for the electron to jump upwards, to a larger orbit, something must provide
exactly the right amount of energy to the atom
o for the electron to jump downwards, to a smaller orbit, the atom must get
rid of exactly the right amount of energy

So, for example, one particular atom might have orbits with energy levels like this:

53
In this case, the energy difference between the second and first orbit is Δ E = 6 - 1 = 5
units. We'll discuss details of the units in a moment. Now, if a photon of 5 units of
energy happens to run into this atom, it might be absorbed by the atom, exciting the
electron from the first orbit to the second orbit.

Before ...

... and after.

54
Notice that the photon has disappeared.

Once you have excited an atom, all you have to do is wait a bit; eventually, the atom will
jump back down to a lower energy state, emitting a photon itself.

The energy of this emitted photon is exactly equal to the difference in atomic energy
levels between the initial and final states. In this example, the emitted photon would have
5 units of energy.

Because each type of atom has its own unique set of energy levels, each type of atom will
emit light with a different set of energies. And, given the relationship between the energy
E of a photon and its wavelength λ (or frequency ν)

55
that means that each type of atom will produce a set of emission lines at its own unique
wavelengths.

Example: the spectrum of hydrogen

For example, consider hydrogen, the simplest (and most common) element in the
universe. It consists of a single proton in its nucleus, around which a single electron
orbits.

The energy levels of a hydrogen atom follow a regular pattern. The energy of level n is
given by a simple formula:

Sometimes it helps to make a picture of the energy levels.

56
We put the "ground state" level, n=1, at the bottom of the diagram. At the top, we put the
level at which the atom will be ionized: if it gains this much energy, the electron flies off
into space, never to return.

We can depict an atomic transition graphically by drawing a little ball on the diagram to
represent the energy of the atom. If the atom drops from a high level to a lower one, it
will emit a photon. The energy of the photon is equal to the difference between the initial
and final energy levels.

Q: What is the energy of the photon emitted

when a hydrogen atoms drops from n=2
to n=1?

57
The answer

As mentioned earlier, the energy of a photon determines its wavelength. You can convert
from one to the other via a formula

where h is Planck's constant and c is the speed of light. The combination h times c has
the convenient value of 1240 eV*nm, so

Q: What is the wavelength of the photon emitted

when a hydrogen atoms drops from n=2
to n=1?

Could you see that photon with your eye?

The answer

58
 Q: What is the wavelength of the photon emitted
when a hydrogen atoms drops from n=3
to n=2?

Could you see this photon?

The answer

Transisions in which a hydrogen atoms drops down in energy to the second level are
called Balmer transitions, after the scientist who first measured their properties very
carefully. Since they occur in the visible portion of the spectrum, and they involve the
most common element in the universe, they are one of an astronomer's most powerful
tools. If you look again at the spectrum of the planetary nebula, you'll see several Balmer
lines:

Remember that 10 Angstroms = 1 nm, so 4000 Angstroms = 400 nm = blue light ...

Other atoms have spectra which are more complex than that of hydrogen; there are no
simple formulae describing their energy levels. Fortunately, many scientists have spent
years measuring the wavelengths of light emitted and absorbed by almost every variety of
atom (and ion, and molecule) you can imagine. You can look up the wavelengths for any
particular material in one of several big compilations of spectral lines.

• Line Spectra of the Elements, by J. Reader and Ch.H. Corliss

• Atomic spectral line list, by R. Hirata and T. Horaguchi
• A revised version of the Identification List of Lines in Stellar Spectra (ILLSS)
Catalogue by R. Coluzzi

59
Absorption lines

A high-resolution spectrum of the Sun shows many, many, MANY dark absorption lines:

Absorption lines are based on the same physical principle as emission lines: they involve
an atom jumping from one particular energy level to another. In this case, however, the
jumps must be upwards, from a low level to a higher one.

For example, if a photon of wavelength 121 nm happens to fly past a hydrogen atom in
its ground state,

the hydrogen atom will absorb the photon and hop up to the n=2 level.

That means that if we look at a source of continuous radiation

60
through a cloud of hydrogen gas, we will see a dark absorption line at 121 nm.

We see absorption lines in the spectra of ordinary stars like the Sun because the tenuous
outer layers of the stellar atmosphere -- called the photosphere -- absorb some of the
continuous light coming from the hot, dense interior.

The conditions needed to produce line spectra

Emission and absorption lines can tell us a great deal about a distant celestial source, but
they only occur under certain conditions.

Emission lines from an element will appear if

• there are atoms of the element present

• the atoms are in a low-density gas
• the atoms are excited into a particular high energy level by some external source

Absorption lines from an element will appear if

• there are atoms of the element present

• the atoms are in a low-density gas
• the atoms spend most of their time in a particular low-energy level
• the gas lies between us and a source of continous light (of all wavelengths)

61
Homework for tomorrow's class

1. Print a copy of the spectrum of the planetary nebula PN G000.2+06.1, which is

shown at the top of this lecture. On the printed copy,
o identify and mark the emission lines which are due to Balmer transitions
of hydrogen atoms; you should be able to find at least 3 or 4
o for each of these lines, write down the initial energy level and the final
energy level involved in the transition (i.e. for the line at 656 nm, you
would write "initial n=3, final n=2")
2. Look at the stellar spectrum below.

o Estimate the temperature of this star.

o Sodium atoms have the following energy levels: (sort of -- I've assigned
some new numbers)
o
o n energy (eV)
o -------------------------
o 1 -5.14
o 2 -3.04
o 3 -1.96
o 4 -1.52
o -------------------------

One of the strongest lines in the spectrum above is due to a transition in

sodium atoms. Which one is it? What is the wavelength, and what are the
levels involved?

62
For more information

• Looking for the source of some particular spectral line? Check out the Spectra of
Gas Discharge page.
• You might also play with the MiniSpectroscopy Java Applet
• The spectra of planetary nebula shown above come from a paper by Mantiega et
al., AJ 127, 3437 (2004)

Copyright © Michael Richmond. This work is licensed under a Creative

Commons License.

63
What causes each of these spectrums? The structure of the atom is what makes it
possible. In the Bohr atom model, the nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Orbiting
the nucleus are the negatively charged electrons. Because atoms usually have no charge,
the number of protons equals the number of electrons. The electron orbit is at a fixed
radius relative to the nucleus. For each element, there are a varying number of orbits.
The energy needed to remove an electron from its orbit is called the binding energy.
Each element also has a unique set of allowed electron orbits called energy levels.

If an atom is chillin’, undisturbed, it is said to be in its ground state and has the least
possible energy. It the right energy is supplied (think frequency and wavelength here) the
electron will jump to a higher energy level. The atom is now in an excited state. When
the electron goes back to the ground state, the previous absorbed energy is released in a
packet of light called a photon. If enough energy is supplied electrons can be removed
completely creating ions.

Dark absorption lines are created when the atoms take in energy. Bright emission lines
are created when the electrons return to ground state. Each element has unique
absorption and emission lines. The same can be said for compounds.

The Sun’s absorption spectrum was studied by Joseph von Fraunhofer in 1814. The
darkest lines of the Sun’s spectrum are called Fraunhofer lines and they indicate what
elements compose the Sun.

Other stars can be classified according to their absorption spectrum.

Source: http://www.creativecommons.org

64
Questions: Electromagnetic Spectrum

1.) What is a wave?

2a.) What color has the shortest wavelength?

2b.) What is the shortest wavelength?

3.) List 6 forms of electromagnetic energy from the shortest to the longest wavelength.

4.) How many kilometers in 1 light year?

5a.) Which waves have a higher frequency than visible light?

5b.) Which waves have a lower frequency than visible light?

6.) What is the relationship between wavelength and frequency?

7.) Given the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave, one can determine the frequency.
However, to determine the frequency, one must use the formula:
speed of a wave = Frequency x Wavelength
Why?

8.) Calculate the wavelength of a radio wave whose frequency is 100K Hz (k=1,000)

9.) A sound wave in water has a frequency of 256Hz and a wavelength of 5.77m. Find
the wave’s velocity.

10.) What is the wavelength of 100M Hz?

11.) What is diffraction?

12.) What is special about c, the speed of light?

65
 Radio Astronomy

As we have seen, on the surface of the Earth an astronomer can expect to detect the
visible and radio wave lengths emitted from objects in space. These two areas of
electromagnetic spectrum are called windows of observation.

The first radio wave observation of astronomical value was made at a wavelength of 14.6
meters. FM radio and TV transmission occur around the 3 meter wavelength while AM
radio has a wavelength of 300meters. Today, most radio observations are done between
the wavelengths of 90cm and 7mm.

Similar to optical telescopes, radio telescopes are either prime focus or Cassegrain
reflectors. Radio telescopes are large. Why? Remember that angular resolution is
proportional to the wavelength divided by the aperture diameter.

Angular Resolution = Wavelength / Diameter

So for a radio telescope to have a good resolution at the large wavelengths of radio, the
diameter must be large. Also, if the telescope is to detect faint signals the collection area
or reflector must be large.

Diffraction is also a problem. Remember that the longer the wavelength, the greater the
diffraction. Angular resolution of a single radio telescope can approach 20 arc seconds
when the wavelength is about 3cm.

How a radio telescope works: Lets look at how the radio telescopes of the Very Large
Array work. There are four basic components: A reflector, sub-reflector, feed, and
receiver compose a radio telescope.

As a radio source emits radiation and it travels to the Earth’s surface, it strikes the radio
telescopes reflector. Some would call this the dish. An astronomer wouldn’t. The
reflectors are a parabola. A parabola is defined as a set of points in the plane that are
equidistant from a point (the focus) and a line (the directrix). The important part of
parabolas for astronomers is that a parabola has a focus. A focus is a point where
incoming waves will be concentrated to after bouncing off the reflector. If you have a
dish for TV at home take a look at it tonight. It is a parabola. The focus point is where
that little receiver is held above the dish.

For a radio telescope astronomers place a structure called the sub-reflector at the focus.
The sub-reflector redirects the radiation back down into the middle of the reflector where
the electromagnetic waves enter the feeds. At the VLA, these feeds are commonly
referred to as feed horns.

A receiver is located behind the feeds just like in a Cassegrain optical telescope. For that
matter, the radio telescope is very similar to a Cassegrain optical telescope, only larger
and operating at a different wavelength. The receiver amplifies the signal, and is built
such that the incoming signal remains proportional, even after amplification. This allows
the image to remain true, relative to the emission received. The signals are then
66
transferred to a computing area where, through the process of modern computing, an
image is produced.

Radio astronomers have taken the radio wavelength section of the electromagnetic
spectrum and have further divided it into bands. Below is a list of the bands and their
wavelengths and frequencies.

Band Wavelength Frequency

P-Band 90cm 327 MHz
L-Band 20cm 1.4 6Hz
C-Band 6.0 cm 5.0 6Hz
X-Band 3.6cm 8.5 6Hz
U-Band 2.0cm 15. 6Hz
K-Band 1.3cm 23 6Hz
Q-Band 7mm 45 6Hz

What do Radio Astronomers “Look” At?

Apparent magnitude is used by optical astronomers when they look at the stars. This
brightness factor, in the terms of physics is called the flux density of the object. The flux
density, similar to brightness, is the measure of the power received from an object per
unit frequency, per unit of area.

It turns out that most of the stars are not particularly strong emitters of radio frequency
waves. Some are, but most, even our Sun, aren’t. But the gasses of space emit big-time
at the radio frequency. Radio astronomers observe what is not visible.

Advantages of Radio Astronomy

We have highlighted the disadvantages of radio astronomy; poor angular resolution of a

single telescope. But radio astronomy has many advantages.

1.) Observations can take place 24 hours a day. The Sun is a weak radio source.
2.) Clouds? No problem. Radio telescopes and detect radio waves even through the rain
and snow.
3.) Some of the strongest sources of radio emissions emit little or no visible light. The
only way to study them is at the radio wavelength.
4.) Although visible light may be absorbed or distorted by interstellar matter, radio waves
are not. Parts of the universe that cannot be seen visibly can be studied with a radio
telescope.

67
68
Source: http://www.nrao.edu

Interferometry

All astronomers detest poor angular resolution. Radio astronomers have overcome poor
angular resolution by using a technique called interferometry. Interferometry is the
practice of using two or more radio telescopes, in tandem, to observe the same object at
the same time and at the same wavelength. The VLA uses interferometry and has the
ability to use up to 27 radio telescopes in unison.

As each telescope receives radiation, the signals are sent to a central computer. The
computer combines and stores the data. The trick is to see how the waves interfere with
each other when added together. If the waves are in phase, they combine constructively
to form a stronger signal. If the signals are out of phase with one another, they combine
to cancel each other out. Eventually, as the telescopes track their target, a pattern
emerges. With the voodoo of extensive computer processing, the pattern is translated
into a high-resolution image.

Remember that angular resolution is equal to the wavelength divided by the aperture.
With interferometry, that aperture, or diameter of the mirror becomes the distance
between the radio telescopes. Let’s now call the aperture the baseline. We will define
the base like as the distance between radio telescopes.

Angular Resolution = wavelength / Base line length

69
The further you spread the telescopes, the more angular resolution you achieve. How
much angular resolution can be achieved? Well, the VLA has four formations, A, B, C,
and D, where the maximum separations are:

A - 36km
B - 10km
C - 3.6km
D - 1km

With a base line of 36km, the VLA can reach a resolution of 0.04 arc seconds at a
wavelength of about 7mm.

Want even better resolution? Meet the VLBA; The Very Long Baseline Array. This
array has radio telescopes spanning the distance from the east coast to Hawaii, including
one in Pietown, N.M.

Infrared Telescopes

First built in the 1960’s, these telescopes operate like optical reflectors, but with a heat
detector at the prime focus. Cooled to about 2K they detect infrared waves from space.
Because water and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere absorb infrared rays, most large
infrared telescopes are located on mountaintops.

http://sofia.arc.nasa.gov
http://sirtf.caltech.edu
www.ipac.caltech.edu

Ultraviolet, X-Ray, and Gamma Rays

High-energy astronomy started in the 1960’s, with telescopes above Earth’s atmosphere.
High-energy telescopes collect and focus incoming radiation where detectors record its
intensity, energy, duration, and direction. Computers assimilate the data and manipulate
it to form false color images; sort of a paint-by-numbers concept. This generates a
picture of objects that can’t be seen visually.

http://galex.caltech.edu
http://chauclra.harvard.edu

70
 Galaxies

A galaxy is a large collection of stars, gas, and dust held together by mutual gravitation.
Edwin Hubble (think telescope) was the first to categorize galaxies from Mount Wilson
Observatory in California. Hubble placed galaxies into four basic groups:

a.) Spirals
b.) Barred Spirals
c.) Elipticals
d.) Irregulars

These classifications are based solely on appearance. The classification is referred to as

the Hubble classification scheme.

Spiral Galaxies, like the Andromeda, contain a flatted galactic disk with spiral arms, a
central galactic bulge, and a halo of faint, old stars. Most stars are found in the middle, or
galactic nucleus of the galaxy. Hubble went further in classifying galaxies by adding the
size of the central bulge. Using “a” for the largest galaxies, and “c” for the smallest, the
spiral galaxies have three classifications denoted by the following:

Sa
Sb
Sc

Sa galaxies, with a large central bulge tend to be tightly wrapped with almost circular
arms. Sb have more openness to their arms while Sc, the smallest of bulges, have loose
poorly defined arms. Also, the arms tend to have, “knots”, or clumps, as they become
more open.

