Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ramachandran V
Kerala Technological University which has just come into being in 2014 has
formulated a new syllabus for the first and second semester students. One of the compulsory
subjects for them is Introduction to Civil Engineering. I was teaching the subject for the last
couple of years. Though there are a large number of text books on the subject, the students
have to refer to more than one book. It was felt that there was a need to make available all the
subject matter in one place and this prompted me to compile the book as per the syllabus of K
Tech University. Some topics like cement concrete, RCC etc which have not been included in
the K Tech University syllabus have been incorporated in this book for sake of continuity.
Attempt has been made to present the topic in a very simple and lucid language with a
large number of illustrations. In order to make clear the steps of lay out of buildings, brick
masonry (English bond and Flemish bond) few video clips have been included. At the end of
each chapter, the main points to be revised and remembered are given as Points to Ponder.
Also a good number of questions have been given at the end of each chapter for practice.
Hope that the students will be able to take full advantage of the book.
Comments/suggestions are most welcome!
Ramachandran V
SN
Chapter
Page No
Introduction
1. General Introduction to Civil Engineering
11
17
28
33
Building Materials
7. Stones
48
8. Bricks
53
9. Tiles
64
10. Cement
70
11. Aggregates
77
86
90
101
107
16. Timber
111
Construction
17 Selection of site
122
125
127
134
145
149
.
It is reported that our ancestors lived in caves and tree tops. Later on they shifted to huts made
of twigs and leaves. In the modern world, it has been recognized that it is the states
responsibility to provide its citizens the basic amenities like food, shelter (house) and clothing.
Civil Engineering has many branches like Structural Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering,
Transportation Engineering, Water resources Engineering, Environmental Engineering,
Earthquake Engineering etc.
Geotechnical Engineering: This subject deals with soils, rock and foundations of all structures
like buildings, roads, railways, dams, tunnels etc. Before starting any work, soil samples are
required to be collected from the field, brought to the laboratory and tested to find out the
properties of the soils. The foundations are then designed taking into account the load of the
structure.
Structural Engineering: This discipline deals with the design of different structures. The structure
should be safe and should be able to give the service for which it was intended. The load acting
on the structure has to be identified and the stresses are to be calculated. The design should be
economical also. The loads are dead load, live load, wind load and seismic load.
Transportation Engineering: Transportation engineering deals with the construction and
maintenance of roads, railways, airways, seaways. For the transportation of men and material a
good transportation net work is very essential. This forms one of the essential requirement of
the infrastructure development of the country. As far as the roads are connected they connect
small villages to the major cities and industrial towns and railways help in trans[porting
passengers and goods in large quantities more effectively..
Environmental Engineering: This deals with water supply and sanitary engineering. Water is an
essential item for drinking, irrigation, sanitation, hydropower generation etc. The waste
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accumulated both in solid and liquid form has to be collected, treated and disposed off so that
the environment is neat and clean. The atmosphere is now a days polluted due to large scale
vehicles on the road, major industries and over population. Necessary steps are to be taken to
reduce the effect of pollution.
Water Resources Engineering: This discipline of civil engineering deals with the management
of quantity and quality of water in the underground and above ground water resources, like
rivers, lakes ponds and streams. The availability of water from these sources are to be analysed
and actual use planned accordingly. Water as told earlier is required for irrigation, industries,
drinking and transportation.
Earth Quake Engineering: Earth quakes are certain tremors from the inside of earth which may
create the destruction and loss of property and people.. Of course the loss depends on the
intensity of earth quake. As such a civil engineer has to design a structure taking into account
this seismic load. This will depend upon the actual location of the place. India has been divided
into different zones according to the likely severity of the quake. It is not able to predict in
advance when and where the quake may happen. The main objectives of earthquake engineering
are: *Foresee the potential consequences of strong earthquakes on civil structures
*Design, construct and maintain structures to reduce the after effects of earthquakes
Construction Engineering: This branch of civil engineering deals with the construction of various
structures like buildings, dams, water supply schemes, roads, railways, air ports, sea ports etc.
First detailed engineering survey has to be made. Then design the structure and carry out the
construction. Proper quality control has to be made by the site engineer so that the structure will
be safe and also it should be economical. The work should be completed within the target dates
as to avoid cost escalation. So many software packages are available now a days for design,
drawing and project planning.
Hydraulic engineering: This branch of civil engineering deals with the flow and conveyance
of fluids, mainly water and sewage. The knowledge on this subject is required for the design
of bridges, dams, channels, canals, water supply and sanitary engineering. Hydraulic engineering is
the application of fluid mechanics principles to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control,
transport of water and sewage. The hydraulic engineer has to study the effect of scour on bridges
and other structures.
