Primary and backup protection

Need of coordination
Properties of protection systems
Overload and overcurrent

Properties of protection schemes

Three essential properties of the protective
relaying schemes are:
sensitivity
selectivity and
speed
These are not always the properties of the
relays but are properties of correct relay
setting
and
protection
schemes
application.
2

Pickup and Sensitivity

Pick up (plug setting) Minimum operating current of the relay.
Lower the pick up of the relay, higher will be the sensitivity.
Higher the sensitivity, fault currents of lower magnitudes can also be
detected.
Primary operating current, P.O.C. = Pickup*CTR
% Sensitivity = (P.O.C./Fault current)*100 (S = 1/ PSM)

Sensitivity V/s Thermal capacity

In case of static relays and numerical relays: only
thermal capability of relay imposes restriction on
the choice of the lowest setting.
For example, SPAJ 140C, of ABB/7SJ600 of Asea
Brown / Micom P120 of Areva make relays have
thermal capacity of 100*In for 1 second, where, In
is relay rated current.
In case of electro-mechanical relay: (1) lower the
setting of the relay, more will be the burden on the
CT resulting into large exciting current drawn by
CT and (2) more heating of the relay element.
4

Sensitivity V/s Thermal capacity

Consider a relay connected to 1000 / 1 CT. Let the
fault current be 20 kA. Assume thermal capacity of
relay be 100 A for 1second.
If relay is set for 10% , relay current at fault =
20,000 / (1000 x 0.1) = 200 IN
I2 t Criteria: (200IN)2 (t) = (100IN)2 x 1 sec
t = 0.25 sec
If operating time of the relay is less than 0.25 sec,
the 10% pick up is permissible, otherwise relay
may get damaged.
5

Selectivity
It refers to the selective tripping of the
protective gears and also called as the
discrimination.
The three methods to achieve the
discrimination are:
A. Discrimination by Time,
B. Discrimination by current and
C. Discrimination both by Time & Current
6

Discrimination by Time

A. Discrimination by Time (50/2)

DMT relay (Definite Minimum Time)(50/2) is a good
example of achieving discrimination by time. If the
current exceeds the set value, operating time is
independent of current magnitude.

Discrimination by Time (50/2)

Assume the discrimination time between successive
relays, in fig.1, is say 0.3 sec.
let the fault current be above the pick up values for all
the relays. For fault on MCC 1 outgoing feeder, fuse
operates in 10 miliSec, relay R7 operates in 0.31 sec
and relay R6 operates in 0.61 sec. All upstream relays
are grades accordingly.
The disadvantage of using DMT relays is that the
operating time of the upstream relays will be very high.
The fault closest to the source takes longest time to
clear.
The advantage of using DMT relays is that the operating
time is well defined for variable source operating
conditions.
9

B. Discrimination by current (50 or 50N)

Applicable only when substantial difference between the
fault current magnitudes exists at a given location (L1)
for the fault on the two ends (F1 and F2) of the
equipments.

10

Discrimination by current (50 or 50N)

The impedance of the equipment shall be
substantial that will create the above difference
like transformer or long cable.
For illustration consider a fault on LT side of
transformer TR2 in fig.1.
The fault current is 39,227 A on 415 V side and
the reflected current on 6.6 kV side is 2467 A.
If the fault is on 6.6 kV side, the fault current is
16kA. By setting the pick up current for relay R4
above 2467 A, the relay R4 will not pick up for
fault on the LT side but will pick up for the fault
on HT side.
The disadvantage is that discrimination is
obtained but no back up is ensured.
11

C. Discrimination both by time and current (51/ 51N)

IDMT (Inverse Definite Minimum Time) (51 and
51N) relays are used to obtain discrimination by
both time & current.
The operating time of IDMT relay is inversely
proportional to current magnitude.
Even for highest current, time for operation is not
instantaneous but a minimum time.
For the same fault current and specified pick up,
relay operating time can be varied by adjusting
time dial.

