CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURE OF ATOM

2.1

Particulate Nature of Matter

Particle Theory of Matter:
Matter is made up of a large number of tiny and discrete particles.

2.1.1

Types of Particles

Atom
Molecule
Ion
The smallest, indivisible Particles that made up of Particles that carry charge.
particle of an element.
two or more atoms.
Positive ion: Cation
Negative ion: Anion

2.1.2

Proof of Particle Theory of Matter Diffusion

Diffusion is a process of spreading of a substance from a region of high concentration to
a region of low concentration.
It occurs when the particles of the substances move through the space between the
particles of another substance.
Figure below shows how the bromine particles diffuse into the air.

Before

After
Air particle
Bromine particle

Diffusion occurs in solid, liquid and gas.

The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.

Diffusion in Solid

The blue color of copper (II) sulphate fills up the entire test tube after a few days.
Diffusion in Liquid

The purple color of potassium manganite (VII) fills up the entire test tube after a few hours.
Diffusion in Gas

The brown color of bromine vapor spreads evenly throughout the gas jar in a few minutes.
2.1.3 Proof of Particle Theory of Matter Brownian Motion

Brownian motion is the physical phenomenon that tiny particles immersed in a fluid
move about randomly.
A fluid can be a liquid or a gas.
Brownian movement supports the kinetic theory of matter.
Examples of Brownian movement are
1. Movement of smoke particles in air.
2. Movement of pollen grains in water.

Brownian Movement

2.1.4

Element and Compound

Matter can be divided into elements and compounds.

Elements
A substance that consists of only one type
of atom.
Can be either atoms or molecules.

Compounds
A substance composed of molecules made
up of atoms of two or more elements.
Made up either molecules or ions.

Iron (Atoms)

Carbon dioxide (Molecules)

Oxygen gas (Molecules)

Sodium chloride (Ions)

2.2

Three States of Matter

Characteristics

Solid

Arrangement of
Particles

Particles are arranged

in orderly manner and
close to one another.

Movement of
Particles
Forces of
Attraction between
Particles
Ability to be
Compressed
Volume
Heat Energy
Content
Shape

Particles vibrate at
fixed positions.

Liquid

Particles are not

arranged in order. The
space between
particles is moderately
large.
Particles move
randomly and slowly
and sometimes will
collide against each
other.

Very strong.

Strong but weaker

than solid state.

Very difficult to be
compressed because
the particles are
packed closely.
Fixed.
Lowest energy
content.

Not easily compressed

because the particles
are packed quite
closely.
Fixed.
Moderate energy
content.

Fixed.

Follows the container.

Gas

The particles are very

far apart and randomly
arrange.
Particles move
randomly in all
directions at great
speed.
Very weak.
Easily compressed
because the particles
are very far apart.
Follow the container.
Highest energy
content.
Fills the whole
container.

2.2.1

Inter-Conversion between States of Matter

The change in temperature will influences the kinetic energy or the speed of the motion
of the particles.
When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of the particles in the substance increases.
This causes the particles to move or vibrate faster.
When a substance is cooled, the kinetic energy of the particles in the substance decreases.
This causes the particles to move or vibrate slower.
Thus, the kinetic energy of the particles in a substance is directly proportional to the
temperature of the substance.
Melting

The process where a solid changes to its liquid state at a certain temperature and pressure
when it is heated.
When a solid is heated, the particles obtain energy and vibrate at a faster rate.
As the temperature rises, the vibration of the particles increases until they reach the melting
point where the particles obtain enough energy to overcome the forces that hold them in their
fixed positions. The solid then changes into a liquid.
During melting, the temperature remains constant. This is because the heat energy is taken in
by the particles to overcome forces between them instead of being used to raise the
temperature.
The freezing and melting points of a pure substance are the same.
Boiling

Rapid vaporization of a liquid at a certain temperature and pressure when heat is applied to it.
When a liquid is heated, the particles gain energy and move faster.
As heat energy is keep on supplying to the liquid, the particles will obtain enough energy to
completely break the forces in between molecules.
The liquid then changes into a gas and particles are now able to move freely and far apart.
The temperature remains constant during boiling because heat energy that is absorbed by the
particles is used to break the forces holding them together.

Sublimation

The process of conversion of a substance from the solid to the vapor state without its
becoming liquid.
When heated, the particles of the solid gain enough energy to break the forces between them
and move freely as a gas.
When cooled, the gas changes back to solid.
Freezing

The process where a liquid changes to its solid state at a certain temperature and pressure
when it is cooled.
When a liquid is cooled, the temperature drops as heat energy is released to the surroundings.
As heat energy is released, the kinetic energy of the particles in the liquid decreases, causing
a slower movement of particles.
The particles lose their energy and are pulled closer by the strong forces between the
particles.
As the temperature keep on dropping until it reach the freezing point, the liquid start
changing into solid.
The temperature stays constant while the liquid freezes because heat energy is released when
the particles slow down to take up fixed and orderly positions in the solid.
Condensation

The process by which a gas or vapor changes to liquid state at certain temperature and
pressure when it is cooled.
When a gas is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy.
Thus, they move slower and this will cause the forces between them grow stronger.
At this point, the gas changes into liquid.
During condensation, heat is given out to the surroundings.
Condensation can occur at or below the boiling point of the substance.

