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In the second category are the Eigen value problems of solid and Fluid mechanics. These are
steady state problems whose solution often requires the determination of natural frequencies and
modes of vibration of solids and fluids. Examples of Eigen value problems involving both Solid
mechanics (eg. elasticity, plasticity, static's and dynamics) and Fluid mechanics (viscous and in
viscid) appear in Civil Engineering when the interaction of lakes and dams is considered and in
Aerospace Engineering, when the sloshing of liquid fuels in flexible tanks is involved. Another
class of Eigen value problems includes the stability of structures and the stability of laminar
flow.
In the third category is the multitude of time dependent or problems of continuum mechanics.
This category is composed of the problems that result when time dimension is added to the
problems of the first two categories.
The range of possible applications of the finite Element Method extends to all Engineering
disciplines but Civil, Mechanical and Aerospace engineers are the most frequent users of the
method. In addition to the structural analysis other areas of applications include Heat transfer, lid
mechanics, Electromagnetism, Biomechanics, Geomechanics and acoustics. The method finds
acceptance in multidisciplinary problems where there is coupling between heat transfer and
displacements as well as aero plasticity where there is a strong coupling between external flow
and the distortion of wing.
8.5. ANSYS
8.5.1 General
The ANSYS computer program is a general purpose Finite Element Modelling Package for
numerically solving a variety of mechanical problems. These problems include static and
dynamic structural analysis (both linear and non linear), steady state and transient heat transfer
problems, mode-frequency and buckling analyses, acoustic and electromagnetic problems and
various types of field and coupled-field applications. The program contains many special
features which allow nonlinearities or secondary effects to be included in the solution such as
plasticity, large strain, hyper elasticity, creep, swelling, large deflections, contact, stress
stiffening, temperature dependency, material anisotropy and radiation.
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As ANSYS has been developed, other special capabilities, such as sub structuring, sub
modelling, random vibration, kinetostatics, kinetodynamics, free convection fluid analysis,
acoustics, magnetics, piezoelectrics, coupled-field analysis and design optimization have been
added to the program. These capabilities contribute further to making ANSYS a multi-purpose
analysis tool for varied engineering disciplines.
8.5.2 Program Overview
The ANSYS element library contains more than sixty elements for static and dynamic analyses,
over twenty for heat transfer analyses and numerous magnetic field and special purpose
elements. This variety of elements allows the ANSYS program to analyze two and three
dimensional frame structures, piping systems, two dimensional plane and axis symmetric solids,
flat plates, axis symmetric and three dimensional shells and non-linear problems including
contact, interface and cables.
The program is divided into many processors where each processor has a particular job to
perform.
1. Pre Processor: This builds the model.
2. Solution Processor: This is for assigning loads, constrains and finally to get Finite
element solution.
3. General Post Processor: This is for further processing and viewing the results over the
entire model at specific time points.
4. Time History Post Processor: Reviews results at specific points in the model as a function
of time.
5. Topological optimization: Execute several topological optimization iterations.
6. ROM Tool:
7. Design optimization: This improves an initial design.
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8. Probabilistic Design: This accounts for the inaccuracies and uncertainties influencing the
outcome of an analysis by the use of a random input variable
9. Radiation Matrix: This calculates radiation view factors and generates radiation matrix
for thermal analysis.
10. Run Time Statistics: Predicts CPU time, wave front requirements etc for an analysis.
11. Session Editor: Allows the user to modify or save commands issued since the last
RESUME or SAVE command.
A Graphical User Interface (GUI) is available throughout the program, to guide new users
through the learning process and provide more experienced users with multiple windows, pulldown menus, dialogue boxes, tool bars and on-line documentation.
8.6. NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS
8.6.1 Introduction
In a FE formulation, we assume that the displacements of the FE assemblage are infinitesimally
small and that the material is linearly elastic. In addition, it was also assumed that the nature of
boundary conditions remain unchanged during the application of load on the FE assemblage.
With these assumptions, the FE equilibrium equations derived were for static analysis.
KU=R
These equations correspond to a linear analysis of a structural problem, because, U is a linear
function of the applied load vector R. If the loads are R instead of R, where is a
constant, the corresponding displacements are U.
The linearity of a response prediction rests on the assumptions, which have been entered in the
equilibrium equations. The fact that the displacements must be small has entered to the
evaluation of matrix [K] and the load vector [R]. The strain-displacement matrix [B] of each
element was assumed to be constant and independent of the element displacements. The
assumption of a linear material is implied in the use of constant stress-strain matrix [C].
