Name: Andrea Badillo

Date: Tues. Feb. 16th, 2016

Chapter 2.1 Physiology and Behaviour

Class Period: IB Psychology Period 5

I.

Outline Principles that define the biological level of analysis

A. Physiological origins
1. humans products of biological system &
cognitive factors
a) affect bidirectionally: cognition
biological
2. plays role in behaviour: brain processes
B. Interactionist approach - relies on both nature and nurture (holistically)
C. Behaviour can be innate genetically based
1. evolution key
D. Animal research can provide insight to human behaviour
1. lots of research undertaken w/ animals applied
to humans
E. Biological correlates of behaviour
1. link b/w bio factor & behaviour possible
F. Reductionist approach - micro-level of research in biological matters
1. simplistic | detailed knowledge
a) criticism over complex human behaviours
being attributed to nt. alone (eg love)
II.
Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in
research (through theories/studies)
A. Animal research -- human behaviour
1. Martinez and Kesner (1991)
a) Aim: determining the role of
neurotransmitter acetylcholine on mem.
b) Method: Rats trained to go on maze,
received food at end
(1) Injected one group of rats
w/ scopolamine (blocks acetylcholine receptors)
(2) Injected other group w/
physostigmine (blocks production of cholinesterase which returns
acetylcholine to resting state)
(3) Control group not injected
c) Results: rats w/ scopolamine
slower at maze, more errors. rats w/ physostigmine were
quicker than control group, less errors.
d) Analysis: STRENGTHS - design,
application, use of control cause/effect
LIMITATIONS - generalizability on humans
B. Bio. correlation of behaviour
1. Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)
a) Aim: how sensory deprivation affects the
brain
b) Method: Buddhist monks on a 72-hour
pilgrimage to a holy mountain in JP
(1) did not consume food,
water | did not speak | exposed to elements

III.

IV.

(2) took blood samples before

ascension, immediately after reported hallucinations
c) Findings: 48 hrs - started hallucinating
(1) serotonin levels increased
in brain (hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex)
d) Conclusion: sensory deprivation triggers
serotonin release
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis
A. Case studies (brain damage)
1. situation not ethical to reproduce in laboratory
a) longitudinal observe short term
& long term effects
B. Neuroimaging (technology)
1. locate specific processes in brain
2. study localization
3. Hethering and Ranson (1942)
a) lesioned ventromedial
hypothalamus in rats increase in food consumption (weight
doubled)
(1) hypothalamus acted as
break on eating
(2) modern research does not
support this being full purpose
4. potential harm indeterminate, damage irreversible, pain to
animals
C. Studies with animals
1. can study bio. correlators using invasive techniques
(ablation/lesioning)
Examine one study related to the localization of function of the brain
A. Harlow (1848) - Case study of Phineas Gage
1. Mans skull penetrated by metal pole during
explosions pierced frontal lobe
a) vision, mobility, speech, language normal
b) intellectual abilities & emotional control
impaired
2. Previously deemed expendable, now known that FL affects
personality and social behaviours
B. Paul Broca (1861)
1. damage in left frontal lobe of brain unable to
understand & use grammar
a) condition: Brocas aphasia
2. Case study (Tan) - only word he could say
a) autopsy revealed brain damage
C. Carl Wernicke (1874)
1. area for lang. comprehension - left posterior superior temporal
gyrus
a) produce speech, not understand it
(1) condition: Wernickes
aphasia
D. Post-mortem studies lang. is localized
1. aud. & speech - from temporal lobe to Wernickes area
(significance) to Brocas area (syntax)

V.

