Anatomy Test#1: 1

Organization of the Human Body Lecture #1

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Organization of the Human Body hierarchical organization

Chemical, cells, tissues, organs, organ system, organism

Anatomic Position

Directional Terms

Superior/inferior

Anterior/posterior (standing upright)

Ventral/dorsal (4 legged)

Medial/lateral/intermediate

Proximal/distal

Superficial/deep

Ipsilateral/contralateral
Regional Terms (specific body areas)

Axial
o Head, neck, thorax, abdomen

Appendicular
o Shoulder/arm, pelvis/leg
Body Planes and Sections

Sagittal divides left/right (median)

Transverse across up/down (cross)

Frontal divides anterior/posterior (coronal)

Body Cavities

Dorsal cavity
o Cranial
o Vertebral

Ventral cavity
o Thoracic pleural, mediastinum, pericardial
o Abdominal
o Pelvic
Thoracic and Abdominal Serous Membranes

Thoracic pleural, pericardial

Abdominal peritoneal

Layers:
o Visceral lines organ (inner)

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o Parietal lines cavity/body wall (outside)
Cell Structure Lecture #2A
1.

Introduction

Define cell
o Building blocks of animals and plants

State the range of cell numbers and cells sizes in a human body
o 50-100 trillion cells in the human body

State the term for cell specialization

o Differentiation

2.

A Composite Cell

List the three major parts of a composite cell.

o Nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane

Plasma membrane
o Composition/components/properties & how does its structure makes possible its function

Phospholipid bilayer
o Biological functions

Communication with the external environment

Physical isolation/barrier

Regulates exchange with environment

Ions/nutrients enter and waste eliminated

Monitors the environment

Extracellular fluid composition and chemical signals

Structural support

Anchors cells and tissues

o Passive and Active processes for transfer of substances into and out of the cell

Simple diffusion movement of molecules along concentration gradient

Facilitated diffusion movement with the help of channel or carrier molecule

Osmosis movement of water along the gradient

Isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic

Filtration smaller molecules forced through porous membrane

Hydrostatic pressure is important

Active transport use of transport protein to move molecules against concentration gradient

Organelles internal structures that carry out specialized metabolic tasks

o Cytoskeleton structural proteins for shape and strength

Microfilaments

Intermediate filaments

Microtubules
o Centrosome generates microtubules and organizes mitotic spindle
o Ribosome protein synthesis
o Cilia short hair-like projection propel substances though passageways and on cell surface
o Flagella long tail-like projection that provides motility
o Microvilli finger-like extensions that increase surface area for absorption
o Rough ER protein synthesis
o Smooth ER lipid and cholesterol synthesis, stores calcium, breakdown drugs
o Golgi apparatus modification, packaging, and transport of proteins
o Mitochondria powerhouse of the cell, site for cellular respiration
o Lysosome destroy anything the cell no longer needs, degrade nonfunctional organelles, foreign bodies, toxins
o Peroxisomes detoxification of harmful or toxic substances
o Nucleus control center of cell

3.

The Cell Cycle

Describe the major stages of the cell cycle and identify the major activities during each stage
o Interphase (nondividing period)

G0 = specialized cell functions

G1 = cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis

S = DNA replication and histone synthesis

G2 = finishes protein synthesis and centriole replication

Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.

o Mitosis cell replication

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

o Cytokinesis division of cytoplasm

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4.

Control of Cell Cycle and Division

Explain how different types of cells differ in their rate of cells division. State the range of cell divisions a cell typically
undergoes.
o Skin/blood cells divide often and continuously
o Neuron divide specific # of times and then stops

Discuss factors that influence whether or not a cell divides.

o Increase cell division

Internal M-phase promoting factor

External growth factors

o Decrease cell division

Repressor genes

Worn out telomeres

Explain how cancer arises from too-frequent cell division.

Distinguish the two types of genetic control of cancer.

o Oncogene activate other genes to increase cell division
o Tumor suppressor regulate mitosis

Inactive = not able to regulate division = cancer)

5.

Stem and Progenitor Cells

Distinguish between a stem cell and a progenitor cell

o Stem cells divide to form new cells

Totipotent every cell type

Pluripotent restricted # of cell types

o Progenitor cells committed cell, divide to become any restricted # of cells (pluripotent)

Define differentiation
o Cell specialization to form tissues by turning off all genes not needed by that cell

Explain how two differentiated cell types can have the same genetic information, but different appearances and functions
o Depends on which genes are active and which are inactive

Tissues - Lecture #2B

1.