Because the halo of most galaxies glows reddish, it is assumed that the older stars reside
there while the outer arms, being blue and white, contain the B and O type stars. The
arms, rich in gas and dust, are the nurseries for stars.

Barred spiral galaxies differ from ordinary spirals in that they contain a “bar” of matter
that passes through the center, and to the arms of the galaxy. The arms project from the
bars and not from the center of the galaxy. Barred spiral galaxies are also sub-divided
into groups depending on the size of the central bulge. The classifications are denoted as
follows:

SBa
SBb
SBc

Astronomers cannot differentiate the difference in galaxies if the view is edge-on to the
observation. Our own Milky Way, with its elongated bulge suggests that we live in a
barred spiral galaxy, probably an SBb or a SBc.

71
Elliptical galaxies have no spiral arms and no flattened galactic disk. There is little
internal structure to an elliptical galaxy. These galaxies are further sub-divided by how
elliptical they are. The most circular are denoted by E0 and the most elongated are
denoted by E7

An irregular galaxy classification is a depository classification for galaxies that do not fit
into the above classifications. Irregulars have a lot of young blue stars, but lack a regular
structure. They are further divided into Irr1 and Irr2 galaxies. Irr1 galaxies look like
bent spirals while Irr2, also misshapen, appear explosive. The Magellanic Clouds are a
pair of Irr1 galaxies.

Some astronomers suggest, although it has not been proven, that galaxies undergo an
evolutionary path. It is suggested that they start as elliptical, and because of interactions,
develop into spiral of irregular galaxies.

Star Populations and Stellar Movements

Many stars move through a galaxy, many move in a group held together by their mutual
gravitational attraction. These groups are called star clusters. It is thought that all of the
stars in a cluster formed about the same time in the same gigantic cloud, because all of
the stars are about the same age.

Star clusters come in two basic flavors: open, or galactic clusters that are found in the
spiral arms. They are relatively young, hot, and highly luminous. In the spherical region
around the disk, called the halo, astronomers have found globular clusters. These are the
older stars.

Population 1 and 2 Stars

Yet another classification of stars in a galaxy is that of Population 1 and 2. Population 1

stars are found in the arms of the galactic disk and are the hottest and most luminous
stars. Also, they contain high amounts of heavier elements. Population 2 stars are found
near the galactic nucleus. They are older and composed almost entirely of hydrogen and
helium.

72
 Data < Galaxy Types < back

Basic Galaxy Properties by Type

SPIRAL/BARRED SPIRAL
(S, SB)
Shape and Highly flattened disk of stars
structural and gas, containing spiral
properties arms and thickening to a
central bulge; Sa and Sba
galaxies have largest bulges,
the least obvious spiral
structure, and roughly
spherical stellar halos.
ELLIPTICAL(E) IRREGULAR (IRR)
No disk Stars No obvious structure; Irr II
smoothly distributed galaxies often have
through an "explosive" appearance
ellipsoidal volume
ranging from nearly
spherical (E0) to
very flattened (E7)
in shape

SB galaxies have an No obvious

elongated central "bar" of substructure other
stars and gas than a dense
central nucleus
Stellar Disks contain both young and Contain old stars Contain both young and old
content old stars; halos consist of old only stars
stars only
Gas and Disks contain substantial Contain little or no Very abundant in gas and
dust amounts of gas and dust; gas and dust dust
halos contain little of either
Star Ongoing star formation in No significant star Vigorous ongoing star
formation spiral arms formation during the formation
last 10 billion years
Stellar Gas and stars in disk move in Star have random Stars and gas have very
motion circular orbits around the orbits in three irregular orbits
galactic center; halo stars dimensions
have random orbits in three
dimensions
Source: http://www.astronomynook.com/galaxy-types.htm

73
Questions: Galaxies

1.) Define a galaxy.

2.) Compare and contrast open galactic and globular clusters. Location, age and color.

3.) Why is the composition of the interstellar medium important to the theory of stellar
evolution?

4.) Describe the classification system for galaxies.

5.) What is our local group?

6.) Diagram and label the parts of the galaxy.

74
 Local Group

A common astronomical term used is: our local group. Our local group is composed of
neighboring galaxies within 1Mpc of the Milky Way. There are 45 galaxies in our local
group. Three of the 45 galaxies are spiral galaxies (the Milky Way, Andromeda, and
M33). The remainder are dwarf irregulars and dwarf ellipticals. The group is held
together by mutual gravitational attraction into a group called a galaxy cluster.

Hubble’s Law

Do the galaxies and galactic clusters move? Is there motion random? Research at the
turn of the century indicates that their motion is very orderly.

In 1912 V. Slipher, working with P. Lowell discovered that virtually every spiral galaxy
had a red shifted spectrum. The galaxies were moving away from us, or receding from
our galaxy. Except for a few nearby systems, all galaxies were found to be receding.
The recessional velocity of the galaxies versus the distance was plotted on a graph. If
one studies the graph some surprising conclusions emerge. One will notice that as the
distance increases, so does the recessional velocity. This means that the most distant
galaxies are moving away faster than the closest galaxies. There is a direct correlation
between velocity and distance. This diagram is called the Hubble diagram, and from it
one of the pillars of astronomy can be drawn: Hubble’s Law.

Hubble’s Law states that the rate at which a galaxy recedes is directly proportional to its
distance to us. The universal recession described by the Hubble diagram and law is
called the Hubble Flow. The bottom line is that the universe is expanding. Let’s be clear
about the concept of expansion. It is not meant that the quantity of matter is expanding
for the law of conservation of mass prohibits that idea. Instead, it is meant that the
distance between objects in the universe is expanding.

Astronomers distinguish the recessional red shift of the universe from a red shift within
an object, like a galaxy, by referring to the universe’s red shift as the cosmological red
shift. Because Hubble’s Law is based on observational results, it is empirical by nature.
But it does pose some interesting questions about the origin of the universe.

With the concept that recessional velocity and distance are proportional, one has to
wonder what is the constant of proportionality? Or what is the slope of our line. The
constant is referred to as Hubble’s constant, and the equation can be written as follows:
Recessional Velocity = Ho x Distance
Where:

Ho = Hubble’s Constant
recessional velocity = velocity of movement away in km / s
distance = distance in millions of parsecs

Astronomers continue to refine Hubble’s Constant, but the current agreed upon value is
about 65 km/s

75
Questions: Hubble’s Law

1.) Using the formula for Hubble’s constant prove that the slope of the line in Hubble’s
Law is indeed Hubble’s constant.

2.) Hubble’s constant is about 65 km/s. What does this really mean?

3.) Some galaxies in our local group are blue shifted. How can this be if Hubble’s Law is
true?

4.) Given the following galaxies determine their recessional velocity.

Galaxy Distance (million parsecs)

A 3
B 102
C 2 x 10²

5.) Given the following velocities, determine the distance.

Galaxy Velocity (km/sec)

A 130
B 2
C 43

76
 Messier Objects

From the years 1758 to 1782, a French astronomer named Charles Messier made a list of
about 100 objects he observed in the night sky. He did such so that he wouldn’t confuse
these diffuse looking objects for what he was really looking for which were comets. To
be a big dog astronomer in his day was to find a comet.

What Messier ended up compiling was a list of nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies. It
was the first list of deep sky objects and is still in use today, with additions. Today, the
original 110 objects are referred to in astronomy by their number preceded by a capital
M.

Example:
M 31 is the Andromeda Galaxy.

There are images for all Messier objects. If, in your study, you run across an
object, and desire to se what it looks like, it is only a computer search away.

77
 Common Names for Messier Objects
Also note the most recent copy of the list arranged by Messier numbers.

You are invited to supply all additional common names you know for them ! Just contact
me.

Common names for the Messier objects (as well as other deep sky objects) are usually
assigned for either the constellation where the object is situated, or to honor the
discoverer, or to desribe the object's appearance in a way easy to remember; but there are
no rules for assigning common names.

Names used in various sources:

Some of the names often carry the adjective "Great" or something alike; I omit those
forms of names for reasonability.
"Andromeda Galaxy"
M31
"Barbell Nebula"
M76 (also Little Dumbbell Nebula, Butterfly Nebula, or Cork Nebula). Mike
Frazier calles it "Apple Core Nebula".
"Beehive Cluster"
M44 (also Praesepe or Manger)
"Blackeye Galaxy"
M64, also sometimes called the "Sleeping Beauty Galaxy".
"Bode's Galaxy" or "Bode's Nebula"
M81 (Murdin/Allen/Malin 1979)
"Butterfly Cluster"
M6 (`Splendors of the Heavens', Phillips/Steaphenson 1923). According to Jeff
Bondono, also M93 is also sometimes called by this name.
"Butterfly Nebula"
M76 (also Little Dumbbell Nebula, Cork Nebula, or Barbell Nebula). Mike
Frazier calles it "Apple Core Nebula".
"Cetus A"
M77
"Checkmark Nebula"
M17 (also Omega, Swan, Horseshoe, or Lobster Nebula)
"Cigar Galaxy"
M82. Brought to my attention by Tom Polakis.
"Cork Nebula"
M76 (also Little Dumbbell Nebula, Butterfly Nebula, or Barbell Nebula). Mike
Frazier calles it "Apple Core Nebula".
"Crab Nebula"
M1 (Rosse 1844)
"Delle Caustiche"

78
 M24. The Sagittarius Star Cloud. A Milky Way Patch containing the open cluster
NGC 6603
"de Mairan's Nebula"
M43. Part of the Orion Nebula
"Diablo Nebula"
M27, the Dumbbell Nebula. Contributed by Jeff Bondono, also Sky Catalog 2000.
"Double-Headed Shot"
M27, the Dumbbell Nebula. Contributed by Jeff Bondono, also Sky Catalog 2000.
"Dragon Nebula"
Name for a part of the Lagoon Nebula M8 (Sky Catalog 2000).
"Dumbbell Nebula"
M27. Jeff Bondono found that it is also called "Diablo Nebula" or "Double-Head
Shot", J.R. Freeman heard "Apple Core Nebula".
"Dumbbell Nebula, Little"
M76 (also Cork, Butterfly, or Barbell Nebula). Mike Frazier calles it "Apple Core
Nebula". The name "Little Dumbbell Nebula" is most common, e.g. Sky
Catalogue 2000
NB: This object seems to attract names like no other: It has also two NGC
numbers: 650 and 651.
"Eagle Nebula"
IC 4703 associated with the star cluster M16 (also "Star Queen Nebula")
"Hercules Globular Cluster"
M13
"Horseshoe Nebula"
M17 (also Omega, Swan, Lobster, or Checkmark Nebula)
"Hourglass Nebula"
Brightest Part of M8, the Lagoon Nebula
"[St.] Katherine's Wheel"
The beautiful spiral galaxy M99. Referred by this name by Francis Jacob (1895) -
thanks to Bob McGown and Dareth Murray for communicating.
"Lagoon Nebula"
M8. Its center contains "The Hourglass Nebula" (A.D. Thackeray 1956).
"Leo Triplet"
M65, M66 and NGC 3628 form this physical trio
"Little Dumbbell Nebula"
M76 (also Cork, Butterfly, or Barbell Nebula). Mike Frazier calles it "Apple Core
Nebula". The name "Little Dumbbell Nebula" is most common, e.g. Sky
Catalogue 2000
"Lobster Nebula"
M17 (also Omega, Swan, Horseshoe, or Checkmark Nebula); thanks to Steve
Mencinsky for this contribution, a common name for M17 on the Southern
hemisphere.
"Manger" (Praesepe)
M44 (also Beehive Cluster)
"Milky Way Patch"
M24 (also "Delle Caustiche"). Star cloud containing the open cluster NGC 6603
"Omega Nebula"
M17 (also Swan, Horseshoe, Lobster, or Checkmark Nebula)
79
"Orion Nebula"
M42. M43 is also a part of it.
"Owl Nebula"
M97
"Pinwheel Galaxy"
Two, or even three, galaxies (all in Messier's catalog) share this name:
M101. More common [Murdin/Allen/Malin 1979, Sky Catalogue 2000, RASC
Observer's Handbook]
M33, the Triangulum Galaxy [Burnham, RASC]; take "Triangulum Pinwheel" for
distinguishing
M99 [RASC]; take "Coma Pinwheel" or "Virgo Cluster Pinwheel" for
distinguishing, if needed. M99 is also, more properly, referred to as "St.
Katherine's Wheel."
The name is perhaps more common for M101 because it has no other name. The
only major source having this name for M33 is Burnham.
"Pleiades"
M45 (also Subaru or the Seven Sisters)
"Praesepe" (Manger)
M44 (also Beehive Cluster)
"Ptolemy's Cluster"
M7 (Ptolemy mentioned it 138 AD, hf)
"Question Mark" of Lord Rosse
M51 (also The Whirlpool Galaxy)
"Ring Nebula"
M57
"Sagittarius Star Cloud"
M24 (also "Delle Caustiche"). A Milky Way Patch containing open star cluster
NGC 6603.
Satellite Galaxies of M31
M32, M110
"Seven Sisters"
M45 (also Subaru, the Pleiades)
"Sleeping Beauty Galaxy"
M64, also the Blackeye Galaxy.
"Smoking Gun"
Name for the active center of M87 (Virgo A). Nasa/STScI.
"Sombrero Galaxy"
M104
"Southern Pinwheel Galaxy"
M83
"Spindle Galaxy"
M102[?] = NGC 5866 (hf, Sky&Telescope 7/95 p. 51). Name shared with NGC
3115
"Star Queen Nebula"
IC 4703 associated with the star cluster M16 (also "Eagle Nebula")
"Subaru"
M45 (also the Pleiades or Seven Sisters)
"Sunflower galaxy"
80
 M63
"Swan Nebula"
M17 (also Omega, Horseshoe, Lobster, or Checkmark Nebula)
"Trapezium Cluster"
Cluster of young stars in M42, the Orion Nebula
"Triangulum Galaxy"
M33 (also "Pinwheel", that shared with M101)
"Trifid Nebula"
M20
"Virgo A"
M87 in the center of the Virgo cluster. Its active center is called "The Smoking
Gun"
"Whirlpool Galaxy"
M51 (Lord Rosse's "Question Mark")
"Wild Duck Cluster"
M11 (Smyth)
"Winnecke 4" (WNC4)
M40, the Double Star in Ursa Major
"WNC 4" (Winnecke 4)
M40, the Double Star in Ursa Major

Propositions for further names:

Many of these proposed names have been contributed by amateur astronomer Jeff
Bondono -- thanks !
"Apple Core Nebula"
Two nebulae share this name (the Dumbbell and the Little Dumbbell Nebula, or
should we say the "Normal" and Little Dumbbell ? :-) )
M27, the Dumbbell Nebula. Contributed by J.R. Freeman, common in Southern
California.
M76, the Little Dumbbell, Cork or Butterfly Nebula. This is Mike Frazier's name
for it.
NB: This object seems to attract names like no other: It has also two NGC
numbers: 650 and 651.
"Blowdryer Galaxy"
M100. Contributed by Devon J. Moore - because it is pinwheel-shaped and that
it's in Coma, "The Hair Constellation."
"Butterfly Cluster"
M93. Contributed by Jeff Bondono. This name is shared with M6, see above.
"Cat's Eye Galaxy"
M94. Contributed by Devon J. Moore.
"Cooling Tower"
M29. Contributed by Jeff Bondono.
"Heart-Shaped Cluster"
M50. Contributed by Jeff Bondono.
"Maytag Galaxy"