2. speech production - selected in Ws area, grammar added in

Bs area, info to motor cortex (muscle movements)
Explain, using examples, the effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour
A. Neurons building blocks of human behaviour -- b/w 10-100
billion
1. neurotransmission: electrochemicals to brain
people respond to stimuli
a) electrical impulse travels down axon (body)
b) releases neurotransmitters (cross
gap b/w neurons) synapse
c) neurotransmitters stored in terminal buttons
d) after synapse, neurotransmitters
receptors on postsynaptic membrane
e) reuptake: neurotransmitters broken down or
reabsorbed by terminal buttons
2. Range of diff. effects
a) Acetylcholine - muscle contraction, mem. in
hippocampus
b) Dopamine - voluntary movement, learning,
pleasure
c) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) - arousal,
alertness, stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
d) Serotonin - sleep, arousal levels, emotion
3. Neurotransmitters are specific
a) drugs made to sim. nt. if not enough, to
block if excessive
B. Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)
1. Aim: how sensory deprivation affects the brain
2. Method: Buddhist monks on a 72-hour pilgrimage to a holy
mountain in JP
a) did not consume food, water | did not speak |
exposed to elements
b) took blood samples before ascension,
immediately after reported hallucinations
3. Findings: 48 hrs - started hallucinating
a) serotonin levels increased in brain
(hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex)
4. Conclusion: sensory deprivation triggers serotonin release
C. Martinez and Kesner (1991)
1. Aim: determining the role of neurotransmitter acetylcholine on
mem.
2. Method: Rats trained to go on maze, received food at end
a) Injected one group of rats w/ scopolamine
(blocks acetylcholine receptors)
b) Injected other group w/ physostigmine
(blocks production of cholinesterase which returns acetylcholine to resting state)
c) Control group not injected
3. Results: rats w/ scopolamine slower at maze,
more errors. rats w/ physostigmine were quicker than control group,
less errors.
4. Analysis: STRENGTHS - design, application, use
of control cause/effect
LIMITATIONS - generalizability on humans

VI.

VII.

Explain, using examples, functions of two hormones on human behaviour

A. Serotonin
1. See Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999) in L.O. V
B. Dopamine
1. Robert Heath (50s)
a) electrically stimulating brain
pleasure
(1) B-19 (patient) electrically
stimulated himself 1500 times in 3 hours
(a) overwhe
lming euphoria, elation
2. James Olds - rats
a) Aim: result if pleasure centres stimulated
b) Method: rat receives electrical stimulation
by stepping on lever (in nucleus accumbens)
c) Findings: rats willing to get shocked for
pleasure, preferred to survival items
3. Electrical activation of nucleus accumbens based on dopamine
& serotonin
a) drugs dopamine
C. Hormones produced by endocrine system - enter directly into bloodstream (take
longer than nt)
1. Oxytocin - hypothalamus after stim. by pituitary gland
a) associated w/ bonding b/w mother and child,
lovers
b) change brain signals related to social recog.
via facial expression
2. Melatonin - pineal gland (stim. by darkness, inhibited by light)
a) release correlates w/ circadian rhythm - bio.
clock based on 24hrs
b) Rosenthal 1987 - melatonin SAD
Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes
A. Hubel and Wiesel (1965)
1. brain can change as response to env.
a) based on exp. w/ rats gen.
accepted env. enrichment modifies brain
B. Brain Plasticity
1. rearrange connections b/w neurons - adaptation to env.
a) change functional qualities of brain
structures
(1) high levels of stim.
density of neural connections +
b) each time you learn new neural
connections (dendritic branching)
2. Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)
a) aim: measure effect of enrichment or
deprivation on dev. of neurons in cerebral cortex
b) Method: rats placed in one of two env.
(1) deprived: no toys
(2) 30-60 days in env.
sacrificed
c) Findings: through post-mortem studies stim. env. had increased thickness in cortex

