Professional Documents
Culture Documents
4 – 2011
G E O S C I E N C E & T E C H N O LO G Y E X P L A I N E D
geoexpro.com
EXPLORATION
The East African Rift System
GeoTourism: Ngorongoro
– A View from Space
TECHNOLOGY
Beyond Macondo
GEOPHYSICS
Has the Era of Cableless Seismic Surveys Arrived?
GEOLOGY GEOPHYSICS RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT
Searching for Modern 3D Data?
15°W 10°W 5°W 0° 5°E 10°E 15°E 20°E 25°E 30°E
www.tgsnopec.com
Previous issues: www.geoexpro.com
Wireless Seismic
G E O S C I E N C E & T E C H N O LO G Y E X P L A I N E D
CONTENTS 42
This edition of GEO ExPro Magazine focuses
on Africa, Geophysics and New Technologies ‘Juggies’ laying cables for a land geophysical survey – but is the age of
seismic upon us?
COLUMNS
5 Editorial FEATURES
6 Update
20 Cover story: East African Rift System
14 Market Update – A View from Space
16 A Minute to Read 26 Technology: Beyond Macondo
48 GEO ExPro Profile: Scott Tinker 30 Exploration: South Atlantic Palaeolandscapes
64 Recent Advances in Technology: 36 SEISMIC FOLDOUT 1: Ghana/Sierra Leone
Seismic Surveys and Fish (1) Lookalike Plays in Northern Brazil
80 GeoTourism: Ngorongoro – A Truly 42 Geophysics: Seismic Survey Without Cables
Magical Place
52 Technology: Unlocking the Secrets of the
92 Geocities: Lagos Barents Sea
94 Exploration Update 58 SEISMIC FOLDOUT 2: Offshore Florida
96 Geomedia: New Digital Africa Maps Regional Perspective
98 Q&A: Do We Need Another Seismic Company? 70 Geophysical Techniques: Listening From a Distance
100 Hot Spot: Kwanza Basin Presalt 76 Exploration: Exploring the Icelandic Frontiers
102 Global Resource Management 86 The Standard Oil Story, Part 3: The Rise, Fall and
Rise of the Standard Oil Company
76 Iceland is known for hot 90 Technology: Nano Technology – Mighty Thoughts
springs and volcanoes, of Small
but its deep water may
hold surprises.
Brynjar Gunnarsson
52
76
86
94
58
5
94 8
96
20
102 36 92
80
36
30 30
94 100
Deliver confident
Petrel and Measurable Impact are marks of Schlumberger. © 2011 Schlumberger. 11-IS-0299
prospect selections
www.slb.com/petrel2011
As this edition of GEO ExPro Magazine bears out, some of the www.geoexpro.com
Tullow Oil
most exciting areas in the oil and gas industry at the moment
are in Africa; and not the traditionally ‘oily’ places, like the Niger GeoPublishing Ltd
Delta, equatorial West Africa or the Libyan Desert, but previously 15 Palace Place Mansion
disregarded regions like the West African Transform Margin, presalt Kensington Court
London W8 5BB, U.K.
Angola and the East African Rift Valley – the latter featuring on our
+44 20 7937 2224
dramatic front cover. Since the discovery of the Jubilee Field in
2007 in the relatively unexplored deep waters off Ghana, estimates Managing Director
of the resources held by that country and its neighbours in the Gulf Tore Karlsson
of Guinea have increased several fold to over 11 Bboe.
So what will the discovery of such riches mean to the Editor in Chief
impoverished people of Western Africa, many of whom still live on Jane Whaley
less than a dollar a day? In oil rich Nigeria, it is estimated that 80% jane.whaley@geoexpro.com
of revenues from oil and gas benefit a mere 1% of the population.
Contributing Editors
And in Luanda, the capitol of Angola, a country which exports
Thomas Smith
over a million barrels of oil a day, 90% of residents do not have Thomas.smith@geoexpro.com
running water. Millions of dollars of oil revenues earmarked for
infrastructure, schools and healthcare in many countries appear to Installation of the Kwame Nkrumah FPSO Halfdan Carstens
end up in the pockets of private individuals. Why is it that resource on the Jubilee Field in Ghana in 2010 halfdan@geo365.no
rich economies seem unable to transform this natural good fortune
into savings that will benefit all their people? And can we as an industry do anything about it? Rasoul Sorkhabi
rsorkhabi@egi.utah.edu
Recently, Nigeria has been looking to restructure its oil industry through an Oil Reform Bill in an effort to
enforce sustainability, transparency and greater control over resources, but both external and internal pressure
Paul Wood
make it unlikely that it will be effectively implemented, or even passed. The Extractive Industries Transparency sciwrite@btinternet.com
Initiative (EITI) was formed in 2002 with the aim of setting a global standard for transparency in oil, gas and
mining through the coalition of governments, companies and civil society – an effort to make natural resources Editorial enquiries
benefit all and a standard for companies to publish what they pay and for governments to disclose what they GeoPublishing
receive. Many oil companies and at least 35 resource rich countries throughout the world have signed up to Jane Whaley
this, which must be a step in the right direction. +44 7812 137161
jane.whaley@geoexpro.com
Will African countries newly emerging into the family of oil producing nations learn from their predecessors
www.geoexpro.com
and allow the discovery of oil be a catalyst for sustainable development and growth? We must hope so – but
only time will tell. Marketing Manager
Kirsti Karlsson
JANE WHALEY +44 79 0991 5513
Editor in Chief kirsti.karlsson@geoexpro.com
Subscription
GeoPublishing Ltd
+44 20 7937 2224
15 Palace Place Mansion
Kensington Court
London W8 5BB, U.K.
kirsti.karlsson@geoexpro.com
VOL. 8, NO. 4 – 2011
geoexpro.com
GEOSCIEN
CE & TECH
N O LO GY E XPLA
INED GEO EXPro is published bimonthly
EXPLORATIO
N
for a base subscription rate of GBP
The East Africa 60 a year (6 issues).
n
– A View from Rift System
EAST AFRICA FROM SPACE Space GeoTourism:
Ngorongoro We encourage readers to alert us
Perspective view of the Afar Depression, located at the northern limit of the to news for possible publication
East African Rift System, generated from the 90m resolution Shuttle Radar and to submit articles for
Topography Mission (SRTM) elevation model. Pale green colours represent publication.
low elevation areas, with white representing high elevation areas. Remote
sensing is increasingly being used by new ventures teams in oil companies Cover Illustrations:
to aid geological understanding and to help efficiently target hydrocarbon Cover picture: SRTM Data
exploration. TECHNOLOG
Y Courtesy of NASA – provided
Beyond Macon
do
GEOPHYSIC by USGS/DLR. Image courtesy
S
Has the Era of
Cableless Sei
smic Sur
of Astrium GEO-Information
Inset: The Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania is steeped in both GEOLOG
Y
veys Arrived?
Services © Infoterra Ltd’
GEOPHY
SICS
geological and anthropological history, as well as being a haven for wildlife RESERV
OIR MA
NAGEM
ENT
The seismic interpretation solutions idealism behind this idea,” he adds. Numbers
company dGB Earth Sciences has “Students need software and data, so (U.S. and scientific community)
experienced exponential growth since we have developed the ‘Open Seismic M: thousand = 1 x 103
2009, and the company puts its success Repository’ which has datasets from the MM: million = 1 x 106
down to a single decision – moving to an public domain, plus some government B: billion = 1 x 109
T: trillion = 1 x 1012
open source technology platform. and research agencies, ready loaded into
“Having spent nearly ten years OpendTect. The user can download this Liquids
developing our niche interpretation data, plus the interpretations, which can barrel = bbl = 159 litre
product, d-Tect, we were finding it be used as an education tool.” boe: barrels of oil equivalent
difficult to commercialise it to the Since the software is free, the profit bopd: barrels (bbls) of oil per day
market,” explains Paul de Groot, co- to the company lies in the many bcpd: bbls of condensate per day
founder and President of the Netherlands- supplementary products and services bwpd: bbls of water per day
based company. “The software, which which are offered. OpendTect is a
uses attributes and modern visualization complete, standalone interpretation Gas
MMscfg: million ft3 gas
techniques to aid interpretation of multi- package that supports a wide range of
MMscmg: million m3 gas
volume seismic data, was proving very functionalities for analysing, visualising Tcfg: trillion cubic feet of gas
popular, but customers wanted more and interpreting G&G data. The open-
freedom to generate cubes and interpret source software is complemented by Ma: Million years ago
the data their own way, to fit in with their a line of revenue generating ‘plug-ins’
systems and methodologies.” to undertake additional tasks such as LNG
“In 2003 we re-engineered the sequence stratigraphy, fluid migration, Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is
package to make the basic module open rock property predictions and velocity natural gas (primarily methane)
source, so users could develop their own modelling. The company also offers cooled to a temperature of
approximately -260 oC.
plug-ins to work with it, but this still did consultancy and training services.
not give our customers the flexibility they “We are the first to do this in our
NGL
wanted. So in 2009 we made the major industry. By going open source our Natural gas liquids (NGL) include
decision to go completely open-source.” whole business picked up dramatically,” propane, butane, pentane, hexane
The company adopted a completely Paul explains. “To develop good software and heptane, but not methane and
public ‘copy left’ licence – the model used you need a wide user base for feedback, ethane.
so successfully by Linux, among others. to ensure that your product is fulfilling
This means that anyone using the software the needs of your clients. This feedback Reserves and resources
has access to all the underlying code, and and funds from the industry drive our P1 reserves:
Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
can freely do what they like with it, adding product development. Being open source
recoverable with a 90% probability
bits on or making plug-ins, but anything creates an environment of collaboration
they produce must also be open source. and transparency, sharing ideas for the
P2 reserves:
The software, renamed OpendTect, is benefit of the whole community.”
Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
freely available and downloadable from JANE WHALEY recoverable with a 50% probability
the dGB website.
“Since 2009 over 61,000 Paul de Groot (left) is President and co-founder of dGB, and Kristofer P3 reserves:
copies have been down- Tingdahl (right), CEO, is a software specialist. They attribute the Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
loaded,” says Paul. “Our company’s recent growth to moving the core software to an open recoverable with a 10% probability
clients vary from individ- source platform.
ual consultants needing Oilfield glossary:
www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com
help with a single project,
to major oil and gas com-
panies running multiple
projects. Many students
also download it to help
with projects, and once
they have been exposed
to the software, for free, at
that stage in their careers,
they often come back to it
in their professional lives.”
“There is also some
The Spectrum library of Multi-Client data incorporates global projects identified by our
experienced team of geoscientists. Spectrum, in partnership with Fugro, recognized the
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Neogene
China holds first auction of shale gas blocks 1.8
Tertiary
Cenozoic
South Atlantic starts opening
The U.S. Energy Information Administration recently announced
that it estimates that China holds 1,275 Tcf (36 Tcm) of technically 23
Paleogene
recoverable shale gas reserves, the largest in the world (see GEO ExPro
Magazine Vol. 8, No.3). In a move to start to exploit these riches
China’s Ministry of Land and Resources held its first shale gas block 65*
Alpine orogeny
auction in late June, covering four blocks and an area of 11,000 km2
Cretaceous
Laramide orogeny
in south-western Guizhou province and Chongqing city. A number
of companies were invited to participate in the auction, including
PetroChina, CPCC, CNOOC, Shaanxi Yanchang Petroleum Group,
China United Coal Bed Methane Co. and Henan Provincial Coal Seam
Pangaea breakup
Gas Development and Utilization Co. 145
Mesozoic
Overseas explorers are barred from bidding in Chinese auctions for
shale areas, but a number of the major international companies are Jurassic
working closely with the Chinese. Shell, for example, is collaborating
Phanerozoic
Mcf (10 Mcm), the pilot project was deemed a success because it
proved the effectiveness of drilling equipment, with the final thousand
metres of the well being bored in just 34 days. 299
The Chinese Ministry of Land and Resources calculates the size of shale Carboniferous
gas reserves at 918 Tcfg (26 Tcm) – more than 10 times the country’s FORMATION OF PANGAEA
known holdings of conventional natural gas, and expect to offer further
shale gas blocks later in the year. However, it is thought that it may
prove less easy to exploit these reserves than those of the United States,
359*
since the mainland Chinese geology is older, contains less shale gas per
volume of rock and it will require increased technology to access and Devonian
extract the gas. In addition, large quantities of water are required for Paleozoic
the fraccing process, a vital part of the exploitation of shale gas. While
this poses little problem in the US, it is a greater issue in drought-prone
Variscan orogeny
China, particularly since one of the most promising regions for shale gas 416
accumulation, the Turpan Basin in Xinjiang, is a desert. Silurian
JANE WHALEY 443*
Caledonian orogeny
Ordovician
Shell is working with PetroChina at the Changbei Natural gas field in northern China.
Shell
488
Cambrian
Microseismic & 4D
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valuatio n & Desi Cableless Technology
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Eni
petroleum geophysicist, in June
received the highly prestigious
Eni award in the New Frontiers
of Hydrocarbons category. This
is probably the closest one can
get to the Nobel Prize.
In June, Professor Martin Landrø of the
Norwegian University of Science and
Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, was
presented with the Eni award at a formal
ceremony in the famous Quirinal Palace
in Rome. This exceptional building has
housed thirty popes, four kings and eleven
presidents of the Italian Republic, and is
now the official residence of the President
of Italy.