12

Discrimination both by time and current: NI characteristics

13

14

Discrimination both by time and current

15

Discrimination both by time and current

Assume the discrimination time between successive relays
is say 0.3 sec.
Let the fault current be above the pick up values for all the
relays.
For fault on MCC 1 outgoing feeder(F1):
fuse operates in 10 msec, relay R7 operates in 0.32 sec
and relay R6 operates in 0.63 sec and relay R4
operates in 0.94 sec.
For fault on HT side(F2):
of transformer TR2, the fault current is 16 kA and relay
R4 operates in 0.73 sec.
Reduced operating time of relay R4 for 6.6kV faults result
in reduced operating time of upstream relays R2 & R3 for
HT fault.
16

DMT and IDMT compared

IDMT(51)
The advantage gained by using IDMT relay is that:
With the same pick up and time dial setting:
lower time of operation for near end fault and higher
operating times for far end fault inherently achieved.
In case of same fault current magnitude along the
system:
desired operating time can be achieved in IDMT
relays by adjusting Pick up (PS) & time dial.
DMT(50/2)
In case of difference in fault current magnitudes at one
point along the system:
DMT relays are superior to the IDMT relays.
17

Speed: Fault clearing time and Critical Clearing

Time
If the fault clearing time is less than 100 msec,
it is considered as high speed tripping.
High speed tripping minimizes the damage to
the equipments, increases stability margin for
synchronous machines and avoids unwarranted
tripping of voltage sensitive loads.
Critical Clearing Time (CCT) is the minimum
time before which fault has to be cleared.
Typically it varies between 200 msec to 1
second and depends upon location of fault.
System becomes unstable, when fault clearing
time is more than the CCT.
18

Speed

19

Speed
Small
fault clearing time

Speed without selectivity leads to poor co-ordination.

20

10

Radial Power Systems

Radial Power System is a system in which power flows
in the direction from the distribution substation to an
individual customer.
Radial system looks like a branch of a tree with a main
line connected to a series of a smaller circuit.
From the smaller circuit, the circuit will branch off to
contain the customer need. Radial system will have one
source of power or a group of power sources in the
same area.
Power failure, short circuit, down the power line will
cause disruption to the system and the system cannot be
restored until the fault is fixed.
21

Methods to achieve high speed tripping

1.Unit protection: (Generator, transformer, bus, feeder,
motor).
Protection is provided to trip instantaneously for faults
only within the unit under protection. No co-ordination
with external protection is required.
Examples of unit protection are: bus differential
protection, feeder pilot wire protection, transformer or
motor differential protection.
2.Directional protections for multi source / non redial
systems.

22

11

Unit protection
Speed must be weighed against economy.
In LT distribution networks, loads are connected
at radial end of system, fault clearance time is
shorter and hence need of speedy clearance is
not critical.
Unit Protection in LT system are generally not
employed.
In generating plants, M.V. & H.V. systems high
speed tripping is essential to maintain system
stability and voltage stability.
23

Example of Unit protection

24

12

DISCRIMINATION TIME
The time margin between the settings of these relays must take into
account three factors:
The operating time of the circuit breakers. Modern medium voltage
breakers are rated for 5 cycle interrupting time, and the time allowance
is traditionally 0.1 second.
Overtravel, which is the tendency for a relay to continue to time after
the fault current is interrupted by a downstream circuit breakers.
Overtravel is a natural characteristic of the inertia of electromechanical
induction disk relays, and while exact values vary widely, the
traditional allowance is 0.1 seconds. Most static analog and digital
relays are designed to have no practical overtravel. If the backup relay
has an overtravel tendency, its time delay must be long enough to
account for that overtravel.
Margin to account for imponderables such as the uncertainties in
the magnitude of fault current, inaccuracies in instrument transformers,
manufacturing and calibration variations in relays, etc. The amount of
margin allowed depends upon how much risk the relay engineer is
willing to assume; typical values range from 0.1 to 0.3 seconds.
The total coordinating time margin is the sum of these three factors
and ranges from 0.2 to 0.5 seconds; a 0.3 second margin is often
taken as a reasonable compromise between the objectives of speed
25
and security.

DISCRIMINATION TIME (CO-ORDINATION INTERVAL) - Speed

This refers to the time interval between the operation of two

adjacent breakers or fuse and breaker.

26

13

Circuit Breaker Interrupting Time

The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must
have completely interrupted the current before
the discriminating relay ceases to be energized.
The time taken is dependent on the type of
circuit breaker used and the fault current to be
interrupted. Manufacturers normally provide the
fault interrupting time at rated interrupting
capacity and this value is invariably used in the
calculation of grading margin.

