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NEW REQUIREMENTS
May 05, 2015/ JMP
By Chad Edmondson
Balancing plays a critical roll in the performance of any hydronic heating and cooling system. For that
reason alone, ASHRAE has made hydronic balancing a non-negotiable stop on the road to compliance
with ASHRAE 90.1-2010 (or 2013), starting with this requirement:
6.4.2.2 Pump Head. Pump differential pressure (head) for the purpose of sizing pumps shall be
determined in accordance with generally accepted engineering standards and handbooks acceptable
to the adopting authority. The pressure drop through each device and pipe segment in the critical
circuit at design conditions shall be calculated.
Furthermore, systems must be balanced:
6.7.2.3 Hydronic System Balancing. Hydronic systems shall be proportionately balanced in a
manner to first minimize throttling losses; then the pump impeller shall be trimmed or pump speed
shall be adjusted to meet design flow conditions.
And finally, there is this:
6.7.2.3.1 General. Construction documents shall require that all HVAC systems be balanced in
accordance with generally accepted engineering standards. Construction documents shall require that
a written balance report be provided to the building owner or the designated representative of the
building owner for HVAC systems serving zones with a total conditions area exceeding 5000 ft2.
All of these standards are interrelated. Accurately calculating pressure drops ensures that pumps are
not oversized. Oversized pumps can lead to inefficient pump operation over the life of the
system. Flow balancing (during and after commissioning) is how we make sure that we only put as
much energy into the system as we are take out. Flow balancing is also how we begin to benchmark
the performance of our buildings, a practice that ASHRAE aspires to make commonplace. It is all part
of a long-term plan to drive more and more buildings to net zero energy performance.
In all likelihood the standards as written above are now part of your own building code since the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) has required that states update their building codes to meet or exceed
Standard 90.1-2010 (or ask for an extension) by October 18, 2013.
What does this mean to mechanical engineers designing commercial buildings larger than 5000 sq.
ft.? Among other things, it means that you must now incorporate a balancing procedure into your
mechanical specifications and include in the design plan all the necessary instrumentation to perform
that procedure.
Over the next several blogs well dig deeper into what you, as a designer or as a commissioner, need
to know and understand in order to meet the balancing standards of 90.1- 2010 (and 2013).
Hydronic Balancing Part 2: Making the Most of System Diversity
May 15, 2015/ JMP
By Chad Edmondson
Practically any commercial or institutional building has a certain amount of diversity within its cooling
load, meaning that peak loads will never occur simultaneously in all sections or zones of a facility. By
mapping out the individual load patterns of these sections, engineers can adjust the mechanical
design to reduce the overall amount of installed cooling capacity. This means incorporating variable
flow, which necessitates precise hydronic balancing.
To illustrate this point, consider this simple example of a central chilled water system at a college with
four basic groups of buildings and identical peak loads:
Building
Peak Load
Dorms
1000 tons
Cafeteria
1000 tons
Library
1000 tons
Gym
1000 tons
Clearly, the load pattern of these buildings will vary and at no time will there be concurrent peak
loads in all four buildings. (Students cant be in more than one place at a time!) In other words,
there is diversity within the system. This gives the designer the opportunity to design the system so
that the cooling water is directed only where it is needed.
Lets say that the design engineer has done a complete cooling load calculation and has determined
that the peak block load at any given time is 3000 tons. Block load is the instantaneous maximum
heating and cooling load for a calculated point in time for the entire building, including all envelope
and internal load components of the heating and cooling load calculation.
The engineer determines the peak block load based on the diversity factor that he or she has chosen
for the system given the anticipated load patterns of the system. In our example, the engineer
would have chosen a diversity factor of .75 because the diversity factor is the peak block load (3000
Tons) divided by the total connected load (4000 Tons).
Here are some very general rules of thumb for diversity in buildings:
Figure 1
If this particular system were designed in the old style with 3-way valves to provide constant flow
through the chillers (Figure 1), peak block load would not matter because constant flow systems do
not take advantage of diversity. You would have 2400 GPM of constant flow going to the dorms,
cafeteria, library and gym at all times. And the system would require 4 chillers at 1000 tons each
instead of just three.