Evaporation
The process where atoms or molecules in a liquid state gain sufficient energy to enter the
gaseous state.
It occurs below the boiling point of the liquid.
The particles escape from the surface of the liquid to form gas.
Evaporation differs from boiling in that it only takes place at the surface of the liquid and it is
very slow.
Factors influencing rate of evaporation:
1. Humidity of the air.
2. Temperature of the substance.
3. Flow rate of air.
4. Inter-molecular force. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the
liquid or solid state, the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them.

2.2.2

Heating Curve

AB

BC

Naphthalene is in solid state at any temperature below its melting point.

The particles are very closely packed together in an orderly manner.
The forces between the particles are very strong. The particles can only
vibrate at a fixed position.
As the naphthalene is heated, heat energy is converted to kinetic
energy.
Kinetic energy increases and the molecules vibrate faster about their
fixed positions and the temperature increases.
Naphthalene is still in solid state.
Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the
forces of attraction between them.
Some of the particles that gain enough energy begin to move freely.
Naphthalene starts to melt and changes into a liquid.
Naphthalene exists in both solid and liquid states.
The temperature remains constant because the heat that supplied to
naphthalene is used to overcome the forces of attraction that hold the
particles together.
The constant temperature is called the melting point.
The heat energy that absorbed to overcome the intermolecular forces is
named as the latent heat of fusion.
All the naphthalene has completely melted.

CD

DE

E
EF

Naphthalene in liquid state.

As the liquid naphthalene is heated, the molecules gain more heat
energy and the temperature continues to increase.
The particles move faster and faster because their kinetic energy is
increasing.
Naphthalene still exists in liquid state.
Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the
forces of attraction between the particles in the liquid.
Some of the naphthalene molecules start to move freely and liquid
naphthalene begin to change into gas.
Naphthalene exists in both liquid and gaseous states.
The temperature remains unchanged.
This is because the heat energy absorbed is used to overcome the
intermolecular forces between the particles of the liquid rather than
increase the temperature of the liquid.
This constant temperature is the boiling point.
All the naphthalene has turn into gas.
The gas particles continue to absorb more energy and move faster.
The temperature increases as heating continues.

2.2.3

Cooling Curve

PQ

QR

The substance exists in gaseous state.

The particles have very high energy and are moving randomly.
The intermolecular forces between the particles are very weak and can
be ignored.
The substance is in gaseous state.
The particles lose kinetic energy during cooling, the particles getting
closer to each other and the temperature drops.
The substance still exists as a gas.
As the molecules are close enough, stronger forces of attraction result
in forming of intermolecular bonds.
The gas begins to condense and become liquid.
The process of condensation going on.
Stronger bonds form as gas changes into liquid.
The substance exists in both gaseous and liquid states.
The temperature remains unchanged.
This is because the energy produced during the formation of bonds is
equal to the heat energy released to the surroundings during cooling.
This constant temperature is the boiling point.
The heat energy that releases during this condensation process is called
the latent heat of vaporization.
The substance exists only in liquid state as all the gas particles have
condensed into liquid.

RS

ST

T
TU
U
2.2.4

The substance exists as a liquid.

As the temperature falls, the naphthalene molecules lose heat energy.
Their movement shows down and they move closer to each other.
The substance still in liquid state.
The particles have very little energy and begin to move closer towards
one another as it starts to freeze into solid.
The liquid is changing into solid form.
Molecules rearrange to form the molecular arrangement of a solid.
The substance exists as both liquid and solid.
The temperature remains constant until all the liquid changes to solid.
This is because the energy released is the same as the energy lost to the
surroundings during cooling.
This constant temperature is the freezing point.
The heat energy that releases during this freezing process is called the
latent heat of fusion.
All the liquid freezes into solid. The particles are now closely packed in
an orderly manner.
Once all the liquid has become solid, the temperature falls once again
until it reaches room temperature. The substance is in the solid state
here.
The substance reaches room temperature and remains at this
temperature as long as the room temperature remains the same.

Melting Point, Boiling Point and State of Matter.

The physical state of a substance at a certain temperature and pressure depends on the
values of its melting and boiling points.
A substance is in solid state if it exists at a temperature below its melting point.
A substance is in liquid state if it exists at a temperature above its melting point but below
its boiling point
A substance is in gaseous state if it exists at a temperature above its boiling point.

2.3

Structure of Atom

2.3.1

History of Development of the Model of Atom

John Dalton

Atom

All matter is composed of extremely small particles

called atoms.
All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass, and chemical properties. Atoms of
specific element are different from those any other
element.
Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles
or destroyed.
Different atoms combine in simple whole number
ratios to form compounds.
In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined
or rearranged.

