Wireless Module - Microwave Propagation

MODULE 2:
MICROWAVE PROPAGATION
ECE ELEC 4:
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
ENGINEERING
WIRELESS COMMS
UST ECE Department (2016)
Engr. Jefril M. Amboy
Introduction
The actual propagation of microwaves in practice is dierent
from free space propagation.

presence of obstructions
occurrence of reections
microwaves dot really travel in straight lines
absorption losses in the atmosphere
In the design of MW links, these conditions must be well
studied and considered for a successful and working design.
WIRELESS COMMS
Optical Properties of Microwaves

Microwaves just like light are electromagnetic in nature.
Radio waves and microwaves exhibit the following
properties that are originally observed in light.

Reection
Refraction
Diraction
Interference
These properties aect the way microwave signals propagate
along its path in the atmosphere and greatly inuences the

reception of the signal in the receiver.
WIRELESS COMMS
Reection
Microwaves undergo reection when it strikes a surface that it
cannot totally penetrate.

Microwaves are reected o by conductive surfaces. Ground is
regarded as a good conductor of radio waves and microwaves.
Whenever a wave is reected, the angle of incidence always equals
the angle of reection (law of reection).
WIRELESS COMMS
Reection Eects
When a microwave is reected, a certain amount of phase-shift is
introduced and the signal strength is reduced.
When the E-eld of the incident signal is parallel to the reecting
conductive surface, the energy will be absorbed, as if the wave is shorted.

Reection from lakes and large surfaces is more critical than reection
from terrain with vegetation
Generally, vertical polarization reduces reection especially at lower
frequencies
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Diraction
When a wave passes through obstacles whose dimensions
are comparable to its wavelength, the wave tends to bend

around or spread out.
This phenomenon is called diraction, which is dened as
the scaLering or divergence of a wave from its path as it
encounters obstacles and sharp edges.
A wave is diracted as it passes through the hole.

WIRELESS COMMS
Diraction Eects
Diraction explains why radio waves can be heard behind tall
mountains or buildings that are normally considered to block line

of sight transmissions.
However, diraction also causes fading due to interference and
multipath eects
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Refraction
As a wave travels from one medium to another, its velocity
changes.
This results to a change in the direction of the wave, as if the
wave bends. This is called refraction.
n1
n2
WIRELESS COMMS
medium 1
n1 < n2
v1 > v 2
medium 2
1 > 2
Refraction
The angle by which a wave is refracted can be determined
using Snells law:
!! !"# !! = !! !"# !! !
n1
n2
2
WIRELESS COMMS
!=
!! !
sin !!
=
sin !!
!! !
!! !
!
!= !
!
sin !! !!
= !
sin !! !!
Refraction Extends Radio Horizon

The atmospheric density slightly decreases with altitude.
This causes the microwave beams to be refracted downward.
Consequently, the radio horizon is extended due to refraction.
The radio horizon is approximately one-third greater than the
visual horizon for standard atmospheric conditions
The curvature of the microwave beam has a slightly slower rate than the Earths curvature.
WIRELESS COMMS
Radio Refractivity
The refractive index in the nonionized atmosphere is always > 1.
The radio refractivity, N is dened as
!= !!
!"! !
(ave. ground refractive index = 1.000315)

For links below 100 GHz:
P = atm. pressure (mbars)

T = absolute temperature
e = partial pressure due to water vapor (mbars)
!
!
!
! = !!. ! + !. !"#!" ! !
!
!

Pressure and humidity normally decreases exponentially with height

Temperature normally decreases linearly with altitude (6/km)
In general, N decreases exponentially with height.
For an average atmosphere,
N0 = 315 N-units

!!/!
! = !! !
WIRELESS COMMS
h0 = 7.35 km
Refractivity Gradient
In the lowest few hundred
meters of the atmosphere,

the refractivity gradient of
the atmosphere can be
approximated as linear.
!"
!=
!
!"
Refractivity gradients
change with time leading
to anomalous propagation
condition.
WIRELESS COMMS
Ideal microwave propagation in free-space.
Refraction in a Normal Atmosphere
The wavefront above the beam travels faster compared to the wavefront below. As a
consequence, the actual beam bends downwards.
WIRELESS COMMS
Abnormal Refraction
The density of the air above is greater. The wavefront below travels faster and
the microwave beam bends upward.
WIRELESS COMMS
Abnormal Refraction
May result to diraction loss from insucient clearance over obstacles.