However, we can get by with significantly less cooling capacity and less GPM by taking advantage of
the diversity within the system and incorporating variable speed pumps. (Figure 2).
Figure 2
Notice that the system now includes variable speed pump controls and 2-way valves instead of 3-way
valves. As a result weve trimmed most of the excess out of the system. Were also doing the same
job with less equipment:
Obviously there is a lot to be gained both in terms of equipment cost and efficiency, but balancing is
more critical than ever. Why? Because although you have reduced the overall system flow, the peak
flow requirements for each section have not changed. They were 2400 GPM before, and they are
2400 GPM now, so balancing must be carefully integrated into the system to assure that the
maximum flow can be obtained if needed. In doing so we not only help ensure successful operation
the system, but also meet the requirements of ASHRAE 90.1 for balancing.
As you double the flow through the piping the pressure drop increases by the square. In other
words, the pressure drop increases by four times what it was.
This law is expressed in the following equation:
Hydronic balancing law equation.
Understanding this relationship between flow and pressure is everyones first step toward designing,
installing, or commissioning a balanced hydronic system. It also allows you to take advantage of any
number of tools the industry has made available for the purpose of system balancing like Bell &
Gossett System Syzer.
system-syzer-calculator-for-hvac-contractors-and-commissioning-agents
In its most basic form, the System Syzer is a simple plastic side wheel that lets you quickly determine
the pressure drop in a hydronic system assuming you know the pressure drop at one given flow or
the Cv. The Cv or C sub V of a system component is the flow rate in gallons per minute that results
in a pressure drop of 1 psi (or 2.31 feet of head). All components in a hydronic system have a rated
Cv; manufacturers make this information available. Note: Hydronic valves are always rated based on
flow through a fully open valve.
The System Syzer, whether in its slide wheel form or as an application on your i-phone or android,
not only assists in balancing, but also troubleshooting. Either is available for free from Bell & Gossett.
To make sure you understand how the System Syzer works, lets solve a simple problem using the old
fashion slide wheel shown here:
Notice Scale 5 on the bottom half of the slide wheel. This scale is based on the above formula, and
therefore gives you all of the pressure drops for any given flow. Remember for any piping and/or
equipment, if you know its pressure drop at a given flow (GPM), then you can calculate its pressure
drop at any other GPM. Therefore, if you know the Cv for the component (published by the
manufacturer), then you also have your starting point.
Example:
Lets say we have a base-mounted end suction pump with a combination valve on the discharge. We
know that at 701 GPM (the Cv provided by the valve manufacturer) we have a pressure drop of 2.31
feet through the valve.
Pressure Loss
What is the pressure loss through the combination valve if the flow rate increases to 1000 GPM? To
find out we simply go to the slide wheel and line up the values of what we know701 GPM (on the
white scale) with 2.31 feet of head (on the upper blue scale).
closeup systemsyzer
Without moving the slide again, we can now read off the pressure losses at every GPM on the
scale. At 1000 GPM there would be 4.6 feet of head loss through the valve. If we choose, we can
chart the pressure losses through this valve at other flows just by reading off the values of the slide
wheel while it is in this same exact position.
GPM
Pressure Loss
701
2.31 feet
1000
4.7 feet
1200
6.8 feet
1400
9.2 feet
2000
19 feet
Keep in mind that this handheld version of the System Syzer is designed for typical chilled and hot
water systems with a specific gravity of 1 and a specific heat of 1. The electronic versions that you
download to your phone and/or computer let you incorporate many other variables such as PVC piped
systems, non-water systems, and a greater range of pipe sizes. They also have metric and Spanish
language conversion.
Any System Component Can Be a Flow Meter!
Given what we now know about the relationship between flow and pressure, it may have already
occurred to you that you can turn just about any other component in system into a flow meter just
by knowing the pressure drop through it at a given flow. For the sake of accuracy, the inlet and
outlet pressures readings through a component (chiller, heat exchanger, etc.) should be taken with
the same gauge, as two gauges might not be calibrated exactly the same.
Nevertheless, simply knowing these two values you can determine the pressure drop and at other
flow or the flow at any other pressure drop.
Step 1 Set the System Syzer Scale 5 for 2200 GPM at 100 feet of head.
Step 1 Set the System Syzer Scale 5 for 2200 GPM at 100 feet of head.