The prize, a gold medal weighing 330 Professor Martin Landrø receives the gold medal from Italian President Giorgio Napolitano in the Quirinal
Palace in Rome.
grams, and a cheque for 150,000, was
handed over to Landrø by no less than
the current Italian President, Giorgio level and made up of scientists from seismic in order to predict reservoir behavior.
Napolitano. some of the world’s most advanced For his breakthrough work in discriminating
Landrø received the New Frontiers of research institutes, including the Nobel between pressure drawdown and saturation
Hydrocarbons Prize. This is one of five prize-winner Sir Harold Kroto. changes in the reservoir during production
award categories which also include the For GEO ExPro readers, Landrø is best he received the SEG best paper in Geophysics
Renewable and Non-conventional Energy known for authoring the column “Recent award in 2001.
Prize, the Environment Protection Prize, the Advances in Technology” together with He has, however, received many
Debut in Research Prize and the Eni Inno- Lasse Amundsen. So far, the two of them other recognitions, including the EAGE
vation Award. The purpose of the New have co-authored 24 articles within the Petroleum Geoscience award (Norman
Frontiers of Hydrocarbons Prize is to promote field of seismic acquisition, processing and Falcon Award), the Norwegian geophysical
research on the technologies regarding the imaging, and there are more to come. award in 2004, Statoil’s research prize in
complete cycle of hydrocarbons (explor- (see page 64 for their latest offering). 2007, SINTEF’s award for outstanding
ation, production, transport, distribution Landrø, to be found in a modest pedagogical activity in 2009 and in 2010
and transformation), meaning that the office close to his students, is Professor of the Louis Cagniard award from EAGE.
competitors are to be found among Applied Geophysics at the Department
researchers along the entire value chain. of Petroleum Engineering and Applied Want to know more? Go to You Tube and search
for the “Eni award” and watch the ceremony.
“This is probably the most prestigious Geophysics at NTNU. His research
award that a geophysicist specializing in interests are mainly fluid and pressure HALFDAN CARSTENS
petroleum exploration and exploitation prediction from seismic data, but he has
can expect to receive, and definitely the also researched other geophysical aspects
most prestigious prize that I will ever essential for seismic imaging and reservoir
‘New Frontiers of
receive,” says Landrø. Another way to put monitoring. ”My main fields of interests Hydrocarbons’ Prize
it, as many have done, is that the Eni award are reservoir geophysics, including time- According to the Scientific Com-
is the Nobel Prize of energy research. lapse seismic, seismic inversion methods, mittee for the Eni award, “Landrø
At the ceremony, Landrø had the rock physics, four-component seismic, has developed a highly advanced
pleasure of meeting two Nobel laureates marine seismic acquisition, analysis of technique of seismic analysis that
in physics. One of them, Charles Townes, CSEM data and gravimetric methods makes it possible to precisely establish
invented the laser and has long served for monitoring purposes,” Landrø says, changes over time in gas and oil
thereby also explaining how he has been reservoirs. This enables improved
as a model for the aspiring geophysicist.
management and development
Meeting him was a treat. The Award’s able to contribute with numerous articles
of reserves and the opportunity of
Scientific Committee – which has the in GEO ExPro.
significantly increasing the quantity
role of evaluating the candidates and Above all, Professor Landrø has been of hydrocarbons extracted.”
assigning the prizes – is of the highest instrumental in the development of 4D
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GEO ExPro SEPTEMBER 2011 11
EXPRO UPDATE
RIGHTPLAN
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topology engine. This gives geophysicists easy access to framework construction tools that combine well picks
and horizons to produce a high resolution, accurate geomodel. The geomodel uses conformance technology to produce
well-based surfaces at the same resolution as seismic data, enabling a model that truly represents your reservoir.
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Polarcus
spreads, including the company’s First the potential to cover an
Pass™ 3D technique. The vessel was built area of up to 1,100 km2,
at Drydocks World – Dubai in the UAE. has strong industry pre-
Polarcus have also agreed to provide funding and targets an
specialist onboard crew and shore-based area where wells drilled
services and systems support to the in the late 80s proved the
Russian company. presence of hydrocarbon
The agreement gives both companies bearing sandstones with
unparalleled access to the Russian market, good reservoir properties in
WGP
contractor, WGP Exploration Limited, is Two major seismic players, PGS and TGS,
currently assisting ION’s GeoVentures have joined forces to undertake a new mulit-
group with their on-going Arctic client 3D survey in the Faroe–Shetland Basin.
exploration program. WGP provided The survey will cover 2,500 km2 over Quads
the source array, recording office and 6004 in Faroese waters and 204 and 205 on
source workshop components of the the UK side, about 200 km west-north-west
Thalassa-owned Portable Modular of the Shetland Islands. It is being undertaken
Source System PMSS™ in addition by the Ramform Viking, which will acquire
to the technical crew required for the The Portable Modular Source System used by WGP data over the area through the third quarter
2011 seismic program. on ION’s Arctic exploration program of 2011, returning to complete the survey in
The vessel utilized for the operation was selected due to its ice-class and research 2012. The vessel is towing twelve 6,000m long
capability. As a non-seismic vessel it was recognised at an early stage that a custom umbilical streamers with 75m separation and utilizes
winch design would be required, a solution was quickly designed by WGP Engineering PGS’ unique GeoStreamer® technology. The
and subsequently installed under the supervision of the field crew. The PMSS’s BOLT survey has been enthusiastically supported
Technology Annular Port Gun (APG) is ideally suited to the deployment methodology by industry funding.
whereby conventional tow plates, spreader bars and external air and electrical lines are This survey enhances the existing data
negated. The PMSS’s self-sufficient recording office and gun workshop were quick and in the PGS 2D and 3D Mega Survey library,
easy to install providing instantaneous instrument and workshop facilities. which has been acquired over recent years
According to James Pryor, WGP Sales & Business Development Executive, “the to help unlock the hydrocarbon potential of
PMSS™ systems were initially designed and constructed to target the Permanent this area of prime prospectivity.
Reservoir Monitoring market. This sector has been slow to develop but with WGP’s
Richard Bowden
innovative approach and the equipment’s flexibility we are delighted to provide a
custom source solution to ION”.
“My theory [on why Macondo happened] is that the interface [providing information
about drilling operations] was too complex” – David Payne, Chevron’s vice president
of drilling, speaking at the GE Oil and Gas Annual Meeting in Florence on January
31, 2011.
Hydrocarbon potential in
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Advances in using drilling simulators for training, using simulators to test new
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Tools to help improve decision making during drilling operations Aker Geo’s newest Hydrocarbon Potential study in the
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Improving collaborative working environment layouts – so they are not designed and information coupled with new seismic interpretation,
around the hardware (Halliburton Landmark) grav-mag and CSEM/MT to improve understanding of
structural and basin development, identifying magmatic
and salt anomalies as well as hydrocarbon indicators.
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Improved development of play fairways by multi-data
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Deliverables:
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Astrium/ArcGlobe
The East African
Rift System
A View From Space
Remote sensing data
has given a unique
perspective on the
East African Rift System,
allowing both large
regional structures and
more subtle features to
be identified and placed
in context
East Africa, overlooked in terms of its and Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). Geological interpretation overview of the East
hydrocarbon potential for many years, is These geo-information datasets can African Rift System, illustrating surface structure
increasingly viewed as an exploration hot contribute in two main ways. Firstly, and stratigraphy, and completed using Earth
Observation data.
spot, with recent discoveries in the Albertine optical satellite imagery and DEMs can
Rift and offshore Tanzania leading to a provide information on surface structure,
resurgence in interest. Dominated by the geomorphology and stratigraphy, enab- four and a half million square kilometres,
East Africa Rift System (EARS), the region ling a consistent regional interpretation at a scale of between 1:100,000 to
has a complex geological history and of the surface geology to be undertaken. 1:500,000. The project incorporates
provides the potential to bring together Secondly, radar imagery can assist in the a broad range of territories including,
modern techniques to aid geological identification of natural oil seeps that from north to south; Eritrea, Djibouti,
understanding and to help efficiently have been reported both offshore and Somaliland, Eastern Ethiopia, south-east
target hydrocarbon exploration. on many of the rift lakes such as Albert, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi,
One technique particularly suited Tanganyika, and Nyasa (Malawi). eastern border area of Democratic
to frontier exploration is the use of Astrium has recently completed Republic of Congo, Tanzania, Malawi,
medium resolution Earth Observation an ambitious project to interpret the Mozambique, and the border zones of
data in the form of satellite imagery complete EARS, an area of approximately Zambia, Swaziland and South Africa.
Major structural features and lakes of East African Rift System. White
lines represent the generalised locations of the main bounding faults
of the rift grabens. NE-SW trending Karoo grabens represent the Early
Permian to Early Jurassic phase of rifting, such as the Luangwa Valley
and Ruhuhu Graben. Late Jurassic to Cretaceous rifting is represented
by the NW-SE trending Anza Rift, Kenya, along trend from the
Sudanese Muglad Basin. Tertiary–Quaternary rifting is orientated N-S
and truncates the earlier rift structures. The green line illustrates the
An extract of the interpretation for West Tanzania and Lake extent of the onshore interpretation.
Malawi with the Luangwa Valley and Ruhuhu Graben illustrating Images: Astrium/ArcGlobe.
the NE-SW Karroo trend cut by the later Tertiary to Quaternary
N-S trend. Frequent oil seeps have been identified in Lake Nyasa
(Malawi) (not shown), probably emanating from sub-lake Karroo
or younger Mesozoic to Tertiary sections.
The latest, extensive, seamless, regional dataset processed from field tapes using state of the art
demultiple and migration techniques is now available for license in the Faroe-Shetland Basin
Mike Keaveny
Tel: +44 1932 376577
Joanna Lumley
Tel: +44 1932 376549
A Clearer Image
michael.keaveny@pgs.com joanna.lumley@pgs.com www.pgs.com
Hydrocarbon Opportunities
Tertiary fluvio-lacustrine deposits within the rift GEOLOGICAL EARTH
grabens and older Karoo Supergroup deposits are
the main onshore Petroleum Systems. In Somaliland, OBSERVATION
similarities are also thought to be found with the Medium resolution Earth Observation data provides a rich
Petroleum Systems of Southern Yemen. information source for efficiently undertaking geological
In the northern section of the study area, interpretation over extensive onshore areas. Primary data
contrasting characteristics of the Eastern and Western collection includes structural information such as relative
Branches of the rift have been observed. The Western bedding dip and orientation, fault identification and
Branch, initiating in the Albertine Graben in northern classification, together with spectral and textural information
Kenya, displays a high level of seismic activity, has less allowing the assessment of surface stratigraphy. An
active volcanism and generally a greater thickness understanding of the regional setting, provided by satellite
of sediment in comparison to the Eastern Branch, data, gives important context not achievable from ground-
excluding the rifts of the Turkana Depression. These based observations alone.
factors are likely to have a corresponding influence Two main remote sensing datasets are used in this study;
on prospectivity, supported by recent discoveries in Landsat 7 mosaics in a 742 (RGB), with a resolution of 15m,
the Albertine Graben. However, previous studies of and the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) 90m DEM.
the Turkana Depression region have also emphasized Since 1972 the Landsat series of satellites have been acquiring
hydrocarbon opportunities in the Northern and information about the Earth’s Surface. Launched in 1999,
Central Kenya Rifts of the Eastern Branch. These Landsat 7 is the most recent, and is the standard imagery
are thought to be the oldest and longest-lived dataset used for regional scale mapping down to 1:50,000,
sedimentary basins of the Tertiary-Quaternary EARS having seven spectral bands. Typically for geological mapping,
because they represent an overlap area with the three of the bands – in this case Bands 7, 4 and 2 – are
Cretaceous rifts. combined in a pseudo-colour composite band combination.
The oil seeps identified by this study – in the rift Utilising Band 7 in the Short Wave InfraRed, this 7/4/2-band
lakes of Lake Tanganyika, Edward and Nyasa (Malawi) combination offers maximum lithological discrimination,
– may indicate the presence of a similar petroleum play significantly improving the ability to distinguish between
involving the Tertiary sections, as discovered recently different rock types. The SRTM dataset was acquired from a
at Lake Albert. Additionally, for the lakes in the south, radar system that flew onboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour
there is the potential for the seeps to be derived from in 2000, and is a three dimensional digital representation of
older Karoo sediments common in the southern part the Earth’s surface that can be processed to enhance subtle
of the EARS. Recent exploration on the Karoo basins geomorphological information.
such as the Ruhuhu and Upper Zambezi Grabens has Interpretation of satellite data and the assessment of other
revealed large reserves of Gondwana coals within the spatially-referenced information was completed digitally in
lower part of the Karoo Supergroup. These may yield an ArcMap environment at scales ranging from 1:100,000 to
commercial amounts of coal-bed methane as well as 1:500,000. Although the primary source of information was
reasonable quality coals for future exploitation. Other the satellite imagery, existing geological mapping was also
prospective regions include the Ogaden Basin in integrated into the study, where available, in order to provide
Eastern Ethiopia. This is an area of proven hydrocarbon virtual ground truthing.
reserves with large gas discoveries and frequent oil Additional datasets have also been incorporated into this
shows from the Mesozoic. study, including an extract from Astrium’s global oil seeps
Similarities exist between the Petroleum Systems database that includes oil slicks derived from EARS natural
in Somaliland and the proven hydrocarbon regions of lake bed oil seeps and from the sea bed of surrounding
Yemen, with the Balhaf Graben in Yemen thought to offshore areas and identified using Radar Imagery. The
be a continuation of the Berbera Basin in Somaliland. offshore areas include the Gulf of Aden, the Seychelles,
Jurassic shales are the main source rocks in this region Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania, Mozambique and Kenya,
and the satellite imagery has identified numerous with over 800 radar scenes assessed and over 500 separate
roll-over anticlines, closely associated with listric slick points recognised. Identifying seeps from radar imagery
fault growth, that are likely to be most significant is an established method, often applied to screen offshore
structural traps. basins and based on observing the variation in return signal
Incorporating a structural and stratigraphic and noting any anomalous areas caused by the dampening
interpretation this 1:100,000–1:500,000 study effect the oil has on wave heights. By collecting imagery
has identified evidence of the main rifting events from multiple dates and studying the morphology of the
that have defined its current morphology. There is slick, a greater level of confidence can be assigned to the
considerable potential to add further detail to the features, reducing the likelihood that an area of pollution or
study using higher resolution satellite imagery over local weather conditions are being observed.
specific sub areas, as can be seen on page 22.