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But, the real life problems dont follow this statement. All the materials are not linearly elastic.
The boundary conditions change during the application of the load. The displacements and
strains may not be small. When we experience all the above problems in analysis, we should
consider non-linearity. The generalized definition for nonlinear problems is given below.
The problems which do not develop from one stage to another in a single smooth series of
stages are called non-linear problems.
8.6.2 Causes of Non-Linear Behaviour
The non-linear behaviour in a structure is caused by any of the following reasons.
Geometric Non-linearity
Material Non-linearity
Changing Boundary Conditions
8.6.3 Geometric Non-Linearity
If a structure experiences large deformations, then its changing geometric configurations can
cause the structure to respond non-linearly. The geometric non-linearity can be further classified
into two types.
Large deformation, large strain.
Large Deformation, but small strain.
8.6.4. Material Non-Linearity
The Hookes Law states that, within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain. All
the linear elastic materials should obey the Hookes law strictly. But, all the materials are not
fully elastic and beyond the elastic limit, the stress is not proportional to strain. When these kinds
of materials are to be analyzed, material non-linearity should be considered.
If stress-strain relations are linear or non-linear but elastic, there is a unique relation exists
between stress and strain. But, if there are plastic strains, the stress-strain relation is path
dependent, not unique. A given state of stress can be produced by many different straining
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procedures. In addition, different materials require different material theories. The essential
computational problem of material non-linearity is that equilibrium equations must be written
using material properties that depend on the strains, but the strains are not known in advance.
Hence, based on material models only, the solution algorithms can be developed.
The material non-linear problems can be classified further into the following types.
Non-linear Elastic
Non-linear Plastic
Non-linear Hyper-elastic
Non-linear Hypo-elastic
Non-linear Creep
Non-linear Visco-plastic
Table 8.1 provides a brief overview of the major classes of material selection.
Table 8.1 Different Types of Material
S.No.
Material Model
Characteristics
Examples
Almost all the materials
provided the stresses are small
enough. Steel, Cast Iron, Glass,
Rock, Wood before yielding or
fracture.
Elastic (Linear or
Non-linear)
Hyper-Elastic
Hypo-Elastic
Concrete models
Elasto Plastic
Creep
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three rotational degrees of freedom. This element has stress stiffening and large deformation
effects. It is possible to give four different thicknesses on four corners of this element. The
thicknesses can be given in the real constant option.This element is illustrated in Fig. 8.1
8.7.6 LINK 8
LINK 8 is a spar, which may be used in a variety of engineering applications. Depending upon
the applications, the element may be thought of as a truss element, a cable element, a reinforcing
bar and a bolt. The three-dimensional spar element is having two nodes and each node having
three translational degrees of freedom. This element is capable of plasticity, creep, swelling and
stress stiffening effects. The cross sectional area can be given as the real constant. This element
is shown in Fig.8.3.
UY
UX
UZ
Coupon tests are done in order to determine the yield stress and modulus of elasticity of C-R
sheet and reinforcing bars. The values tabulated below are used for calculating the important
properties required for specifying material non-linearity.
8.9 NON-LINEAR MATERIAL MODEL FOR CONCRETE
The challenging task in modeling the COMPOSITE beams is the development of the behaviour
of concrete. Concrete is purely non-linear material and it has different behaviour in compression
and tension. The tensile strength of concrete is typically 8% to 15% of the compressive strength.
Fig. 8.5 shows the typical stress-strain curve for normal weight concrete.
In compression, the stress-strain curve of concrete is linearly elastic up to about 30% of the
maximum compressive strength. Above this point, the stress increases gradually up to the
maximum compressive strength, and then descends into a softening region, and eventually
crushing failure occurs at an ultimate strain cu. In tension, the stress-strain curve for concrete is
approximately linearly elastic up to the maximum tensile strength. After this point, the concrete
cracks and the strength decreases gradually to zero.
ANSYS has its own non-linear material model for concrete. Its reinforced concrete model
consists of a material model to predict the failure of brittle materials, applied to a threedimensional solid element in which reinforcing bars may be included. The material is capable of
cracking in tension and crushing in compression. It can also undergo plastic deformation and
creep. Three different uniaxial materials, capable of tension and compression only, may be used
as a smeared reinforcement, each one in any direction. Plastic behaviour and creep can be
considered in the reinforcing bars too. For plain cement concrete model, the reinforcing bars can
be removed.