Step 2 Without changing the position (or settings) of the System Syzer, read off and
record the head at various other flows.
Step 2 Without changing the position (or settings) of the System Syzer, read off and record the
head at various other flows.
Step 2 Without changing the position (or settings) of the System Syzer, read off and record the
head at various other flows.
Step 3 Plot these values to develop the system curve
Step 4 Overlay the system curve atop the pump curve for the selected impeller trim to see where
the lines intersect.
Wherever the system curve intersects with the pump curve is where that pump will operate under full
load conditions, when all valves are open and the system is at full flow design conditions. Remember,
the system is everything from the pump discharge flange to the pump suction flange. Here it will
stay unless the resistance within the pipe system changes i.e. a valve changing position. As twoway valves open and close, the system curve will change accordingly and thus where it intersects
with the pump curve. Ideally the pump will have been selected to weather the demand range and
safely ride the pump curve as demand changes.
By understanding how to plot the system curve we can correctly balance a pump at system startedup!
Circuit Setter
Calibrated Balancing Valves. These have been around for a while and are what most people
commonly refer to as circuit setters. Calibrated balancing valves are designed for pre-set
proportional system balance. This system balance method involves pre-setting the valves to achieve
optimum system flow balance (at minimum horsepower) using the manufacturers performance
curves. This straightforward method is based on the fact that if you know the pressure drop through
the device and its Cv (the flow rate in GPM through the device that results in 1 psi pressure drop),
then mathematically you can determine the flow.
Ball Valve
Ball Valve
Standard Ball or Butterfly Valves. These devices, along with pressure gauges or test plugs, allow
the control contractor to measure a pressure drop across the coil or heat exchanger and then
determine and adjust the flow based on the manufacturers performance data.
You might determine that you have a system like the one shown in Figure 3 where there is a single
zone remotely located from the others. Note that Zones A and B are pumped by the same pump,
while Zone C has its own dedicated pump. Each individual pump will have to be balanced and a 2
way valve added to the Zone C return line.
Figure 4 shows a Primary-Secondary Zone pumping arrangement where, although there are two
distinct loops and only one common pipe, we have separate pumps serving each zone. This type of
design keeps horsepower down, but adds some additional control complexity, as each zone (pump)
must be balanced. Also, since the pumps are in parallel, their performance curves must be
compatible.
Figure 5 shows a system without any secondary or zone pumps. All of the flow is established by the
primary pumps, which vary flow through the chillers according to system demand. A motorized
control valve is needed to maintain a minimum flow through the chillers. If designed correctly, this
type of system not only has lower installed cost, but also lower operating cost. Balancing however
can be difficult as there are no common pipes to isolate flow between the various zones. Thats why
pressure independent control valves are often seen in variable primary applications.
In any of the above cases a quick sketch of the pumping system will give the balancing contractor or
facility operator the big picture perspective that is needed when it comes to balancing.
Hydronic Balancing Part 7: When to Trim the Pump Impeller
July 11, 2015/ JMP
By Chad Edmondson
Balancing isnt just about adjusting valves. Sometimes (very often in fact) it is about evaluating the
performance of the pump(s) under real world operating conditions.
Remember what ASHRAE 90.1 has to say about Hydronic System Balancing:
To better understand this, lets say we have a single pump system with a design point of 650 GPM at
76 ft. of head.
Example System Selection: Model 4BC Pump - Design Point: 650 GPM, 76 ft of head
In other words, this pump has been selected to deliver 650 GPM to the critical circuit. The design
engineer did his system head loss calculations and determined that we needed exactly 76 ft. of head
to pump this system. Based on these criteria, he selected the following pump:
However, once the pump is installed the owner reports excessive noise in the piping. This is our first
clue that actual operating conditions are not quite as anticipated, so a little detective work is in order.
Out of Balance
First, we must determine how much head and flow the installed pump is generating. Using the same
pressure gauge, we take reading at the pump suction and discharge and discover that the pump is
generating 65 ft. of head. Right away we notice that something is not quite right. This pump was
picked, after all, to deliver 76 feet of head. We consult pump curve and see that the corresponding
flow for 65 Ft. of head is 850 GPM, not the 650 GPM design flow. Were over-pumping the system
and that has resulted not only excessive noise, but also wasted energy.