27

Circuit breaker operating time

28

14

Relay Timing Error

All relays have errors in their timing
compared to the ideal characteristic as
defined in IEC 60255.
For a relay specified to IEC 60255, a relay
error index is quoted that determines the
maximum timing error of the relay.
The timing error must be taken into
account when determining the grading
margin.
29

Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue
for a little longer until any stored energy has been
dissipated. For example, an induction disc relay will have
stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static
relay circuits may have energy stored in capacitors.
Relay design is directed to minimizing and absorbing
these energies, but some allowance is usually
necessary.
The overshoot time is defined as the difference between
the operating time of a relay at a specified value of input
current and the maximum duration of input current,
which when suddenly reduced below the relay operating
level, is insufficient to cause relay operation.
30

15

CT Errors
Current transformers have phase and ratio
errors due to the exciting current required to
magnetize their cores.
The result is that the CT secondary current is not
an identical scaled replica of the primary current.
This leads to errors in the operation of relays,
especially in the time of operation.
CT errors are not relevant when independent
definite-time delay over current relays are being
considered.
31

Final Margin
After the above allowances have been
made, the discriminating relay must just
fail to complete its operation.
Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is
required to ensure that relay operation
does not occur.

32

16

Co-ordination interval shall incorporate the following

time periods:
A. Interrupting time of downstream breaker:
Approximately 100 mSec. (Though the actual operating time is much
smaller, say 50 mSec).
B. Relay error factor:
Refers to negative or positive errors in operating time of the upstream
+ Downstream relays / fuse involved in grading.

For Co-ordination time between Fuse & Breaker = 0.4t

For Co-ordination time between Breaker & Breaker = 0.25t
Where, t = operating time of Downstream Fuse / Relay
C. Overshoot time of upstream relay:
Operating time more than set value due to contact over travel etc. it is
about 50msec for electro-mechanical relays. This is not relevant for
modern numerical relays.
D. Safety Margin:
Refers to the extra allowance to ensure a satisfactory gap between
operating time of two breakers or breaker and fuse. It can be about
100msec for electro-mechanical relays. If numerical relays are used for
both upstream and downstream, this can be reduced, to even 50msec.
33

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR CO-ORDINATION TIME

For Fuse Breaker IDMT (Conventional Relays)/ Fuse IDMT/
INST - IDMT relay/fuse-DMT
Discrimination Time
= 0.4t + 0.15, where
Fuse operating time
=t
Downstream Inst. Relay Error / Fusing Factor
= 0.4t
Upstream Relay overshoot Time
= 50 m Sec.
Safety Margin
= 100 m Sec.
Interrupting time of Downstream Breaker
= 0 m Sec (N.A.)
For Breaker Breaker (Conventional Relays) / IDMT - IDMT
relays
Discrimination Time
= 0.25t + 0.25,where
Downstream Relay operating Time
=t
Relay Error Factor
= 0.25t
Upstream Relay overshoot Time
= 50 m Sec.
Safety Margin
= 100 m Sec.
Interrupting time of Downstream Breaker
= 100 m Sec.
34

17

Present Scenario for Discrimination Time Formula

Following changes can be done in discrimination time
formula:
a) Relay error factor for numerical relays : 0.1t (instead of
0.25t)
b) Overshoot time : Static Relay = 50 mSec
: Numerical Relay = 0 mSec
c) Modern VCB / SF6 CB operating time:50 mSec, (instead
of 100msec)
d) Safety margin can be reduced (from 100msec.) to
50mSec, if relays are accurately set.

35

IDMT NI Characteristics
The IDMT relay
operates with a
fixed time for PSM
> 20.
Also
the
relay
characteristic
is
defined for PSM >
2.
Relay
has
no
defined
characteristic
for
PSM < 2.
36

18

Overload and over current

Over load withstand capacity of equipment in general
various from many seconds to minutes. For Example,
a)Generator overload capacity
Time (Sec)

120

60

30

10

Stator current (%)

116

130

154

226

b)Transformer overload capability

Time (Minutes)

120

80

45

20

10

Current (%)

130

145

160

175

200

300
37

Overload and over current

Over current is short circuit current and fault has to be removed within 1
sec, where as overload can be sustained in minutes / hours. Hence, over
current relay with any characteristic cannot be used for over load
protection.

38

19

Overload and over current

39

Overload and over current

If over current persists for more than 1 sec, it will result in loss of
synchronism (angle instability) or motor stalling (Voltage instability).
Conceptually over current relays cannot be used for over load protection.
40

20

Setting DMT Relays

Primary Operating Current
o Must lie above maximum running load current
and largest drive starting current by safety
margin.
o Max. Running Load current includes motor full
load current. Hence, it is subtracted.
o Must lie below the lowest through fault current.
o Relevant for generally used motor with DOL
starting.