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fc
fc
E0
Softening
Compression
cu
Strain at Max.Compressive Stress, 0
Tension
= 5000 fc
ft
= 0.7 fc
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Poissons ratio for concrete is assumed to be 0.2 for all the beams. Damien Kachlakev et.al.
Conducted numerous investigations on full-scale beams and they found out the shear transfer
coefficient for opened crack as 0.2 and for closed crack as 1.
Even though the above parameters are enough for the ANSYS non-linear concrete model, it is
better to keep a stress-strain curve of concrete as a backbone for achieving accuracy in results.
fc
0.3fc
y/4
y/4
y/4
y = o-
y/4
----------------------------
(1)
The Ultimate strain can be found out from the following formula.
0
= 2 fc/ Ec
----------------------------
(2)
The total strain in the non-linear region is calculated and corresponding stresses for the strains
are found out by using the following formula.
fc(2 , 3 & 4) = (Ec )/(1+ ( / 0)2)
----------------------------
(3)
The above input values are given as material properties for concrete to define the non-linearity.
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Cracking
fc
xp
Cracking
ZP >0(cracking)
ZP= 0(crushing)
modeling is the selection of the mesh density. A convergence of results is obtained when an
adequate number of elements are used in a model. The accuracy of the results is directly
proportional to the number of elements chosen. But if the number of elements goes beyond a
limit, the running time to get a solution becomes more and Convergence problems also arise.
Thus there are an optimum number of elements using which we get reliable and accurate results.
The Fig. 8.9 shows the meshed model of Composite beams.
100mmx75mm cross section is provided at the support to avoid the concentration of stresses.
Moreover, a single line support is placed under the centerline of the steel plate to allow rotation
of the plate. In the quarter model, as the two sides of the beam are continuous, the displacement
in the direction perpendicular to the plane is arrested. The one fourth models with applied load
and boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 8.2.
8.14.3 Application of Loads
The load application in failure analysis is entirely different from the conventional way of
applying loads. In conventional analysis, the results can be obtained for the applied load in the
structure. The structure never fails and it responds to the load applied to the structure. The loads
are known initially and response is predicted for the applied load. But, in failure analysis, the
load that causes failure in the structure is not known. In order to find out the failure load, a
failure criterion is specified for the materials. Then the load is applied on the structure. The
application of load consists of two stages.
Load step
Sub step
The load at which the structure may fail can be assumed arbitrarily. A load of three to four times
greater than the assumed failure load is considered. This heavy load is subdivided into number of
small loads. This small load is called Load step. Each load step is solved gradually and the
solution is obtained for each load step. The experimental set up for the analysis of Composite
beams is shown in Fig.8.10.
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Load step2
1
Sub steps
Loadstep1
step1 1
Load steps
Sub Steps
The ANSYS program uses Newton-Raphson equilibrium iterations for updating the model
stiffness. Newton-Raphson equilibrium iterations provide convergence at the end of each load
increment within tolerance limits. A force convergence criterion with a tolerance limit of 5% was
adopted for avoiding the divergence problem.
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115
LOAD ( kN)
0.00
ANSYS (mm)
0.00
6.71
0.32
0.49
13.43
0.92
0.81
20.14
1.44
1.29
26.86
2.06
1.72
33.57
2.90
2.22
40.28
3.10
2.62
47.00
3.53
3.11
53.71
4.00
3.51
10
60.43
4.49
4.02
Fig. 8.15 Load deflection curve Comparison for 100 mm spacing of Bracings
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LOAD
ANSYS (mm)
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.71
0.29
0.31
13.43
0.65
0.54
20.14
0.96
0.79
26.86
1.40
1.16
33.57
2.16
1.66
40.28
2.62
2.21
47.00
3.27
2.74
53.71
3.77
3.36
60.000
50.000
load kN
40.000
EXPERIMENTAL
30.000
ANSYS
20.000
10.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
deflection mm
Fig 8.16 Load deflection curve Comparison for 150 mm spacing of Bracings
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ULTIMATE MOMENT
(kNm)
T1B1
112.6
39.41
T1B3
130
45.5
T1B4
160
56
T2B1
112.2
39.27
T2B3
112
39.2
T2B4
110
38.5
8.17 CONCLUSIONS
The Load-deflection curves for the beams analysed with ANSYS to that of Experimental
values, ANSYS gives less deflection.
ANSYS always predicts lesser deflection than the experimental work. In the
serviceability stage, the percentage of variation between the two is in the range of 5 20%. This is because of neglecting the strain-softening region in the stress-strain curve
for the material model in concrete.
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