Beyond Macondo
DAVID BAMFORD
“The major difference No doubt the CEOs of various other processes, set new standards and so on.
Majors have sound reasons in their minds David Payne, Chevron’s Vice President
between a thing that might
for suggesting that the Macondo disaster of Drilling, speaking at an industry meeting
go wrong and a thing that was a ‘BP problem’ – as though blowouts in Florence in January 2011, reportedly said
cannot possibly go wrong are new… “It is apparent that the Deepwater Horizon
is that when a thing that In fact, in 2005 an analysis of incidents crew had information they needed to
cannot possibly go wrong in the Gulf of Mexico by researchers from know [to prevent disaster] and took no
goes wrong it usually turns Texas A & M University showed that action….These were experienced men.
offshore blowouts had continued at ‘a My theory is that the interface [providing
out to be impossible to get
fairly stable rate’ since 1960 despite the information about drilling operations]
at or repair.” use of blow-out preventers (BOPs). To was too complex. The Macondo incident
be specific, the Presidential Commission is a wake-up call to the fact that as wells
Douglas Adams, ‘Mostly Harmless’
that investigated the Deepwater Horizon become more and more complex we
disaster found that oil companies lost have to think about how we manage the
control of Gulf wells 79 times between man:machine interfaces. We need to get
1996 and 2009. engineering solutions to match up with the
people. Simplifying the human interface is
Is Regulation Enough? an engineering problem most engineers
Turning to Europe, I do not believe we can don’t want to deal with.”
or should be content with a position which
says that regulation is that much tougher Understanding Complex Systems
in the UKCS and NOCS than in the US OCS In mid-March 2011 the Deepwater
and that therefore things are OK. Horizon Study Group from the University
Regulation is necessary, but not of California, Berkeley, listed up to a
sufficient. dozen separate decisions made on the
My personal view is that there seems to rig that increased risk. These ranged
be an industry problem, rather than one from not cementing well drilling liner
confined to BP or to the Gulf of Mexico. overlaps and delaying installation of the
In addition to the large output from the casing hanger seal assembly lock-down,
aforementioned Presidential Commission, to not using recommended casing
evidence for this view comes from various centralisers and running underbalance
sources, some of which are reviewed tests with most of the drill pipe out of
below. As a consequence I want to make the well instead of running a full string
the case that we need to find technology to total depth.
solutions, as well as improve internal With so many reports from different
investigative bodies, there is a very intensive simulator-based training help; unrelated to issues of operational integrity.
large amount of information to digest. can better rig-to-onshore communica- In particular, an emphasis on safety metrics,
However, it does seem that it may tions help? And if the worst happens, do such as the number of Lost Time Incidents
be necessary to consider not simply we have rapid containment facilities and and “golden rules” which focus on trips
the performance of the individual what new rules might we see put in place and slips and lifting, whilst essential and
technologies that have received so much by regulatory authorities? laudable, has little or nothing to do with
attention, such as BOPs, cement jobs and At a recent Finding Petroleum forum assuring operational integrity.
acoustic triggers, but also the interaction in London, these issues were probed in Thus it behoves companies to have a
between these technologies and the greater depth, resulting in a number of system of performance and risk manage-
decisions related to them, in what is a insights. ment that is relevant to maintaining
somewhat complex system. operational integrity and that is necessarily
This raises a number of questions. For Risk Management different from, and in addition to, one that
example: can such systems be understood; Perhaps the most significant insight, maintains occupational safety.
whose role is it to assert that the whole aside from those directly connected Relating to critical relationships during
system will function correctly; can any with actual drilling operations, was a risk drilling operations, gaps were identified
one individual respond quickly enough management one – that issues of personal in three key areas: training; control
if something goes wrong; can more or occupational safety are more or less systems and the measurement and
The fundamentals of
integrated operations.
CapGemini/CNPC
Halfdan Carstens
Effective collaboration is needed to ensure the best
information flow between onshore ‘command
centres’ and drilling rigs.
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SOUTH ATLANTIC
PALAEOGEOGRAHY:
Reconstructing Palaeolandscapes
for New Ventures Exploration
PAUL MARWICK PhD, GETECH
The use of palaeolandscapes Palaeogeography has too often been considered as simply a
backdrop for presentations and posters. But methodological
is an essential tool for advances over the last 20-30 years, coupled with advances
in Geographic Information Systems, mean that plate tectonic
understanding the modeling and palaeogeography are now becoming an essential
and powerful tool for New Ventures exploration. This is
South Atlantic Petroleum nowhere better demonstrated than in the Equatorial and South
Atlantic Petroleum Provinces, in which the interplay of plate
Provinces, where the tectonics and landscape evolution affects not only the geometry
interplay of plate tectonics and nature of basins around the margins, but source to sink
relationships and depositional systems, with direct implications
and landscape evolution for exploration risking.
GETECH
anticipate more specific facts that
will be important, such as the extent
of source facies and reservoirs in the
sub-salt and the nature of timing of
uplift along each margin that can affect
maturity modeling. What, for example,
is the spatial variation in source and
reservoir facies and how does this relate
to tectonics, especially the interaction
with transforms in the Equatorial region,
but also hinterland reactivation and
sediment supply. We also need to ask
what is the location, timings, volume,
provenance and character of clastic
accumulations along the margins and
how does this relate to changes in
hinterland evolution?
GETECH
also includes petroleum geochemistry,
stratigraphy, sedimentology and petrol-
eum geology.
To build the foundations of a model
in an area of sparse well and seismic
data, greater reliance must be placed on
potential fields and other remote sensing
datasets. Interpretation of these data is
the starting point of the workflow and
is used to map the structural framework
of each area, as well as the extent of
volcanics and salt. For the South Atlantic
and Equatorial region reconstruction, 16
2D profiles were then used to define the
crustal type, geometry and thickness,
the limits of stretched crust and position
of the Continent-Ocean Transition zone.
These were employed as boundary
conditions for the plate modeling
and to calculate beta-factors as tests
of the modeled fits. Differentiation of The results of a drainage analysis of the Sanaga and Wouri Rivers showing substantial differences
the transitional crust into attenuated, between the modern day river trends (dark blue arrows) and interpreted palaeo-river trends (light
continental, under-plated and intruded blue arrows) resulting from Oligocene-Miocene uplift of the Cameroon area and southward tilting of
segments provides additional important the Gabon Craton.
information for estimating heatflow in
developing basins. Depth to basement
calculations defined extensions to Precambrian Shear Zones. What is clear ‘subcrop’ or ‘inferred’, providing an
known depocentres as well as identifying is that neither the simple northward immediate indication of confidence.
deep-seated structural partitioning in ‘scissor-opening’ of the South Atlantic Sediment source areas (areas above
basins with a complex history such as of Bullard et al (1965: Philos. Trans. R. contemporary base-level) are then
the Santos Basin. Soc. London., Ser. A, 258: 41-51) or the mapped and defined according to the
For the South Atlantic about 17,000 idea of a single, simple translational last thermo-mechanical event affecting
structures were compiled using inter- opening of the Equatorial Atlantic, fits that area (at the simplest level this is
pretations based on potential fields, observations. This has a major affect assumed to be the reason that such an
Landsat and radar altimetry (SRTM3) on not only basin development and area is above base-level, but in reality
data. These were constrained by history, but also the response of the most upland areas are a consequence
comparison with seismic lines where hinterland, which in turn affects source of multiple causes). Structural and
available, and by onshore geological to sink relationships. tectonic elements are also mapped on
maps and publications. these reconstructions, together with
These structures were then used Reconstructing Contemporary exploration and cultural data, well
in conjunction with the results of the Base-level information, source rock distribution
2D geophysical modeling to redefine With the structural and tectonic frame- and so forth, including any key datasets
basin geometries along the margin work established, the next step is to map held by the NV team. Given the
and to understand the nature and the depositional systems. Traditionally complexity of the system, it is perhaps
kinematics of plate boundaries used in this is restricted to compiling facies or of little surprise that frequently findings
the plate modeling. This includes intra- GDE maps for what is preserved, but from this phase of the mapping can lead
continental plate boundaries within in our methodologies this is extended to modifications in the underlying plate
Africa and South America, which have to include the probable contemporary model, which increases the accuracy
to be considered in order to account full extent of deposition at the time and precision of the map, but adds
for the timing and geometry of the of the map. Differential symbology considerably to the workflow.
developing South Atlantic rift during is used to distinguish between
the Late Jurassic to Aptian. This is those interpretations of depositional Lithofacies Prediction
also true in the model generated in environment that are known (preserved) Whilst GDE, tectonic and base-level
this study, although uncertainties or inferred, with a further division maps provide an explicit representation
remain about the exact amount of applied to lithologies as to whether of source to sink relationships and
deformation on many of the large, the designation is based on ‘outcrop’, the extent and nature of depositional
ǁǁǁ͘ĚŽůƉŚŝŶŐĞŽ͘ĐŽŵ
GETECH
With potential fields data providing
a robust means of reconstructing
the geometry of basins and crustal
types, including possible extensions
and structuralization, converting
palaeoenvironmental maps to landscape
maps provides the boundary conditions
for quantitative analysis and lithofacies
prediction.
There are several stages to this process.
The present day landscape is analyzed
to identify the relationship of geology
and tectonics in landscape formation,
and then the drainage networks are
examined in order to identify potential
changes in river systems and thus past
sediment transport pathways. These
analyses point to substantial changes on
both West African and South American
margins of the South Atlantic, with major
changes in the river systems including
the Congo, Orange, Niger, Amazon
and Sao Francisco. These can be tied to
tectonic and base-level related causes
that have affected the region through
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, and can
therefore be mapped through time. Reconstruction of the palaeolandscape and drainage of the Cenomanian, centered on the South and
With rivers defined, elevation is Equatorial Atlantic provinces. At this time the South Atlantic margins are drained by short-headed rivers;
added to the tectonophysiographic major changes in sediment fluxes occur flowing uplift associated with the Santonian ‘Event’. In the
and depositional systems. First, the Equatorial Atlantic, longer rivers drained the long wavelength relief of the West African Plateau, in contrast
to the developing larger river systems draining North-east Brazil, while the Amazon flowed west.
Present Day topography is rotated
back through time as a very cursory
backdrop to the analysis, and the
elevation distribution represented by are dominated by two main effects: margins of these uplifts, especially if
each tectonophysiographic terrain in the long wavelength uplifts associated there is associated reactivation of fault
present is applied to its past representation with mantle anomalies in southern scarps. The inversion related uplifts
on the palaeogeography maps. Fission and eastern African hinterlands, north- seem to lead to much more intense
track and other palaeoaltimetry data eastern Brazil and northern South erosion and sediment supply because
are used to refine elevations, palaeosols America; and reactivation of uplifts, of the rate of uplift but especially the
to assess areas of low denudation, and often affecting whole cratonic blocks resulting relief changes.
mass balance calculations to evaluate such as the Gabon Craton, due to
whether elevational changes are realistic changes in the pole of rotation in Invaluable Tools
with respect to downstream sediment the South Atlantic (for example, the The tectonic and landscape evolution
accumulations. The methodology is Santonian Event, which resulted in of the South Atlantic and Equatorial
fraught with uncertainties and there uplifts across the Equatorial African Atlantic is complex, with numerous
are constant iterations back and forth hinterland and inversion in the Central periods of reactivation that affects
through time to ascertain whether African Shear Zone). These two types source to sink relationships as well as
defined changes are consistent. of tectonically driven hinterland change downstream accommodation space,
The resulting landscape maps form have very different expressions in the and the geometry and nature of
the boundary conditions for Earth landscape. Denudation rates are much depositional systems. Only by pulling
System Modelling experiments, the lower on the plateau highs associated together all of these various processes
results of which can be directly used in with the long wavelength uplifts, with can such tools provide robust solutions
predictive lithofacies modeling. In the sediment supply to downstream basins for NV exploration. But when done
South and Equatorial Atlantic the results dominated by incision around the correctly, the results are invaluable.