(1) similar studies

placed w/ other rats leads to more thickness
3. To some extent applicable to humans
a) subjective definitions of enriched env.
C. Mirror Neurons
1. imitation of others behaviour - mirror neurons play vital role
in learning from & empathizing w/ other people
a) fires when animal or person performs action,
when observing somebody perform same action
2. Gallese et al. (1996)
a) doing research on motor neurons - heard
crackle when neuron activated
(1) isolated monkeys reaching
for peanut as neural response
(2) person reaching for peanut
elicited same response
3. Iacoboni (2004)
a) Aim: Looking at emotion expressed could
cause brain of observer to be stimulated
b) Method: asked participants to look at people
while in fMRI
(1) imitate faces shown first,
then watch
c) Findings: same areas activated as animals,
limbic system stimulated
VIII.
Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology on behaviour
A. Davidson (2004)
1. Aim: research if meditation could change brain activity
2. Method: 8 Buddhist monks highly experienced in meditation,
10 volunteers trained for one week
a) told to meditate on love and compassion
while being under PET scan
3. Findings: 2 of controls and all monks had increased gamma
waves (linked to higher reasoning)
a) after stopping, controls dropped to normal,
monks did not
4. Conclusion: Meditation could have significant long-term
effects on brain, how it processes emotions
a) brain adapts to stimulation
IX.
Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological
factors and behaviour
A. Kim and Hirsch (1997)
1. Aim: research how brain processes language for bilingual
individuals
2. Method: fMRI
a) 1 group - second lang. as children
b) other group - second lang. later in life
c) asked to think about event in one lang, then
other
3. Findings: Both used same parts of W area, in either lang. | Bs
area - bilingual from birth (same in both lang.), bilingual later (larger area - 2nd adjacent
to 1st lang)
B. EEG (electroencephalogram)

1.
2.
3.

registers patterns of voltage change in brain

researched sleep, emotions, epilepsy
limited info - cant display deeper brain regions or actual

functioning
C. PET (positron emission tomography)
1. monitors glucose metabolism in brain
2. injected w/ radioactive glucose radioactive
particles detected
a) produce maps of brain activity
3. used to diagnose tumours, changes in Alzheimer's,
psychological disorders, compare sex differences
4. Gur et al (1995)
a) more active metabolism in primitive brain
centres controlling violence in men than in women
5. record ongoing activity (thinking)
D. fMRI
1. 3D pics of brain structures -- magnetic fields & radio waves
2. shows actual brain activity, indicates what parts of brain are
active when engaged
3. HR > PET scans, easier to carry out

Name: Andrea Badillo

Date: Tues. Feb. 16th, 2016

Chapter 2.2 Genetics and Behaviour

Class Period: IB Psychology Period 5

I.

II.
research

III.

Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis

A. Behavioural Genetics
1. how genetics and env. contribute to variations in human
behaviour
B. Inheritance
1. genes passed down through generations
C. Intelligence
1. inherited vs. env. stimuli
D. Evolution
1. environment presents challenges to individual - best adaptor =
best chance of survival
Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in
A. Behaviour innate gen. based
1. Plomin and Petrill (1997)
a) IQ correlation b/w parents and
children change 4-6 (40%), early adulthood (60%), older
adults (80%)
b) gen. disposition env.
accentuating disposition
c) socio-econ. one of most important env.
factors
B. Animal research & human behaviour
1. Matsuzawa (2007)
a) Aim: to examine spatial mem. in young
chimps
b) Method: 3 pairs of chimps - taught to
recognize numerals (1-9)
(1) chimps & humans seated
at computer terminal, numerals flashed quickly on touch-screen in
random sequence
(a) touch
squares in appropriate location (order)
c) Findings: humans - many errors, accuracy
decreased with increased speed
(1) chimps - great spatial
distribution - no diff. between speeds
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis
A. Correlational studies - genetic research
1. how diff. variables co-vary -- relationship b/w variables w/o
artificial manipulation
a) no cause-effect determined
2. twin research - share gen. material
a) monozygotic - identical (one egg), dizygotic
- fraternal (two eggs)

IV.

(1) correlation called

concordance rate
3. family studies
a) bro/sis (50% shared genes),
grandparents/grandchildren (25%), first cousins (12.5%)
(1) degrees of genetic
relatedness compared w behaviour
(2) heritability high
strong concordance
4. adoption studies
a) no genes shared, same env.
(1) if heritability - behaviour
more like natural mother, if not, env. bigger factor
b) faults: not rep. of gen. pop., selective
placement
Discuss the extent to which genetics influence behaviour
A. Abnormal Behaviour
1. diathesis-stress model origin of depression
a) result of genetic vulnerability + traumatic
env. stimuli in childhood
(1) not all children who
have genetic predisposition + trauma develop
depression complexity of problem, no cause-effect
relationship
B. Inheritance
1. 24 chromosomes, 20K to 25K genes
2. James D. Watson (2004) - Human Genome Project
a) mapping genetic makeup of human species
(1) completed in 2003
b) role of specific genes unknown
C. Intelligence
1. Herrnstein (1994) - The Bell Curve
a) argued whether, or how much, genes vs. env.
had to do w/ intelligence
2. Difficulties - what is it, how does one measure it?
a) Charles Spearman - student performance
positively correlated - g factor
(1) modern schooling assesses
g rather than specific subjects
3. Bouchard and McGue (1981)
a) 111 studies of IQ correlations b/w
siblings meta-analysis
(1) stat. synthesis of data from
comparable studies w/ quantitative summary of results
(2) closer gen.
relationship higher IQ correlation
b) Used identical twins separated at birth
4. Bouchard et al. (1990) - Minnesota Twin Study (started 1979)
a) Method: MZAs compared to MZTs
(1) mean age - 41 yo at start
(2) 50 hrs of testing,
interviews