Our system is not balanced. We are generating more flow than we need, and as a result we are out
of compliance with ASHRAE 90.1 and were wasting energy.
Step 2: Graph System Curve with System GPM (Q) and System Head Loss (h)
Using these points, we can plot a new system curve (our real life system curve) onto the pump
curve. Keeping in mind that we only need 650 GPM to serve this system, we simply draw a vertical
line on the pump curve upwards from the 650 GPM to see where it crosses with our system curve.
As you can see in pump curve shown below, the intersection occurs just slightly above the curve for a
7- impeller or approximately 7 inches, a far better match for our system than the 9-
impeller we currently have.
Notice also the drop horsepower from 17 bhp (how the system was originally running no trim, no
throttle) all the way down to 7 HP. Now our annual operating costs are SIGNIFICANTLY less -$3600.00 versus $8000.00. Thats a far greater improvement over the $600.00 we would save simply
by throttling valve.
Impeller Trimming with Design Point, Operating Point, and Desired GPM = 650
If our system head just was slightly less, the intersection point with the system curve might occur
below this particular pump, in which case we would probably want to replace the whole pump.
Finally, there is one other solution. We could install a variable speed drive on the pump to slow it
down thus changing its performance curve. In this case, however, a trim is all we need to balance
the pump with the system, and meet ASHRAE 90.1.
ASHRAE Passes Standard 188-2015, Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water
Systems
August 06, 2015/ Chad Edmondson
By Chad Edmondson
We interrupt this regularly scheduled series on hydronic balancing to announce that ASHRAE has
officially published Standard 188-2015, Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems.
Its a timely bit of information given our current discussion about balancing, even though it is directed
at domestic water rather than hydronic heating and cooling.
Among other things related to the prevention of Legionella, Standard 188 states:
All water systems shall be balanced and a balance report for all water systems shall be provided to
the building owner or designee.
The keyword here is all water systems.
What Does Balancing Have To Do With Legionella?
Why has ASHRAE decided to address balancing in a standard that is written for the purpose of
Legionella prevention? The reason has to do with domestic hot water recirculation systems
particularly large systems with multiple returns coming back to the boiler.
If these return lines are not balanced it is possible that a period of no flow might occur in one or
more of the return lines. Often referred to as dead legs, these stagnant areas in the pipe increase
the risk for Legionella growth because scale and biofilm tend to collect there, creating a safe haven
for Legionella to grow. Remember -- Legionella can grow and multiply in water temperatures beyond
its typical survival range if it happens to be residing in a cozy bit of scale. Thats why it is important
to keep the water moving even during periods of no demand.
Dead legs can be avoided by installing an automatic balancing valve on each return line to ensure
that some amount of flow is always maintained through each lineunder all demand conditions.
Time to Get Serious about Domestic Water Balancing
Now that Standard 188 has been passed, it is likely to become an ANSI standard, which will no doubt
be accepted into local codes. Its just a matter of time.
So if you are designing or installing any kind of domestic recirculation line now or in the near future
dont forget to balance. As we have discussed in the past, Standard 188 shifts the responsibility of
Legionella prevention to building owners and operators. As such, it will leave them more vulnerable
to lawsuits resulting from a Legionella related incident.
Actuators for Chilled Water Valve | DDC Commercial Systems
Richard Ashworth
September 6, 2008
Commercial HVAC
Actuators for Chilled Water Valve These chilled water actuators control the flow rate for a
chilled water system in a data center. There are various sequence of operations for chilled water
systems and the sequence of operation is usually always different from one chiller plant to another
chiller plant. It depends on the components in the loop, the application the chilled water system is
supplying cold water for, and what the demand of the system requires for the chiller plant. Some
chilled water valves control two-way valves while others control three-way valves. A three-way valve
can either be a mixing valve or a diverting valve but the actuators controls the flow in either type of
application. Other actuators modulate a valve based on demand. The actuator usually receives its
command for position for control from the DDC system or another type of control system. In this case
these actuators are controlled by DDC. In the sequence of operation the chiller plant will have a valve
line-up usually in a valve matrix that was compiled by the original design engineer and this valve
matrix shows the default position of the valves which are controlled by the actuators. Some
applications in the piping that are controlled by the actuators include:
Primary Secondary system where a primary loop is attached to a secondary loop via a
decoupling loop. The primary loop is constant volume while the secondary loop is variable
capacity.