Surveying: Before starting a new project a survey has to be made with respect to its alignment,
level, feature on the way and surroundings. The project can be a road, railway, airport, dam or
other structure..
Surveying is the art of determining the relative position of points on the surface of earth with
respect to its direction, magnitude and level. There are different surveys depending on the type
of instruments used, purpose of survey etc. The main instruments in this connection are chain,
leveling instrument, theodolite, tachometer, total station etc. After the survey, plans are to be
prepared.
One of the most essential requirements of human beings is food. For raising food crops,
irrigation is required.
History of Irrigation Development in World
Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation in Mesopotamia and Egypt as
far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley was grown in areas where the natural rainfall
was insufficient to support such a crop. In the 'Zana' Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru,
archaeologists found remains of three irrigation canals dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the
3rd millennium BCE and the 9th century CE. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in
the New World. The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and North India (from 2600 BCE) also
had an early canal irrigation system. Large scale agriculture was practiced and an extensive
network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation.
10
Civil Engineers have a major role to play in the development of a nation as they have to make
the necessary infrastructure in terms of buildings, transportation net work, dams, irrigation
canals, power generating stations etc. Infrastructure can be defined as the physical and
organizational structures and facilities like buildings, roads etc. needed for the operation of a
society. They are required for the economic development of the country.
Civil Engineering has got various branches like Geotechnical Engineering, Structural
Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Surveying - each
discipline dealing with a particular aspect. In general, the functions of a Civil Engineer are
Planning, Design, Construction and Maintenance of different Civil Engineering structures.
The infrastructure requirements can be broadly grouped under the following categories:
Buildings, Roads, Railways, Bridges, Airports, Dams and Canals, Electric Power Stations,
Factories, Industrial Town ships
Buildings are required for dwelling, schools, industries, offices, hospitals, factories etc.
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Bridges are required for crossing rivers and other obstacles for both rail and road network.
Food is an essential item for all - rich and poor. Agricultural fields are to be raised and
maintained properly.
For raising food production irrigation is to be effective. For this dams are required. The stored
water can be used for drinking and hydroelectric power in addition to irrigation.
For transporting men and material from one end of the country to the other end railways are a
must.
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For linking villages to towns, cities and industrial towns roads are required
For faster and quicker transport of passengers and goods air transport is the only solution.
Electric power is required for almost are operations domestic, commercial or industrial
purposes. The power is generated though hydro electric, thermal or nuclear power stations.
One of the parameter to measure the progress of a country is its industrial production. This
can be the in the small scale sector or large scale sector.
Conventional building materials like stone, brick, timber etc are still in vogue, but two materials
which have completely revolutionized the construction industry are cement and steel. From a
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small one room house to a multi- storey buildings, dams, power houses, air ports, rail sleepers,
concrete roads, tunnels, bridges etc all are being constructed with concrete and steel.
Computers are now extensively used for design, drawing and planning of various civil
engineering works. Also micro controllers are being used in various machineries used in
construction activities. In the present day world going green is on top priority in our society.
Reusing materials from existing sites is an upcoming trend in the new environment.
Engineers play a very critical role in planning, developing, building and maintaining nations
infrastructure. Ultimately, the engineering profession uses its expertise, experience and
knowledge help to create a safer, more sustainable, and prosperous future for the country.
Engineers balance social, environmental and economic considerations to find the best solutions
to complex challenges. They have a responsibility to manage the risks associated with their
work, and the impacts on the public and on the environment.
The progress made by the nation in the successive five year plans is an eye-opener. The
progress can be seen in all spectrum - Irrigation, Agriculture, Hydro electric power, Roads,
Railways, Air ports, Sea ports, Techno / I T parks, Communication network, Cement, Steel and
other heavy and light Industries.
Some recent remarkable infrastructure developments in India
For any country, its infrastructure is a matter of pride. During the last few years phenomenal
change has taken place in sectors like buildings, roads, railways, airports etc leading to world
class facilities in various parts of the country. Few such projects are briefly described here.
1. Mumbais Eastern Freeway Indias second largest Fly over - More than 25000
vehicles are expected to take the freeway daily. The 17 km freeway is divided in three
parts- 9.29 km elevated road, 4.3 km road-tunnel, and an elevated 2.5 km fly over.
2. Udhampur-Katra rail link (Kashmir) The work on this line is complete. Pilgrims to
Vaishnodevi temple can travel directly to the base camp at Katra. Constructed at an
estimated cost of Rs 1050 crores, the route consists of seven tunnels, 30 small and big
bridges.
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3. Indores BRTS road route- Built at a cost of Rs135 crores, the BRTS consists of
physically separated bus lanes and metro like stations.