Plays in Northern Brazil that the highest potential may be in the deep waters on the slope and continental rise of the Brazilian margin. ION’s Greater BrasilSPAN™ data is
being used to identify and map new plays similar to those currently being drilled on the African margin.
SW NE
0 Map (below) showing the five sedimentary basins
of the Equatorial Brazilian margin, together with
Para-Maranhão Basin Ceara Rise the location of the BrasilSPAN seismic lines, with
Line GB1-4500 shown in bold. A total of 17,500
km of data were acquired using a 10-km long
streamer between 2009 and 2010. The lines are
approximately 50–100 km apart, and two strike
lines follow the entire length of the shelf, almost
2,200 km. The final data has been Prestack
Depth Migrated (PSDM) to 40 km, and images
the crustal architecture, including the Moho,
as well as providing high resolution imaging
in the overlying sedimentary section. The map
Oceanic Oceanic shows the locations of major fracture zones
10 Crust Crust
mapped from the combined seismic, gravity and
Depth (Km)
S
Para- Maranhão
Open Marine
STEVE HENRY, NARESH KUMAR, AL DANFORTH, PETER NUTTALL where slopes were steeper, 20
up-dip extensional faulting Z
R S
AND SUJATA VENKATRAMAN, Ion Geophysical 40
S Z
R
resulted in down-dip com- R
Z
Z
R
S
pression and thrusting. 60 Cen. Z
R Z
R
As the Equatorial Atlantic opened, Venus The age of the extensional Albian
major oceanic fracture zones, ranging Monrovia FZ Equatorial Atlantic and compressional faulting 80 Aptian
Z
R
S S
100 m.y. ago RZ AfricaSPAN East
from the Chain Fracture Zone (FZ) in becomes progressively
100 Neocom. S Z
the south to the Monrovia FZ in the younger to the north-west, R
S Z
R R
Early
Z
Drift
north, controlled the synrift tectonics of St. Paul FZ
Jubilee AFRICA with recent faulting in the Pal. S R
Z
S
120
the basins on both sides of the Atlantic. Foz do Amazonas deforming R
Z
Rift
These fracture zones were established the sea floor. Line GB1-4500 140 S
200
Pre-
Rift
at the time of initial separation along is midway along this thrust Z
R
540
zones of crustal weakness in the trend and, as can be seen,
original western Gondwana continent, the Paleocene is thrusted Regional RZ Reservoir S Source
(Boletim de Geociências da Petrobas, v. 15, no. 2, 2007)
AfricaSPAN West
and played a significant role as tectonic with deformation continuing Unconformity
barriers for the sedimentary evolution through the Lower Oligocene.
of the basins. BRAZIL There is also a period of A regional correlation chart of the stratigraphy of the northern
Oceanic circulation in the early igneous activity that has been estimated to be of Santonian age. It is Brazilian basins. The foldout line is an example of the
basins was highly restricted, a setting only seen overlying the oceanic fracture zones and is probably the result stratigraphy and structure seen in the shelf to deep basin of
Legend
conducive to the deposition of the of a ‘leaky’ Fracture Zone. The detachment for the thrusting appears the Para-Maranhão Basin. Equivalent sedimentary sequences
Spans Africa can be seen in all the basins from the Foz do Amazonas to
source rocks which are now known Spans Brazil to be in the high-stand shales of Upper Campanian age (75 Ma). The the Potiguar. Thick red lines show regional unconformities that
Oil and gas fields gravitational flows were likely triggered by the influx of sediments
to have generated the hydrocarbons can be traced across the basins. Either producing fields or non-
in the major accumulations in Ghana A GPlates* reconstruction for Africa and Brazil at 100 Ma (Late Albian/Cenomanian). Progressive associated with the Maastrichtian through Paleocene low stand. commercial hydrocarbon accumulations have been discovered
opening of the Atlantic began in the south-east in the Aptian and continued to the north-west in each of these basins, but so far almost all the drilling has
and Sierra Leone. The traps in these
until full oceanic circulation was established by the end of the Turonian. been carried out in water depths of less than 500m.
African discoveries are structural/ *http://www.gplates.org/ Promising Margin
stratigraphic and the reservoirs consist Source rocks exist in all the basins in the Aptian/Albian interval, as
mostly of deep-water turbidites. within a Jurassic sag basin. Reflectors South Atlantic that began in the Barre- well as in the Cenomanian and Upper Cretaceous/Lower Tertiary
with a similar character have been mian (130 to 125 Ma) appears to have sequences in some of the basins. Sand-rich potential reservoir intervals
Complex Tectonic History drilled in eastern Brazil offshore from utilized the continental strike slip faults of as well as outer shelf carbonates are also present in the each of the South-western end of foldout line GB1-4500, expanded so that
The tectonic history of the area, as the Recôncavo Basin. Jurassic-age the north Brazilian margin. These faults basins. Opportunities for stratigraphic traps on the outer shelf and thrust structures and the tectonic control exerted by the St.
exemplified by Line GB1-4500, the reflectors have also been interpreted would have been active at the same upper slope are abundant, while structures related to the gravitational Paul FZ can been seen. The dominant fault type is strike slip,
forming pop-up structures and pull-apart basins through the
long regional seismic line shown to underlie the Ceará Rise at the north- time as the faults that are part of the extension updip and compression farther downdip are also prevalent
Campanian (075_UppCamp, lt. yellow). There is also an older
on the preceding pages, is complex east end of the line. Thick crust (> 25 Central African Shear Zone. In Central in at least half the length along the shelf margin. period of igneous activity that has been estimated as Santonian
because the fault and subsidence Km), defined on the foldout line by the Africa, large pull-apart basins developed With the successes from the African margin in mind, explorationists (085_Sant. Volc.; deep violet). The line clearly shows possible
pattern suggests multiple unsuccessful seismic character change at the Moho in the Aptian and Albian, including the need to set their sights now on the Brazilian equatorial margin. traps in thrust structures as well as in the sub-thrust, in features
here interpreted to be in Turonian and younger rocks.
attempts to break the thick cratons. (purple) appears to be an important Benue Basin in Nigeria, and the pro-
The first attempt documented in the component in the preservation of the ducing Doba and Doseo Basins in Chad.
Ion Geophysical
SW NE
sedimentary section was in the Late Jurassic sediments. The presence of Aptian and Albian 0
Jurassic (~155 Ma), followed by a In the Santos and Campos Basins to source rocks in Central Africa, and Para-Maranhão
Basin
25 Km
second in the Valanginian (~140 Ma). the south, the rich Lagoa Feia source the recent Jubilee (Ghana) and Venus
The successful separation, between rocks were deposited in the Valanginian (Sierra Leone) discoveries provide good
115 and 105 Ma, progressed along a sag basin overlying a failed rift. Likewise, support for a similar petroleum system
Depth (Km)
series of continental strike-slip faults in eastern Brazil in the narrow offshore along the Brazilian equatorial margin.
that were the initiation points for basins north of the offshore Recôncavo, Similarly, thick sections of Aptian and
5
the major oceanic fracture zones. Valanginian-age sediments have been Albian sediments have been interpreted
Mapping from the BrasilSPAN project interpreted in sag basins along the along the Brazilian equatorial margin,
suggests that the separation initiated edges of the thick cratons. Similar predominantly north of the Chain FZ,
in the south and progressed north- Valanginian sag basins have been with the thickest accumulation north of Oceanic
Crust
westwards: Chain FZ at ~105 Ma, interpreted from the BrasilSPAN data the Romanche FZ.
Romanche FZ at ~100 Ma, and St. in the Potiguar and Paiuí-Ceará Basins, Following the separation of the
10
Paul FZ at ~ 95 Ma. although no sediments of Valanginian continents, a steep continental slope Horizon Identification
LrOligo Cont. Volc
UppPaleo MidAptian
Horizons 5-12 km below the shelf age have been observed on data from developed, as is typical for transform UppCamp
Sant. Volc.
LrAptian
BUNC
in the south-west end of the foldout north of the Romanche Fracture Zone. margins. South of the Romanche FZ, Turonian Kimm? St. Paul
Albian Oxford?
LrAlbian
Fracture Continental
line are thought to be sediments The progressive opening of the Late Aptian and Albian sediments Zone Crust
Seismic Surveys
The desire to conduct surveys without Strings of Geophones of individual segments set to what a
cables has been an elusive, perhaps In the late 1970s, seismic surveys person could carry. As the number of
unattainable goal since the dawn of were done with cabled, multi-channel channels grew, the lines got longer and
seismic exploration. A fundamental acquisition systems, conducted in what the segments got shorter. Each segment
problem is that channel counts – the we now call 2D: a string of geophones had what are called ‘takeouts’ where
number of geophones on the ground – in a line connected by multi-conductor geophones were attached.
have been growing faster than wireless cable, typically hundreds of wires in a With the introduction of 3D surveys,
technology grew to support them. Has heavy polyurethane jacket. The cables ‘distributed systems’ were developed to
Wireless Seismic Inc
technology finally caught up to make consisted of short sections connected by support the larger arrays of parallel lines
cableless seismic surveys practical? hermaphroditic connectors, the length of geophones. Modules called remote
42
42 GE
GEO
G EO E
EO ExPro
xPr
xP
x Pr
Pro S
SEPTEMBER
EP
EP
EPT
PTT EEM
EMB
M B ER 20
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2011
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1
Wireless Seismic Inc
boxes digitized the signals from a handful
of geophone groups. The digital data was
sent down a coaxial or fiber-optic cable
to a central recording system, eliminating
electrical noise after the remote box,
allowing for very long transmission paths
and wide areal coverage.
However, because the geophones
were separated by as much as 50m
between stations, th ere were still
analog cables connected to the boxes,
plus the longer digital cables. Systems
expanded to thousands of channels. As
they grew, new problems appeared. A
typical 3D seismic crew might have 150
km of a ssorted cables on the ground, so
road, river and railway crossings were a
problem. In many areas, animals chewed
up the cables overnight, so that a few With a cabled seismic system, special protective covers are needed to cross a road, and even then, if
hours were required every morning for something heavy like a truck comes along, the cable will take abuse. Rails and rivers are even more
repairs. Once a system grows to 10,000 problematic. Cableless systems provide the answer.
channels in West Texas, it becomes
difficult to manage repairs, although be located almost anywhere. Data was with specially erected towers spread
much larger systems could be deployed collected by visiting the unit periodically around the survey site, and (initially)
in places like North Africa, where there and transferring it to a second device used connected by a fiber optic cable to a
is a lot of open ground and few animals. to transport it to a central computer. The central computer. This required quite a
RSR features VHF radio communication bit of infrastructure, and still suffered from
Early Cableless Systems that can send quality control information bandwidth problems. The company was
Meanwhile, geophysicists considered to a central recorder, and if you were
the advantages of eliminating cables. patient, you could even display a screen The Fairfield Nodal self-contained sensor has mini-
As is the usual pattern in geophysics, image from a shot. Bandwidth was mal environmental impact. It is the only truly cable-
patents were filed and granted long too limited to provide more than the less system since there are no geophone cables.
before the technology became available occasional snapshot of the data.
Fairfield Nodal
to make these ideas practical. People The RSR was introduced in 1996, and
worked with what was available: there despite its age, is still in use today for
were no portable hard disk drives, cheap surveys with access problems. Dawson
A/D converters, GPS timing signals, or Geophysical®, for example, used an RSR
low-power solutions suitable for easily system to survey the grounds of the
portable batteries. Dallas-Ft. Worth airport for Chesapeake
The earliest cableless seismic systems Energy Corporation® – a project that
used cartridge tape drives to store the would have been virtually impossible
data, but because of their complexity, with a cabled system because of the
power consumption, weight and cost runways, taxiways, and large buildings.
they never achieved wide acceptance. Similarly, environmental and access
They were used only when cables were problems restrict the deployment of
impossible, generally for environmental cable systems in many areas – you cannot
concerns. The OpSeis Eagle and the run a bulldozer through a national park
Fairfield BOX® offered wireless recording or lay cables across roads in cities and
for modest numbers of channels, limited some rugged terrain.
by the bandwidth available in the RF
band. First Real-Time System
The first cableless system to become The first serious attempt at a full-record,
broadly successful was the RSR™, built by real-time wireless seismic system was
Input/Output (now ION Geophysical®). by Vibtech Ltd, founded in 1996 in
This was a six-channel acquisition unit Scotland. The system was based on
that stored its data on a disk drive. The cellular technology, where a group of
units operated autonomously, and could individual units in a cell communicated
Sercel
QC: The UNITE system allows a
purpose-built wireless network to
be established for the real-time
transmission of recorded data to
the central recorder.
The cableless Geospace Seismic Recorder (GSR) is transforming the seismic industry from Tierra
del Fuego to Turkey. It’s allowing contractors to work quickly, safely and nondisruptively in terrain
they never thought possible – with the smallest environmental footprint ever.
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E³ = ST
Harnessing
Dr. Scott Tinker’s
enthusiasm and
boundless vivacity
may not instantly
solve the global
energy equation;
however he is
delivering a clear
directive on energy
that we all can
Thomas Smith
embrace.
THOMAS SMITH
Dr. Scott W. Tinker became Director of the Bureau of Economic Geology at the
University of Texas at Austin in 2000 and is also State Geologist of Texas and
a Professor, holding the Allday Endowed Chair. Before becoming Director, Scott
had 17 years of geologic experience with the oil industry. He is Past President
of both the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (2008-2009) and the
Association of American State Geologists (2006-2007).