b) Findings: 70% of intelligence due to

genetics

V.

c) Analysis: FAULTS - media coverage used to

recruit, ethical concerns w/ reuniting, no control over previous contact, equal
env. assumption
5. Scarr and Weinberg (1977) and Horn et al (1979)
a) parents raising adopted & natural
children assumed all had same upbringing
(1) parents white, middle
class, wealthy | adopted poor, lower class, lower IQ parents
b) no diff. in IQ correlations
6. Wahlstein (1977)
a) infant: low socio-econ status high
socio-econ status improved IQ scores by 12-16 pts
7. Hainer et al (1988)
a) PET scan - High IQ lower metabolic
rate when problem solving (diff. not seen in data recall) less
effort hypothesis
8. Plomin and Petrill (1997)
a) IQ correlation b/w parents and
children change 4-6 (40%), early adulthood (60%), older
adults (80%)
b) gen. disposition env.
accentuating disposition
c) socio-econ. one of most important env.
factors
9. Flynn Effect
a) rise of avg. scores in last century (3 pts.
every 10 years)
(1) increase in intelligence vs.
increase in ability to crack intelligence tests
Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour
A. Darwin
1. natural selection (finches), adaptation
2. The Descent of Man (1871) - humans have behaviours in
common w/ other animals
B. Matsuzawa (2007)
1. Aim: to examine spatial mem. in young chimps
2. Method: 3 pairs of chimps - taught to recognize numerals (19)
a) chimps & humans seated at computer
terminal, numerals flashed quickly on touch-screen in random sequence
(1) touch squares in
appropriate location (order)
3. Findings: humans - many errors, accuracy decreased with
increased speed
a) chimps - great spatial distribution - no diff.
between speeds
C. Evolutionary psychology - as genes mutate, better genes passed down
1. Possibility of disgust thriving to increase procreation
a) Fessler (2006)
(1) nausea experienced by
women in first trimester

VI.

(a) hormone
s lower immune system - nausea compensates for lower
immune system
(2) Method: 496 healthy
pregnant women (18-50yo) - considered 32 stomach churning scenarios
(a) question
s posed to determine if morning sickness was present
beforehand
(3) Findings: Women in first
trimester higher on disgust than later stages
(a) only
held for disgusting scenarios
2. Curtis et al. (2004)
a) Aim: Find patterns in peoples disgust
responses
b) Method: used online survey - shown 20
images and asked to rank disgust
(1) 7 pairs in which one was
infectious or potentially harmful, one visually similar but harmless
(2) 77K participants, 165
countries
c) Findings: disgust most strong in threatening
images
(1) disgust reaction decreases
with age
(2) women higher than men
3. Faults
a) difficult to test empirically
(1) confirmation bias
susceptibility
b) early homo-sapien behaviour greatly
unknown
c) ignores cultural aspects of behaviour
Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour
A. Genetic Heritage diseases
1. problematic for family, if misused:stigmatizing
2. Ethical guidelines MUST be followed
B. Confidentiality
1. coding information, fully anonymizing - limits scientific value
C. Can cause undue stress
1. misattributed paternity, discovery of genetic predisposition to
disease
D. First nations object to cultural genetic studies eugenics
1. CONSENT!!!

Name: Andrea Badillo

Date: Tues. Feb. 22, 2016

Chapter 2.3 Integrative Look at Criminal Behaviour

Class Period: IB Psychology Period 5

I.

