Production of Materials

(Excluding Experiments)
1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as
ethylene, for the production of other substances
Identify the industrials source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the
fractions from the refining of petroleum
Crude oil/petroleum. Long hydrocarbon chains e.g. pentadecane, or undecane are
cracked into smaller chains. Two types of cracking:

Catalytic cracking in oil refineries:

high molecular weight fractions are
broken into low molecular weight
fractions to increase the output of highdemand products e.g. petrol. Ethylene
can be produced as a bi-product.
Involves the use of a catalyst
(inorganic compounds called zeolites)
at 500C, without air.
E.g. C15H32 C10H22 + C5H10

Steam/thermal cracking:
Non-catalytic process,
mixture of alkanes with
steam is passed through
very hot metal tubes (700
deg. 1000 deg.), just
above atmospheric
pressure. Some hydrogen is
also produced.
E.g.
C11H24 4C2H4 +

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily
transformed into many useful products
Because it is an alkene (much more reactive than an
alkane), it has a reactive double bond that opens out
to form two single bonds linking molecules together.
Forms useful products (e.g. ethanol and starting material
for important plastics) as a result. Many substances
react with alkenes by opening out the double bond e.g.
bromine and ethylene; these are called addition
reactions.
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Polymerisation is the chemical process in which small molecules known as
monomers chemically bond together to form a polymer. Polymers can be
synthetic or organic. Ethylene is a monomer from which many polymers can be
1

made from. Usually, atoms or functional groups are added to give the polymer
different properties.
CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2 CH2=CH2
monomers go to..

-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-

Some important products made from ethylene:

styrene polystyre
ne

vinyl
chorid
e PVC

ethan
ol

Ethylen
e

ethylen
e
glycol

ethylen
e oxide

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
Polyethylene is called an addition polymer. This means that it forms by
molecules adding together without the loss of any atoms in its process of
polymerisation. Each double C=C bond opens out to form single bonds with
adjacent molecules thus linking molecules together.
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a
commercially and industrially important polymer
Two types of polyethylene coming from two different processes:
High Density polyethylene (HDPE) ---- the Ziegler-Natta process
o Just above atmospheric pressure
o temperatures around 60C
o zeolite catalyst
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) ---- the gas phase process
2

o high pressure
o high temperatures
o Organic peroxide initiator.
The steps on production of polyethylene:
1. Catalyst (for HDPE) or initiator (for LDPE) attaches to ethylene molecule
creates activated species.
ethylene molecule

Z + CH2=CH2

becomes

catalyst/initiat

Z-CH2-CH2

activated species

2. Ethylene molecules attach to the species, expanding the chain.

Z CH2 CH2 + CH2=CH2
becomes

Z CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

3. Polymerisation stops when two activated species collide, forming a
stable polymer.
Z (CH2 CH2)x + Z (CH2 CH2)y
becomes

Z (CH2 CH2)x+y Z
Identify the following as commercially significant monomers:
- vinyl chloride
- styrene
both by their systematic and common names
Vinyl Chloride
Systematic name: chloroethene
CH2=CH-Cl
Chlorine
replaces
hydrogen of
regular
ethene
molecule

Styrene
Systematic name: pheylethylene
CH2=CHC6H5

C6H5

Benzene ring
replaces
hydrogen of
regular ethene
molecule

Polymer

Name and
structure of
monomer

Polyethyle Ethylene (ethene)

CH2=CH2
ne (LDPE
and HDPE)

PVC

Vinyl chloride
(chloroethene)
CH2=CH-Cl

polystyre
ne

Styrene
(phenylethylene)
CH2=CH

Common uses and properties

LDPE: Because of extensive chain-branching,

lack of stiffening side-groups, lack of crosslinking very soft and flexible.
USES: milk bottles, soft toys, cling film
HDPE: virtually no chain branching, molecules
pack closely together, harder and stronger.
USES: kitchen utensils, containers, rigid toys
Cl side-groups produce considerable chain
stiffening, strong intermolecular forces,
inflexible.
USES: Electrical insulation, garden hoses,
drainage and sewerage pipes
Large phenyl side group, most stiffened, hard
and rigid, stable to heat and UV light, minimal
chain-branching.
USES: Car battery cases, tool handles, modern
furniture, CD cases

Describe
the uses of
the
polymers
made from
the above
monomers
in terms of
their
properties

2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from

biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained
from the petrochemical industry
There is a limited supply of crude oil, reserves will be used up in a few
decades.
Need to reduce energy emissions and greenhouse gases
As oil supplies diminish, costs rise
When supplies run dry, there will be no fuel or plastic
4