Variable Flow Primary loop only has one loop and the flow varies according to demand and
pressure set point. For better flow control a variable flow primary loop system will have a
bypass loop for better control of loop pressures. In the bypass and on the loads you will
find actuators that control chilled water flow.
Other applications where the control actuators can be found is in a free cooling sequence of
operation where the chillers are shut down and bypassed completely to take advantage of
free cooling when the temperatures are optimal for a free cooling application.
The actuators control the amount of chilled water going to the evaporator coil by automatically
moving a valve. Chilled water systems provide air conditioning typically to large buildings. These air
conditioning systems, or cooling systems, use cold water which is piped through a coil in a large air
handler. The control actuator can modulate allowing only a certain amount of cold water to reach the
evaporator coil.
Actuators for Chilled Water Valve Depending on the cooling supply air set point will depend on
where the control actuator will modulate the valve in the piping. Chilled water systems offer an
economical way of cooling large commercial buildings. These air conditioning systems are a great
alternative to direct expansion constant volume air conditioning systems. There are constant volume
air conditioning systems which use chilled water but most constant volume air conditioning systems
use direct expansion. Many chilled water systems are used for VAV systems where there are many
zones on a large air handling unit. Both constant volume air conditioning system and VAV zoning air
conditioning systems can be either direct expansion or chilled water systems.
Actuators for Chilled Water Valve
Control actuators, in chilled water systems, offer control of the flow of chilled water which is routed to
the evaporator coil. This photo shows a new installation of a control actuator and piping. The control
actuator is modulating and on a three way valve. The valve will modulate depending on the supply air
temperature of the air handling unit which provides air conditioned air to the space. The piping was
installed with several unions so that if the valve malfunctioned it could easily be replaced.
The air handler being served by this control actuator and piping serves a large commercial kitchen. In
the summer it is critical for the air conditioning system to remove the heat produced by the ovens
and grills so that workers remain safe and comfortable. The air conditioning increases the workers
productivity and morale. The piping feeds chilled water to an evaporator coil inside the air handler.
The blower in the air handler moves the air from the kitchen across the coil where the heat in the air
is absorbed into the coil and the water. The conditioned air is then ducted back into the kitchen at a
cooler temperature than when it left the kitchen through the return duct.
Chilled water actuators give chilled water systems the ability to precisely control chilled water systems
and precision control results in added efficiency of the chilled water system. The chilled water
actuators are typically controlled by the building automation or DDC system that give the chilled
water actuators added control and precision control.
To learn more about HVAC and chilled water systems click here.
pump covers friction losses of piping system, cooling coils, control valves, all fittings and return piping
up to cross over bridge. Secondary pump is variable speed pump. Primary pump is constant speed
pump. When air conditioning loads in the building drops, it requires less water to meet building
needs. Providing same volume of water at these conditions is wastage of pumping energy. Therefore,
secondary pump varies its speed according to building requirements. Pressure differential transducer
is installed at the remote leg of piping circuit. When number of control valves close due to drop in
cooling demand, pressure in the pipe lines increases. Control valves on air side equipment are two
way types. These reduce flow of water to the coil. Less flow to the coils increases pressure in the
lines. Increased pressure is sensed by differential pressure sensor in the lines. This signal is
transmitted to controller which reduces secondary pump speed to maintain required pressure
differential in the lines. When flow of water in the secondary circuit increases, water flows in the
crossover bridge in reverse direction. It mixes with supply water from chiller and increases supply
water temperature to the cooling coils. Warmer water is unable to meet air handling
unit requirement. Due to this, control valves open more under these conditions. Desirable direction in
decoupler line is from primary supply to primary return. In this case primary water flow exceeds
secondary water flow. When excess water is equal to a chiller capacity, one chiller is taken out of
circuit or destaged. For this purpose flow meter is installed in decoupler line. For chiller staging,
bidirectional flow sensor is used to ascertain direction of flow. When this sensor reads flow from
secondary return to secondary supply, it starts a new chiller. It means there is more demand of
cooling in the building. Size of decoupler line is kept equal to pump header size. It is long enough to
minimize sharp bends before and after flow meter and water flow sensor. Diameter is kept large to
minimize pressure drop through this line
Last month I outlined an approach, designers and facility managers can use to evaluate the cost
effectiveness of incorporating new "all-variable speed" technologies into new or existing chiller plants.