This may also cause multipath fading and ducting.
WIRELESS COMMS
Eective Earth Radius

The bending of microwave beams depends on G at each point
along the path. The curved path travels over a curved Earth.
To simplify the analysis, assume a microwave beam traveling
along a straight line relative to an eective Earth radius.
To compensate for this, the eective Earth radius is the actual
radius multiplied by a certain factor called the k-factor.
that depends on the refractivity gradient. This factor is The k-
factor is used to determine relative clearance and not to predict the
beam curvature.
The k-factor is related to the refractive index gradient by
!"#
!=
!
!"# + !
WIRELESS COMMS
K-Factor vs Refractivity Gradient

When the gradient of refractivity
displays average characteristics, it is
called standard refraction (G = 39 N
units/km and k = 4/3).
When G is positive, the condition is known as subrefraction and can cause

diraction loss.
When G becomes more negative 100 N units/km, it is called super refraction
and results in multipath fading.
When the gradient becomes more negative than G = 157, ducting occurs.
WIRELESS COMMS
Eective Earth Radius & Surface Refractivity

ro
re =
(0.005577 N S )
1 0.04665e
N S = N o e 0.1057 H S
where:
re = eective earth radius
ro = true earth radius (6370 km)
NS = Surface Refractivity (300)
NO = Mean Sea Level Refractivity
HS = Elevation of Link Above Sea Level
WIRELESS COMMS
Actual Microwave Beams With Varying k

The ratio of the apparent radius to the actual radius of the earth is
called eective earths radius factor designated as K.

It is a numerical gure that considers the non-ideal condition of
the atmospheric refraction that causes the ray beam to be bent
toward the earth or away from the earth
k < 1
k = 1
RE (eff )
K=
Ro
k = 4/3
k =
Ro = 6371 km
WIRELESS COMMS
Standard Refraction, k = 4/3

The dielectric constant of the atmosphere also decreases with
altitude.
As a space wave travels upward, its velocity increases and causes
a gradual downward deection.
During standard atmospheric condition, k = 4/3.
The microwave path for k = 1 is less than that for k = 4/3.
The value of k = 4/3 is true only in temperate climates.
Its value varies between 1 and 2.
Lower values exists in cold or dry climates and at high altitudes.
Higher values of k are common in coastal areas where the
humidity is high.
WIRELESS COMMS
Superstandard Refraction
Superstandard refraction, also called super refraction results
from meteorological conditions such as temperature

inversion or a marked decrease in the total moisture content
in air.
This may also result from excessive increase in the water
vapor content near the surface.
The value of k increases resulting to an eective aLening of
the equivalent earths curvature.
In this condition, the value of k approaches innity and the
microwave beam follows the contour of the earth and
becomes practically parallel into it.
WIRELESS COMMS
Substandard Refraction
Substandard refraction occurs when the dielectric constant
of the atmosphere increases with height.

The microwave beam tends to be deected away from the
earth and is usually called inverse beam bending or earth
bulging.
In substandard refraction, k < 1 .
WIRELESS COMMS
The Earth Bulge

The eective radius of the Earth corresponds to the apparent
aLening or bulging of the Earth.

For a standard atmosphere the value of k is 4/3.
As the value of k increases, the Earth tends to become aLer.
As k approaches innity, the Earth apparently becomes at and in
eect, the microwave beam bends at exactly the same as the Earth.
K = 1
K = 4/3
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Eect of K-factor to Earths Curvature
WIRELESS COMMS
Physical Atmospheric Conditions

To have positive G, strong negative temperature gradient or a positive
humidity gradient or both is required.