For these reasons and more, ethanol and cellulose are being researched as
alternative fuel sources.
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
Condensation polymers are polymers that form by the elimination of a small
molecule (often water) when pairs of monomers join together. Condensation
polymerisation is also known as step growth polymerisation. Its end product
depends on the number of functional end groups of the monomer that can react.
Describe the reactions involved when a condensation polymer is formed
The polymerisation process occurs by the elimination of a small molecule between
pairs of monomers. Using glucose as an example:
C6H12O6 (glucose) written as HO-C6H10O4-OH
HO-C6H10O4-OH HO-C6H10O4-OH HO-C6H10O4-OH HO-C6H10O4-OH
these molecules are eliminated

-O-C6H10O4-O-C6H10O4-O-C6H10O4-O-C6H10O4-O-C6H10O4-O-C6H10O4-xH2O
When two glucose monomer molecules react through two -OH hydroxyl groups, a
H-OH (water) molecule is condensed out, leaving an -O- linking the two
monomer molecules. The first two glucose molecules to join condense out an HOH, and every glucose molecule added to the growing chain then condenses out
another H-OH. Hence, one of the products is water.
Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation
polymer found as a major component of biomass
Structure of cellulose:
For bonding to occur alternate
glucose units must be
flipped. Cellulose is a long,
linear molecule because of
the alternating CH2OH groups on either side of the chain and C-O-C bond
angles.
Hydrogen bonds between OH groups make cellulose difficult to break into
glucose, and resistant to chemical attack and therefore use as a source of
ethanol and ethylene. The OH groups cannot interact with water, making
cellulose insoluble.
Cellulose had potential as a biopolymer as it is made from biomass (organic
material derived from living organisms e.g. crops, animal waste)
Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon chain structures needed to build
petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material

Cellulose contains the same basic carbon structure as other petrochemical sources
and therefore could be used in the industry. How cellulose would be used in the
petrochemical industry:

Cellulose
(straw, sugar
cane, waster,
wood)

glucos
e

ethano
l

ethylene

monomer
and
polymers

However, it is very difficult to break up cellulose into glucose due to its hydrogen
bonding; it forms very compact fibres, making it hard for chemicals to get at the
glucose-glucose links. However, there are two processes for breaking cellulose into
glucose:
1. Digestion by cellulose enzymes: treating cellulose-containing materials with
sodium hydroxide solution, then digesting them with cellulose enzymes to
produce glucose
2. Digestion with strong acid: Heating cellulose-containing materials with
aqueous acid sulphate solution that breaks cellulose into glucose
Issues:
Expensive Current process is very expensive. Research is improving
process method and efficiency
Large land mass required To harvest cellulose would require an enormous
amount of land, waste crops can be used instead
Ethics Land used for polymer production while people are starving

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from

renewable resources such as plants
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a
catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Ethylene is made from ethanol from dehydration. Dehydration is a chemical
reaction in which water is removed from a compound. Reverse reaction is addition
of water to ethylene, a hydration reaction. Ethylene is dehydrated by heating it
with concentrated sulphuric or phosphoric acid (catalyst acts as a
dehydrating agent):
CH3-CH2-O-H

---------------> CH2=CH2 + H2O

H2SO4 catalyst

Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol

and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
6

Called a hydration reaction, special type of addition reaction: Industrially

ethylene is converted to ethanol by heating it with water at 300C at high pressure,
using phosphoric acid as catalyst (acts as a hydrating agent):
CH2=CH2 + H2O ------------->
H3PO4 catalyst

CH3-CH2-O-H

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and nonpolar substances
Because ethanol is a good solvent for both non-polar and polar
substances
o Its -OH end is very polar
o Its alkyl part, CH3-CH2-, is non-polar
it is used widely in industry as a solvent:
o Cosmetics
o Food colourings/flavourings
o Medicinal preparations
o Some cleaning agents
Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable
resource
Because ethanol is a liquid that readily burns, undergoes complete
combustion, does not release any soot or carbon monoxide (unlike petrol):
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) ---------> 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

(combustion reaction)

it had been proposed as a possible alternative liquid fuel for automobiles.