81
 M33; humourous American name for the Triangulum galaxy, as M51, the
Whirlpool galaxy, and M33 are both gorgeous face-on spirals, and "Whirlpool"
and "Maytag" are both washing machines. Contributed by J.R. Freeman.
"Perfect Spiral Galaxy"
M74 (Gemini Press Release 2001-2).
"Pinwheel Cluster"
M36. Contributed by Jeff Bondono.
"Salt-and-Pepper Clusters"
Jeff Bondono has proposed these names for a collection of open clusters, namely
M11, M37, and M52. Originally we had attributed them for terrestrial seasons, so
that they had different names on the Southern and the Northern hemisphere,
respectively. This has caused protest, so that we decided to drop these names now
-- sorry to all who have enjoyed them, but, as Jeff has put it: This list should
contain only generally accepted propositions. But he has now proposed naming
them by month names, and I could imagine to name them after their homing
constellations:
M11 "July Salt-and-Pepper", "Scutum Salt-and-Pepper"
M37 "January Salt-and-Pepper", "Auriga Salt-and-Pepper"
M52 "October Salt-and-Pepper", "Cassiopeia Salt-and-Pepper"
"Spiral Cluster"
M34. Contributed by Jeff Bondono.
"Starfish Cluster"
M38. Contributed by Jeff Bondono.
"Surfboard Galaxy"
M108. Proposition by Scott D. Davis.
"Vacuum Cleaner Galaxy"
M109. Proposed by Devon J. Moore.
• Look at a list of some more Common Names for Deep Sky Objects

Hartmut Frommert
Christine Kronberg
[contact]

Last Modification: July 15, 2006

Source: http://www.seds.org/messier/indexes.html

82
 Constellations

Constellations, historically speaking are groupings of stars that outline an image. The
image was usually that of a character or item told in a story, or myth. Common
constellations associated with mythology are Cancer, Hercules, and Orion only to name a
few. There are 88 recognized constellations from the contributions of many cultures,
dating back to 3000 B.C. The Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Chinese, and
Native Americans all have stories that are told through the stars in the sky.

Some common constellations such as the Big Dipper are not constellations at all. The
Big Dipper is actually part of the constellation Ursa Major (Big Bear). The Big Dipper is
properly referred to as an asterism or grouping of stars.

The Zodiac is a band 18-degrees wide that is centered on the ecliptic. The constellations
that fall into this space number 12 and are called the constellations of the Zodiac, also
called the signs of the Zodiac. Due to astrology, it was thought that these constellations
held sway in the turn of human events. Not so at all.

The Importance of the Constellations

Once humans settled down to farming, it didn’t take long for the farmers to determine
that the seasons needed to be predicted. It was observed, for instance that the
constellation Virgo starts to appear about the same time as spring. The constellation
Orion starts to appear in the fall. Early civilizations, using the constellations, could
predict the seasons. They functioned as a calendar.

Today, we have atomic clocks, but the constellations are still used by astronomers. All of
the sky has been divided up into 88 constellations. The area directly associated, and
around the constellations are said to be “in” the constellation. Therefore, an object can be
located by describing what constellation or area of the sky that it can be found. For
example, the Messier objects numbered 9, 10, 12, 14, 19, 62, and 107 are all in the
constellation Orion, although the figure outlined by the stars of Orion, do not include the
Messier objects mentioned above.

Another example is M31. This is the Andromeda galaxy and is found in the
constellation, or area of Andromeda, but is not a member of the bright celestial objects
that compose the figure of the chained princess awaiting the sea monster.

The stars that make up the constellations proper have been labeled by astronomers past
and present. Some of the stars simply have numbers or letters, while some have common
names. Greek letters are used to denote stars within the constellations, with the brightest
star of the constellation, usually, but not always, receiving the Greek letter alpha.

Let’s look at the hunter Orion. The alpha star of Orion has a common name, Betelgeuse,
which is a red supergiant and is found on Orion’s right shoulder. His left foot is the Beta
star called Rigel, a blue super giant, magnitude of 0.2. The delta star also has a common
name, Mintaka. With a magnitude of 7, it can be found as the top star of the three
composing Orion’s belt.
83
But there are more than stars in the constellation of Orion. In the area that belongs to
Orion, on will find M42, the Orion Nebula and the now famous Horse head Nebula.

Although most of the constellations make their appearances on a seasonal basis there are
a group of constellations which can be seen every night of observation. For those of us in
the northern hemisphere the are: Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, (Big and Little Bear),
Cassiopeia (Queen of Ethiopia), Ceiphus (King of Ethiopia) and Draco (the Dragon).
These stars are said to be circumpolar, which means to circle the pole. These
constellations circle the north celestial pole, marked by Polaris, never going below the
horizon. They move in a counter clockwise direction. Any night, one can see these five
constellations.

Questions: Constellations

1.) What is a constellation?

2.) Why are constellations useful for mapping the sky?

84
 Coordinate Systems

How do astronomers find things in the sky? They use a map, sort of. Actually, it is a
coordinate system. When you are graphing in Algebra class, it is common to say that a
point is located at the coordinates (3,4). Astronomers use the same method, but instead
of having an x and y axis, they use the celestrial sphere and the Sun’s apparent
movement. Let’s look into these ideas.

Although we know that a star’s brightness is a function of its temperature and distance,
let’s assume for a moment that the ancient folks were correct and that the entire sky is a
great sphere circling the Earth. The sphere appears to move from the east to the west.
That is, the stars rise in the east and set in the west. We assume that the stars are in a
sphere, because the Earth is a sphere. Yes, the Earth is the one actually moving, but for a
moment let’s assume it is the sky that moves.

The stars arc, or move across the sky. Because the sky is a sphere, there will be 360
degrees. At any one time you can see 180 degrees of the sky, starting at the eastern
horizon and ending at the western horizon. Each of the 360 degrees of the circle is
divided into 60 minutes of arc. For reference, the Sun and Moon are about 0.5 degrees of
arc, or 30 minutes of arc. Remember that arc is a term for distance, just like miles. The
bowl of the Big Dipper is 30 degrees for Polaris, the north celestial pole (NCP). If you
were to draw an arc from a point directly to the south of you, one would cover 180
degrees of arc with the point directly overhead having 90 degrees of arc.

The stars rotate around the North and South Celestial Poles. These are points directly
above the geographical north and south poles. Imagine that you shoot a line from the
geographical poles of the Earth out to the celestial sphere. They would go through the
north and south celestial poles.

If you are standing at the North Pole sampling Mrs. Clauses’ cookies, where would the
North Star or Polaris be located? The star would be directly over your head, straight up.
Back in Zuni, is Polaris directly overhead? No. It’s still in the north, but not at 90
degrees. It is located about 35 degrees. The number of degrees above the horizon of the
celestial pole is equal to the latitude of the observer. Sailors have known this for 500
years.

Another reference marker is the celestial equator which is an imaginary circle on the
celestial sky etched directly above the Earth’s equator. It is always 90 degrees from the
celestial poles. All the stars travel in a path that is parallel to our imaginary equator. On
the equator of the Earth, the stars appear to rise in the east, travel directly over head, and
set in the west. At the North Pole, the CNP is directly overhead and the stars move along
your horizon.

Let’s go back to Zuni. Assuming you are observing the point directly overhead is called
the zenith. Now, if you find the North point on the horizon and arc a line from it, through
the zenith and to a South point, this line is called the meridian. Meridian: an imaginary
line drawn from due north to due south passing through a point 90 degrees overhead
called the zenith. When an object passing through the meridian, it is at its highest
85
altitude, relative to the horizon during the night, with respect to the horizon. The stars
will make a path with the highest point reached equal to 90 degrees minus the observers
latitude. In Zuni, our latitude is 35 degrees. Therefore, the highest point of the path for
the stars will be 55 degrees above the horizon. The celestial equator will arc up to 55
degrees from the southern horizon in Zuni. The stars will still rise in the east and set in
the west. They will rise in the east, arc up to a point that is 55 degrees above the southern
horizon before setting in the west.

For observers in the northern hemisphere, the stars along the celestial equator will be
observed for 12 hours. Those north of the celestial equator, such as Draco, will be seen
for more than 12 hours and those south of the celestial equator will be seen less than 12
hours.

Summary:

1.) Meridian goes through due north, zenith, and due south.
2.) Zenith is always directly overhead, 90 degrees
3.) The altitude of the celestial pole above the horizon is equal to the latitude of the
observer.
4.) Altitude of the celestial equator on the meridian is equal to 90 – the latitude of the
observer.
5.) Stars move parallel to the celestial equator.
6.) Stars rise in the east, follow the celestial equator’s arc and set in the west.

Right Ascension & Declination

Right Ascension (abbreviated R.A.) and Declination (abbreviated Dec) are a
system of coordinates used by astronomers to keep track of where stars and
galaxies are in the sky. They are similar to the system of "longitude" and "latitude"
used on the Earth.

Declination is measured in degrees, and refers to how far above the imaginary
"celestial equator" an object is (like latitude on the Earth). Try standing in the
middle of a room, and holding your arm out straight in front of you. If you move
your arm up to point at a light, or the ceiling, it is just like going "up" in
Declination. If you move your arm down to point at some objects on the floor,
you're moving "down" in Declination.

Declination, like latitude, is measured as 0 degrees at the equator, +90 degrees at

the North Pole, and -90 degrees at the South Pole.

Right Ascension measures the other part of a star's position. It is similar to

longitude on the Earth. As you stand in the room, if you spin yourself clockwise to
point at a door, then a window, then another door, you are "moving" in Right
Ascension.

86
Right Ascension is measured in hours of time. This is convenient for astronomers
because, as the Earth rotates, stars appear to rise and set just like the Sun. If you go
out into your backyard in the winter, and lie on your back some night, you might
be able to see the constellation of Orion overhead. Orion has a Right Ascension of
5 hours. Out of the corner of your eye, you might also see the constellation Cancer,
which is at a Right Ascension of 8 hours. This means that if you wait 3 hours
(subtract 5 hours from 8 hours), Cancer will be directly overhead.

Just as latitude and longitude uniquely identify the positions of cities on the Earth,
Right Ascension and Declination uniquely identify the position of stars and
galaxies in the sky.

Source: http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/acadmy/universe.html

Seasonality of Constellations

Why do we see certain constellations at certain times of the year? A simple explanation
is that as the Earth travels around the Sun, we are exposed at night to different parts of
the celestial sphere. All of the constellations are still in place but basically speaking, the
sun is between them and us.

But let’s once again pretend that we remain stationary and the Sun moves. The sun rises
in the east, reaches its highest position in the sky at noon, and sets in the west. The sun
appears to drift eastward with respect to the stars over a year. The Sun travels through a
full 360 degrees of the celestial sphere. This path that the Sun takes is called the ecliptic.
The Sun’s path is not parallel to the celestial equator but is actually tilted 23.5 degrees to
the equator. The ecliptic and the celestial equator do intersect at two points called the
vernal equinox and autumnal equinox. At the vernal, or spring, equinox around March
21, the Sun crosses the celestial equator and is moving north. Around September 21, it
crosses the celestial equator again this time heading south. The furthest northern point
above the celestial equator that the Sun reaches is called the summer solstice; June 21st.
In winter the Sun reaches its furthest southern point called the winter solstice, December
21st.

87
 Coordinates

If we observe a star while observing, and say to our friend, “Look at that one”. He might
say, “Which one”? One method of locating this star for your friend is by using the
altitude-azimuth system. The altitude of a star is how many degrees above the horizon
that it can be located. Use from 0 to 90 for the degrees. Next find the azimuth or degrees
read from a compass. Example: East 45-degrees. This system works well as long as
both observers are in the same location. If they aren’t, it doesn’t work well at all. One
can use degrees instead of the word description for azimuth.

North = 0
East = 90
South = 180
West = 270

The second method of finding the stars is equatorial co-ordinate system. This system is
fixed with respect to the stars so the observer’s location is of no importance.

Imagine the celestial globe with longitude and latitude lines drawn, just like the Earth.
The longitude lines on the celestial sphere are called right ascension (RA). Right
ascension is measured not in degrees but hours, minutes, and seconds. The time
increases going eastward. Just like longitude is in Greenwich, England. For RA we have
a zero line also. The zero line is the point where the Sun crosses the celestial equator in
the spring. Close to the constellation of Aries. So this is how it works: Suppose that
Aries is on your local meridian. You start a stopwatch. In 1 hour and 30 minutes, Star A
is now at your local meridian, called transiting or crossing your north-south line, stop the
stopwatch. The time on your stopwatch is Star A’s right ascension. Right ascension is
expressed in a 24-hour format. Example: Star B has a RA of 18 hours 36 minutes. This
means that the star will cross our local meridian. 18 hours and 36 minutes after the zero
line goes through Aries.

Declination are degrees of latitude measured from the celestial equator. North of the
celestial equator are positive, south objects carrying a negative sign. The NCP has a
declination of 89 degrees 15 arc minutes.

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Right Ascension
(Abbreviated as RA, or occasionally as lower-case Greek letter Alpha: α)

Right Ascension is a coordinate on the celestial sphere that is similar to, but not
identical to, longitude on the Earth's surface. Right ascension measures the
positions of celestial objects in an east-west direction, like longitude, but unlike
longitude right ascension is a time-based coordinate.

The other celestial coordinate, Declination, is similar to the terrestrial coordinate

latitude. A diagram of Right Ascension and Declination appears below:

As the Earth rotates on its axis, the celestial sphere appears to revolve around
the Earth, making one complete revolution in one sidereal day (23 hours, 56
minutes, 4 seconds). A sidereal day is thus about 4 minutes shorter than a mean
solar day. This time difference between a sidereal and a solar day is the result of
the Earth moving 1/365th of the way around the sun during this period.

Think of the celestial sphere as a giant plastic ball with the Earth at the center.
The stars are painted on the inside of the plastic ball, along with the lines of the

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celestial coordinates Right Ascension and Declination. The ball does not move
as the Earth turns in the center, but as we here on Earth see it, it looks like the
ball (the celestial sphere) is turning around the Earth. Because the ball is just
sitting there, the things that are painted onto the ball (stars and coordinate lines)
do not move in relation to each other. The whole celestial sphere, stars,
coordinate lines, and everything, appear to us on Earth to move together, making
a complete circle every sidereal day.

Right Ascension is essentially a time measurement. You can think of RA in this

way: Whenever the point on the celestial sphere that we have set as the "start" of
Right Ascension transits our local meridian, start a stopwatch. When the celestial
object of interest (a star, for example) transits our local meridian, stop the
stopwatch. The time on the stopwatch is that object's Right Ascension. Right
Ascension is expressed in units of time on a 24 hour format. A star could have a
RA of 17h 32m , for example. This would mean that the star transited our meridian
17 hours and 32 minutes after the "start" of Right Ascension transited.

