6

5 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY

Newtonian flow characteristics shows that, at constant temperature and pressure, the shear
stress () is proportional to shear rate () with dynamic viscosity () acting as a constant of
proportionality. In past decades, there has been growing realization that various materials
which has industrial importance, mostly of multi-phase nature (e.g. foams, emulsions,
dispersions and suspensions, slurries), polymeric melts and both natural and man-made
solutions do not obey the Newtonian law which postulates a linear relationship between
shear stress and shear rate (Chhabra, 2010). Fluids deviates from the Newtonian behaviour
when the simple shear data of vs. does not go through the origin or is not in linear
relationship.
This experiment investigates the steady shear viscosity of a specific non-Newtonian polymer
solution, Carboxyl-Methyl-Cellulose (CMC) dissolved in water at different concentrations
and temperatures with capillary lengths 1.00, 1.75 and 2.00 m. The rheological power law is
then to be determined based on the experimental results obtained and further data tabulation.

Rheological properties of CMC solutions have been experimented on numerous times.

Ghannam & Esmail (1997) reported that CMC solutions adapted a nearly Newtonian
behavior for low concentrations, and pseudoplastic, thixothropic, as well as viscoelastic1 at
higher concentrations. The concentration ranged between 1% - 5%. However, there was no
mention regarding the polymers molecular weight. Another study by Edali et al. (2001)
confirmed that CMC solutions at higher concentrations exhibits both non-Newtonian and
viscoelastic properties.
Lin & Ko (1995) in their experiment found that not all non-Newtonian fluids behave the
same way when subjected to manipulating variables of temperature and concentration. In the
experiment, aqueous polymer solution Sodium Carboxylmethylcellulose (CMC) is
compared with another aqueous polymer solution Carbopol (neutralized) which in
conclusion shows that the susceptibility of the steady shear rate properties to temperature
change is higher in sodium CMC compared to Carbopol. On the other hand, the steady shear
properties of Carbopol solution is found to be more sensitive to concentration compared to
sodium CMC.
The theory makes use of the implication that a fluid flow through the capillary rheometer of
uniform cross section progresses in a laminar flow, with the pressure drop per unit length of
the tube for a time-independent fluid is constant. A fully developed laminar flow is the
premise of the capillary rheometer.

Provided that the flow is laminar, and the fluid is Newtonian, Hagen and Poiseuille proposed
that the pressure drop P at a volume flow rate Q is dependant on the shear viscosity (Winter,
2008).
=
L = length, m

r = radius, m

Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when subject
to deformation.
1

For this experiment, several equations are needed to find values for shear stress, volumetric
flow rate, and shear rate. To start, the shear stress profile inside a tube along a length L and
pressure drop of P:
=

At the wall, r = R, therefore the shear stress at the wall:

=

Also can be written in terms of D = diameter:

=

Meanwhile, the velocity profile inside the tube from Navier-Stokes equations is:
=

where Q is the volumetric flow rate. Integrating this equation gives us Q which is simply:
=

where V = velocity. From r = 0 to r = R, we then manage to get Q for an average velocity

through the capillary tube and expressed in terms of D:
=

Integrating the equation above with Poiseulles volumetric flowrate equation for laminar
flow would enable the expression of P in terms of velocity, length, viscosity and diameter
(or radius). Poiseulles equation describes volumetric flowrate as the pressure difference
divided by the viscous resistance, in which this resistance depends on the viscosity and
length linearly as well as fourth power of the tubes radius (HyperPhysics, 2000). This law
is fit to use with experiment for flows with no significant turbulence. Q according to
Poiseulles equation is:
=

with = viscosity

Equating Q obtained previously with Poisuelles definition of Q:

4

Simplifying the equation and solving for P:

=

32

This equation can further be manipulated to obtain shear rate, . Rearranging the equation:

8
=
4

Previously,

=
therefore
=

Concerning the wall shear stress, since viscosity is shear stress divided by shear rate,
therefore:
=

which leads to the obtaining shear rate expressed in velocity and diameter as follows:
=

Now, for a steady isothermal laminar flow, the Rabinowitsch-Mooney equation describes a
relationship between shear rate and wall shear stresss. It follows the definition of the
volumetric flow rate through tubes and application of no-slip boundary condition which
then brings to:
=

3 1
+
4 4

True shear rate can be obtained by plotting Q vs

the evaluation of the derivative

(Universita di Salerno, 2007). For power-law fluids,

= . The Rabinowitsch equation is then written as:

the slope

=
+

with

to

on a logarithmic scale which enables

ln

3
1
+
4 4

is the correction factor to apparent shear rate

and n is the slope of

. For Newtonian fluids, the value of n is simply 1 which reduces the equation

. For non-Newtonian fluids, shear-thinning materials have n of less than 1 while

shear-thickening materials have n of more than 1. Integration of the Rabinowitsch-Mooney

equation leads to:
=

=
4

Similarly, the Power Law is in the form:

=

The derivation of equations which comes down to the general Power Law for this experiment
further eases the expression of experimental findings in appropriate rheological model and
the determination of rheological properties of assigned material, CMC solution. The Power
Law model shows two parameters: power law index or flow index, n, and consistency, K.
The flow index n measures how far or close the deviation from Newtonian properties while
the consistency K is the measure of the average viscosity of the fluid. In simple terms, the
higher the value of K, the higher the fluids viscosity. Meanwhile, the lower the value of n
(where n < 1), the more the fluid exhibits pseudoplasticity or shear-thinning properties.
Evidently, the higher the value of n (where n > 1), the more the fluid exhibits dilatant or
shear-thickening behavior and properties.