Positive gradients can be caused by (1) advance of cool moist air over hot
dry ground esp. in coastal regions (2) lifting of a warm air mass by cool
dry air during storms (3) autoconvection or (4) solar heating.
Negative refractivity gradient results from temperature inversion and
negative humidity gradient (hydrolapse).
Abnormal negative gradient (<100 N/km) may result to subsistence,
advection (surface heating), and radiative cooling .
Steep negative refractivity gradients in excess of 157 N/km results in the
formation of duct.
Evaporation may lead to ducting. Advection also leads to duct formation.
Temperature inversion is the primary cause of ducts which inuence
radio link propagation.
Ducting
The microwave signal is trapped between a layer of warm air (upper
portion) and cold air (lower portion).

This may result to a complete loss of signal lasting for hours.
Solution: increase the path angle beyond the critical value.

Ground Based Duct: Refraction and Reection
very dense layer of air close to the ground with a thin layer on top of it.

Elevated Duct: Refraction only
The atmosphere has a thick layer in some height above ground.
If both the transmiLer and the receiver are within the duct, multiple rays
will reach the receiver
If one is inside and the other is outside the duct, nearly no energy will
reach the receiver
WIRELESS COMMS
Ducting
Elevated DUCT
Ground Based DUCT
Earth
Earth
Ducting Probability
Duct probability percentage of time when dN/dh is less than
100 N units/km per specied month

ITU-R issues DUCT Probability CONTOUR MAPS
The ducting probability follows seasonal variations
This dierence in ducting probability can be explained by
the dierence in temperature and most of all by dierence in
humidity
From the map the equatorial regions are most vulnerable to
ducts

Modied Refractivity
When G = -157, the microwave beam would be parallel to the earth.
When the G becomes more negative, blackout conditions may occur. This
is also a ducting condition.

When considering ducting, the refractive modulus is used:
! !
! = ! + !!
!
!!
This allows one to consider the Earth as at with the atmospheric
condition having the characteristic of M.

! = ! + !"#$!

The gradient of M with height is zero when G = -157 and negative for
ducting conditions
WIRELESS COMMS
M-Proles for Normal propagation
M-Proles for Abnormal Propagation
M-Proles Under Ducting Conditions

duct has negative M gradient from surface to top
surface duct but M has positive gradient ( M at the surface is
greater than the value at the top)

M at the surface is less than the value at the top (elevated duct)
WIRELESS COMMS
Earth Bulge Calculation

Two points are marked on the map and
Earth bulge formula:
connected by a straight line.

!! !!
Contour lines and their distances from
!=
!
!". !"#
the end site are recorded
A ruler is required for accuracy. Steel
d1, d2 = distances from
ruler is preferred.
each end site in km
Never assume heights between contour h = Earth bulge in m
lines. The only exact value is the contour
line itself.
For very at paths it is good practice to
write down a terrain value every few
kilometers for Earth bulge computation.
WIRELESS COMMS
Earth Bulge Calculation
h
d2
d1
!! !!
!=
!
!. !"
h = distance in ft from the horizontal reference line
d1 = distance in mi from point 1
d2 = distance in mi from point 2
WIRELESS COMMS
Example:
Calculate the Earth bulge 5 km from an antenna if the
receiving antenna is approximately 12 km away.
Ans: h = 2 m
WIRELESS COMMS
Example:
Calculate the earth bulge at the midpoint of two antennas
16.2 miles apart.
Ans: h = 32.8 ft
WIRELESS COMMS
Free-Space Propagation
The loss between two antennas unaected by the Earth is
called the free-space loss.

As a signal propagates away from a transmiLer, the wave
spreads and the power density decreases due to inverse
square law.
The power loss is solely due the spreading of the wave and is
called the free-space loss (path loss).
The free-space loss is dependent on the distance and the
frequency of operation.
WIRELESS COMMS
Free-Space Loss
The power ratio between a transmiLing and receiving
antenna is given by
!!
!!! !
=
!
!!
!
The loss between the two antennas can be expressed as
!!
!"# = 10 log !!
!!
4!" !
!"# = 10 log
!!
!
4!"#
!"# = 20 log
!!
!
!"# = !". ! + !" !"# !!" + !"!!"#!!!"# !!"!