The complexity of the Several recent oil and gas discoveries in the Western Barents Sea
are now triggering an increased interest in this huge, largely
Western Barents Sea unexplored petroleum province far beyond the Arctic Circle.
First, Statoil announced an oil and gas discovery with well
necessitates the use of all 7220/8-1 – Skrugard – on April Fool’s Day, in the Bjørnøyrenna
Basin. It contains at least 250 MMboe, maybe up to 500 MMboe,
available geological and within Jurassic sandstones. A 33m gas column and a 90m oil
column were encountered (GEO ExPro Vol. 8, No. 3). Later,
geophysical data when during late spring, Total drilled 7225/3-1 – Norvarg – far north
undertaking regional on the Bjarmeland Platform. The well proved gas in three different
layers within the Triassic. It has not been finished yet, but rumours
interpretations, play say it may be a significant discovery.
Then Lundin Norway made another gas discovery in July with
fairway assessments and well 7120/2-3S – Skalle – further to the south, on the southern
flank of the Loppa High, and only 25 km north of the producing
prospect definition.
Aker Geo
Seismic and 3D CSEM profile across the the Bjørnøyrenna Basin and the Skrugard discovery well 7219/8-1 S. Notice
the excellent match between the structural information provided by the seismic section and the resistivity profile
with a conductive Tertiary resting on top of a resistive Cretaceous-Jurassic fault block with the Skrugard discovery
well 7219/8-1 S. As the downthrown block is conductive, a better understanding of such resistivity variations is an
additional key for breaking the basin code.
An Integrated Approach
“It is well known within the Norwegian
petroleum community that the
Skrugard prospect is associated with a
prominent flatspot. It has now also been
confirmed by EMGS that the rumoured
electromagnetic anomaly actually exists
and has been used in de-risking the
prospect. It is thus no big surprise that
the structure contained hydrocarbons.
The uncertainty was the type of hydro-
carbons and volumes,” he adds.
According to Larssen, the seismic
data also shows widespread gas leakages
in this area, meaning that there are –
beyond any doubt – hydrocarbons in the
system. The question is no longer “if”,
but “where” and “how much”.
“The area needs to be better under-
stood in order to unlock the values,
both in terms of new play fairways and
accumulations of hydrocarbons. One
way of doing so is to use all available
geological and geophysical information
in an integrated study”, Larssen claims.
The western half of the Barents Sea
is considered very challenging. It is
characterized by few wells (80 boreholes
Aker Geo
these reports has to do with integrating all Sea, using all kinds of geological and understanding of structural and basin
available data resulting in the identification geophysical information in addition to development, as the depth of imaging
of play fairways,” adds Larssen. seismic and well data. of these tools goes well beyond seismic.
The company, based in Oslo and “The results are very promising,” Gravity and EM help identify subtle
Stavanger, has – very timely – just finalised says Caprona, referring to the fact structural features such as salt induced
the most recent study in the Barents that gravmag and MT improve the structures, while gravmag data anomalies
Aker Geo
Composite seismic line with gravity and
magnetic profiles, with inserts, across the
Loppa High and the Bjørnøyrenna Basin. The
gravity data show that deep Carboniferous
salt, identified on MT data, has used the
Loppa High western bounding faults as
migration conduit. A correct imaging of the
geometry of the salt bodies is quintessential
for the understanding of the plays. In this
basin, the imaging capacity of seismic does
not go beyond the middle Jurassic.
also pinpoint highs of possible magmatic Unique Systems These recent discoveries will of great
origin. The western Barents Sea includes a number help to ”break the code” and understand
Caprona adds that “developing play of different basins with their own unique the petroleum systems of areas west
fairways is also improved by a multi-data petroleum systems and plays. Up to now, of the Loppa High and, applying an
approach. In addition, EM data can be only two plays have been confirmed, integrated approach, to piece together
used to de-risk prospects with respect to but with the three recent discoveries this the puzzle of hydrocarbon systems of the
the content of hydrocarbons.” number has certainly increased. Barents Sea in general.
Aker Geo
Regional Perspective
the Base of Jurassic,
showing a better
view of the Paleozoic
section below the
flattened horizon.
Metres
WEST DC269 1 DD563 1 GV707 1 EAST
magnetic and biostratigraphic data, Basin. The thickest parts of the salt that rivaled the Norphlet sands from Some of the earlier plays made in the southern coast of Florida to date.
ZĞŐŝƐƚĞƌEŽǁǀŝĂƚŚĞǁĞďƐŝƚĞ͗www.aapg.org/mapg2011/
59
61 GEO ExPro
ExProSEPTEMBER
OCTOBER 2011
2011
Amazing views sponsored by
www.geoexpro.com
There is growing interest in understanding the When a seismic survey is conducted, fish in the
effects of human-generated sound on fish and other area hear the sound of the air guns and will often
aquatic organisms. The sources of anthropogenic react to it, but how they react will depend on many
sounds are many. Boats and ships are a major factors, and it is difficult to conduct unambiguous
source of noise, and sonars, not only used by navies studies in order to map the reaction patterns.
but also by the shipping and fishing industries and Here, we summarize the most recent and, to date,
64
6 4 GEO
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xP
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SEPTEMBER
EEPT
EP
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P T EEM
EMB
MB
M B ER 20
2
2011
01
11
1
Studies on Fish and Fisheries
SEISMIC locations. The figure shows the sound pressure level time. Then the vessels approached the catch area,
from one seismic survey line relative to the distance and the sound level gradually increased.
SURVEYS
from the airgun array. The hydrophone rig was at Fish are known to adjust to external influences.
AND FISH 184m depth. At the start of the line, about 46 km from For instance, a novel sound in their environment,
the rig, the sound pressure level was measured at 140 like seismic, may initially be distracting, but after
dB re 1 μPa, and it kept almost constant until the vessel becoming accustomed to it their response to it will
was at 30 km distance. As the vessel approached, the diminish. This decrease in response to a stimulus
sound pressure level steadily increased up to 170 dB after repeated presentations is called habituation.
@ 6 km. Then the level increased more rapidly and Habituation may have led to the higher response
the maximum at 191 dB was obtained when the levels for haddock. However, lower line catch rates
vessel passed close at distance of 500m. The sound for haddock as the seismic vessel approached the
level turned out to be somewhat higher with distance lines indicate that the haddock reacted to the
after the vessel passed than that when it approached seismic sound at closer distances.
the rig, probably due to variation in water depth.
(The shallower the water, the stronger will be the Effect of Seismic on Fisheries
acoustic signal recorded in the water column). The survey clearly indicated that fish react to the
The measurements show that the fish in the sound from the seismic guns by changing their
survey area were exposed to varying levels of behavior, resulting in increased catches for some
sound pressures, depending on their distance from species and smaller catches for others. It appears
the seismic vessel. At 30 km distance from a fish that pollack and parts of the schools of saithe
field the sound pressure level was 140 dB, which migrated out of the area, while other species
is well above the hearing threshold of codfish but seemed to remain. Analyses of the stomach
still below their threshold for behavioural change. contents in the fish caught did not reveal changes
The highest sound level measured at the attributable to the seismic survey. Neither were
hydrophone rig at a depth of 184m was 191 dB, any changes in the distribution of plankton proven
when the vessel passed at a distance of 500m. At this during the seismic data acquisition.
level, fish at this distance would be expected to react The most probable explanation for both
strongly if they have not already chosen to swim increased and reduced catches for the different
away, with known reactions including increased species and types of fishing gear is that the sound
swimming activity, startle responses, changes in from the air guns put the fish under some stress,
schooling behaviour, and vertical movement. causing increased swimming activity. This would,
Sound measurements in the area of line catch for example, explain why Greenland halibut, redfish
of haddock showed a sound pressure level of and ling were more likely to go into the net, while
maximum 155 dB @ 10 km. Fish can hear this level long line catches of the same species declined.
but it will probably not induce behavioural changes. However, the results of this study, showing few
For several weeks the seismic vessel operated many negative effects of seismic shooting, deviate from
kilometres away from the haddock lines, so the fish the results of previous studies, which demonstrated
were first exposed to low sound levels over a long considerable reductions in the catch rates for trawl
and line fishing. In research from the North Cape
Bank in the Barents Sea in 1992, reported in Engås
Sound pressure level (peak value) at a hydrophone rig deployed at 73m depth as function et al (1996, 2002), the seismic acquisition activity
of air gun distance. The closest distance is around 10.1 km when the maximum sound
pressure level was 155 dB re 1 μPa.
was concentrated within a smaller area, 81 km2. The
vessel was equipped with two streamers and one
Løkkeborg et al (2010)
SEISMIC sail lines have larger spacing; thereby, the number of shots in the
area is reduced. This is positive for fish and fisheries. In addition,
SURVEYS
the sensor systems in the seismic streamers are gradually
AND FISH being perfected, so that streamers can be towed at greater
depths where ambient ocean noise is less, thereby perhaps
accomplishing seismic shooting with lower decibels of sound.
We will discuss the issue of seismic and fish further in a later
edition of GEO ExPro.
Fishing is a mainstay of life in Røst, one of the remote Lofoten Islands north of the Arctic Circle, near the test area chosen for the NPD survey.
Martin Landrø
LYNX
Information Systems
Resources for
Readers on the Move
Visit our new website to access our
complete e-reader friendly archive of
geoscience answers and inspiration at
www.geoexpro.com
HorizonCube
The New OpendTect plugin
autotracks hundreds of horizons
Understand
the depositional history
Create
more accurate models
Extract
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www.opendtect.org
GEO ExPro SEPTEMBER 2011 69
GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
Mi
cro
Sei
sm
ic I
nc
pays off for shale plays life of the field, ensuring operators understand
the variability in shale over space and time.
TED MOON
The past decade has seen a major trans- these reservoirs for the first time. and then analyzed for their impact on the
formation in gas production in the United However, this incredible opportunity reservoir. Armed with this information,
States, driven mainly by the development has brought with it closer public scrutiny reservoir engineers can optimize well
of shale gas plays. According to the US and increased environmental concerns, placement and completions for maximum
Energy Information Administration (EIA), particularly the fear that hydraulic hydrocarbon recovery at reduced cost.
the proliferation of activity into new shale fracturing techniques, and the fracturing
plays has increased shale gas production fluids used, may have long-term Unique System
from 0.39 Tcf in 2000 to 4.87 Tcf in 2010, detrimental effects on the water table While microseismic monitoring methods are
or 23% of US dry gas production. By and nearby communities. Therefore, becoming more common, MicroSeismic’s
2035, EIA expects shale gas to represent meeting the dual drivers of commercial technique is unique in the way in which
46% of US natural gas production. and environmental sustainability has it is deployed, according to MicroSeismic
This expansive growth in shale gas prompted the development of innovative President and CEO Peter Duncan. “Unlike
development, seen from the Barnett to the techniques for monitoring and mapping conventional microseismic recording tech-
Marcellus, would not have been possible fractures in the shale. niques that monitor from a single point
without the combined technology This is where MicroSeismic Inc. (Micro- downhole, our technique deploys an array
revolutions of advanced horizontal drilling Seismic) has made a significant impact in of passive seismic monitoring instruments –
techniques and hydraulic fracturing. a relatively short time. The company has geophones – laid out in a grid at or just below
These techniques have opened access to pioneered a unique process in which the the surface. This data acquisition method
previously inaccessible, low-permeability low-energy passive seismic, or microseismic, not only delivers higher quality data, it
shale gas reservoirs, allowing companies events that take place during drilling, avoids many of the monitoring difficulties
to profitably produce natural gas from stimulation and production are recorded common to downhole methods.”
MicroSeismic Inc.
monitoring well is expensive,
costing some US$2–4 million
per well. In addition, there
are temperature limitations
on the tools that can be
deployed downhole, and
the recording instruments
can only map a relatively
small area around the well.
“Because of this, reservoir
engineers do not gain the full
picture of where fractures are
occurring during stimulation,
which hampers their ability
to optimize completion and
production strategies for the
reservoir,” Duncan says.
MicroSeismic’s array of
geophones placed on or near
the surface dispenses with
the need for most borehole
monitoring and covers a
much wider area. In addition,
the seismic recording devices
use subsurface noise from the Frac monitoring results using MicroSeismic’s PSET® imaging technology indicate good wellbore azimuth and frac spacing.
production operation as the The spheres represent seismic events sized by amplitude and are colored by stage. Operators use this information to
energy source, eliminating optimize well and frac spacing.
the need for separate sources Frac monitoring results are used to generate a Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) Model indicating
such as dynamite or vibrators. the fracture paths back to the wellbore.
Duncan admits that when MicroSeismic
began in 2003, the concept of microseismic
MicroSeismic Inc.
monitoring from a near-surface geophone
array was met with a healthy dose of scepticism
in the industry. “The conventional thinking
was that the microseismic signals were too
weak and our geophones were too far away
from the source to be effective. However, we
have proven that we don’t need to be as close
to the event as conventional monitoring,
because we are using the collective listening
power of an array of hundreds or thousands
of geophones to create something akin
to a parabolic dish microphone that can
simultaneously detect multiple microseismic
events over an entire field,” he says.