41

Setting DMT Relays

IF > P.O.C. > (IRL IFLM + ISTM)
Where,
IF
= Minimum fault current relay to sense.
P.O.C
= Desired Primary Load Current of relay
IRL
= Max. Running Load Current
IFLM
= Highest Rating Drive Full Load Current
ISTM
= Highest Rating Drive Starting Current

Remark: The First Comparison IF > P.O.C is generally
satisfied in most of the cases, since fault current
magnitude is generally very high. The only critical case in
which this comparison is important is when source fault
level is low.
42

21

Setting DMT Relays

Desired Pick Up
o PICK UP Primary Operating
Current (P.O.C) / C.T. Ratio

DMT relay independent of fault
current, hence, plug setting
multiplier applicable for IDMT
relays not relevant for DMT
relays.
I > ISET
If ISET = 5000A
I = 5001A or I = 20000A,
operating time is same.

43

DMT relay calculations

Example of DMT Relays:

Electromechanical relays: CTU, CAG + VTT. All numerical relays have
inbuilt DMT feature.
44

22

Setting IDMT Relays

Primary Operating Current
P.O.C Must lie above (Maximum running load current Highest drive full load current of motor + Largest drive
starting current).
Max. running load current includes motor full load current
of started motor. Hence, it is subtracted.
P.O.C Must lie below the lowest through fault current.
Formula: IF > P.O.C. >= IRL IFLM + ISTM
Where, P.O.C. = Desired primary operating current
IRL = Max. running load current
ISTM = Highest drive starting current of motor
IFLM =Highest drive full load current of motor
45

Setting IDMT Relays

Desired Relay Pick up PS (Plug Setting)
Ratio of primary Operating Current of relay to C.T. Ratio
(C.T.R.)
PS = P.O.C.
C.T.R.
= (IRL IFLM + ISTM)
C.T.R.
Selected pick up setting:
Select the next higher available step.
Actual Primary operating current (P.O.C.)
Actual P.O.C. = Selected Pick up x C.T.R.
Plug Setting Multiplier PSM
P.S.M = Fault Current
Actual P.O.C.
46

23

Setting IDMT Relays

Desired relay operating time t1
t1 = t + td
where, t = Downstream Relay / Fuse Operating Time
td = Discrimination Time.
Desired Time Dial Set Point TMS (TIME MULTIPLIER
SETTING)
Desired TMS Setting =
Desired Relay Operating Time t1 (OT)/ Relay Operating
Time @ Selected PSM and TMS 1.0 (OT1)
Desired Relay Operating Time t1 = Desired TMS setting*
Relay Operating time @ selected PSM and TMS = 1.0
Selected Time Dial (TMS) Setting
Nearest Higher Time Dial setting selected.
47

IDMT Setting: Plug Setting (PS),

Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and
Time Multiplier Setting (TMS)

PS : Plug Setting (Current Setting /

Pickup Setting)
= (IRL - IFLM + ISTM) / CTR
PS = (583 - 145 + 869) /
1600
= 0.816
Set P.S. =0.9A
Primary Operating Current (P.O.C)
=C.T.R. x P.S.
=1600 x 0.9 = 1440 A
Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.)
= Fault Current / Actual P.O.C.
= 38872 / 1440 = 26.99
PSM will be used to find operating
time as per next slide.

0.4

Notation: PS(TMS)

48

24

Relay R7 : Location : Incomer of MCC-1(415 V)

Desired operating Time t1:
Downstream fuse blow off time t
Co- ordination interval td
Desired operating time t1

= 0.01 Sec
= 0.4 t + 0.15
= 0.154 Sec
= t + td
= 0.01 + 0.154
= 0.164 Sec

49

Relay R7 : Location : Incomer of MCC-1(415 V)

Choose normal inverse characteristic.
TMS = Required Time Setting = OT/OT1
= Desired Operating Time / Operating Time @ TMS = 1.0
OT From Coordination Requirement
OT1 From Equation or Standard Graphs
Operating time @ PSM > 20 & time dial 1.0 = Operating Time @ PSM =
20 (For PSM>20, Take PSM = 20) & time dial 1.0:
Operating Time of R7 (OT1)
= 0.14/ (PSM)0.02 -1 = 2.267
(For NI @ Time dial 1.0)
TMS = Desired Operating Time t1
Operating Time @ TMS 1.0 & PSM 20
= 0.164
2.267
= 0.072
Set Time Dial at 0.08. [Time Dial =0.05 1.00, Step = 0.01]
Actual operating Time = 0.181 Sec for fault. [2.267x 0.08]
50