Where IS the "start" of Right Ascension? Astronomers needed to pick someplace

on the celestial sphere to start timing for Right Ascension. The most obvious
place is one of the points on the celestial sphere where the two principle celestial
paths, the ecliptic and the celestial equator, cross. There are two such points,
one when the ecliptic moves from south of the celestial equator to north of the
celestial equator (known as the point of the Vernal Equinox) , and one where the
ecliptic moves from north of the celestial equator to south of the celestial equator
(known as the point of the Autumnal Equinox.)

The point chosen was the point of the Vernal Equinox. It is important to
understand that the term "Vernal Equinox" can refer to two different things. In
this situation we mean the point on the celestial sphere where the paths of the
ecliptic and the celestial equator cross near the constellation Aries. (The term
"Vernal Equinox" can also mean the moment in time when the sun is actually
located at that point, but this is not the meaning in this context.)

Astronomers use Sidereal Time to measure the movement of the celestial

sphere. Local sidereal time, that is the sidereal time where we are located, is
equal to the right ascension of any celestial object that is transiting our meridian
at this particular moment.

Avoid a common misunderstanding:

Celestial objects (stars, planets, etc...) have a Right Ascension. They do

NOT have a sidereal time. It does not make sense to say, for example, that the
Moon's sidereal time is 15h 00m. The Moon does not have a sidereal time. The
Moon (or the sun, stars, etc.. does have a Right Ascension.

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Locations on the Earth have a Sidereal Time. They do NOT have a Right
Ascension. It also does not make sense to say, for example, that the Right
Ascension of Raleigh is now 21h 00m. Places do not have a Right Ascension.

Look at the diagram below. Let's say that star 2 has a Right Ascension of 06h
00m. The entire celestial sphere slowly moves from left to right over the course of
the night, so the positions in relation to the horizon and the meridian of all the
stars shown slowly change.

In the diagram, star 2 is just now transiting our local meridian, so our local
sidereal time is 06h 00m.

Star 1 has a right ascension of 05h 00m. Star 1 already transited 1 hour ago.
When star 1 was on our meridian, our sidereal time then was 05h 00m.

Star 3 has a right ascension of 07h 00m. When star 3 transits our local sidereal
time will be 07h 00m. Since our local sidereal time is now 06h 00m, star 3 will
transit in one hour.

So you see that the celestial sphere is like a giant clock keeping sidereal time.

Source: http://www.liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov

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 Sidereal Time

Your sidereal time is the same as the right ascension of the object at your local meridian.
For example, let’s say Star 2 is at your local meridian and its RA is 14hours and 13
minutes. Your sidereal time is 14hours and 13minutes.

Questions: Coordinates

1.) What is an equinox?

2.) What is precission and what causes it?

3.) Why do the Sun, moon, and stars all rise in the east and set in the west?

4.) It is 1:30 am Star A is at your meridian. Its sidereal time is 4hours and 15minutes.
You want to see Star B, which has a sidereal time of 8 hours and 45minutes. When will
Star B be at your local meridian?

5.) Explain 2 ways to describe star location.

6.) What is circumpolar?

7.) Which constellations are circumpolar for Zuni?

8.) What is latitude and longitude? Give Zuni’s latitude and longitude.

9.) What is sidereal time?

10.) What is zenith?

11.) In Zuni, how would you find the celestial equator?

12.) Describe how you would find the CNP anywhere in the northern hemisphere.

13.) Describe the differences in the apparent movement of the stars in Zuni as well as
compared to a location on the equator.

14.) Explain how sailors can determine there coordinates.

15.) Why do we see different constellations at different times of the year? Explain using
the Earth’s rotation around the Sun.

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 Moon

Motion of the Moon

The moon completes one revolution and returns to its starting point on the celestial
sphere in 27.3 days, or one sidereal month. The time it takes the moon to go through its
phases is about 29.5 days or one synodic month. From the word moon, the word month
has evolved. Starting with the new moon which is all but invisible in the sky, the moon
grows, or waxes, to a full moon. After the full moon the visibility decreases, or wanes,
until a new moon is created. See the diagram on moon phases.

As we will be viewing the stars regularly one should know that the best nights to stargaze
are those when the moon reflects the least light. The new moon nights are the best for
stars. But on the full moon nights, we will view the moon. So let’s know about the
moon.
See the enclosed fact sheet for the cold hard facts. We will discuss these.

Surface of the Moon

The first astronomers to look at the moon, including Galileo Galilei, saw dark areas that
they thought were oceans. Light areas were also seen that looked like continents

The dark flat areas thought to be seas have turned out to be large flat lava flows. But the
areas had already been named miras or seas. Today there are 19 named “seas” on the
moon, 14 on the lighted side and 5 on the dark side. They range in size from 200km to
1200km in size.

Called the highlands, the lighter areas of the moon, are several kilometers above the lava
flows. One will also find craters on the moon. Crater is Greek for bowl. Next to the
terminator, the line that separates the light and dark sides an observer can see good detail
of the craters. But due to atmospheric blurring, the best Earth bound telescopes can
resolve details 1km across. Craters come from very small to hundreds of kilometers
across.

Moon rocks have allowed astronomers to learn about the composition and age of the
moon. Highland rocks contain a lot of aluminum. Explains the light color right? The
miria’s basaltic rocks contain iron making it darker. Geologically speaking, the
highlands are the moon’s crust and the marias are made of mantle material. Radioactive
dating puts the age of the moon around 4 billion years.

Rotation of the Moon

The moon has a rotation, it spins; a rotation of 27.3 days which is also equal to the
rotation of the moon around the earth. This results in us never seeing the dark side.
When the spin of one body is precisely equal to its revolution around another body, is
known as a synchronous orbit.

Impacts/Craters
Meteoroids have collided with both the moon and the Earth. The moon is littered with
craters. We have one in Arizona. At speeds of several kilometers per second meteoroids
pack a real punch when they strike the surface. The heat on impact heats the rocks and
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deforms the rocks. Shock waves pass into the planet. An explosion ensues, pushing rock
up and out of the impact point. This material is called the ejecta. As it settles around the
formed rim of the crater it forms a layer of material called the ejecta blanket. As a rule of
thumb, the crater is usually 10 times in diameter relative to the meteoroid that created the
crater. The depth of the crater is also about twice as deep as the meteoroid’s diameter.
With most of the craters being in the highland areas it is suggested that the lava flow
followed the heaviest of the meteoroid bombardment of the moon.

Volcanoes

The moon had volcanoes at one time, but now the volcanoes are geologically
dead. Some craters were formed from the collapsing lava flows. One can observe rilles,
or lava flows, on the moon’s surface. Dating of the lava rocks indicate that volcanic
activity ceased some 3 billion years ago.

Origin of the Moon

Student research project.

Orbit of the Moon

Like most celestial bodies, the moon has an elliptical path. An ellipse is an elongated
circle. The amount of elongation is referred to as eccentricity. The eccentricity of the
Moon is very small but this eccentricity results in the Moon not being equidistant from
the Earth during its orbit. The shortest distance from the Moon to the Earth is called
perigee while the longest distance is the apogee. Given time the orbit of the Moon shifts
so the perigee and apogee are not constants.

The speed of the Moon also changes as Kepler would have predicted. Relative to the
Earth the Moon makes one rotation on its axis every 29.5 days. This is the same amount
of time that it takes the Moon to revolve around the Earth once. The Moon rotated much
faster in the past, but due to the Earth’s gravity, the Moon has slowed. On the equator,
the Earth rotates at 1000 miles per hour while the Moon moves at 10 miles per hour. The
orbital speed of the Moon is faster than the Earth’s. The average speed of the Moon is
2,287mph (3,683 km/hr). Because of the elliptical nature of the orbit when the Moon is
closest to the Earth its velocity is 3,978 km/hr and when furthest away, 3,499 km/hr. If
one is observing the Moon it moves across the sky at a rate of one Moon diameter every
hour. During a day, the Moon covers about 13 degrees across the sky.

The path that the Sun appears to travel across the sky is called the ecliptic. Traditionally,
the signs of the zodiac are located on the ecliptic. Relative to the ecliptic the Moon’s
path is tilted 5 degrees. During a revolution around the Earth, the Moon will sweep out a
path that is 5 degrees above and below the path of the Sun. When the Sun appears high
in the sky, it is summer and the Moon will appear low. When the Sun does not rise high
in the sky, it is winter and the Moon will appear high.

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If one thinks of the Sun and Moon each on a plane of travel, there are two locations
where the planes intersect. These points are called nodes. The plane of the Moon’s orbit
rotates around the Earth. If the nodes fall on the line between the Earth and the Sun, a
new or full moon will produce an eclipse. When the new Moon is between the Earth and
the Sun, a new Moon will produce a solar eclipse.

Phases

A new moon is the start of a lunar month. It is the dark sphere. Light starts to creep
across the surface of the Moon from the right, and when the Moon is half lit, it is called
the first quarter. The light proceeds across the Moon with the passage of days until we
reach the full Moon. Darkness then starts, again on the right side until the right half is
dark. This is the last quarter Moon. Given another week, the Moon is dark again and we
are back to a new Moon. When the Moon is gaining light, it is called waxing. Waning is
when the darkness is increasing from the right hand side.

During these phases, the Moon takes a predictable time and is in a predictable location,
relative to the Moon. If we start with a new Moon, and label that day 0, the first quarter
Moon will appear in 7.4 days. The new Moon rises and sets with the Sun, but by day
seven, is a few hours behind the Sun. At the first quarter, the Moon is above the horizon
half in the day, and half during the night and is 8 to 10 hours behind the Sun.

On day 14.8 when the Moon is now full, the Moon rises at sunset and sets about sunrise.
The Moon is 8 to 10 hours ahead of the Sun. By day 22.1 the Moon is in the last quarter,
spending half of the day above and below the horizon and precedes the Sun by a few
hours.

Although many think of the Moon phases as being constant, the Moon actually has
variations in its phase timing. This can be caused by variations of the Moon’s own
orbital path or gravity created by the interactions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. The
“official” length of a lunation, the time from one new Moon to the next is 29 days 12
hours and 44 minutes, and 2.8 seconds. But this time can vary from a few minutes to
several hours. More confusing, the variation between 2 successive phases should take
7.38 days, but can vary by as much as 19 hours. This means the change in phases can be
anywhere between 6 and 9 days. To our assistance, there are many internet sites that give
accurate time for the Moon.

Moonrise and Moonset

Depending on one’s latitude and longitude, the changes in moonrise and moonset vary on
a daily basis. As a rule of thumb, however, moonrise and moonset occur about one hour
later each day. During the lunar cycle, there are days when the Moon does not rise or set.
This is because the Moon has a 25-hour day. For example: If the Moon set at 11:50pm
on Monday night in 25 hours, the next setting time will be 12:40am Wednesday morning.

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 Size and Brightness

The apparent size of the Moon, for most Earth observers, is about half of a degree.
Sometimes it looks larger. Why? Sometimes the closeness to the horizon allows the
Moon to look larger because we compare nearby objects to the Moon. Sometimes the
angle of viewing, the difference between seeing the Moon horizontally versus vertically
adds size. The largest difference in size, 10%, is because of the elliptical orbit of the
Moon. It is indeed closer.

The difference in brightness of the Moon over a period of time can be explained by the
varying orbital difference and the law of inverse squares. As light comes from a source,
the intensity decreases, with an increase in the distance. To be exact the intensity
decreases as the square of the distance. Example: If you double the distance the
illumination will be 25% of the original.

Halos

When there is moister in the upper atmosphere it is frozen into ice. If the Moon is at a
certain angle the light reflected from the Moon will be refracted at an angle of 22 degrees
creating a halo.

If one is at a certain angle to the moon and the atmosphere contains moisture an image of
the Moon can be generated that will appear next to the Moon. It is called a moondog.

Tilt

As the Moon travels through the night sky it appears to tilt, or change positions relative to
where the crescent might appear. This is caused by the actual orbit of the Moon.

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 MOON DATA
Amherst Web-Urban MOON Atlas
5/15/01

EARTH-MOON COMPARISON

Orbit Mean
Diam. Rotat. Revol. Surf.
Vol. Mass Den. Speed Dist.
mi. days days Gravity
mph mi.

EARTH 7,926 63 83 1 1 365.25 1 66,600 --

MOON 2,260 1 1 0.62 27.3 27.3 0.17 2,280 238,000

NAMES
Aphrodite - F- Greek Hekate - F - Greek Persephone - F - Greek
Apollo - M - Greek Hera - F - Greek Phobe - F - Greek
Artemis - F - Greek Ishtar - F - Babylon Selene - F - Green
Diana - F - Greek Isis - F - Egypt Shing - F - China
Dionysus - M - Greek Juno - F - Rome Somas - M - Greek
Earth-Child - N - 5A Luna - F - Rome Tsuki - N - Japan
Europa - F - Greek Osiris - M - Egypt .
AMERICAN FULL MOON NAMES
Jan Winter, Old, Wolf, Yule . Jul Summer, Thunder, Buck, Hay
Feb Snow, Storm, Hunger . Aug Dog Day, Corn, Grain, Sturgeon
Mar Sap, Fish, Crow, Worm . Sep Harvest, Fruit
Apr Grass, Pink, Egg, Planters . Oct Hunter's, Blood
May Flower, Milk, Hare . Nov Frosty, Beaver
Jun Rose, Strawberry, Honey, Hot . Dec Cold, Long Nite, Christmas, Oak
MOON DATA
Diameter: 2,160 miles; Equitorial - 3,476 km; Polar - 3,470 km
Surface Area: 1,469,00 sq. mi.
Mass: 7,340,000,000,000,000,000 kg.; .01227 Earth
Volume: 5.23 Trillion cubic mi.; .0203 Earth
Density: 3.34 Water; .606 Earth
Surface Gravity: .166 Earth
Esacape Velocity: 1.5 mi./sec., 2.38 km./sec.; Earth: 11.2 km./sec.; 21.3% Earth
Orbit Eccentricity: .0549
Distance: Apogee: 252,948 mi.; Perigee: 221,593 mi.
Apparent Diameter: Perigee 33' 31"; Apogee: 29' 22"
Rotation: Synchronous
Orbital Velocity: Mean: 2,287 mph; Max.: 2,429 mph; Min: 2,153 pmh
Apparent Motion: Approx. 1/2 degree/hr.; 13 degrees/day
Mean Sidereal Period: 27d, 7h, 43m = 27.3217 days
Mean Synodic Period: 29d, 12h, 44m, 2.78s = 29.5306 days
Mean Orbit Inclination - To Ecliptic: 5d 8' 43"
Rotational Axis Inclination - to Orbit: 1d 0' 30"s
Nodes Revolution: 18y, 10d, 8h, 30m
Saros Cycle: 18y, 10d, 7h, 42m
Mean Longitudinal Terminator Motion: 11.49 degrees/day = 216.47 mi. at Eq.
1 Degree Longitude at Equator = 18.84 mi.
% Visible from Earth: 58.9
Limb to Limb Distance = 3,391 mi.
Surface Temp.: Max.: 118 c.; Min: -153 c.