Tissues

Four primary tissue types

o Epithelial tissue
o Connective tissue
o Muscular tissue
o Nervous tissue

Three embryonic germ layers and some adult tissues derived from each of these layers
o Ectoderm forms epidermis and nervous system
o Mesoderm becomes mesenchyme (connective tissue and muscle)
o Endoderm forms mucous membrane lining the GI tract, respiratory system and digestive glands

2.

Epithelial Tissue

*Describe the properties that distinguish epithelium from other tissue classes

Seven types of epithelium, distinguish them from each other, and state where each type can be found in the body
o Simple squamous

Alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, serosa

o Simple cuboidal

Liver, thyroid, mammary/salivary glands, bronchioles, kidney tubules

o Simple columnar

Lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney, uterine tubes

o Pseudostratified epithelium

Lungs
o Stratified epithelium

Keratinized

Cornified
o Stratified cuboidal

Sweat glands, ovarian follicles, seminiferous tubules

o Transitional epithelium

Urinary tract, ureter, bladder

*Explain how the structural differences between epithelia relate to their functional differences

*Visually recognize each epithelial type from specimens or photographs.

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3.

Connective Tissue

*Describe the properties that most connective tissues have in common

Discuss the types of cells found in connective tissue

o Fibroblasts produce fibers and ground substance
o Macrophages phagocytize foreign material and activate immune system (arise from WBC)
o Neutrophils look for bacteria
o Plasma cells synthesize antibodies (arise from WBC)
o Mast cells secrete heparin (inhibit clotting) and histamine (dilates blood vessels)
o Adipocytes store triglycerides

Describe components of connective tissue is and describe its components

o Ground substance gelatinous material between cells that absorb compressive forces
o Glycosaminoglycans - disaccharides that attract sodium and hold water
o Proteoglycan create bonds with cells or extracellular macromolecules
o Adhesive glycoproteins protein-carbohydrate complexes bind cell membrane to collagen outside the cells

Sub-classes of connective tissue, their cellular components and matrix, and explain what distinguishes them from each other
o Loose connective tissue (gel-like ground substance)

Areolar

Reticular

Adipose
o Dense connective tissue (fibers fill spaces between cells)

Dense regular

Dense irregular
o Cartilage (supportive connective tissue with rubbery matrix, no blood vessels)

Hyaline

Fibrocartilage

Elastic cartilage
o Bones (skeletal support, leverage for muscles, mineral storage)

Spongy bone

Compact bone
o Blood

4.

Nervous Tissue

*What distinguishes excitable tissues from other tissues

*Name the cell types that compose nervous tissue

Identify the major parts of a nerve cell

5.

Muscle Tissue

Name the three histologically distinct muscle types and their roles and differences between these muscle types
o Skeletal long, cylindrical, unbranched with striations and multiple nuclei

For movement, facial expression, posture, breathing, speech, swallowing, excretion

o Cardiac short, branched with striations and intercalated discs; one central nuclei per cell

For pumping blood

o Smooth short, fusiform cells, nonstriated with only one central nucleus

found in viscera, iris, hair follicle, sphincters

for swallowing, GI tract functions, labor contractions, control of airflow, erection of hair and control of pupil

Describe the junctions that hold the cardiac muscles together

o Tight junctions encircle the cell joining it to surrounding cells (zipper-like grooves and ridges)

GI and urinary tracts

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Desmosomes patch between cell holding them together

Uterus, heart, epidermis

Gap junctions ring of transmembrane proteins forms water-filled channel

Embryos, cardiac and smooth muscle

Glands

Describe or define different types of glands

o Endocrine secrete directly into the bloodstream (hormones)
o Exocrine connect to surface with a duct (epithelial tube)

Describe the typical anatomy of a gland

o Stroma capsule and septa divide gland into lobes and lobules
o Parenchyma cells that secrete
o Acinus cluster of cells surrounding the duct draining those cells

Name and compare different modes of glandular secretion

o Serous glands thin, watery secretion (sweat, milk, tears, digestive juice)
o Mucous glands produce mucin that absorbs water to form sticky secretion called mucus
o Mixed glands both cell types
o Cytogenic glands release whole cells (sperm and egg)
o Holocrine glands oil-producing glands
o Merocrine glands release product by exocytosis (tears, gastric glands, pancreas)
o Apocrine glands mammary, armpit sweat glands

7.

Membranes

Name and describe the major types of membranes in the body and their roles
o Mucous membrane lines passageway that open to the exterior (reproductive, respiratory, urinary, digestive)
o Cutaneous membrane protective function (skin)
o Synovial membrane secrete synovial fluid (joint cavities)
o Serous membrane covers and lines walls of body cavity (serosa/internal membrane)

8.