The individual geophones are linked by
MicroSeismic’s Passive Seismic Emission
Tomography (PSET) mapping and analysis
program, which serves as a focusing algorithm
that allows the engineer to use the dense array
of geophones to ‘beam steer’, or sum the output
of the entire array. In this way, microseismic
events can be detected and located with a
high degree of accuracy. PSET also overcomes
the issue of signal attenuation by the
overburden, which hinders the effectiveness
MicroSeismic Inc.
location techniques.
Duncan likens his company’s monitoring
solution to a common medical procedure.
“We are like doctors placing a stethoscope
on a patient’s chest. In our case, the patient
is the reservoir. By listening for the almost
imperceptible microseismic events and
then diagnosing what these events might
mean for the reservoir, engineers can take
immediate steps to maintain the health of
their production process.”
The non-invasive monitoring
technique helps ensure the long-term
vitality of a shale gas reservoir by allowing
operators to properly space their wells
such that hydrocarbons are not bypassed
and money is not wasted drilling
unnecessary wells. In addition, mapping
of a stimulation treatment helps ensure
that the fracture path does not penetrate
into environmentally sensitive subsurface
areas such as water conduits.
The geophone array can also be used
as an early-warning system for wellbore
or casing stability problems. “Not only
can we identify if there is an integrity
problem downhole, but we can very
accurately pinpoint the location and
source, allowing for earlier and more
effective intervention,” Duncan says.
Real-time Monitoring
Over the past 7 years, MicroSeismic’s PSET® processing and imaging technology identifies source mechanisms that help geologists
understand how the rock is breaking during fraccing. Operators use this information to optimize
monitoring technique has been steadily
their completions and field development strategies.
adopted by shale gas operators across
North America, who are experiencing
more efficient and increased production, a removable surface-located array of frac stages for clients covering a total area
while drilling fewer wells and with less geophones arranged in a hub-and-spoke of nearly 700 square miles. Another 3-4
impact on the environment. The company pattern to monitor long laterals and pad projects are slated for installation before
has advanced its monitoring expertise to drilling over a large area. The array’s large the end of the year.
the point that it is now monitoring multiple 2D aperture and PSET-based microseismic “Whichever option is chosen, the
wells and simultaneous fracturing opera- monitoring images how the stimulation- bottom line is that companies can
tions in real-time, from one installation induced fractures interact with a reservoir’s gather more real-time data for less cost
over an area encompassing 1,300 km2. natural fracture networks. and with a much smaller environmental
“Our technology gives operators For longer term monitoring, Micro- footprint,” Duncan says. “This adds up
a holistic view of their fields, allowing Seismic’s BuriedArray system deploys an to better informed decisions about future
them to track interactions between wells array of geophones permanently installed stimulation to optimize field production
and well-to-well variability over time,” and buried at a depth of 100 m for those and recovery.”
Duncan says. “This ability to monitor all operators who need to monitor multiple Increasingly, operators that originally
wells over time is a powerful tool that wells over a long period of time for strategic installed a monitoring array to detect
lets operators adjust their completions planning and development purposes. This microseismic only during a fracturing job
and field-development strategies for service drives down the cost of monitoring have begun to see the array as a long-
enhanced long-term productivity.” with each well drilled, making it a cost term, cost-effective way to monitor the
MicroSeismic offers both temporary effective, long-term monitoring option. movement of fluids out of their reservoir
and life-of-field monitoring options. To date, MicroSeismic has installed 25 during production, or into their reservoir
The company’s FracStar design uses buried arrays and monitored over 3,000 during enhanced oil recovery operations.
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EVjaKZghcZa ))%&''()',)%%ooo&9JC]P&[ge
MicroSeismic Inc.
microseismic detection as a long-term keep the country supplied
production-monitoring tool is largely due with natural gas for the
to the growing influence of the Digital next 200 years, delivering
Oil Field concept. “One popular idea an enormous boost to
within the Digital Oil Field is to turn a the nation’s economy
field’s production into a process that can and helping to reduce its
be monitored and tuned in real time as dependence on imported
conditions change,” he says. “This can gas from Russia.
only be accomplished with information The promise of such
about the reservoir’s status between the an economic windfall for
wells, in addition to the information at the Poland puts pressure on the
wells. Our technique provides both.” geoscience and engineering
communities to first verify
Further Applications Abound that the shale gas resources
Going forward, Duncan sees Micro- exist in these quantities and
Seismic’s technique as an effective tool are technically recoverable.
for monitoring everything from steam This will be accomplished
injection in oilsands projects in his native over the next 18 months with
Canada to carbon sequestration and a series of 30–40 drill tests by
enhanced geothermal systems. For now, various companies to more
he is excited to be developing a technology accurately determine the
that promises to hasten the emergence of existence and commercial
efficient and environmentally sustainable viability of Poland’s shale gas.
production of unconventional gas around If these tests confirm the Dr. Peter Duncan began his career with Shell, and worked for
the world. potential, then operators a number of geophysical companies before becoming founding
President of MicroSeismic in 2003. He was President of the Society
To that end, the company has used will have to ensure that
of Exploration Geophysicists 2004 – 2004
a recent capital investment of more their exploration and
than US$100 million to further develop production activities pose
its technology and expand its service no risk to the safety or environment qualified to provide the answers.
internationally, including into Poland, of local communities, and regulatory “Once they are familiar with the value
where it has set up an office. An April 2011 authorities will need to be satisfied that our technology offers, we believe that
report by the US EIA estimates Poland’s fears expressed over contamination to governments and local communities in
potential shale gas reserves to be 792 Tcf water supplies are unfounded. Poland and elsewhere will welcome the
of risked shale gas-in-place, from the Baltic These issues are mainly technical in benefits it can bring in terms of responsible
Basin (514 Tcf), Lublin Basin (222 Tcf) and nature, and Duncan is confident that production and management of their
the Podlasie Basin (56 Tcf). If recovered, MicroSeismic’s technology is uniquely unconventional oil and gas reservoirs.”
INTERNATIONAL DEALS
$XJXVW
$&7,9(352-(&76
www.aeminfo.com.bh
GEO ExPro SEPTEMBER 2011 75
EXPLORATION
Iceland is renowned for its hot springs, geysers and active volcanoes that erupt
from time to time, not world-class oil and gas production – but could basins close to this
sparsely populated North Atlantic island be concealing significant hydrocarbon potential?
The Jan Mayen Ridge, situated some 400 culminated in the separation of Eurasia and the Jan Mayen microcontinent. The
km to the north-east of Iceland, is believed and Greenland. The eastern margin of the Kolbeinsey Ridge then linked up with the
to have the potential for oil and gas microcontinent developed as a volcanic Mohns Ridge through a newly formed
accumulations because of its similarity to passive margin and the western margin as fracture zone – the West Jan Mayen Fracture
neighbouring North Atlantic sedimentary a series of extensional fault blocks. From the Zone – during Early Miocene (Aquitanian)
basins which are hydrocarbon-bearing. northern part of the Jan Mayen Ridge to the times, while the previously formed Aegir
The More, Voring, Faroe-Shetland, Jan south, there is progressive deepening of the Ridge became extinct. This resulted in
Mayen Ridge and East Greenland Basins basin and an increase in normal faulting and the complete separation of the Jan Mayen
were previously fused together as part of structural complexity. microcontinent from East Greenland.
a continental mass prior to the opening of Lundin et al, 1995 and Lundin and Dore, The North Atlantic region was then
the North Atlantic Ocean Basin in the Late 2002, have established a significant plate affected by post-break-up compressional
Palaeocene-Early Eocene. re-organisation and change in extension events which re-shaped its structural grain.
The Ridge is bordered by basalt pro- direction during the development of the Lundin and Dore, 2002, Blystad et al, 1995,
vinces on both sides. Further to the east lies North Atlantic Ocean Basin. It begins with and Vagnes et al, 1998, have illustrated
the Aegir Ridge, a non-active mid-oceanic a sea-floor spreading phase which started features attributable to the post-break-
ridge and, to the west is the Kolbeinsey during the Early Eocene (Ypresian) with up compressional events, which include
Ridge, an active mid-oceanic ridge. the East Jan Mayen and Senja Fracture reverse movement of normal faults, broad
The microcontinent was formed in two zones orientated in a north-west to south- basin inversion and various forms of stratal
tectonic phases: the opening of the Norway east direction, as can be seen on the map. folding which occur in the More, Voring
Basin in the Late Palaeocene/Early Eocene, Between Late Eocene (Priabonian) and and Faroe-Shetland Basins. These features
and the rifting and final separation of the Early Oligocene (Rupelian), a northward have been observed on the eastern margin
microcontinent from the Greenland margin propagating rift system developed within of the Jan Mayen microcontinent, especially
in the Early Miocene. Both tectonic events East Greenland between Liverpool Land at the Ridge flank, and the authors propose
Seismic Insight
CGGVeritas has acquired and processed more than 3,600 km
of 2D seismic lines over the Jan Mayen Ridge. The dataset
was acquired in two phases: Phase 1, IS-JMR-01, consisting of
more than 2,700 km of 10 km long-offset 2D seismic lines, was
acquired in 2001. Phase 2, IS-JMR-08, with 859 km of long-
offset (10.05 km) of 2D, was acquired in 2008 to infill the
original 2001 dataset. In 2009, CGGVeritas reprocessed more
than 1,700 km of key lines (IS-JMR-01-REPRO) from the 2001
survey, applying the latest techniques such as Fully Ray-Traced
Kirchhoff Pre-stack Time Migration. The reprocessed dataset
shows significant improvement in fault plane resolution, multiple
removal and noise attenuation, enabling better imaging of
structures and stratigraphy. The interpretation of the resulting
high-quality dataset has led to a significant improvement in the
understanding of this frontier area of the North Atlantic.
Four seismic horizons were interpreted across the data
area. The deepest horizon interpreted is simply identified as
Top Palaeocene and may represent the Palaeocene-Eocene
boundary. It is widespread over the Jan Mayen Ridge, except
where it is obscured by a thick sequence of volcanic rocks.
It marks the top of high-amplitude reflections, that have
been proven by the Deep-Sea Drilling Programme (DSDP)
to comprise basalt and early Palaeogene sediments. The
Top Palaeocene horizon is overlain by Sequence 1A: a set of CGGVeritas multi-client seismic database across the Jan Mayen Ridge.
homogenous, low-amplitude, parallel to sub-parallel bedded
events. Sequence 1A is overlain by Sequence 1B, a set of parallel event marks what may be the end of a major extensional phase in the
to sub-parallel high-amplitude reflections that may represent opening of the North Atlantic Basin.
volcaniclastics and turbidites. Both sequences may have been The Early Oligocene horizon is loosely named according to
deposited under low-energy shelf-slope environments. published information and may represent an event related to Eurasian
The late Eocene horizon is not widespread across the Ridge. and American plate re-adjustment terminating in local uplift. This
It is named according to published
information on key tectonic events Interpreted west-east seismic line illustrating key prospective structural targets within the Jan Mayen Ridge.
that affected the North Atlantic
region. It is interpreted on the flanks
CGGVeritas
CGGVeritas
result of renewed extension in the region.
The late Miocene event is also loosely
named, based on published information.
The horizon is a key erosional event that
is widespread within the mapped area. It
is overlain by Sequence 4, which may be
composed of variable facies. On the Ridge,
the seismic facies are of higher amplitude
and may be parallel to sub-parallel,
representing deposition under low-energy
conditions. On the flanks, deposition is
more proximal and reflections are more
chaotic and of lower amplitude.
CGGVeritas
Exploration Opportunities
The presence of layers of basalt within the Jan
Mayen Ridge microcontinent makes imaging
below them difficult. However, based on
comparison with regional sedimentary
basins which are hydrocarbon-bearing and An uninterpreted W-E seismic line illustrating tilted fault blocks related to final separation of the
Jan Mayen microcontinent from Greenland (above), with an interpretation of the section with key
which were formed and modified by similar seismic facies identified (below).
tectonic processes, the sedimentary rocks are
of sufficient thickness and age to potentially
generate and store hydrocarbons. could be provided by turbidites deposited within shelf-slope
A key risk to hydrocarbon generation in this basin is the presence environments, with sealing provided by intra-formation shales.
of a mature source rock. The proven source rock for fields in the Migration from the deep-seated mature source rocks (if present)
adjacent basins is Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous, although there is into overlying structures is highly possible through a network of
some hypothesis that younger rocks could generate hydrocarbons faults and fractures created by rifting and plate re-organisation.
within these basins. In the Jan Mayen Ridge, the presence of Late However, a key issue on migration, especially on structures
Jurassic/Early Cretaceous rocks has not been confirmed by drilling. adjacent to the Ridge, is timing of hydrocarbon generation and the
However, within the Ridge itself, where imaging is better, there are compressional event, with the risk factor being whether the event
indications of sedimentary sequences which may pre-date the late has breached the structures, allowing leakage of hydrocarbons.