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Albedo: .073
Apparent Magnitude: Full: -12.6; Quarter: -10.2
Coordinate System: 0 in Sinus Medii
Shape: Triaxial Ellipsoid, Flattened at Poles, Bulge towards Earth, Smaller Bulge opposite Earth
Lagrange Points: 5
ORBIT DATA
SIDEREAL MONTH - Time to same R.A. Position; 27.32166 days;
Precession 3.76", Increases 7 sec./yr.
TROPICAL MONTH - Sidereal Month minus Precession; 27.32158 days
SYNODIC MONTH - New-New, Full-Full Phase; Most conspicuous Month,
360 degrees times Sidereal Month divided by Sidereal Year
ANOMALISTIC MONTH - Perigee to Perigee; 27.55455 days
DRACONIC MONTH - Node to Node; 27.2122 days
BARYCENTER - Earth-Moon Mass Center; Revolves around Sun;
Earth Revolves around Barycenter 1/month
Moves 1,196 km./hr. in Earth Mantle; 1/81.3 distance from Earth to Moon
4,727 km. from Earth Center; 1,650 km. below Earth Surface
Earth Center can be 456 km above/below Ecliptic
Barycenter Orbit defines Ecliptic
ECCENTRICITY - .054900 from Barycenter; Varies 5.49% from Average Distance
Barycenter varies from 1,900 (Perigee) to 1,400 (Apogee) km. below Earth Surface
Ellipcity varies - stretched (greater) when Apsides Axis points to Sun
more circular (less) when at right angle to Sun
Perigee closer at Full & New, further at 1st & Last Quarter
Apogee distance varies less than Perigee
Asides Axis Precesses E. (forward) in 2,236.2 days (18y, 10m) about 3 degrees per Orbit.
Apsides: Line through Perigee-Apogee
Apogee about 252,948 mi.; Perigee about 221,593 mi.
INCLINATION - Varies about 5 degrees 8' 43" (5.145 degrees) from Ecliptic
Moon can be 37,000 km. (5.29 degrees) above/below Ecliptic
Max. 29 degrees N. or S. Declination, Varies 59' (.15 degrees) in 173 day period
Moon Can Occult any Star 5.5 degrees from Ecliptic
Nutation Period: Recession Cycle of Inclination; 6,793.5 days (18.6 yrs.)
Recesses W. (back) .053 degrees per day
Node: Point where Moon's Center crosses Ecliptic
Nodal Period: 2.6 hrs less than Sidereal, Node Recesses (W., back) .053 degrees per day
Node Alignment: Axis of Nodes points to Sun each 173.3 days
Line of Nodes Recesses W about 19 degrees per year
Eclipse Season: about 1 or 6 Syzygys (New to Full) have Eclipse,
Usually 4 Eclipses/yr., max of 7
PHASE - SYZYGY = New to Full
Waxing = Growing; Waning = Shrinking;
Crescent = Less than 1/2 Lit; Gibbous = more than 1/2 Lit
Elongation = Angular Distance of Moon from Sun
Phase Angle = Angular Distance of Earth & Sun, measured form Moon
Illuminated Fraction = % of Lit Moon facing Earth = 1/2(1+cos phase angle)
LIBRATION
Longitude - from Elliptical Orbit & Synchronous Rotation
about 6 degrees 17', max. 7 degrees 54'
Rotation nearly constant so at -
1/2 Time from Perigee to Apogee (> 1/2 Orbital Distance) Right (E.) Limb exposed
1/2 Time from Apogee to Perigee (< 1/2 Orbital Distance) Left (W.) Limb exposed
Latitude - Rotational Axis inclined 6 degrees 50' to Orbital Plane
Diurnal - Measured from position on Earth & Earth Rotation E. to W.
Physical - Slight Rotational Irregularity from Triaxial Ellipsoidal Shape

98
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Source: http://www.amastro.org/at/mo/mod.html

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Questions: Moon

1.) Why can’t one observe the stars well on a full Moon night?

2.) Why does the Moon rise 50 minutes later than the day before?

3.) If the Moon revolves, why do we never see the dark side? Please draw a diagram.

4.) What causes a halo around the Moon?

5.) Give some common names for the full moon.

6.) What is a maria and what is it made of?

7.) What is basalt?

8.) Describe bow an eclipse happens.

9.) What are the parts to a crater and how did they get to be what they are?

10.) What is a synodic month?

11.) What would be the length of the synodic month of the Moon’s sidereal orbital period
were:
One week (7 days, solar)

12.) Why doesn’t the Moon have an atmosphere?

13.) How do we know that the highlands are older than the marias?

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 Fundamentals

Kepler’s Laws
1.) The orbital paths of the planets are elliptical, with the Sun at one focus.

2.) An imaginary line connection the Sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas of
the ellipse in equal intervals of time.

3.) The square of a planet’s orbital period is proportional to the cube of its semi-
major axis.

P² (Earth’s years) = a³ (in A.U.)

Where:
P = Orbital Period
a = Orbital Semi-Major Axis Length

Newton’s Laws of Motion

1.) An object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

2.) Force is a function of an objects mass and acceleration.

F = ma

3.) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Gravity
Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Gravitational Force ∞ mass of Object 1 x mass of Object 2/distance²

OR
F = G m1 m2
r²
Where:
G = gravitational constant
6.67 x 10^-11 N m²/kg²

Escape Velocity
V escape = √2GM/r

Where:
G = gravitational constant
M = Mass of planet
r = radius of the planet

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Copernican Principles

1.) The celestial spheres do not have just one common center.
2.) The center of the Earth is not the center of the universe but is instead only the center
of gravity and of the lunar orbit.
3.) All spheres revolve around the Sun.
4.) The stars are further away than the Sun.
5.) The apparent motion of the stars results from the Earth’s rotation.
6.) The Sun’s apparent daily and yearly motion are due to the motions of the Earth.
7.) The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is due to the motion of the Earth.

Momentum
The amount of energy in a moving body.

Linear
p = mv
Where:
p = momentum
m = mass of the object
v = velocity of the object

Angular: The amount of energy in a rotating body

L = mvr
Where:
L = angular momentum
m = mass of the body
v = velocity of the body
r = radius of the body
* Momentum is conserved.

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 Fundamentals

1.) An asteroid has a perihelion of 2AU and an aphelion of 4.0AU. Calculate its orbital
semi-major axis.

2.) Why is the escape velocity independent of an objects mass?

3.) Halley’s Comet has a perihelion of distance of 6.0AU and an orbital period of 76
years. Find the aphelion from the Sun.

4.) The acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface is 9.8m/s². What is the
gravitational acceleration at altitudes of:
a.) 100km
b.) 1000km
c.) 10,000km
Assume Earth’s radius to be 6400km.

5.) Use Newton’s Law of gravity to calculate the force of gravity between you and the
Earth. Convert your answer to pounds with 4.45N = 1 pound

6.) The Moon’s mass is 7.4 x 10^22kg and its radius is 1700km. Calculate the escape
velocity.

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Glossary

Topic: Galaxies

Accretion Disk
A relatively flat, rapidly rotating disk of gas surrounding a black
hole, a newborn star, or any massive object that attracts and
swallows matter. Accretion disks around stars are expected to
contain dust particles and may show evidence of active planet
formation. Beta Pictoris is an example of a star known to have an
accretion disk.

Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN)

A very bright, compact region found at the center of certain
galaxies. The brightness of an active galactic nucleus is thought to
come from an accretion disk around a supermassive black hole. The
black hole devours matter from the accretion disk, and this infall of
matter provides the firepower for quasars, the most luminous type
of active galactic nucleus.

Active Galaxy
A galaxy possessing an active galactic nucleus at its center.

Afterglow
The fading fireball of a gamma-ray burst — a sudden burst of
gamma rays from deep space — that is observable in less energetic
wavelengths, such as X-ray, optical, and radio. After an initial
explosion, an expanding gamma-ray burst slows and sweeps up
surrounding material, generating the afterglow, which is visible for
several weeks or months. The afterglow is usually extremely faint,
making it difficult to locate and study.

Barred Spiral Galaxy

A galaxy with a “bar” of stars and interstellar matter, such as dust
and gas, slicing across its center. The Milky Way is thought to be a
barred spiral galaxy.

Black Hole
A region of space containing a huge amount of mass compacted into
an extremely small volume. A black hole’s gravitational influence is
so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape its grasp. Swirling

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 disks of material — called accretion disks — may surround black
holes, and jets of matter may arise from their vicinity.

Bulge
The spherical structure at the center of a spiral galaxy that is made
up primarily of old stars, gas, and dust. The Milky Way’s bulge is
roughly 15,000 light-years across.

Colliding Galaxies
A galactic “car wreck” in which two galaxies pass close enough to
gravitationally disrupt each other’s shape. The collision rips
streamers of stars from the galaxies, fuels an explosion of star
birth, and can ultimately result in both galaxies merging into one.

Dark Matter
Matter that is too dim to be detected by telescopes. Astronomers
infer its existence by measuring its gravitational influence. Dark
matter makes up most of the total mass of the universe.

Dwarf Galaxy
A relatively small galaxy. The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds,
visible in the Southern Hemisphere, are two dwarf irregular galaxies
that are neighbors of the Milky Way.

Elliptical Galaxy
A galaxy that appears spherical or football-shaped. Elliptical
galaxies are comprised mostly of old stars and contain very little
dust and “cool” gas that can form stars.

Galactic Center
The central hub or nucleus of a galaxy. The Milky Way’s galactic
center is about 28,000 light-years from Earth.

Galactic Disk
A flattened disk of gas and young stars in a galaxy. Some galactic
disks have material concentrated in spiral arms (as in a spiral
galaxy) or bars (as in barred spirals).

108
Galactic Halo
Spherical regions around spiral galaxies that contain dim stars and
globular clusters. The radius of the halo surrounding the Milky Way
extends some 50,000 light-years from the galactic center.

Galactic Nucleus
The central concentration of matter (stars, gas, dust, and perhaps a
black hole) in a galaxy, typically spanning no more than a few light-
years in diameter.

Galactic Plane
The imaginary projection of the Milky Way’s disk on the sky. Most of
the galaxy’s stars and interstellar matter reside in this disk. Objects
in the galaxy are often referred to as being above, below, or in the
galactic plane.

Galaxy
A collection of stars, gas, and dust bound together by gravity. The
smallest galaxies may contain only a few hundred thousand stars,
while the largest galaxies have thousands of billions of stars. The
Milky Way galaxy contains our solar system. Galaxies are classified
or grouped by their shape. Round or oval galaxies are elliptical
galaxies and those showing a pinwheel structure are spiral galaxies.
All others are called irregular because they do not resemble elliptical
or spiral galaxies.

Galaxy Cluster
A collection of dozens to thousands of galaxies bound together by
gravity.

Galaxy Evolution
The study of the birth of galaxies and how they change and develop
over time.

Galaxy Supercluster
A vast collection of galaxy clusters that may contain tens of
thousands of galaxies spanning over a hundred million light-years of
space. Galaxy superclusters are the largest structures in the
universe.

109
Globular Cluster
A collection of hundreds of thousands of old stars held together by
gravity. Globular clusters are usually spherically shaped and are
often found in the halos of galaxies. Each star belonging to a cluster
revolves around the cluster’s common center of mass.

Gravitational Clustering
The process by which a large-scale structure grows as its gravity
attracts smaller building blocks. Astronomers believe that all the
large-scale structures (such as galaxies, galaxy clusters, and galaxy
superclusters) that we see in the universe today formed through
gravitational clustering.

Gravitational Lens
A massive object that magnifies or distorts the light of objects lying
behind it. For example, the powerful gravitational field of a massive
cluster of galaxies can bend the light rays from more distant
galaxies, just as a camera lens bends light to form a picture.

Group of Galaxies
A small collection of galaxies bound together by gravity. The
number of galaxies in a group can range from a few to dozens. The
Milky Way is a member of the Local Group, a collection of more than
30 galaxies.

HDF-N
Hubble Deep Field North (HDF-N) is a tiny region of the northern
sky near the Big Dipper toward which the Hubble Space Telescope
was pointed for ten straight days in 1995. Because this observation
was designed to detect very faint light from the most distant
galaxies Hubble can observe, the field contains few bright celestial
objects. Seemingly devoid of light, this small area provided a
“keyhole” view of the universe’s past, reaching across space and
time to see infant galaxies. By probing these remote regions of
space, astronomers are gaining more information on galaxy
development.

HDF-S
Hubble Deep Field South (HDF-S) is a tiny region of the southern
sky near the Southern Cross toward which the Hubble Space
Telescope was pointed for ten straight days in 1998. Because this
observation was designed to detect very faint light from the most

110
 distant galaxies Hubble can observe, the field contains few bright
celestial objects. Seemingly devoid of light, this small area provided
a “keyhole” view of the universe’s past, reaching across space and
time to see infant galaxies. By probing these remote regions of
space, astronomers are gaining more information on galaxy
development.

Host Galaxy
A galaxy in which a cosmic phenomenon, such as a supernova
explosion or a gamma-ray burst, has occurred.

Interstellar Dust
Small particles of solid matter, similar to smoke, in the space
between stars.

Interstellar Medium (ISM)

The sparse gas and dust located between the stars of a galaxy.

Interstellar Space
The dark regions of space located between the stars.

Irregular Galaxy
A galaxy that appears disorganized and disordered, without a
distinct spiral or elliptical shape. Irregular galaxies are usually rich
in interstellar matter, such as dust and gas. The Large and Small
Magellanic Clouds are examples of nearby irregular galaxies.

Local Group
A small cluster of more than 30 galaxies, including the Andromeda
galaxy, the Magellanic Clouds, and the Milky Way galaxy.

Magellanic Clouds
The Magellanic Clouds are two dwarf irregular galaxies. Known as
the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and the Small Magellanic Cloud
(SMC), the galaxies are in the Local Group. The closer LMC is
168,000 light-years from Earth. Both galaxies can be observed with
the naked eye in the southern night sky.

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Milky Way Galaxy
The Milky Way, a spiral galaxy, is the home of Earth. The Milky Way
contains more than 100 billion stars and has a diameter of 100,000
light-years.

Open Cluster
Also known as a galactic cluster, an open cluster consists of
numerous young stars that formed at the same time within a large
cloud of interstellar dust and gas. Open clusters are located in the
spiral arms or the disks of galaxies. The Pleiades is an example of
an open cluster.

Protogalaxy
Matter that is beginning to come together to form a galaxy. It is the
precursor of a present-day galaxy and is sometimes called a “baby
galaxy.”

Quasar
The brightest type of active galactic nucleus, believed to be
powered by a supermassive black hole. The word “quasar” is
derived from quasi-stellar radio source, because this type of object
was first identified as a kind of radio source. Quasars also are called
quasi-stellar objects (QSOs). Thousands of quasars have been
observed, all at extreme distances from our galaxy.

Seyfert Galaxy
A galaxy characterized by a moderately bright, compact active
galactic nucleus, presumably powered by a black hole.

Singularity
A black hole’s center, where the matter is thought to be infinitely
dense, the volume is infinitely small, and the force of gravity is
infinitely large.

Spiral Arms
A pinwheel structure, composed of dust, gas, and young stars, that
winds its way out from the core of a normal spiral galaxy and from
the ends of the bar in a barred spiral galaxy.

112
Spiral Galaxy
A spiral-shaped system of stars, dust, and gas clouds. A typical
spiral galaxy has a spherical central bulge of older stars surrounded
by a flattened galactic disk that contains a spiral pattern of young,
hot stars, as well as interstellar matter.

Starburst Galaxy
A galaxy undergoing an extremely high rate of star formation.
Starburst galaxies contain massive, deeply embedded stars that are
among the youngest stars observed.