Tissue Growth

Name and describe the modes of tissue growth

o Hyperplasia through cell multiplication
o Hypertrophy enlargement of pre-existing cells
o Neoplasia growth of a tumor through abnormal tissue

Define adult and embryonic stem cells and their varying degrees of developmental plasticity
o Embryonic stem cells

Totipotent any cell type

Pluripotent specific tissue type

o Adult stem cells

Multipotent bone marrow producing blood cells

Unipotent only epidermal cells produced

Name and describe the modes and causes of tissue shrinkage and death
o Atrophy loss of cell size/number
o Necrosis pathological death of tissue

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Apoptosis programmed cell death

The Integument - Lecture #3

1. Skin and its biological role

Protection/barrier against water, UV, chemical, foreign organisms

Thermoregulation

Sensation

Vit D synthesis from UV

Non-verbal communication facial expressions

2. Structure of the two major layers/sub-layers of the skin: epidermis and dermis, and hypodermis, subcutaneous layer.

Epidermis
o Sublayers

Stratum corneum layers of dead, scaly, keratinized cells

Stratum lucidum keratinocytes packed with clear protein eleidin

ONLY IN THICK SKIN

Stratum granulosum 3-5 layers of flat keratinocytes

Stratum spinosum several layers of keratinocytes joined together by desmosomes and tight junctions

Stratum basale single layer of stem cells and keratinocytes resting on basement membrane

Deepest epidermal layer

o Different cell types and their roles

Stem cells undifferentiated cells that give rise to keratinocytes

Keratinocytes synthesize keratin

Melanocytes synthesize melanin that shields DNA from UV

Tactile cells touch receptor cells associated with dermal nerve fibers

Dendritic cells macrophages originating in bone marrow that guard against pathogens
o Cornification layer of dead cells (shock absorber)
o Keratinization waterproof
o Waterproofing which layer does this take place in? how?

Stratum granulosum
o Layer renewal, vertical migration of cells

Implications e.g., nonpermanent and permanent tattoos

Dermis
o Sublayers (structural components and their role)

Papillary layer superficial zone of dermis

Thin zone, allows for mobility of leukocytes, rich in small blood vessels, touch receptors,
dermal ridges

Reticular layer deeper and thicker layer of dermis

Has dense, irregular connective tissue

Stretch marks tears in collagen fiber

Hypodermis (structural components and their role)

o Subcutaneous tissue
o Energy reservoir, thermal insulation, thicker in women, thinner in infants and elderly
3. Differentiate between thick and thin skin

Thick skin palms and soles of feet

o Has sweat glands but no hair follicles and sebaceous glands
o 0.5mm

Thin skin rest of body

o Has hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands
o 0.1mm
4. Skin color

Role of Melanin
o Produced in melanocytes and accumulates in keratinocytes
o Types:

Eumelanin = brownish black

Pheomelanin = reddish yellow

Pathological coloration of the skin

o Cyanosis blueness due to oxygen deficiency
o Erythema redness due to increased blood flow to skin

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Pallor paleness due to decreased blood flow to skin

Albinism milky while skin and blue-gray eyes due to genetic lack of melanin synthesizing enzyme
Jaundice yellowing sue to bilirubin in the blood (caused by compromised liver function)
Hematoma bruising (clotted blood under skin)

5. Skin Markings

Friction ridges
o Markings on the fingertips

Flexion lines
o Lines on the flexor surfaces of the digits, palms, wrists, elbows

Moles
o Elevated, melanized patches often with hair

Freckles
o Flat, melanized patches
6. Cutaneous glands

Sweat glands
o Two different types

Merocrine watery perspiration

Palms, sole, forehead

Apocrine milky sweat and contains fatty acid

Groin, anal region, axilla, areola, beard area

Sebaceous glands
o Oily secretion
o Keep skin/hair from being dry, brittle, cracked

Mammary glands
o Milk production

7. Skin cancer

Three different types (cellular origins, occurrence and severity)

o Basal cell carcinoma

From stratum basale

Most common, least dangerous

o Squamous cell carcinoma

From keratinocytes of stratum spinosum

Recovery is possible when detected early and surgically removed

Dangerous if metastasized to lymph nodes

o Malignant melanoma

From melanocytes

Least common (5%), most deadly form

8. Burns

Classification system as related to the effect upon the different layers

o First degree only epidermis

Heals in days

Redness, slight edema, pain

o Second degree part of dermis

Blistered, painful

2 weeks to several months to heal

o Third degree epidermis + all of dermis and deeper tissues

Require skin graft

Need fluid replacement, infection control, supplemental nutrition