25

IDMT Setting: Time dial V/s operating time

From graph:
OT1 = 2.267

OT
0.08

51

Time dial V/s operating time

IDMT Relay Equation/IEC
equation
OT = TMS * / (PSM) -1.0
OT1 = / (PSM) -1.0
OT: Operating Time in sec
TMS: Time Multiplier Setting
PSM: Plug Setting Multiplier

IDMT Characteristics

Normal Inverse (NI)

0.14

0.02

Very Inverse (VI)

13.5

1.0

Extremely Inverse (EI)

80.0

2.0

Long Time Inverse (LI)

120.0

1.0
52

26

53

IDMT relay types

Extremely inverse (EI)
Generally used to back up
fuse
Very Inverse (VI)
Preferred on upstream
side of transformer
Normal inverse (NI)
If in doubt, use NI
Used
in
majority
of
applications
Long time inverse (LI)
To protect NGR

54

27

IDMT relay types

There are a number of characteristics in common use. Each
of these exists to address specific application needs.
Following is a list of the most common characteristics
together with their usual applications and also the code
number which GE uses to identify each curve shape:
Inverse medium time (51) - best suited for applications
where the variations in the magnitude of fault current are
related primarily to switching of sources on the system, such
as in paper mill systems with a number of small
hydroelectric generators which are switched on and off
depending on water conditions.
Very inverse medium time (53) - best suited for general
applications where the variations in the magnitude of fault
current are primarily determined by system impedance and
fault location. This relay characteristic is the best choice for
most industrial and commercial applications.
55

IDMT relay types

Inverse medium-long time (57) - best suited for
applications as backup ground fault protection on complex
low-resistance grounded medium voltage systems.
Inverse long time (66) - best suited for overload and
locked rotor protection of motors.
Extremely inverse medium time (77) - best suited for
application on utility residential distribution circuits where
selectivity with distribution fuse cutouts and reclosers is a
requirement, and where cold load pickup is a
consideration.
Inverse short time (95) - best suited for backup ground fault
protection applications on solidly grounded low voltage
systems where the feeders have instantaneous ground
fault protection.

56

28

57

Very Inverse (VI): CDG13

Operating Time @ PSM = 10 & TMS =
1.0 => 1.5 sec

Operating Time
= TMS x 13.5 / [ ( PSM 1.0) ]

2 < PSM < 20

Used on H.V. Side of transformer to coordinate with NI Characteristic relay on
L.V. side.

Very inverse characteristic is useful
where substantial reduction in fault
current occurs due to large impedance of
protected object, e.g. on upstream side
of transformer.

Advantage of NI and VI combination is
that for L.T faults, operating time
increases to coordinate with downstream
faults and for HT faults, operating time is
minimum to clear faults within CCT.
58

29

Extremely Inverse (EI)

Application of EI characteristics

Fuse Relay Co-ordination :

Depending on cable size, cable length and fuse
rating, co-ordination between fuse and certain
characteristics of relays may not be achievable.

Sending end fault level : 35 kA (say).
<2MVA Transformer @ 7.5 % impedance >

Ground fault occurs at motor end.

59

Extremely Inverse (EI)

Example : For 300 sq.mm cable (Motor Rating 110 kW,
DOL)

Point R : Length > 108 m, fault current reduces below
5kA

Point Q : Length > 184 m, fault current reduces below
3kA

Point P : Length > 564 m, fault current reduces below
1kA

Depending on fuse rating, the fault at receiving end may
be cleared in much more than normal operating time of
10 to 20 milliseconds.

Fig shown is with fault impedance zero. If fault
impedance is also considered, fault current will still
further go down.

Co-ordination between fuse and upstream relay become
critical.
60

30

61

62

31

63

Extremely Inverse (EI)

Breaking capacity of contactor
Rating
AC3
AC4
<100A
8 Ith
10 Ith
>100A
6 Ith
8 Ith

Over load relay shall trip

Contactor, in case of switch fuse contactor module.

Contactor again!, in case of MCCB contactor module.

Too frequent opening of MCCB not good for its life.

64

32