Palaeocene/Early Eocene opening of the Norwegian-Greenland
Sea and these could offer the needed source potential. References:
In the western rifted margin, key hydrocarbon play elements Blystad, P., Brekke, H., Faerseth, R.B., Larsen, B.T., Skogseid, J. and
have been identified on seismic. Possible reservoir rocks may Torudbakken, B. (1995). Structural Elements of the Norwegian
include fluvio-deltaic sediments related to the initial separation Continental Shelf; Part II: The Norwegian Sea Region. The Norwegian
of Eurasia and Greenland. Closures on tilted fault blocks within Petroleum Directorate Bulletin No. 8
the rift margin could offer potential traps for hydrocarbons. For
this play, potential hydrocarbon-sealing candidates have been Lundin, E and Dore, A.G. (2002). Mid-Cenozoic post-breakup
identified on seismic as argillaceous facies which blanket the deformation in the ‘passive’ margins bordering the Norwegian-Greenland
titled fault blocks within the rifted margin. These facies were Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology 19, pp79-93.
possibly deposited during initial basin subsidence.
Additional play potential could be provided by four-way Vagnes, E., Gabrielsen, R.H. and Haremo, P. (1998). Late Cretaceous-
dip closures and reverse faults created by an early Palaeogene Cenozoic intraplate contractional deformation at the Norwegian
compressional event. These structures are present on the Ridge continental shelf: timing, magnitude and regional implications.
flank, inboard of the passive margin. The reservoir for this target Tectonophysics, 300, pp29-46.
hiQbe®
Velocity cubes for
depth conversion
JANE WHALEY
As you drive up towards the Ngorongoro Extensive Rift System ago and left behind a vast, 260 km2,
Crater from the flat plains of the The Ngorongoro Conservation Area lies steep-sided basin: Ngorongoro Crater.
Serengeti, the searing heat begins to lift in the eastern branch of the East Africa
and the air gets cooler. The road becomes Rift, part of the extensive rift system which Giant Caldera
rougher and the scenery surprisingly resulted from the east - west separation of The crater is predominantly composed of
mountainous, and it is easy to realise that the Nubian and Somalian tectonic plates. basaltic (low silica) and trachytic (high silica
you are climbing the steep sides of what Rifting started in the Early Miocene and content) lavas, all extruded between 2.1
was once a 5,000m high volcano. Small is still continuing today, making the East and 2.8 million years ago. Flows attributed
encampments of Maasai appear, with African Rift system the most extensive to the volcano have been identified 80 km
their tiny huts and bright red and purple active continental extension zone in the away on the Serengeti Plains.
cloths, and cows mingle with giraffes on world. The history of the rift is discussed Ngorongoro, one of the largest unbro-
the hillside. in greater detail on pages 20–24. ken calderas in the world, is especially
Then you turn the final corner and The two branches of the East African remarkable because, unlike the majority
spread out before you is one of the Rift system have very distinct features, of such features, it is not flooded. Its flat
most famous yet still awe-inspiring and the western one being characterised by floor contains a small saline lake, the main
spectacular views in the world. About high mountains and some of the deepest water source for the animals living in the
600m below is the flat floor of the freshwater lakes in the world. The eastern crater. It is also the daylight home to
caldera, 20 km across and dramatically branch, by contrast, is dominated by a thousands of flamingos, their vibrant rosy
encircled by the steep crater walls. This number of dormant or extinct volcanoes, hues, the result of grazing on algae from
natural enclosure is home to about which include the famous Mounts the lake floor, making the distant lake
25,000 wild animals, the most densely Kenya, Elgon and Meru, not forgetting shimmer pinkly in the sunlight.
packed concentration of wildlife in Kilamanjaro, at 5,895m the highest The majority of the animals living in
Africa. Nearly half a million tourists visit mountain in Africa and one of the most Ngorongoro are ruminants, grazing on
the Ngorongoro Conservation Area iconic sites on the continent. the rich grasslands of the crater floor,
annually, most to view the astonishing This volcanic activity is also and include zebra, gazelles, eland and
microcosm of East African wildlife within responsible for the basalts of the Crater warthog, although giraffe, impala and
its boundaries, but few probably realise Highlands. Lava erupted from a number topi are not found. There is also a herd of
just what a geologically unique area of vents, including from a volcano which elderly bull elephants. The swamplands
they are looking at. eventually exploded 2.5 million years host hippos and many species of birds,
The Ngorongoro
Conservation Area in
Northern Tanzania
is a World Heritage
site renowned for its
beauty and unique
wildlife and one of the
few places where active
continental break-up
and its attendant
magmatism can be
observed today.
NASA/Winslade Graphics
mantle, just below the East African Rift.
Oldoinyo Lengai – ‘Mountain of God’
in Maasai – is the youngest volcano in
this part of the Rift Valley and is less than
370,000 years old.
Cradle of Mankind
The erupting volcanoes that formed the the oldest evidence of hominoids, preserved Ngorongoro, and then by the Precambrian
Ngorongoro Highlands may well have been by the abundance of volcanic ash. The lava metamorphic gneisses and quartzites which
watched by some of the earliest prehistoric layers have been subdivided into seven make up most of the African continent.
men. About 40 km north-west of the crater formations, ranging in age from two million The climate in this part of Africa in the
is the world-famous Oldupai Gorge (also to 15,000 years ago. These are underlain mid-Pliocene was wetter than it is now and
known as Olduvai), which contains some of by volcanic tuff, probably derived from Oldupai had springs, abundant vegetation
The archaeological discoveries found in the lava at Oldupai established the African origin of humankind. The so-called ‘monolith’ on the right is an
erosional remnant, coloured red by oxidised basalt washing into the basin from the lateritised Crater Highlands to the east.
Alex Guth
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Natural Wonders
We have barely touched on the many
wonders of the Ngorongoro Conservation
Area, which spans mountains, plains,
woodlands and forests. There are the wide
expanses of the Serengeti National Park,
where the astonishing annual migration
of nearly two million wildebeest can be
followed; or the emerald green crater lake
Weathered carbonatites give the appearance of snow from a distance on the flanks of Oldoinyo at Empakaai; Lake Eyasi, forming the faulted
Lengai, the only active volcano in northern Tanzania. south-eastern edge of the NCA; the ‘Shifting
Sands’, composed of fine black ash from
and a large freshwater lake, making it 90m cliff of lava layers filled with fossil and Oldoinyo Lengai; or Nasera Rock, a granite
very attractive to grazing animals – and archaeological remains. monolith rising 80m above the plains and a
to the early upright hunters which preyed The most famous fossil found in Oldupai meeting place for centuries.
on them. Successive layers of ash rapidly is probably the 1.8 million year old ape-like All once again demonstrating that
buried and preserved the remains of both skull known as Australopithecus boisei, geology is not only responsible for shaping
animals and hominoids, and also artefacts often referred to as ‘nutcracker man’, due the earth around us, but also lies behind
such as pebble choppers and scrapers, to its large molars. However, it is thought many of the natural and anthropological
the oldest recognizable tools on earth. that several hundred species of hominoids wonders of the world.
Pleistocene earth movements and faulting may have lived in this region two million
resulted in the diversion of a stream which years ago, including Homo erectus which Acknowledgement: Many thanks to Dr.
eroded down through these sediments, eventually evolved into modern man. Joe McCall and Prof J. B. Dawson for
creating a deep ravine and exposing a About 45 km south of the Gorge is assistance with this article.
Andrew Quallington
(NCA) is not a National Park, but a the needs of humans and nature is hard
conservation authority administered to maintain. The number of Maasai in the
by the Government of Tanzania. NCA has expanded from about 10,000
It aims to maintain the balance of when it was established to over 40,000
people and nature while guaranteeing today, with 300,000 cattle. They are not
the protection of the natural, cultural allowed to live in the adjacent Serengeti
and archaeological resources for the National Park, nor in the Ngorongoro
wider global community. Originally Crater itself, so pressure on the limited
part of the Serengeti National Park, grazing is increasing, while the general
it was established as a separate entity wealth and health of the tribes people is
in 1959 as a multiple land use area, declining.
where wildlife could coexist with The Tanzanian Government wants
the Maasai pastoralists practicing to increase revenues from tourism by
traditional livestock grazing, whilst also building more luxury hotels along the
allowing tourists space to enjoy one of Ngorongoro Crater rim, and may evict
the world’s major wildlife localities. It some Maasai to make way for this. Only
covers 8,288 km2, and was declared a time will tell if the admirable philosophy
World Heritage site in 1979. of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Photo: Chris Naish
As the oft-quoted ‘Cradle of Mankind’, ‘to maintain the peaceful co-existence
man and his ancestors have lived in the of human and wildlife in a natural
Ngorongoro eco-system for more than and traditional setting’ is ultimately
three million years, but despite careful achievable.
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GEO ExPro SEPTEMBER 2011 85
THE STANDARD OIL STORY III
The Rise,
Oil Company
RASOUL SORKHABI, P h .D.
If one were to write the saga of the Standard Rockefeller bought the Clark brothers’ monopolies (over oil, tobacco, steel, beef
Oil Company into a drama, it would have shares, and named the refinery Standard and railroads) in the USA.
three major players: the “Gentleman” Works. As the oil business grew in the In his introduction to the abridged
John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937) who region, in 1870 Rockefeller and his brother Norton’s edition of Tarbell’s The History of
co-founded and led the company from William, along with Andrews, Henry the Standard Oil Company, historian David
humble beginnings to a nation-wide Flagler, Oliver Burr Jennings (husband to Chalmers wrote: “John D. Rockefeller and
trust; the “Lady Journalist” Ida Tarbell the sister of William Rockefeller’s wife), and his associates did not build the Standard
(1857–1944) whose “muckraking” Stephen Harkness formed a new company, Oil Company in the broad rooms of Wall
(investigative journalist) work, The History the Standard Oil Company in Ohio (later Street banks and investment houses,
of the Standard Oil Company in 1904, was Sohio). The name Standard was chosen to water their stock and rig the market. They
largely responsible for the disintegration imply the standardization of oil refineries fought their way to control by rebate and
of the company in 1911 (now one and products. Indeed, the oil barrel of 42 drawback, bribe and blackmail, espionage
hundred years ago) by the United States gallons was a design of Standard Oil in and price cutting, and perhaps even more
anti-trust law; and finally the “Company” Pennsylvania in the 1860s; oil was stored important, by ruthless, never slothful
itself. In the past two issues of GEO ExPro, in the wooden whiskey barrels and it was efficiency of organization and production.”
we looked at the profiles of Rockefeller 40 plus 2 gallons per barrel because some Many of these methods were later
and Tarbell; in this final part of the article, oil was often lost during transportation. disclosed and found to be unethical and
we review the growth and fate of the The rise and expansion of Standard Oil in some cases illegal. Nevertheless, during
Standard Oil Company, which, as we will occurred after the Civil War and during a the 1870s–1890s, Standard Oil absorbed
see, remains the great-grandfather of the period in the American history which has many small and large oil companies and
major US oil companies today. been dubbed as the Gilded Age, popularized established regional companies across the
in Gilded Age: A Tale of Today by Mark Twain USA. In 1882, Rockefeller and partners
Rapid Expansion and Charles Dudley in 1873 (in reference further consolidated their dominance by
In 1863, Rockefeller, aged 24, together to the process of gilding an object with a transforming Standard Oil into a trust with
with the Clark brothers and a chemist, surficial layer of gold). This was the period nine trustees managing the corporation on
Samuel Andrews, started an oil refinery of rapid economic expansion, population behalf of all shareholders. In 1885 the trust
in Cleveland, Ohio. Two years later, growth, and rise of large enterprises and moved to New Jersey to take advantage
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of favorable regulations in that state, and movement against trusts and monopolies youngest US president ever) when President
another office in New York administered pushed the politicians to curb the McKinley was assassinated. When Roosevelt
most of the Standard Oil’s overseas activities. economic power of corporations. It was ran for presidency in 1904, a highlight of his
In 1890, Senator John Sherman of Ohio in this ripe environment that Tarbell’s agenda was to limit the reign of monopolies
initiated an anti-trust law in Congress. book appeared and raised the public over the American economy. Even though
Although US Presidents Grover Cleveland and political consciousness against the Standard Oil had contributed a large
and William McKinley did not enforce Standard Oil. The period 1890–1914 is sum of money to the Republican Party
the law in the 1890s, the Sherman Act sometimes called the Progressive Era in campaign, Roosevelt ordered its return. His
became the source of American anti-trust American history as it spoke for reforms administration then started an investigation
policies a decade later. In response to in support of the middle-class, science into the activities of Standard Oil. The
this, the Standard Oil Trust changed its and education, women’s rights and social company’s top managers, John D. Archbold
name to the Standard Oil Interests, with liberties, as well as anti-corruption and and Henry H. Roger (Rockefeller had retired
20 companies, and made some cosmetic “trust-busting” policies. If Rockefeller was in 1897) rushed to the White House in
adjustments – but still the central power an icon of the Gilded Age, Tarbell and her March 1906 to talk sense to Roosevelt, but
remained with a holding company first in work epitomized the Progressive Era. apparently it did not work, for in November
New York and then in New Jersey. President Theodore Roosevelt from the 1906 U.S. Attorney General Charles
Republican Party was one of the strongest Bonaparte filed an antitrust law suit against
Progressive Era political leaders who pushed for Progressive Standard Oil in a St. Louis federal court. The
Nevertheless, the 1893–97 depression, reforms. A man of many achievements company was under fire from various law
which hurt the middle and lower-income (the first American to win the Noble Peace suits and negative press coverage. A law suit
classes, and the rise of an intellectual Prize), he became President at 42 (the against Standard Oil of Indiana eventually
A time-line chart showing the history of the companies derived from the Standard Oil Company from 1911 up to the present.