WIRELESS COMMS
Example:
Determine the path loss for a 10-mi microwave link
operating at a frequency of 2100 MHz.
Ans: FSL = 123 dB

WIRELESS COMMS
Example:
A transmijer has an output power of 2.5 W. It is connected
to a microwave parabolic antenna having gain of 32 dB.

Assuming matched and lossless conditions, calculate the
power received by an antenna 18.5 km away if it has a gain
of 35.2 dB. The link operates at 10.7 GHz.

Ans: Pr = 37.15 dBm
WIRELESS COMMS
Fading
Fading refers to the variation in the nominal received signal
level due to atmospheric and propagation conditions.

Fading can be caused by natural weather disturbances, such
as rainfall, snowfall, fog, hail and extremely cold air over a
warm earth.
Fading may also be due to refraction, reection, multiple
transmission paths varying terrains and atmospheric
anomalies.
WIRELESS COMMS
Types of Fading in Microwave Systems

Microwave signals that propagate in the atmosphere are
subject to the following types of fading:
diraction fading
beam fading
multipath fading (which leads to)
Rayleigh fading for narrow band systems
Rayleigh plus selective fading for wideband systems
blackout fading (ducting)

rain fading
WIRELESS COMMS
Atmospheric Absorption
The main cause of absorption: water vapor and oxygen.
Oxygen resonance: about 0.5 cm (60 GHz)
water vapor resonance: 1.3 cm (23 GHz).
Rain aLenuation: insignicant up to 10 GHz,

ALenuation increases with the rain rate
The higher the frequency, the higher the water absorption.
path aLenuation = gas aLenuation + rainfall aLenuation

!!" = !! ! + !! !!
where a and R are specic aLenuations provided by ITU and d
is the path length in km.
WIRELESS COMMS
Rain Ajenuation
becomes signicant above 10 GHz
raindrops absorb the energy of EM waves
more severe for horizontally polarized waves
depends on the rain rate
The Earth is divided into 16 dierent rain zones
Incident EM waves induce dipole moments in the raindrops
A raindrop acts an antenna that reradiates energy
Path diversity is used to counter rain fading
WIRELESS COMMS
Diraction Fading
Subrefraction could result to diraction loss, depending on
terrain prole and antenna height.

Diraction loss the redistribution of energy within a
wavefront when a wave encounters obstructions
The ITU provides the formula for diraction loss over
average terrain as
!"!
!! =
+ !"!!"!
!!

where h is the height above the earths surface and F1 is the
radius of the rst Fresnel.
WIRELESS COMMS
Fresnel Zone
Dominant obstacle point in the prole with the least clearance
from a direct ray between the two antennas

When the LOS ray between the two antennas just clears the
dominant obstacle, the condition is known as grazing LOS.
Grazing LOS does not result in free-space propagation conditions.
Direct LOS does not ensure that obstruction losses will not occur
LOS path should have adequate clearance with respect to
surrounding objects.
Clearance rules were developed to avoid diraction loss under all
k conditions.
The amount of clearance is generally described in terms of Fresnel
zones.
WIRELESS COMMS
Fresnel Zone Calculation

Fresnel zone is dened as the ellipsoid
zone with focal point at the antennas on

both ends of the path.
Fresnel zones are areas wherein the
interference is constructive.
1st Fresnel Zone
Within the far eld:
!! =
!!! !!
!!
!! + !!
Using conventional units:
!! = !". !
!! !!
!!
!"
distances are in km
frequency is in GHz
WIRELESS COMMS
Path Clearance
The path clearance over an obstacle varies depending on the k
factor, usually 2/3 and 4/3.

rst clearance rule: the antenna has the best-case clearance
condition (100% of F1) under median k conditions
second condition: under minimum k conditions, no diraction
loss if 60% of F1 is achieved.
Optimum radius: nth Fresnel zone:
Fopt = 0.6F1
WIRELESS COMMS
Fn = nF1
Fresnel Zone
First
F
resn
Direct
P
ath =
L
el Zo
ne
the path dierence between

the direct ray and a ray from
a secondary wavelet are
multiples of half-
wavelengths
Reflec
t
ed pa
th = L
+ /2
Food Mart
WIRELESS COMMS
Fresnel Zone Radii Calculation Tool