Stellar Black Hole

A black hole formed from the death of a massive star during a
supernova explosion. A stellar black hole, much like a supermassive
black hole, feeds off of nearby material — in this case, the dead
star. As it gains mass, its gravitational field increases.

Supermassive Black Hole

A black hole possessing as much mass as a million or a billion stars.
Supermassive black holes reside in the centers of galaxies and are
the engines that power active galactic nuclei and quasars.

Source: http://hubblesite.org/reference_desk/glossary/galaxies.shtml

113
 Useful Constants
Physical Constants
Gravitational constant G = 6.672(4)*10^-8 cm^3 g^-1 sec^-2
Velocity of light (vacuum) c = 2.99792458*10^10 cm s^-1 (by definition !)
Planck's constant h = 6.62618(4)*10^-27 erg s
hbar = 1.054589(6)*10^-27 erg s
Boltzmann's constant k_B = 1.038066(4)*10^-16 erg K^{-1}
Electron charge e = 4.80324(1)*10^-10 esu
e = 1.602189(5)*10^-19 Coulomb
Proton mass m_p = 1.6726949(9)*10^-24 g
Electron mass m_e = 9.10953(5)*10^-28 g
Stefan-Boltzmann constant sigma = pi^2 k_B^4/(60 hbar^3 c^2)
sigma = 5.6703(7)*10^-5 erg s^-1 cm^-2 K^-4
Thomson cross section sigma_T = 8 pi e^4/(3 m_e^2 c^4)
sigma_T = 6.65245(6)*10^-25 cm^2

Astronomical Constants
Astronomical Unit 1 AU = 1.49597892(1)*10^13 cm

Light-Year 1 ly = 9.4608953536(1)*10^17 cm

Parsec 1 pc = 648,000/pi AU (by definition)

1 pc = 3.08567802(2)*10^18 cm
1 pc = 3.26150740(2) ly

(Siderial) Year (1900) 1 yr = 3.1558149984*10^7 s

Solar Mass M_sun = 1.989(2)*10^33 g

G * M_sun = 1.32712497(1)*10^26 cm^3 s^-2

Solar radius R_sun = 6.9599(7)*10^10 cm

Bolometric Solar Luminosity L_sun = 3.826(8)*10^33 erg s^-1

Escape velocity from Sun v_* = 617.5 km s^-1

Absolute Solar Magnitude M_v = +4.83

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 M_B = +5.48

Earth Mass M_earth = 5.976(4)=10^27 g

Hubble constant H0 = 60..75 km s^-1 Mpc^-1

H0 = 18..23 km s^-1 Mly^-1
H0 = 1.9..2.4 *10^-18 s^-1

Hubble Time H0^-1 = 4.1..5.2*10^17 s

H0^-1 = 13.0..16.3*10^9 yr

Values in parentheses give inacuracy in preceding digit.

Useful approximate relations:

1 km/s ~ 1 pc per million y (1.023)

M_sun/L_sun ~ 0.5 in cgs units (0.52)
1 radian = 206,265" , 1 pc = 206,265 AU (648,000/pi)

References

• James Binney and Scott Tremaine, Galactic Dynamics. 1987 Princeton UP, ISBN
0-691-08445-9. Appendix 1.A.
• Physical Constants from Astrophysical Formulae by Kenneth R. Lang.

115
 Greek alphabet
If the table below does not contain Greek characters,
then you are probably using Netscape 6.1;
earlier versions of Netscape or any version of Internet Explorer
will display the proper characters.

The Greek Alphabet (lower case)

α alpha ι iota ρ rho

β beta κ kappa σ sigma
γ gamma λ lambda τ tau
δ delta μ mu υ upsilon
ε epsilon ν nu ϕ phi
ζ zeta ξ xi χ chi
η eta ο omicron ψ psi
ϑ theta π pi ω omega

116
 Constellations

The tradition of creating shapes from patterns of stars has been around for as long
as mankind. I have included stories and folklore from many different sources.

Constellations have been documented in many different forms, such as pottery,

coins, and other items dating back to 4000 B.C. The Greek poet Aratus of Soli gave a
verse description of 44 constellations in his Phaenomena. The Greek astronomer and
mathematician Ptolemy, in his Almagest, described 48 constellations, of which 47 are
known today by the same name.

At the end of the 16th century the first European explorers of the South Seas
mapped the southern sky, which was largely unknown to the inhabitants of the
northern hemisphere. New constellations were added by a Dutch navigator, Pieter
Dirckz Keyser, who participated in the exploration of the East Indies in 1595.
Subsequently, other southern constellations were added by the German astronomer
Johann Bayer (1572-1625), who published the first extensive star atlas in the
Western world, the Uranometria; by Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius (1611-
1687); and by the French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille (1713-62).

Although many constellations had been mapped out, it wasn't until 1930 that
definitive boundaries were fixed by the International Astronomical Union.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Andromeda AND an DROM a duh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

722 chained lady person

Andromeda was the daughter of Cassiopeia the beautiful Aethiopian queen of the city
of Joppa in Phoenicia. Cepheus, the king, was her father. Andromeda’s mother,
Cassiopeia, was boastful about her natural beauty and especially the beauty of her
daughter Andromeda. One day after boasting that she and Andromeda were more
beautiful than the sea nymphs, Poseidon, god of the sea, decided to punish the
queen for her vanity. He sent a terrible sea monster, Cetus, to destroy Phoenicia.
King Cepheus quickly consulted the Oracle at Ammon, where he was advised that
Poseidon could only be appeased if the sacrificed their daughter Andromeda to
Cetus. So, they chained Andromeda to a rock on a tiny island offshore to await her
death. The hero Perseus, returning from killing the Gorgon Medusa saw Andromeda’s
plight, slew Cetus and rescued Andromeda. The constellations of Cassiopeia,
Cepheus, Andromeda, Perseus, Pegasus and Cetus, represent characters that appear
in the story of Perseus

117
Messier Objects in Andromeda: M-31 M-32 M-110

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Antlia ANT ANT lee uh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

239 air pump object

This constellation of the southern hemisphere was named in modern times; it

contains no bright stars and none with a proper name. Although visible from the
mid-northern hemisphere near the horizon due south of Leo when that constellation
culminates, Antlia’s stars are so faint that stargazers in antiquity didn’t bother to
name them. From 1750 to 1754, French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille (1713-
1762) compiled a catalog of more than 10,000 stars visible from the Cape of Good
Hope; to facilitate his task he mapped out some new constellations. Among these
was Antlia Pneumatica, the Air Pump, which he named in honor of the 17th century
British chemist Robert Boyle, who invented the compressed-air pump. In 1930 when
the International Astronomical Union codified the constellations, the name was
shortened to Antlia.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Apus APS AY pus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

206 bird of paradise animal

This constellation lies less that 20 degrees from the south celestial pole and is
therefore invisible from most northern latitudes. If first appeared on star maps in
1603, in Johann Bayer’s famous Uranometria. Bayer gives credit for its discovery to
several explorers of the Southern Hemisphere, including Amerigo Vespucci.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Aquarius AQR uh QWAR ee us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

980 water bearer person

Aquarius, one of the most ancient constellations in the sky, has been known under
various names over the ages. It is located in a region of the sky that was known
thousands of years ago as "the water" or "the sea". and is near other watery figures
as Cetus, Pisces, Capricornus, Delphinus, Piscis Austrinus, and Eridanus. The
constellation portrays a man or boy spilling water from an urn, although it is difficult
to see any figure in the straggling assortment of mostly faint stars visible in the

118
southern sky in the autumn.
Aquarius was at times identified with Zeus pouring the waters of life down from the
heavens; sometimes the celestial river Eridanus is shown to have its source at the
urn.

Later Aquarius came to be identified with Ganymede, a beautiful young shepherd

who was abducted by Zeus and taken to Mount Olympus to be the cup bearer to the
gods. (The constellation Crater, is sometimes identified as Ganymede’s cup.)
The constellation Aquarius was named by the Sumerians after their god of heaven
An, who pours the waters of immortality upon the earth. Aquarius also figures in a
very old Sumerian myth of a global deluge, thought to be the story that gave rise to
the biblical story of the Flood.
The name of several stars in Aquarius refer to good luck, probably because in ancient
times the constellation’s solstitial rising occurred at the start of the rainy season and
seemed to bring relief to the arid climes of the Middle East.
Aquarius is the first constellation of both the Chinese and the Indian calendars and is
again associated with water.

Messier Objects in Aquarius: M-2 M-72 M-73

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Aquila AQL AK wil uh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

652 eagle animal

The constellation Aquila, identified as a bird since about 1200 B.C., is said to be the
eagle that held the thunderbolts of Zeus, king of the gods, until he needed them.
Aquila was sometimes sent on other errands by Zeus: It was Aquila that kidnapped
the young Ganymede as he tended his flock on the slopes of Mount Ida and brought
him to Olympus to serve as cup bearer to the gods.
The three brightest stars of Aquila figure in Indian mythology as footprints of the god
Vishnu.
In Japanese, Korean, and Chinese mythology the brightest star of Aquila, Altair, is
identified as the herdsman, Ch’ien Niu, keeper of the royal herds. He fell in love with
the maiden Chih Nu (called Tanabata in Japan), whose father was the sun king, the
star we call Vega. Ch’ien Niu and Chih Nu married, but they were so in love that they
neglected their duties, and the sun king banished them to spend their lives on
opposite sides of the celestial river, the Milky Way. The are said to meet once a year,
on the seventh day of the seventh month, when magpies stretch their wings across
the river for one night - but only if the weather is clear. If it rains even the celestial
birds cannot span the flood.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Ara ARA AY ruh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

237 alter object

119
The group of faint stars we now call Ara was once considered part of the
constellations Centaurus and Lupus; it became separated from them when the
modern constellation Norma was interposed. Its original Latin name, Ara Centauri,
reveals this connection: Ara is the altar of the centaur Chiron. Half man and half
horse, Chiron was believed to be the wisest creature on Earth. It was he who first
brought order to the sky by showing mortals how to draw lines between the stars to
form the constellations.
Ara was also sometimes called the Altar of Dionysus. It appears on some old star
maps as a tripod censer or brazier. Its H-like shape does not much resemble an
altar. Early depictions portray it upright, with smoke from the altar rising northward
into the Milky Way.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Aries ARI AIR eez

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

441 ram animal

The Egyptians of the New Kingdom (which began in the 16th century B.C.) identified
this group of stars as a ram, an animal the associated with their principal god, Amon
Ra.
For the ancient Greeks, the group of stars represented the ram from which the
Golden Fleece was taken. According to one myth, King Athamas of Thessaly had two
children, Phrixus and Helle, by his first wife, who died when they were still very
young. Athamas remarried, but, unbeknownst to him, his second wife hated the
children and was cruel to them. The god Hermes took pity on the children and
fashioned a magical ram, with wool of gold, to carry them to a land of safety. When
the ram appeared to the children, the leapt on its back, and the ram flew into the
sky, heading east. Helle lost her grip on the ram and fell into the body of water that
separates Europe from Asia, which the Greeks called the Hellespont ("sea of Helle";
now known as the Dardanelles). Phrixus, though, was carried safely to Colchis, on
the southeastern shore of the Black Sea, where he found refuge with king Aeetes. He
sacrificed the ram and Aeetes hung it in a grove guarded by a sleepless dragon.
There the Golden Fleece remained until it was stolen by Jason and the Argonauts.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Auriga AUR aw RYE guh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

657 charioteer person

Auriga was among the earliest constellations to be named, but its origins are not
known. It is seen as a charioteer, usually identified with either Hephaestus (the
Roman god Vulcan), or his son, Erechtheus, both of whom were lame. Each of these
figures was credited by the Greeks with inventing the chariot to aid in his
transportation.
This group of stars has also long been associated with goat herds. In what may be a

120
shoulder, represented by the very bright star Capella, and with two or three kids on
his arm.
Capella was identified by the Greeks with Amalthea, the goat that nursed the infant
Zeus. While playing with the animal the baby god broke off one of its horns, which
he later imbued with the magical capability of dispensing great quantities of food and
drink to whoever desired them - the cornucopia.
In India, Capella was considered the ’heart of Brahma’, while natives of Peru called it
Colca and also associated it with herders of flocks.

Messier Objects in Auriga: M-36 M-37 M-38

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Bootes BOO bow OH teez

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

907 herdsman person

One legend says the Bootes, whose name comes from the Greek word for "ox-driver"
or "herdsman", was the son of Demeter (Roman: Ceres), the goddess of agriculture.
The constellation of Bootes was once also know as Arcturus. Bootes is credited with
inventing the plow and was placed in the sky to honor his invention, of such
immense importance to civilization.
In another myth, Bootes was the son of Zeus and Callisto. Callisto, transformed into
a bear by Zeus’s jealous wife, Hera, was in danger if being killed by her son Bootes,
who was out hunting, until she was rescued by Zeus, who took her into the heavens.
There Callisto became the constellation of Ursa Major, the Great Bear.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Caelum CAE SEE lum

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

125 chisel object

Caelum was named by the 18th century French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Camelopardalis CAM cuh MEL oh PAR duh lus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

757 giraffe animal

Camelopardalis was named by German astronomer Jakob Bartsch in 1624.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Cancer CNC KAN sir

121
 Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification
506 crab animal

In Greco-Roman mythology Cancer was a crab sent by Hera to distract Hercules

while he was fighting Hydra. Cancer nipped Hercules, who then stepped on Cancer
and killed it. Hera placed the crab in the sky, but because it had failed in its task,
Hera neglected to give Cancer any bright stars to mark the constellation.

Messier Objects in Cancer: M-44 M-67

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Canes Venatici CVN KAY neez VEN at ih see

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

465 hunting dogs animal

Often shown as a pair of greyhounds, these are the hunting dogs of Bootes. They are
in leashed of pursuit of the bears Ursa Major and Ursa Minor .

Messier Objects in Canes Venatici: M-3 M-51 M-63 M-94 M-106

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Canis Major CMA KAY niss MAY jor

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

380 greater dog animal

One of the hunter Orion’s hunting dogs. (Canis Minor being the other.)

Messier Objects in Canis Major: M-41

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Canis Minor CMI KAY niss MY nor

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

182 lesser dog animal

Canis Minor, the little dog, is the companion of Canis Major and is the other hound of
Orion. Some say that Canis Minor is not a hunting dog but merely a pet faithfully
following Orion around the sky.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Capricornus CAP CAP rih COR nus

122
 Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification
414 sea goat animal

Capricornus is one of the oldest constellations in the sky. Depiction’s of a goat, or of

a goat-fish, have been found on Babylonian tablets around 3,000 years old.
According to some ancient myths, Capricornus was the gate of the Gods, the portal
in the sky through which the souls of mortals passed after they died.
Capricornus is also identified with the lusty god Pan, who was known to be flighty.
The story goes that Pan and some other gods were picnicking along the banks of the
Nile. During their feast the monster Typhon came upon them. To escape Typhon the
gods turned themselves into animals and fled. Pan panicked and was unable to
decide what to become. Finally, he leapt feet first into the river. Just as half of him
disappeared into the water, that half became a fish. The half that was above the
water became a goat.