Renewable resource: Ethanol is made from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight
and plant material (reduce dependency on crude oil) and when it is burnt it
returns back to carbon dioxide and water, which can be reconverted into
ethanol.
Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of its use
Advantages of ethanol as a fuel:
o It is renewable, therefore reduce the use of non-renewable fossil fuels
o Reduce greenhouse gas emissions, since the carbon dioxide released
during fermentation and combustion is used up in photosynthesis
i.e. Fermentation: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (g)
+ Combustion: 2C2H5OH + 3O2 (g) 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l)
= Photosynthesis: 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 + 6O2
o At 10-20% concentration in petrol, it is a petrol extender and vehicle
engines do not need to be modified to utilise it.
7

 Disadvantages:
o Large areas of land would be needed to grow suitable crops
o It does not release as much energy as petrol
o Disposal of large amounts of smelly waste fermentation liquors after
remove of ethanol
In Australia, ethanol is currently added to petrol to form E10 Unleaded which is
10% ethanol/90% petrol blend. At this concentration, vehicle engines need not be
modified; car manufacturers claim that higher concentrations corrode vehicle
engines. Ethanol is more expensive and less efficient than petrol as a car fuel
because and vehicles receive fewer kilometres because ethanol contains less
energy. Furthermore, there are no reliable studies to show that ethanol produces
less greenhouse gas emissions than petrol (although it does combust cleanly and
produces less soot and carbon monoxide).
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
Fermentation is a process in which glucose is broken down into ethanol and
carbon dioxide by the action of enzymes in yeast. For fermentation to occur:
Suitable grain or fruit is mashed up with water
Yeast is added
Air is excluded
The mixture is kept at 37C (body temperature)
Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process
1. Starch/ sucrose are mixed with enzymes (a biological catalyst) to convert it
into glucose.
2. Glucose mixture is clarified to remove impurities and waste, cellulose.
3. Yeast is added to convert mixture into carbon dioxide and ethanol
(fermentation).
yea
C6H12O6 ----------->
2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (g)
st

4. Fermented further to produce ethanol at 15% concentration (any higher

would kill yeast, ceasing further fermentation)
5. 15% ethanol mixture is fractionally distilled 95% ethanol
Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for
ethanol from first-hand data
The molar heat of combustion of a substance is the heat liberated when one
mole of the substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at
standard atmospheric pressure with products being carbon dioxide and water.
Value for ethanol: -1367 kJ mol-1

4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as

a source of energy
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
A displacement reaction is a reaction in which a metal converts the ion of another
metal to the neutral atom.
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons.
Reduction Is Gain of electrons.
OILRIG
E.g.
Copper wire in silver nitrate solution black deposit of silver forms
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq)

----------> 2Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq)

Copper loses 2 electrons to form Cu2+, and is oxidised. Silver ions gain
electrons to form Ag and so are reduced.
Half reactions:
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e2Ag+(aq) + 2e- Ag(s)

Oxidation half reaction

Reduction half reaction

Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other

metals to the relative activity of metals
Displacement reactions are electron transfer reactions. In such reactions, a
more active solid metal oxidises and will displace the ions of a less active metal in
solution (which is reduced).
Note: On the standard electrode potentials table, the metal higher up is
oxidised.
Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain
of electrons
Oxidation state is a number given to an atom or ion to indicate the number of
electrons it has lost or gained. A change in oxidation state corresponds to a loss or
gain of electrons:
Oxidation: increase in oxidation state
Reduction: decrease in oxidation state
Elements in their natural state have an oxidation state of 0 and for ions, the
oxidation state is the charge/valence of the ion.
For compounds, sum of oxidation states of constituent elements=overall charge of
entire species. E.g.
The oxidation state of the underlined species Cr2O72-, is 6 because the total
oxidation state must equal -2, therefore (letting Cr2s oxidation state =) 2
+ (7-2)=-2
9

=6
Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions
A galvanic cell is an electron pump that produces electricity by pumping
electrons out of the anode, where oxidation occurs, into an external circuit (a
metallic conductor) and draws them back into the cathode, where reduction
occurs.
Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow

x
h
fl
w
u
g
e
lib
E
s
d
o
n
a
r
p
(
c
t
)
ex
rh
te
l n
E
lro
a
u
t c
c
irg
h
fl u
s
n
ito
w

liE le
tb
c
ra
o ro
p
d
s
te
c e
s
e le
t(a
c
n ro
s
n
e)
d

Eb
p
a
lt ro
e
rc
o
s
d
s e
b
ea
(c
c o
le
th
s )
rn
e
d

migration
of positive
ions

migration
of negative
ions

A galvanic cell consists of:

Two different half cells, consisting of an electrode in electrolyte solution
An external circuit, which allows the flow of electrons from the anode to
cathode
A salt bridge, which allows the migration of ions and maintains electrical
neutrality
E.g. A strip of copper metal suspended in a beaker of copper nitrate solution and a
spiral of silver wire suspended in a solution of silver nitrate; they are connected
with a tissue dipped in potassium nitrate.
Conclusion:
At the copper electrolyte:
Cu(s) ---------> Cu2+(aq) + 2e- (Oxidation)
At the silver electrolyte:
Ag+(aq) + 2e- ----------> Ag(s)
(Reduction)
Define anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Electrode: The conductor of a cell (metal or carbon) that gets connected to the
external circuit
Electrolyte: A substance which in solution or molten conducts electricity.
Anode: The electrode at which oxidation occurs
Cathode: the electrode at which reduction occurs
10

5. Nuclear Chemistry provides a range of materials

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions
under which a nucleus is unstable
Isotopes are atoms of the one element that differ by having different numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei, therefore isotopes have the same atomic number
(same amount of protons) but different mass number (different amount of
neutrons). Generally, isotopes are named for their mass number e.g. rubidium-85,
rubidium-87.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation by certain elements. For
some elements, all isotopes are radioactive, while for others only some are (e.g. all
isotopes of uranium are radioactive, rubidium only has 2). Hence, we talk about
radioactive isotopes and stable isotopes. The emission actually comes from
the nucleus of the element, so scientists refer to it as unstable/stable nuclei.
An isotope is unstable if:
Its atomic numbers is greater than 83 (but there are unstable isotopes with
atomic number less than 83)
Its ratio of neutrons to protons places it outside the zone of stability
Describe how transuranic elements are produced
Transuranic elements are artificial, man made elements with atomic numbers
greater than 92.
The first couple of transuranic elements were produced using nuclear fission in
nuclear reactors (unstable isotopes uranium-235 - were bombarded with neutrons
which caused them to split into the new isotope and electron). E.g. Neptunium is
made by bombarding uranium-238 with a neutron then that isotope rapidly decays
to neptunium:
238 U + 1 n 239 U 0 e+ 239 Np
92
0
92
1
93

unstable

Neptunium (new element)

However, after that they were made by bombarding heavy nuclei with high-speed
positive particles (such as helium or carbon nuclei) in machines called linear
accelerators or cyclotrons. E.g. californium is made by bombarding uranium-238
with carbon:
238 U + 12 C 246 Cf +4 (1 n)
92
6
98
0
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced
Commercial radioisotopes are produced in either:
11

 Nuclear reactors (like above) used to make isotopes that can be prepared
by neutron bombardment. Suitable target nuclei are placed in the reactor
core where they are bombarded. E.g. Cobalt-60
Cyclotrons a suitable target nuclei is bombarded with a small positive
particle such as helium or carbon nucleus. E.g. Fluorine-18
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic film: the amount of darkening of the film is a measure of how
much radiation
Cloud chamber: a chamber/instrument that contains supersaturated
(concentrated saturated) vapour of water or alcohol. When radiation passes
through it, it ionises some of the air forming water droplets and the
pattern/path of the droplets indicate what type of radiation is happening.
Geiger-Muller counter: as radiation passes the Geiger tube, it hits gas
molecules (usually argon) and ionises them. Audible electrical pulses are
produced as gas molecules are ionised, the rate of these pulses indicates the
amount of radiation.
Scintillation counter: a flash of light is emitted when the substance is
irradiated with alpha, beta or gamma rays.
Identify one use of a named radioisotope: in industry; in medicine
Medicine: Technetium-99m
Industry: Cobalt-60
Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes
are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties
Radioisoto
pe
Technetiu
m-99m

Cobalt-60

Radiati Halfon
life
Emitted
Gamma 6
hours

Beta
and
Gamma

5.3
years

Uses in terms of Chemical Properties

Medical diagnosis gamma rays are highly penetrable

so can be detected at the bodys surface without
invasion; short half life ensures it leaves the body
quickly, leaving minimal damage; easily bonds with
other chemicals, so it combines with tin to form a
serum which is injected into the body and inside the
body it binds with red blood cells to detect circulation
disorders.
Thickness gauge beta and gamma rays penetrate
through metal sheets (but only to a certain degree);
relatively long half life makes it suited in machinery
since the radioactive source does not need frequent
replacement.
Cancer therapy gamma rays kill cancer cells because
they contain high energy; half life is short enough to
expel reasonable bouts of radiation at moderate
12

intensity to kill cancer cells.

Writing Nuclear Equations:
x+ y M x P+ y R
a+b
a
b
Neutron: 10n
Proton: 11p
Electron/ beta particle:
Alpha particle: 42He

-1

13

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