Biological level of analysis

A. Genetics
1. Criminal behaviour that runs in families - could be
influence, genetics
2. Christiansen (1977)
a) Aim: Find the relation in criminality
between twins
b) Method : 3586 sets of Danish twins studied
(1) Males: MZ (35%), DZ
(13%)
(2) Females: MZ (21%), DZ
(8%)
c) Conclusions: some genetic factors may play
into criminal behaviour
(1) concordance rates
low other factors more important role
d) Evaluation: share common environment,
(identical) treated similarly
3. Mednick (1975)
a) Aim: Concordance of criminality in
adoption
b) Findings: both bio & adopted parents had
criminal record, 36.2% sons had
(1) only bio father w/
crim. record 21.4% sons had
(2) only adopted father
11.5% sons had
(3) neither father
10.5% sons had
c) Conclusion: importance of env. situations
d) Evaluation: adopted placed in sim. env. than
original, some adopted years after birth
4. Overall limitations:crime from tax evasion to murder
a) criminal behaviour changes over lifespan
B. The Brain
1. Emotions & decision making
a) Blair et al. (1999)
(1) Aim:
(2) Method: Looked at brains
of convicted psychopaths
(a) PET
scans
(3) Findings: damaged
pathways b/w amygdala & frontal lobe

(4) Conclusion:
Impairment difficulty in moderating emot. reactions
(a) affects
interaction acts impulsively, doesnt discern
social cues
2. Frontal Brain Hypothesis
a) malfunctioning link b/w frontal cortex &
limbic system
b) research done on patients w/ brain damage
(1) Antonio Damasio
(a) Aim:
Effect of brain trauma on children in later dev.
(b) 3
month old tumour removed from frontal cortex
(i)
9

II.

yo - behav. problems - inattentive, socially isolated

(c) Conclusi
on: supported frontal brain hypothesis
C. Neurotransmitters
1. Neurotransmitters + hormones best explain
gender diff.
a) US Federal Bureau (2004) - Apprehended:
male (90.1%), Arrested for violent crime: male (82.1%)
(1) neurologists explanation
(a) low
levels of serotonin (males usually have)
(b) violent
criminals higher Testosterone (James Dabbs)
(2) Eval: correlational
cause-effect, results unknown if env. or gen.
Cognitive Level of Analysis
A. Yochelson and Samenow (1976)
1. Criminal behaviour is result of cognitive distortions (errors in
thinking)
a) placing blame on others
b) wishful thinking unobtainable
goals
c) Im always right mentality - even w/
evidence
d) reduce significance of a behaviour
no responsibility to change it
e) exaggerating good things
2. Only studied convicted criminals, did not see result on noncriminal pop.
B. Cornish and Clarke (1987)
1. rational choice theory - criminal behaviour result of reasoned
decision-making process
a) assumption: criminals seek to benefit from
crimes
(1) benefits > costs
do crime

2.

Bennett and Wright (1984)

a) Method: interviewed convicted burglars
(1) factors influencing
robbing home
b) Findings: factors: risk, financial reward,
ease of entry
c) Conclusion: supports clear decision making
process underlying crim. activity
d) Evaluation: based on unsuccessful burglar
C. violent crimes not always rationally planned out impulsive
emotion
III.

1.
Sociocultural Level of Analysis
A. Poverty
1.

cogn. factors alone do not explain crim. behaviour

Messner (1988)
a) structural poverty - single parent families,
low levels of edu, high infant mort. rates, low social mobility
b) high correlation b/w structural pov. &
crimes, rather than income lvl & crimes
B. Unemployment
1. correlation b/w unemployment rates & crime
a) misinterpreted - result of loss of income
2. can change individuals self esteem life is
meaningless
a) status change, boredom
C. Social factors + Bio. factors
1. Poverty stress (of dev. child)
a) affects fetus brain functioning
? criminal behaviour
2. More research needed on pov. effect on brain dev.
D. Labelling & Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
1. self-fulfilling prophecy
a) being labelled a troublemaker leads to later
crim. activity
b) Jahoda (1954)
(1) Ashanti people in Ghana
(a) namin
g boys according to day of week predicts
temperament

(b)