Messier Objects in Capricornus: M-30

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Carina CAR cuh RYE nuh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

494 keel object

Carina was once part of the group of stars known as Argo Navis, the ship that carried
Jason and the Argonauts on their quest for the Golden Fleece.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Cassiopeia CAS CAS ee oh PEE ah

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

598 queen person

Cassiopeia was the beautiful Aethiopian queen of the city of Joppa in Phoenicia.
Cepheus was her king husband. Cassiopeia was boastful about her natural beauty
and especially the beauty of their daughter Andromeda. One day after boasting that
she and Andromeda were more beautiful than the sea nymphs, Poseidon, god of the
sea, decided to punish the queen for her vanity. He sent a terrible sea monster,
Cetus, to destroy Phoenicia. King Cepheus quickly consulted the Oracle at Ammon,
where he was advised that Poseidon could only be appeased if the sacrificed their
daughter Andromeda to Cetus. So, the chained Andromeda to a rock on a tiny island
offshore to await her death. The hero Perseus, returning from killing the Gorgon
Medusa saw Andromeda’s plight, slew Cetus and rescued Andromeda. The
constellations of Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Andromeda, Perseus, Pegasus and Cetus,
represent characters that appear in the story of Perseus.

Messier Objects in Cassiopeia: M-52 M-103

123
 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Centaurus CEN sen TOR us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1060 centaur person

Centaurus is one of two centaurs in the sky, the other being Sagittarius. Centaurus is
said to be Chiron, the smartest and the wisest of his race, wiser even than the gods.
He was skilled in the arts, hunting, and medicine. He was the tutor of such illustrious
humans as Jason, Achilles, Hercules, and Asclepius. According to early Greek myths,
it was Chiron who first fashioned the constellations and showed mankind how to read
the sky. He placed a picture of himself in the sky to guide the Argonauts on their
quest for the Golden Fleece. Chiron, created immortal, was accidentally wounded by
Hercules with an arrow tipped in the venomous blood of the many headed serpent
Hydra. Although he could not die, he was in excruciating pain. He pleaded with the
gods to release him from the torture of immortality and offered a bargain: his own
life for the release of Prometheus, the Titan who had stolen fire from the gods and
given it to mankind. Finally, Zeus agreed and let Chiron die. Zeus wanted to place
Chiron in the heavens to commemorate him, but by this time the whole northern sky
was filled, so Chiron became Centaurus, far to the south and rarely seen in the
northern sky.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Cepheus CEP SEE fee us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

588 king person

Cepheus was the king of an ancient land called Aethiopia. See the story of
Andromeda.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Cetus CET SEE tus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1231 whale animal

The ancient Mesopotamian civilizations identified these stars with Tiamat, the cosmic
dragon slain by the hero Marduk.
In classical mythology Cetus is the sea monster that threatened Andromeda. In
modern times Cetus is portrayed as a whale.

Messier Objects in Cetus: M-77

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

124
 Chamaeleon CHA shuh MAY lee on

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

132 chameleon animal

Chamaeleon was originally sketched out in 1603 by Johann Bayer.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Circinus CIR SIR sin us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

93 drawing compass object

Circinus was designated by the 18th century French astronomy Nicolas-Louis de

Lacaille.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Columba COL co LUM buh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

270 dove animal

Columba is a modern constellation that began appearing in publications in 1679.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Coma Berenices COM CO muh BER uh NI ceez

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

386 hair of Berenice object

About 243 B.C. Ptolemy Euergetes set out on a military expedition against the
Assyrians, who had murdered his sister. Berenice, who was proud if her beautiful
long golden hair, vowed to sacrifice her "amber tresses" if he returned victorious.
When he did, Berenice, cut off her hair, and placed it in the temple of Aphrodite,
goddess of beauty. That night the hair disappeared, enraging the king and the
queen. To save the situation, and the lives of the temple priests, Conon the court
astronomer, announced that Berenice’s gift had received such favor that Aphrodite
had taken the hair and placed it in the sky for all to admire.

Messier Objects in Coma Berenices: M-53 M-64 M-85 M-88 M-91 M-98 M-99
M-100

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Corona Australis CRA cuh ROW nuh aw STRAY lus

125
 Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification
128 southern crown object

Corona Australis was one of the original 48 constellations named by 2nd century
astronomer Ptolemy. It is said to be the crown worn by the centaur Chiron.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Corona Borealis CRB cuh ROW nuh BOR ee AL us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

179 northern crown object

In classical mythology, this constellation is known to be the crown of Ariadne.

Ariadne was the daughter of Minos, king of Crete. Every year Minos levied a tribute
on Athens, requiring that the city-state send home seven each of its most beautiful
maidens and youths to sacrifice to the Minotaur, a creature that was half man and
half bull. The Minotaur lived beneath the palace of Knossos in the infamous
Labyrinth, a maze from which no one could escape. One year Theseus, son of the
King of Athens, was among the youths. When Ariadne saw him she fell in love and
secretly gave him a sword and a ball of string. Theseus unwound the string as he
went into the Labyrinth, slew the Minotaur with the sword, and found his way out
following the sting again. Theseus fled Crete with Ariadne, and on their way to
Athens the couple stopped at the island of Naxos. Mysteriously, Theseus then
abandoned Ariadne, who wept for her lost love. The god Dionysus in human form but
wearing a crown, found her and fell in love with her. She refused to marry him,
saying she was fed up with mortal men. Dionysus told her he was a god, but she did
not believe him, whereupon he took off his crown and flung it into the sky. There its
jewels began to sparkle as stars, forming Corona Borealis, a tribute to Ariadne.
To the Shawnee Indians, Corona Borealis was a circle of star-maidens dancing in the
sky. The circle is not complete because one of the maidens left to go to Earth to live
with a mortal warrior, Algon. She later grew homesick and returned to the sky,
taking along her son. Later still the sky gods agreed to bring Algon into the sky, In
some legends he is thought to be the nearby star Arcturus.
To the Arabs, these stars formed a cracked bowl or platter.
To Australian aboriginals, this constellation was a boomerang.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Corvus CRV COR vus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

184 crow animal

According to myth, one day the god Apollo sent the raven Corvus for a cup of spring
water. Near the spring Corvus spied a green fig, so he sat down and waited until it
ripened. To explain his tardiness Corvus returned to Apollo with the cup (Crater ) of
spring water, and a water serpent, Hydra, in his claws, claiming he had been
attacked by the serpent and thus delayed. Apollo, seeing all, knew the truth and so
banished all three to the sky. Corvus now sits within sight of the cup of water, but he

126
can never drink, because it is guarded by the serpent.
According to another myth Apollo had an affair with Coronis, the daughter of a king.
They had a son, Asclepius, the founder of medical science, who was immortalized in
the sky as the constellation Ophiuchus. Apollo became suspicious that Coronis was
unfaithful to him and sent his spy, Corvus, then of silver plumage, to observe.
Indeed, Corvus reported back, Coronis was having an affair. In a rage, Apollo slew
Coronis, and consigned Corvus to Hades and turned his feathers black.
To the Arabs these stars were a tent.
Mariners sometimes call them "the sail", for they resemble a gaff-rigged sail.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Crater CRT KRAY tair

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

282 goblet object

Crater is the cup carried by Corvus the crow, to Apollo.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Crux CRU KRUKS

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

68 southern cross object

Crux is a modern constellation, and is the smallest constellation in the sky.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Cygnus CYG SIG nus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

804 swan animal

Cygnus the swan, was not always a swan. Greek legend tells a tragic story of
Apollo’s son, Phaeton, who tried to drive Apollo’s chariot across the sky. Apollo
warned him not to drive to close to the Earth lest he set it on fire. Phaeton lost
control of the wild horses, and to spare the Earth a fiery destruction, Zeus threw a
lightning bolt at the young boy, killing him instantly. The horses climbed higher into
the sky, scorching a path that became the Milky Way. Phaeton fell into the river
Eridanus. Cygnus dove repeatedly into the river to try to retrieve the body of his
friend but failed. Zeus was so impressed with Cygnus’ devotion to his Phaeton that
he turned him into a swan, enabling him to dive more easily. Cygnus was eventually
rewarded for his gallantry by a prominent place in the summer skies within the
cloudy path of the Milky Way.

Messier Objects in Cygnus: M-29 M-39

127
 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Delphinus DEL del FEE nus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

189 dolphin animal

One story has it that when Poseidon (Neptune) was courting the mermaid
Amphitrite, he rode on the back of a dolphin. When she agreed to become his wife,
Poseidon placed the dolphin in the sky in gratitude for his help.
Herodotus relates another story, about the Greek poet Arion, who was exceedingly
skilled at playing the harp like kithara. Periander, king of Corinth, sent Arion to Italy
to play in a contest. Arion won the contest, and was richly rewarded, whereupon he
chartered a ship to take him home. The crew, however, hoping to rob Arion of his
treasure, attempted to throw him overboard. Arion asked to be allowed to play one
last tune. He played so beautifully that he attracted a pod of dolphins to the ship,
where upon Arion leapt overboard and landed on the back of one of them, who
carried him home to Corinth. The seamen, thinking him lost, continued on to Corinth.
Arion had arrived first and told Periander of their crime. When the ship arrived,
Periander had the entire crew killed, and Arion’s prize money was returned. The gods
placed a figure of a dolphin in the sky to commemorate the event.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Dorado DOR dor AY doe

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

179 dolphinfish animal

Dorado is a modern constellation first appearing in Johann Bayer’s 1603 star atlas.
Dorado contains the south ecliptic pole.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Draco DRA DRAY coe

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1083 dragon animal

Draco has stood for all the dragons of mythology, from Tiamat of the Sumerians to
the monster slain by Saint George. In all myths the dragon symbolized anarchy and
chaos.
Draco’s origins probably rest with the ancient story of the Babylonian goddess
Tiamat, who found herself challenged by the new gods. She created fearsome
monsters to help her and in fact turned herself into a dragon. The hero Marduk
defeated her by commanding strong winds to blow into the dragon’s mouth splitting
her body. One half of Tiamat then became the sky, the other half became the earth.
From that story the Greeks derived their myth of the battle of the ancient Titans with
the newer gods of Olympus. In the conflict a dragon attacked Athena. She grabbed
the creature and flung it up into the sky, where its body wound around the axis of
the world, the celestial north pole.

128
In another Greek story, Draco was the dragon that watched over the Golden Apples
of the Hesperides, the procurement of which was one of the Twelve Labors of
Hercules.
To the ancient Indians Draco was a crocodile.
To the ancient Egyptians it was a crocodile or a hippopotamus.
The constellation has even been identified with a dragon from the German epic the
Nibelungenlied.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Equuleus EQU ee QWU lee us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

72 little horse animal

This constellation is said to have been named by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus.
It is the second smallest constellation.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Eridanus ERI ih RID un us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1138 celestial river object

These faint stars have ben known as a river since ancient times, and have
represented famous rivers such as the Nile and the Euphrates.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Fornax FOR FOR nax

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

398 furnace object

This constellation was mapped out by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille circa 1750.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Gemini GEM JEM in ee

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

514 twins person

In classical mythology, these stars represent the twins Castor and Pollux, who were
hatched from an egg borne by Leda after she was seduced by Zeus in the guise of a
swan. Their sister was Helen of Troy.
In ancient Rome Castor and Pollux were sometimes confused with Romulus and
Remus, legendary founders of Rome.
The twins were raised by the wise centaur Chiron, represented by the constellation

129
Centaurus, and later joined Jason, also brought up by Chiron, when he set out on the
Argo in search of the Golden Fleece. In commemoration of their helping to calm a
terrible storm during the voyage, Castor and Pollux are sometimes considered the
patrons of mariners.
In China the two stars we call Castor and Pollux are associated with yin and yang,
the dual forces of nature.

Messier Objects in Gemini: M-35

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Grus GRU groose

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

366 crane animal

This is a modern constellation mapped out by Johann Bayer in 1603.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Hercules HER HER cue LEES

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1225 Hercules person

In Greco-Roman mythology, Hercules is the half mortal son of Jupiter (Zeus) and the
princess Alcmene. Jupiter’s ever jealous wife Juno (Hera) sent serpents to kill the
baby Hercules in his crib. The child, with astonishing strength, managed to strangle
them, and grew up to become the strongest of men.
Thanks to the scheming of his hateful stepmother, Juno, Hercules became
indentured to King Eurystheus. To gain his freedom he had to perform the famous
Twelve Labors, the first of which was to kill the Nemean Lion, a fierce creature of
impenetrable hide who had fallen from the Moon and was laying waste to the valley
of Nemea. Hercules succeeded in strangling the beast, whereupon Jupiter place the
lion in the sky as the constellation Leo. Hercules’ next task was to kill the many
headed monster, the Hydra, which also became a constellation. Among his other
challenges was subduing the Cretan Minotaur, who some say is the origin of the
constellation Taurus. After his release from servitude the tireless Hercules
accomplished many other noble deeds. One myth credits him with killing the eagle
that devoured the liver of the Titan Prometheus who had stolen fire from the gods
and given it to humankind.
Later Hercules later won the hand of the beautiful maiden Deianeira. One day she
was kidnapped by the centaur Nessus, but Hercules, hearing her cries, shot the
centaur with an arrow. Dying, Nessus gave Deianeira a drop of his blood, telling her,
untruthfully, that a touch of it would restore Hercules’ love if his affections ever
strayed. Later, thinking her husband was losing interest in her, Deianeira put the
drop on his tunic. When Hercules donned the garment, the blood burned into his
skin, causing him terrible torment. Seeing what she had done, Deianeira hanged
herself, and Hercules, in anguish, incinerated himself. His father, Jupiter, then placed
him in the sky.

130
Messier Objects in Hercules: M-13 M-92

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Horologium HOR HOR oh LOW gee um

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

249 clock object

Horologium is a southern constellation mapped out by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille circa

1750.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Hydra HYA HY druh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1303 sea serpent animal

Hydra was a many headed monster slain by Hercules as one of the Herculean tasks.
This was not an easy task since each time Hercules cut off a head of the Hydra, two
more heads grew in the severed head’s place. As a solution to this problem, Hercules
used a torch to cauterize each stump after he cut off that head. One head was
immortal, so when Hercules cut that one off, he placed it under a huge stone where
it could do no harm. After the battle, Jupiter (Zeus) placed the Hydra in the sky.
Hydra is the largest constellation in the sky.

Messier Objects in Hydra: M-48 M-68 M-83

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Hydrus HYI HY drus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

243 water snake animal

Hydrus is a modern constellation created by Johann Bayer and published in his 1603
atlas.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Indus IND IN dus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

294 Indian person

131
atlas.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Lacerta LAC luh SIR tuh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

201 lizard animal

Lacerta is a modern constellation created by Johannes Hevelius circa 1687.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Leo LEO LEE oh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

947 lion animal

The Greeks claimed that the figure was the mythological Nemean Lion, which fell
from the moon in the form of a meteor. The lion ravaged the countryside around
Corinth until it was slain by Hercules .

Messier Objects in Leo: M-65 M-66 M-95 M-96 M-105

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Leo Minor LMI LEE oh MY nor

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

232 lesser lion animal

Leo Minor was named by Johannes Hevelius about the year 1687.
It is thought that these stars represented a gazelle to the ancient Arabs.
In Chinese lore they were somtimes combined with the stars of Leo to make a huge
celestial dragon and, in another depiction, a chariot.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Lepus LEP LEE pus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

290 hare animal

Lepus, the hare, is hiding in the grass at the feet of the great hunter Orion, as he
pursues Taurus across the sky.