All-variable speed technologies offer substantial energy use reductions and also extend the life of the
plant's chillers while lowering their maintenance requirements. However, in many large cooling
systems, the chilled water distribution system poses a much more immediate problem to overall
cooling system performance and efficiency. Because many chilled water systems fail to attain their
design delta T, loads at the end of the distribution system may be starved at peak periods, while at
the same time the chiller plant is not able to utilize its full design capacity. Many "fixes" worsen the
problem by raising the chilled water supply temperature to loads which reduce their latent cooling
capacity and result in an endless stream of complaints. At some facilities, the inability to solve
nagging distribution problems has undermined the integrity of the entire central plant and new
approaches for cooling are being considered by unhappy end users.
performance.
fully load the on-line chillers because the primary pumps are fixed flow. This wastes energy
and if it occurs at peak conditions, it robs the plant of capacity.
2. Whenever secondary flow exceeds primary flow, flow reverses in the decoupling line and is
mixed to degrade the supply water temperature. This reduces the cooling capacity of the
loads in distribution circuits closest to the decoupling line. The result is greatly increased flow
in those circuits and reduced delta T, which also robs the system of its full capacity
capabilities.
Because primary and secondary flow is almost never exactly balanced and actual delta T always
varies somewhat from design, one of the two problems is almost always at play in such systems, both
of which can reduce the design delta T of the system and both of which make it difficult to operate
the system effectively at full capacity. A number of solutions have been proposed to correct this
problem, but such "cures" often destroy the system's ability to meet the cooling load requirements.
One popular method of correcting low secondary circuit delta T problems is shown in Figure 2.
undermine the thermodynamic efficiency of the system, destroy the capacity of the coils to meet their
loads, and add further to low delta T problems. To solve the types of distribution problems that lead
to low delta T, the design or retrofit needs to follow these rules:
1. Eliminate all possibility of direct mixing between chilled water supply and return:
This means eliminating all decoupling lines and three way valves. In this era of networked
DDC and variable speed control, pumping systems no longer need to be decoupled.
Furthermore, modern chillers accommodate varying flows over substantial ranges without any
loss of efficiency or operational stability. By selecting equipment wisely, it is not difficult to
design "all-variable speed" chilled water generating and distribution systems without any
mixing so that every bit of supply water must pass through a load before returning to the
plant and supply chilled water at design temperature is available to all loads at all times.
2. Employ a direct coupled distribution system: This means that when multiple pumping
circuits are employed such as in the Figure 1 system, they need to be connected directly in
series rather then isolated with the use of decoupling lines. Primary/Secondary systems
become "Primary/Booster" systems in which "all-variable speed" pumping stations are
operated in series. Such systems are extremely effective and can save capital cost when
compared to decoupled Primary/Secondary schemes because Primary/Booster configurations
can incorporate built-in backup without the need for redundant equipment.
3. Focus delta T attention at each and every load: Once decoupling lines and three way
valves have been eliminated, the only source of low delta T problems is overflow through
individual loads. Overflow can occur because of improperly sized valves and varying pressure
differentials across valves. It can also occur when the air side of cooling coils becomes
clogged or other maintenance failures take place. A simple means for preventing overflow is
to install a temperature sensor on the return water line at each load and to use this
temperature as a limit for the control valve serving the load. When the return water
temperature falls to approach the design leaving water temperature for the coil, the valve is
limited from opening further. This step eliminates the problem of low delta T at the load and
gives the designer a little more flexibility in sizing valves for each load. The simple logic that
limits the valve operation can also be employed to notify the operator that a maintenance
problem may be affecting the operation of the load.