Frequency
GHz
7.0
13.0
15.0
18.0
23.0
26.0
38.0
4.0
9.2
10.3
10.1
9.2
7.7
6.7
5.1
WIRELESS COMMS
10.0
12.7
13.6
14.2
15.2
17.1
19.6
23.9
Distance
15.0
13.3
12.1
11.3
10.6
9.6
8.6
7.3
in km
20.0
15.0
13.6
13.4
13.8
14.7
16.0
18.1
30.0
17.3
13.8
12.4
11.6
10.9
10.1
9.1
40.0
18.6
14.2
13.1
13.0
13.4
14.1
15.2
Example:
Calculate the radius of the rst Fresnel zone at the
midpoint of a 12 km link operating at 13 GHz.
Ans: F1 = 8.31 m
WIRELESS COMMS
Example:
A microwave link operating at 4.2 GHz has a path length
of 20 km. A tall building is located 8 km away from one

microwave antenna. Find the minimum clearance required
for this obstacle?
Ans: Fopt = 11.1 m

WIRELESS COMMS
Example:
A microwave radio system is operating at a frequency of 2.4
GHz. The distance between the two stations is 40km and the
system propagates over an average terrain. Calculate for the
fading caused by diraction 24km away from the rst point
and consider a height of 20 km.
Ans: 1.56 dB
WIRELESS COMMS
Multipath Fading
occurs when radio signals travel in more than one path
signals may add or cancel depending on their phase
relationship.
can result in very deep fades that are frequency selective
it is the main cause of fading for systems below 10 GHz
Nonspecular ground reections interfering with a defocused
main signal is the dominant multipath fading eect
Space diversity is used to counter multipath fading.
Multipath eects can result to at fading and frequency
selective fading.
WIRELESS COMMS
Multipath Fading
WIRELESS COMMS
What is Flat Fading?

Flat fading is a non-frequency dependent form of fading
In the receiver, the eect is an even amplitude reduction
across the bandwidth, hence, the term at fading.

Examples: rain fading and diraction fading.
Multipath fading in narrowband systems (BWS < BWC) also
results to at fading
Remedies:
shorten distance between sites (multihops)
path diversity
WIRELESS COMMS
Frequency Selective Fading

occurs if some of the spectral components are reduced
causing distortion
due to atmospheric anomalies wherein dierent frequencies
undergo dierent aLenuation levels
Multipath eects in wideband systems cause distortions and
errors that are not amplitude dependent. This is called
selective fading or dispersive fading.
can also be caused by ISI
reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and increases BER
can be compensated by using frequency diversity and
equalizers
WIRELESS COMMS
Flat Fading vs Selective Fading

P
Flat fading
WIRELESS COMMS
Normal
signal
Frequency
selective
fading

Wireless Module - Microwave Propagation

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MODULE 2:

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

from free space propagation.

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

Optical Properties of Microwaves

properties that are originally observed in light.

These properties aect the way microwave signals propagate

along its path in the atmosphere and greatly inuences the

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

cannot totally penetrate.

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

introduced and the signal strength is reduced.

When the E-eld of the incident signal is parallel to the reecting

conductive surface, the energy will be absorbed, as if the wave is shorted.

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

are comparable to its wavelength, the wave tends to bend

A wave is diracted as it passes through the hole.

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

mountains or buildings that are normally considered to block line

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

using Snells law:

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

Refraction Extends Radio Horizon

visual horizon for standard atmospheric conditions

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

(ave. ground refractive index = 1.000315)

For links below 100 GHz:

P = atm. pressure (mbars)

Pressure and humidity normally decreases exponentially with height

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

meters of the atmosphere,

Ideal microwave propagation in free-space.

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

Refraction in a Normal Atmosphere

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

May result to diraction loss from insucient clearance over obstacles.

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

Eective Earth Radius

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

K-Factor vs Refractivity Gradient

When G is positive, the condition is known as subrefraction and can cause

UST ECE Department (2016)

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

Eective Earth Radius & Surface Refractivity

UST ECE Department (2016)