Messier Objects in Lepus: M-79

132
 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Libra LIB LEE bruh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

538 scales object

Originally part of the constellation of Scorpius, this constellation was recognized as

the scales by the Romans. The two brightest stars in this constellation have names
that reflect this constellations as part of Scorpius : Alpha Libra is Zubenelgenubi, is
Arabic for Southern Claw; and Beta Libra is Zubeneschamali, which is Arabic for
Norther Claw.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Lupus LUP LU pus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

334 wolf animal

Lupus is a constellation that, though known to the ancients, is faint and has no
named stars. For centuries it was known as Therion, a wild animal of know specific
kind. Some thought it was a wineskin held by Centaurus, which it adjoins.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Lynx LYN links

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

545 lynx animal

This consellation was created by Johannes Hevelius around 1687.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Lyra LYR LIE ruh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

286 lyre object

Very long ago, the first civilizations of the Middle East and India saw these stars as a
vulture. Vega, the brightest star in Lyra was know as the Vulture Star. Even though
the Greeks saw a harp here, depictions of Lyra even centuries later often showed the
harp held in the claws of a vulture.

Messier Objects in Lyra: M-56 M-57

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

133
 Mensa MEN MEN suh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

153 table object

This small constellation was formed by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Microscopium MIC MY kro SCO pee um

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

210 microscope object

This constellation was formed by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille around 1750.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Monoceros MON muh NOS er us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

482 unicorn animal

The constellation is a modern constellation formed by Jakob Bartsch around 1624.

Messier Objects in Monoceros: M-50

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Musca MUS MUS cuh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

138 fly insect

This constellation was orginally named Apis, the Bee, by Johann Bayer in his 1603
atlas of stars. Later Edmond Halley called it Musca Apis, the Fly Bee, and still later
Nicolas-Louis dl Lacaille named it Musca Australis, the Southern Fly. This last name
was to distinguish it from the northern fly, depicted on the back of Aries, the Ram.
Since the norther fly is no longer recognized as a constellation, the southern fly in
now known as Musca, the fly.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Norma NOR NOR muh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

165 level object

This constellation was created by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille.

134
 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Octans OCT OCK tans

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

291 octant object

This constellation was created by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille around 1752.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Ophiuchus OPH OH fee U kus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

948 serpent handler person

Ophiuchus is usually identified as Asclepius, a legendary physician known as the god

of medicine. Asclepius was the son of Apollo and Coronis and was educated by
Chiron (Centaurus ). It is said that Hippocrates, the famous Greek physician and the
father of medicine was his 15th grandson. According to legend, of day Asclepius
killed a snake, but to his surprise another snake arrived and revived its companion
with herbs. As his medical skills grew, Asclepius even learned how to revive the
dead. This knowledge worried Hades, god of the underworld, who feared that his
domain would not receive any new souls. Hades persuaded his brother Zeus to kill
Asclepius with a thunderbolt and to decree that all mortals must one day die. Zeus
did strike Asclepius dead, but to honor his skills as a healer Zeus placed Asclepius in
the sky with his serpents.

Messier Objects in Ophiuchus: M-9 M-10 M-12 M-14 M-19 M-62 M-107

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Orion ORI oh RYE on

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

594 hunter person

In Greco-Roman mythology, the character Orion was a famed hunter, but he was
boastful and went so far as to claim that no beast could kill him. To teach Orion a
lesson, the goddess Hera sent a tiny scorpion to sting him. Orion smashed the
scorpion with his club but not before it had stung him fatally. Orion and the scorpion
were placed in the heavens on opposite sides of the sky. When Scorpius rises, Orion
sets, and vice versa; these enemies are never seen together in the sky.
In another legend Orion, the son of Poseidon, was said to have been a great hunter.
Artemis, goddess of the Moon and the hunt, fell in love with him and neglected her
duties of lighting the night sky. Her fellow gods and goddesses pleaded with her to
no avail. One day her twin brother, Apollo, the sun god, saw Orion bathing in the
seas far out from shore. Apollo shined the light of the sun so brightly that Orion
became just a dark blur among the brilliantly sparkling waves. Apollo then called his
sister and challenged her to hit the black shape so far from shore with here arrow. In

135
pride and anger Artemis shot her arrow, striking the object directly. When Orion’s
body later washed ashore, Artemis realized what she had done. In grief she took his
body and placed it in the sky, together with his hunting dogs, and marked it with
bright stars. Having slain her lover, she was inconsolable and lost all interest in life;
and that is why, ever since, the Moon has been cold and lifeless. Orion, however,
quite quickly recovered and to this day he chases the Pleiades - seven lovely nymphs
found in the constellation Taurus - around the sky, just as he had chased them on
Earth.

Messier Objects in Orion: M-42 M-43 M-78

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Pavo PAV PAY voh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

378 peacock animal

This is one of the constellations published in Johann Bayer’s 1603 atlas.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Pegasus PEG PEG uh sus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1121 flying horse animal

When Perseus pursued and slew the Medusa, Pegasus was created by the blood of
Medusa’s severed head mixed with the foam and sand of the sea.

Messier Objects in Pegasus: M-15

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Perseus PER PER see us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

615 Perseus person

In Greek myth, Perseus was the son of Zeus and the mortal Danae. Danae’s father,
having been told by an oracle that his grandson would on day kill him, set Danae and
Perseus adrift in a trunk. They were rescued by a fisherman and went to live on his
island. The king of that island, Polydectes, wished to court Danae, and to get Perseus
out of the way he sent the youth to slay the Gorgons, three sisters so ugly that any
mortal who beheld them turned to stone. The night before his departure, Minerva
appeared to Perseus in a dream and gave him a shiny magic shield upon which he
could look at Medusa’s reflection without being harmed. She also gave him a magic
sword with which to sever the neck of Medusa. A man made sword would not do the
job. Then Mercury appeared and gave Perseus winged sandals so that he could fly
across the ocean to the island where the Gorgon lived in a cave. During his quest,

136
Perseus found the three nymphs of the North, who gave him a magic helmet that
would make him invisible and a magic pouch into which to place the severed head.
Armed with the magic of the gods, Perseus found the island of the Gorgon Medusa.
Her cave was guarded by two sisters who never slept. Perseus donned his helmet
and crept quickly past them. Medusa lay asleep on the floor of the cave. Perseus
raised his shield high and, watching her reflection in the dim light, he backed up to
her. Then, with on mighty blow of the sword, he severed the head of Medusa. He
picked up the head and placed it in the pouch. As he left the cave and walked down
to the shore, a trail of blood was left behind. From Medusa’s spilled blood, Pegasus
was born. Perseus mounted the winged horse and headed back to Greece. Fleeing
the other Gorgons, Perseus came upon King Atlas, who refused him aid. Glancing at
the head of Medusa, Atlas turned into a mountain of stone and thereafter had to
bear the weight of the heavens on his shoulders. Continuing his flight, Perseus came
upon the princess Andromeda, the chained maiden, and rescued her from Cetus, the
sea monster. Later in his life, Perseus, throwing the discus in an athletic contest,
struck and killed a spectator. That unfortunate being turned out to be his
grandfather, and the prophecy that he would be killed by his grandson was fulfilled,
in spite of all the old man’s efforts.

Messier Objects in Perseus: M-34 M-76

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Phoenix PHE FEE nix

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

469 Phoenix animal

Phoenix first appeared in the 1603 star atlas of Johann Bayer.

The Arabs had called this region along the river Eridanus Al Zaurak, the Boat, and
also Al Rial, the Young Ostriches.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Pictor PIC PIK tor

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

247 painter person

This constellation was formed in the 1750s by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Pisces PSC PIE ceez

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

889 fishes animal

The Greeks and Romans recognized two fish in these stars. They were said to be

137
stream, turned into fish, and swam away to safety. They tied their tails together so
they wouldn’t be separated.

Messier Objects in Pisces: M-74

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Piscis Austrinus PSA PIE sys aw STREE nus

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

245 southern fish animal

The constellation Piscis Austrinis has been known since classical Greek and Roman
times but probably goes back even further, to an ancient Syrian constellation
representing the god Dagon. It has occasionally been shown as two fish, but it is
more commonly seen as a single fish, sometimes drinking from a stream of water
poured from the jar held by Aquarius .

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Puppis PUP PUP iss

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

673 stern object

These stars form the stern of poop deck of the great celestial ship Argo. South of
Puppis is Carina, the Keel, and just to the east are Pyxis, the Compass, and Vela, the
Sail.

Messier Objects in Puppis: M-46 M-47 M-93

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Pyxis PYX PIK sis

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

221 compass object

Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille formed this small constellation from stars that had been
part of the ship Argo.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Reticulum RET ruh TIK u lum

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

114 net object

This constellation was formed by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille about 1752.

138
 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Sagitta SGE suh JIT uh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

80 arrow object

Sagitta has been identified with just about every famous arrow in mythology. It has
been said to be the arrow that killed the eagle of Zeus, the arrow shot by Hercules at
the Stymphalian Birds, and the one with which Apollo slew the Cyclops. It has also
been said to represent Cupid’s arrow. Sagitta is the third smallest constellation.

Messier Objects in Sagitta: M-71

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Sagittarius SGR SAJ ih TAR ee us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

867 archer person

This is a large constellation that was probably first associated with Nergal, the arrow
shooting god of war, by Sumerian peoples of the Euphrates Valley. It was known by
the Greeks as the archer, and later came to be identified as a satyr, or centaur.

Messier Objects in Sagittarius: M-8 M-17 M-18 M-20 M-21 M-22 M-23 M-24
M-25 M-28 M-54 M-55 M-69 M-70 M-75

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Scorpius SCO SKOR pee us

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

497 scorpion insect

This constellation is supposed to be the tiny scorpion that killed Orion with its sting
and was placed in the sky to memorialize the event.

Messier Objects in Scorpius: M-4 M-6 M-7 M-80

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Sculptor SCL SCULPT tor

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

475 sculptor person

This modern constellation was formed by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille.

139
 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Scutum SCT SKU tum

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

109 shield object

This modern constellation was created by Johannes Hevelius in 1690, in honor of

King John III Sobieski of Poland, and was supposed to represent his coat of arms.

Messier Objects in Scutum: M-11 M-26

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Serpens SER SIR pens

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

637 snake animal

Serpens is the only constellation that is in two separate parts. Serpens Caput (Head
of the Snake) is 429 square degrees. Serpens Cauda (Tail of the Snake) is 208
square degrees. The two parts of this constellation are separated by Ophiuchus .

Messier Objects in Serpens: M-5 M-16

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Sextans SEX SEX tans

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

314 sextant object

This constellation does not represent a mariner’s sextant, but the larger astronomical
sextant used by Johannes Hevelius to compile one of the first accurate star maps.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Taurus TAU TAW russ

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

797 bull animal

Greek legend has it that this group of stars is Zeus in the disguise of a white bull
with golden horns; in this form he seduced and abducted the beautiful Europa. When
Europa seated herself on the bull’s back, he swam away with her to Crete, which is
why we see only the animal’s forequarters in the constellation.
Taurus is also thought to be charging Orion the hunter, who lies to the east.

Messier Objects in Taurus: M-1 M-45

140
 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Telescopium TEL tel uh SCO pee um

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

252 telescope object

A modern constellation formed by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Triangulum TRI tri AN gue lum

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

132 triangle object

This group of stars has been recognized since classical times. The Romans know this
constellation as Deltotum. It was in this consetellation that Giuseppe Piazzi, on
January 1, 1801, discovered the first asteroid.

Messier Objects in Triangulum: M-33

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Triangulum Australe TRA tri AN gue lum aw STRAY lee

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

110 southern triangle object

A modern constellation formed by Johann Bayer in his 1603 star atlas.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Tucana TUC too CAY nuh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

295 toucan animal

A modern constellation formed by Johann Bayer in his 1603 star atlas.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Ursa Major UMA OOR suh MAY jor

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1280 great bear animal

Our best known legend about Ursa Major comes from Greek mythology. According to
this legend, the king of the gods, Zeus, fell in love with a beautiful woman named

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Callisto. When Zeus’ wife Hera learned of the affair, she changed Callisto into a bear.
This bear roamed the forest until one day she happened upon a young and
handsome hunter whom she recognized as her own son, Arcas. Callisto raised up on
her hind legs to embrace her child, but Arcas saw only a bear and raised his spear.
In the nick of time, Zeus intervened, changing Arcas into a bear. Then he grasped
Callisto and her son by their tails and flung them into the sky, to become our
constellations of the large and small bears. This explains why the celestial bears
have such long tails, in contrast to their earthly counterparts.
Some North American Indian tribes saw things differently. They also pictured bears
in Ursa Major, and the nearby constellation Ursa Minor, as evidenced by the names
frequently used to describe them, Okuri and Paukuawa - both meaning "bear".
But in Iroquois mythology, all bears once had long tails. The earthly bear lost its tail
attempting to show it off, using the tail to fish through a hole in an iced over lake.
The bear’s tail froze and fell off, and now all Earthbound bears mimic this ancient
bear with its stumpy tail.
A Blackfoot Indian legend tells of an elder daughter of a large family. The daughter
fell in love with a grizzly bear. Her father was furious and ordered her brothers to kill
the bear. But this was a magical bear, and before the bear died he gave some of his
magic to his bride. She then turned herself into a grizzly bear, and in retaliation she
destroyed her entire village, killing her mother and father. She began chasing her
eight brothers and sisters, but one brother had magic of his own. He shot an arrow
into the sky, and instantly all eight children followed it to become stars. The seven
oldest children became the seven stars forming the Big Dipper. The youngest child
was frightened, and she can be seen as the dim star Alcor, huddling close to the star
Mizar.

Messier Objects in Ursa Major: M-40 M-81 M-82 M-97 M-101 M-102 M-108 M-
109

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Ursa Minor UMI OOR suh MY nor

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

256 lesser bear animal

Ursa Minor was not recognized as a constellation until about 600 B. C., when it was
decribed by the Greek astronomer Thales.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Vela VEL VEE luh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

500 sails object

Vela represents the sail of the ship Argo (Argo Navis), the huge ancient southern
constellation that was divided into several smaller constellations by Nicolas-Louis de
Lacaille in the 1750s.

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 Name Abbreviation Pronunciation
Virgo VIR VUR go

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

1294 maiden person

Virgo is the only female figure amoung the constellations of the zodiac. It is also one
of the oldest constellations and has assumed the identity of just about every
important female deit since history has been recorded. In particular, Virgo has been
identified with goddesses of fertility, of agriculture, and of the earth. Virgo is the
second largest constellation in the sky.

Messier Objects in Virgo: M-49 M-58 M-59 M-60 M-61 M-84 M-86 M-87 M-89
M-90 M-104

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Volans VOL VO lans

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

141 flying fish animal

A modern constellation formed by Johann Bayer in his 1603 star atlas.

Name Abbreviation Pronunciation

Vulpecula VUL vul PEK u luh

Size (Degrees ²) Meaning Classification

278 fox animal

Vulpecula is a modern constellation formed in 1690 by Johannes Hevelius.

Messier Objects in Vulpecula: M-27

Source: http://www.seds.org/messie/m-names.html

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