Configuring The Solution
Figure 3 shows a system incorporating the above points that ensures every load will be satisfied and
guarantees that the design delta T is maintained at all times.
connect the system with loads served, the network enables a much more efficient and
reliable method of making certain all loads in the circuit are satisfied with a minimum of
pumping power. Network control of the booster pumps eliminates the need to maintain a
fixed static head in the circuit at all times. Instead direct service of the loads calling for
cooling is accomplished with a new network enabled control called "demand based control,"
the details of which will be covered in a later article. There is one other feature of the Figure
3 system that is crucial to this upgrade. Notice that each load in Figure 3 now employs a
temperature sensor on its return chilled water line and that temperature sensor is coupled
with the operation of the valve. This temperature sensor acts as a limit on the valve
operation. Under normal circumstances, the valve is modulated in accordance with
requirements of the space served by the load. However, if the return chilled water
temperature falls to the design return chilled water temperature limit for the load, it acts as a
limit to the operation of the valve such that the return chilled water temperature is not
allowed to fall further.
Other Design Considerations
There are some hydronic issues that must be addressed with large series pumping systems. The
potential for water hammer is increased because without decoupling lines, flow through the entire
system will change if a rapid change of flow occurs through any large load. However, simple steps will
ensure that water hammer will not be a problem. First, the all-variable speed distribution system
shown in Figure 3 should employ electrically actuated modulating valves. Large valves usually employ
90 second to 360 second motors. This means that the valve cannot abruptly change flow to cause
water hammer. If other considerations make water hammer still a possibility, the potential can be
further mitigated by using distributed expansion tanks. With this, a small expansion tank can be
installed at each booster pumping station. When correctly piped, in addition to providing temperature
expansion protection for each booster circuit, the distributed expansion tanks will act as buffers to
absorb potential pressure spikes between the booster circuit and the remainder of the system.
Another potential issue with the configuration shown in Figure 3 is the need to ensure some level of
minimum flow anytime a chiller is operating. Without any decoupling or bypass, the flow will drop to
zero if all the valves close. The simplest solution is to shut the last remaining on-line chiller down
when the flow falls below a predefined minimum threshold. Consider that in many comfort cooling
applications, this low flow condition will be reached when the outside temperature is very close to the
point at which outside air economizers alone can provide the supply air temperature setpoint. By
shutting down the mechanical cooling, the supply temperature may rise slightly, requiring some
additional fan power to meet the cooling load, but the overall system may still operate much more
efficiently than by keeping a nearly unloaded chiller on line.
If chiller operation at low loads is necessary, then it is a simple matter to add a small bypass valve in
the primary circuit that is normally closed but opens at low flow conditions to maintain a minimum
flow rate.
Evaluation Costs and Savings for an All-Variable Speed Upgrade
While the savings that can be expected from upgrading an existing decoupled primary - secondary
distribution system to an all-variable speed primary - booster system may not be eye catching, the
costs for such an upgrade are also often quite modest. Adding variable speed drives to the constant
speed primary pumps, closing bypasses and implementing new network control can be accomplished
quite economically in many systems. So, even though the energy economics may not be enormously
attractive at first blush, the potential benefits to the overall cooling system are. The main driving
forces for retrofitting to an all-variable speed distribution system are:
1. The desire to recapture chiller plant capacity that is being lost to low delta T problems, or
2. The desire to correct distribution flow problems resulting from the low delta T that make it
difficult to properly cool some areas of the facility under certain conditions.
These are big problems for some facilities, and converting to an all-variable speed primary/booster
chilled water distribution system can usually lead to enormous improvements at relative low costs.
However, such a conversion needs to be very carefully analyzed and designed to be sure the retrofit
does not introduce new hydraulic problems into the system and that the chillers and other plant
equipment maintain adequate minimum chilled water flow at all times. Cost is not generally a major
consideration for a primary/booster upgrade, but a careful design process should be!
Summary & Conclusion
Low delta T problems are very widely experienced by chilled water distribution systems in operation
today. Many of the fixes that have been suggested to mitigate low delta T offer no solution at all,
only more problems. However, reconfiguring such chilled water distribution systems as
primary/booster "all-variable speed" systems without decoupling lines and with return chilled water
temperature limits on each load will absolutely guarantee an end to low delta T problems.
Furthermore, such a system can alert operators to potential problems at loads that are under
performing so that these problems can be corrected before they adversely affect the comfort of the
spaces served. With a carefully developed design, an economical upgrade is often achievable that will
greatly improve overall cooling system performance.