J. J. Thomson

Earnest Rutherford

The electrons were positioned uniformly throughout the

atom.

The atom is mostly empty space

Most of the atoms mass concentrated in a tiny center,
the nucleus and electrons being held in orbit around it
by electrostatic attraction.
Those alpha particles that had come into close
proximity with the nucleus had been strongly deflected
whereas the majority had passed at a relatively great

distance to it.

Neil Bohr

Electrons in an atom of an element are not randomly

distributed around the atomic nucleus.
Electrons move around the nucleus in fixed orbits.
Each orbit forms a circle and has a fixed distance from
the nucleus.

James Chadwick

Discovered the presence of neutrons in the nucleus.

He concluded that the nucleus contains another tiny
particle known as neutron that has no charge.
The neutron mass is almost similar to the proton mass.
All nuclei contain protons and neutrons, except for the
hydrogen which contains protons only.

2.3.2

Modern Atomic Model

According to the modern atomic model,

2.3.3

The central nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It containing almost all the mass of
the atom.
The nucleus of an atom is very small compared to the size of the atom.
The electrons are orbiting outside the nucleus in the electron shells.
The electrons are moving in electron shells at a very high speed and cannot be
determined the position of the electrons at a particular time.
The Subatomic Particles of an Atom

Subatomic Particles
Position

Proton
In the nucleus

Neutron
In the nucleus

Relative Charge
Relative Mass

+1
1

0
1

Actual Mass (g)

1.672 10-24

1.675 10-24

Electron
Moves around
nucleus
-1
1
1 840

the

9.107 10-28

A neutral atom contains the same number of electrons as the protons.

The positive and negative charges of the protons and electrons respectively neutralize
each other.
If the number of protons is greater than the number of electron, the particle is positively
charge.
If the number of electrons is greater than the number of protons, the particle is negatively
charge.

2.3.4

Proton Number and Nucleon Number

Proton Number

The proton number represents the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.
Proton number = the number of protons.
The proton number is also known as the atomic number.
In an atom of neutral charge, the number of electrons also equals the atomic number.
Thus, the proton number of an atom can also represent the number of electrons.
Proton Number (Z) = The Number of Protons

Nucleon Number

The nucleon number also called atomic mass number or mass number, is the number of
protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus.
The nucleon number of an atom is about the same as the mass of the atom because the
mass of an electron is very small and can be ignored.
Nucleon Number (A) = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons

Elements
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium

Protons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Number of
Electrons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Neutrons
0
2
4
5
6
6
7
8
10
10
12
12
14
14
16
16
18
22
20
20

Proton
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Nucleon
Number
1
4
7
9
11
12
14
16
19
20
23
24
27
28
31
32
35
40
39
40

2.3.5

Symbol of Elements
A symbol of element is the chemical symbol written in short form to represent a
particular element. Some are represented by first letter of its name.
Element
Fluorine
Hydrogen
Iodine
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Element
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Carbon
Vanadium

Symbol
F
H
I
N
O
Symbol
P
S
C
V

If there are two or more elements that have name start with the same alphabet letter, a
second letter is added to differentiate between these elements.
Element
Bromine
Calcium
Chlorine
Chromium
Magnesium
Manganese
Neon
Element
Nickel
Silicon
Helium
Argon
Aluminium
Zinc
Platinum

Symbol
Br
Ca
Cl
Cr
Mg
Mn
Ne
Symbol
Ni
Si
He
Ar
Al
Zn
Pt

Some elements are represented by their Latin names.

Element
Copper
Iron
Lead
Mercury
Potassium
Silver
Sodium
Tin

Latin Name
Cuprum
Ferrum
Plumbum
Hydrargyrum
Kalium
Argentum
Natrium
Stannum

The atomic symbol of an element is

A
Z

Symbol
Cu
Fe
Pb
Hg
K
Ag
Na
Sn

2.4

Isotopes and Their Importance

Isotopes are atoms of certain elements which have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms.
Properties of Isotope
Equal
Difference
Same
Difference

Number of Proton
Number of Neutron
Chemical Properties
Physical Properties
Element
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Carbon
Chlorine
Sodium

Name
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen 16
Oxygen 17
Oxygen 18
Carbon 12
Carbon 13
Carbon 14
Chlorine - 35
Chlorine 37
Sodium 23
Sodium 24

Symbol
1

H
1 H
3
1 H
16
8 O
17
8 O
18
8 O
12
6 C
13
6 C
14
6 C
35
17 Cl
37
17 Cl
23
11 Na
24
11 Na
1

Proton
Number
1
1
1
8
8
8
6
6
6
17
17
11
11

Nucleon
Number
1
12
23
16
17
18
12
13
14
35
37
23
24

Number of
Proton
Neutron
1
0
1
1
1
2
8
8
8
9
8
10
6
6
6
7
6
8
17
18
17
20
11
12
11
13