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
PROSPECTIUNI
TM
formational purpose of this
article, and are not meant
as trade use.) www.prospectiuni.ro
Phone: +40 21 319 66 60
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ExPro SEPTEMBER 2011 89
TECHNOLOGY
THOMAS SMITH
Dr. Javadpour
Atomic Force Microscopy
Nanoparticles and nanopore spaces are just
too small to see even with the best optical
microscopes. Scanning electron microscopes
(SEM) can obtain two-dimensional topography
and mineralogy images on finished surfaces.
However, rocks contain many discontinuities
and their properties can be heterogeneous,
even at nanoscale. Atomic force micro-
scopy (AFM) is a unique tool for nanoscale
characterization because it can provide high-
Exemplary
resolution topography images that show both pores
mechanical and physicochemical properties.
AFM uses a stylus tip to scan a sample in a
way resembling our sense of touch which allows
direct measurement of interactive forces between
surfaces or molecules. AFM can measure the
topography of surfaces for an examination of the
geometry of the pore network at the nanoscale.
Direct measurement of surface forces, such as
van der Waals, and electrostatic forces between
molecules of interest and mineral rocks are also A topography image taken by an atomic force microscope (AFM) showing
possible with this instrument. nanopores in a shale sample. The entire image is approximately five
micrometers across or about 1/10th of a human hair diameter.
Something that we are all familiar Simply put, nanotechnology is the become semiconductors when reduced
with, a human hair, is about 50,000 engineering of functional systems at to the nanoscale. Thermal conductivity
nanometers (nm) in diameter. Over the molecular scale. and other physical properties can change
1,000 times smaller than the human drastically at the nanoscale.
hair, nanoscale materials occur naturally Big Differences With particle attributes changing
in the environment. Now, scientists and One of the exciting and challenging aspects at the nanoscale, scientists are
engineers are arranging collections of of nanoscale particles is that the behavior experimenting to learn more about their
tens to thousands of atoms to create can be very different from classical physics, properties and ways to take advantage
nanoparticles that can range from 1 following the much more different rules of them in various applications. We
to 100 nm in diameter. The important of quantum mechanics. For example, you already use many products that employ
point here is that these nanoparticles can cannot walk up to a wall and be teleported nanotechnology such as nanoparticles
be built to specific sizes and for specific to the other side, but, at the nanoscale an of zinc oxide or titanium oxide in our
purposes as well as be assembled to electron can. Insulators (substances that sunscreens or as a coating on clothing for
perform specific functions. cannot conduct an electric charge) can better UV protection, in scratch-resistant
PROSPECTIUNI
(Editor’s note: This article is a brief introduction TM
that they can. The latest secondary
into nanotechnology. A more comprehensive
and tertiary recovery methods, drilling article will appear in our issue on new tech-
muds, and ways of connecting pore nologies next year.) www.prospectiuni.ro
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GEO ExPro SEPTEMBER 2011 91
GEO CITIES
to Petroleum
LAGOS: THE LIVERPOOL
OF WEST AFRICA
Alf Gillman
ELEANOR ARCHER
Lagos is famous for its teeming crowds stems from either Oko (Yoruba: “cassava exposed beaches of Dahomey and Bagadry
and chaotic traffic jams, full to the brim farm”) or Eko (“war camp”). for the camouflage of the Lagos lagoon.
with noise, pollution and crime. As the Lagos was settled at various times by Additionally, proximity to the prolonged
commercial centre of Nigeria, it is home to at hunters and fishermen from the Awori warfare and disruption to the north of
least 10 million citizens, a number predicted sub-nationality, the southernmost of the Lagos in the first half of the nineteenth
to grow to 25 million by 2015, which will Yoruba-speaking peoples. Yorubaland, of century created a vast supply of slaves for
make it the third largest city in the world. which Lagos is part, was involved in long- export, making it West Africa’s leading
Before oil was discovered in Nigeria in running wars which pushed the original slave port at the time. The Trans-Atlantic
1956, there were less than 300,000 people settlers further and further south towards slave voyage database put the number of
living in Lagos, but as the economy grew, the sea in search of refuge, where the slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at
the population swelled rapidly as Nigerians natural topography of the islands served 308,800, with only 24,000 slaves shipped
were drawn towards their financial centre. to protect those seeking shelter from the before 1801. The Lagos lagoon facilitated
However, Lagos was a central trading internecine wars. easy and quick movement as it was the
station within Africa long before oil was only outlet to the sea in the Yoruba region.
discovered. Being situated on the Bight of Leading Slave Port Slaving operations continued in Lagos
Benin, it became a popular trading spot for However, this same shelter provided far until 1851 in spite of the British anti-slavery
European ships, which were drawn to the less security for its people in the latter part patrols. In 1841 Oba Akitoye ascended on
large lagoon behind Lagos island where of the eighteenth centuries. Although to the throne in Lagos and tried to end the
there was the opportunity to access the Lagos originally played a comparatively trade, but Lagos merchants, most notably
rivers flowing in from the north. By the small part in the slave trade, the rising Madam Tinubu (after whom Tinubu
1500s, Portuguese sailors began trading power and regulations of Dahomey (the Square in Lagos is still named) resisted the
across the lagoon, naming the area ‘lagos’, Republic of Benin) combined with the ban, deposed the king and installed his
meaning ‘lakes’, and buying ivory, slaves abolition of the slave-trade in France brother Oba Kosoko. The British, however,
and cloth from the local inhabitants. Before (1794) and England (1807) forced the supported Oba Akitoye, and aided him in
that, it had been called called Eko, which slavers to seek cover and abandon the regaining his throne in 1851. A decade
PROSPECTIUNI
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GEO ExPro SEPTEMBER 2011 93
EXPLORATION UPDATE
The worlds most significant discoveries brought to you by IHS and GEO ExPro JANE WHALEY
ExxonMobil
The recent KC919-3 wildcat confirmed the than 700 Bboe in its combined
presence of the accumulation with 145m Keathley Canyon acreage,
net oil pay in Pliocene sandstone, which more than 85% of which is oil.
is the shallow secondary target. The well ExxonMobil is the operator with 50% and an approved permit to drill, when
is continuing in order to reach the main interest and is partnered by Eni Petroleum activities were suspended. The permit
Miocene target, expected to be at a depth US and Petrobras. was renewed in March this year and this
of about 2,000m. The water depth in the Prior to the Deepwater Horizon oil is the company’s first post-moratorium
area is about 2,100m. spill, ExxonMobil had a rig on location deepwater exploration well.
Pre-Salt Discovery
Repsol Sinopec have announced what they describe as a ‘most
significant’ oil discovery at their Gávea pre-salt prospect, which is in
the Campos Basin, rather than the Santos Basin where the majority
of such fields have been found. The well, 1-REPF-11A-RJS, is located
about 300 km east of Rio de Janeiro, in waters over 2,700m deep.
It has been drilling since before March 2011 and reported two
oil accumulations earlier in the year, but the significance of the
discovery has only now been confirmed. The consortium, which
also includes Statoil (35%) and Petrobras (30%), is currently
analyzing the results of the well before continuing with exploration
and evaluation work in the area.
So why does the industry needed another Everyone in our management has Why did you decide to base yourselves in
seismic company? a minimum of 10 years’ experience in Bergen, Norway?
During the last two years the seismic industry the seismic industry, and our team as a Bergen is a main pool of expertise for
has seen two significant bankruptcies and whole has a tremendous track record in both the shipping and seismic industries
a take-over, so by bringing a new player building solid enterprises. Although a – having an office in Bergen puts us
to the table we are increasing competition. technology driven company, our focus closer to our shipowners and also gives
Increased competition pushes the market on human resources and creativity is us access to an extremely knowledgeable
to strive for the best results for clients important – our business is all about local workforce. Plus, we like the rain!
in the most economical way, thus an acting together to recognise and create
improvement in processes is necessary. As business opportunities. What advantages does a small company
a new company we intend to innovate in Robust QHSE performance is vital have over its larger competitors?
both technologies and processes. when competing in today’s offshore Dolphin is a streamlined organisation
industry – that’s why our very first which gives us the ability to act on and
Is there room for even more companies? Purchase Order was for the procurement react quickly to both the challenges and
The demand for high end 3D vessels is of the best risk and compliance system opportunities we are faced with.
increasing and I believe it will continue available; Integrum, which connects As a new, seismic company we
to improve into 2012 and beyond. All all work sites in real time to provide an have had the opportunity to hand pick
indications point to a rebound in the inclusive system that is both transparent our staff, and the driving force of any
market and in the space of 6 months and flexible. successful company is its people.
we have already expanded from zero to We believe we have created in
four vessels, all of which are generating Dolphin is a very competitive alternative; How do you see the marine seismic
revenue. In early 2012 we expect to fit and ready for hard, efficient work, industry developing in the future?
take delivery of Polar Duke’s sister ship, lean and keen, geared for performance I see two main channels of development:
increasing our presence in the high end and with a healthy appetite for the next increasing demand for high-end 3D vessels,
segment. We have already shown that we challenge. This combined with stability and the uncovering of new unexplored
are opportunistic and will continue to look and foresight are the keys to a successful territories using the Multi-Client business
for growth opportunities both organically seismic company. model.
and through market consolidation.
Seismic nodal technology is changing what’s possible in exploration and production. We should know. We practically
invented it, beginning with industry’s first and only true cable-free acquisition systems.
Today, our ZNodal™ technology covers the entire spectrum, from cable-free recording systems, acquisition
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FA I R F I E L D N O D A L . C O M
Natural gas
1 m3 = 35.3 ft3
1 ft3 = 0.028 m3
Energy
1000 m3 gas = 1 m3 o.e
1 tonne NGL = 1.9 m3 o.e.
Numbers Oil reserves in Bbo by country as given by the OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin. OPEC countries in blue.
Million = 1 x 106
Billion = 1 x 109 World oil production may not have Orinoco Belt to be recoverable with today’s
Trillion = 1 x 1012 peaked yet. technology and price of oil, as it is well
OPEC has published the 46th edition known that this petroleum province has
Supergiant field of its Annual Statistical Bulletin (ASB). vast resources of untapped oil.
Recoverable reserves > 5 billion The most striking figure is the estimate The U.S. Geological Survey has previously
of Venezuela’s oil reserves. This has now estimated a mean volume of 513 billion
barrels (800 million Sm3) of oil
reached 296 billion barrels, up from barrels of technically recoverable heavy oil
equivalents
211 billion barrels last year, an increase in the Orinoco Oil Belt. Their range is 380
of more than 40%. Looking back over to 652 billion barrels, of which the lower
Giant field the last five years, the figure has more estimate – as we can see – is still less than the
Recoverable reserves > 500 than tripled – that is remarkable, to say ASB reserve estimate. With great confidence
million barrels (80 million Sm3) the least. It is also in agreement with it can thus be stated that the Orinoco Oil
of oil equivalents the statement made by President Hugo Belt contains one of the largest recoverable
Chavez earlier this year, when he claimed oil accumulations in the world. The USGS
Major field that the proven oil reserves in Venezuela also says that the Orinoco Belt is estimated
Recoverable reserves > 100 are the largest in the world. to contain 900–1400 billion barrels of heavy
million barrels (16 million Sm3) In comparison, Saudi Arabia’s oil reserves crude in proven and unproven deposits.
of oil equivalents have been constant for the last five years The Orinoco Oil Belt covers some
according to the same report. The OPEC 50,000 km2 (equivalent to some 8 North
estimate is 264 billion barrels. Both countries Sea quadrants), and the heavy oil is largely
are members of OPEC. contained within fluvial, nearshore marine
The BP Statistical Review of World and tidal sandstone reservoirs of the
Energy 2011, also published this summer, Miocene Oficina Formation. Sandstone
does not agree with ASB, as the estimate reservoirs range in depth from 150 to
for Venezuela is “only” 211 billion barrels of 1,400m, and they contain heavy oil with
oil, as opposed to 264 billion barrels of oil a range of gravities from 4° to 16° API.
for Saudi Arabia. But the BP review agrees Viscosities are thus generally low.
Historic oil price with ASB in that Venezuela’s oil reserves OPEC consists of 12 countries: Algeria,
$2004/barrel
have increased considerably since 2000. Angola, Ecuador, the Islamic Republic of
100 In fact, the reserves have increased almost Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar,
threefold, according to the BP experts. Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates
ASB, published later than the BP report, and Venezuela. The total OPEC output was
50 does not give a reason for the discrepancy 34.234 MMbopd in 2010, according to BP,
between the two estimates. while Venezuela had a daily production of
Regardless, it is interesting that Venez- 2.471MMbopd last year.
0
1861 1900 1950 2000 uela now considers its heavy oil in the HALFDAN CARSTENS
N
NO
BA
LE
MegaSurveys Eastern Mediterranean MegaProject
2001 imaging
11_se_0118
se 0118
OML 086
OML 141
OPL 471
Mark of Schlumberger. Copyright © 2011 Schlumberger. All rights reserved. 11
OML 085
OPL 2012
5 OML 126 OML 104
OML 119
244 BLOCK R
OPL 245 OPL 247
OPL 297
OML 130
OPL 258
2011 imaging
*Mark
BLOCK 11 BLOCK 01
Reprocessed data offering increased resolution imaging BLOCK 10
BLOCK 01
and improved handling of amplitudes