4. Double decker train from Chennai to Banglore The fully air- conditioned train started its
run on April 25, 2013.
5. Indias first solar park at Caranka village in Gujarath This is countrys first solar park.
Spread across 5000 acres it has 500 MW of generation capacity of both solar and wind
energy.
6. Yamuna Expressway (Greater Noida to Agra) The 165 km long Yamuna Expressway
is the longest access controlled six-lane rigid pavements in India.
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7. Indias longest rail tunnel The 11 km tunnel across PirPanjal mountain range on the
Bani hal Quazigund railway line in Jammu Kashmir.
8. Lulu Mall. Kochi Constructed at a cost of Rs1600 crores at Edappally, Cochi in 25 lakh
square feet complex
9. Indias Life line Express (Worlds first hospital train)- Established in 1991, this train has
travelled the length and breadth of the country bringing the medical aid to the most farflung inaccessible areas.
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A building is a man-made structure with proper foundation, wall, roof and other building services. It
may be of mud, stone or cement blocks. The building may be for various purposes residential,
commercial, industrial, educational, religious..It may be of various sizes and shapes National
Building Code of India (2005) defines a building as a structure for any purpose built of any material.
The building may be of single storey or multi-storey structure.
In the last few years the cost of construction has sky rocketed due to the rise in the cost of building
materials as well the increased labour cost. The cost of land has also gone up considerably. Earlier
the practice was to construct single storey or two storey buildings. But the trend has completely
changed due to the paucity and high cost of land and the increased demand for houses. The old
system of combined family has disappeared and the trend is for miniature families. So now
multistory residential complexes are being constructed. One factor which has to be taken into
connection in this regard
Plot Area
Along with residential buildings. more buildings are required for industries, government offices,
private business establishments, educational institutions etc. One important factor is the
economy of construction. The space has to be effectively utilized. Green buildings are the
requirement of the day. Modern construction techniques and selection of good building
materials also will affect in reducing the cost of construction.
Towers
A tower is a tall structure. There are different towers like clock tower, transmission tower, bell tower,
radio tower, communication tower etc. They are not intended for living .but for specific purposes
like:
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Eiffel Tower
Electricity transmission tower- for distribution of electric power
Communication tower- for transmission of communication signals like microwave
Radio tower - for transmission of radio signals
Bell tower for hanging bells in churches
Tourist tower As a tourist attraction for the tourists to see (Eiffel tower in Paris, Leaning tower of
Pisa, Italy etc)
The towers are normally constructed with steel sections like angle, I section, Channel, square
section etc and are connected at the junctions through welding or bolt and nut.
Chimneys
A chimney (flue) is a structure intended for the passing off smoke, hot flue gases
from furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are kept in vertical position so that
the gases pass smoothly. Chimneys can be found in buildings, steam locomotives, ships, brick
kilns, factories etc.. Since in factories the pollutant gases are passed out through tall towers, the
surrounding area is not polluted. In addition, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can
reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings.
The cross section of a chimney may be square, rectangular or circular with smooth finish inside. The
height of the chimney stack should be at least one meter above the roof level. In big factories, tall
chimneys are provided to pass the exhaust gases and smoke at a higher level. The following points
must be kept in mind while constructing a tall chimney-
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-Refractory brick lining should be provided inside a chimney when the temperature is expected to
exceed 750 degree centigrade.
-The total height of the chimney shaft should not exceed 12 times the external diameter at the base
or 10 times the least lateral dimension at the base for chimneys of rectangular section. The general
practice is to construct the chimneys in lime mortar than cement mortar because cement mortar is
likely to disintegrate at high temperature.
- Wind pressure must be taken into account when designing a chimney.
Bridges
A bridge is a structure built to cross an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river, railway line, road
or canal.
Classification
Bridges are classified in different ways according to:
Material of construction - Timber, Masonry, Steel, RCC, PSC.
Purpose (Function) - Railway bridge, Road bridge, Pedestrian bridge, Aqueduct (bridge over a
valley), Viaduct (canal over a river)
Position - Deck bridge, Through bridge, Semi through bridge
Superstructure - Slab bridge, Truss bridge, Suspension bridge, Cable stayed bridge
Length - Culvert (less than 6 m, Minor bridge (6 to 60 m), Major bridge (above 60 m)
Method of connection of different parts- Rivet, weld, Pin
Position - Straight, Skew
Selection of site
The following points are to be considered in selecting the site of the bridge
The site should be easily approachable, Width of the river should be minimum, Firm and stable
banks, Suitable foundation, Right angled crossing
The components of a bridge are Abutments, Pier, Deck Slab, Hand- rail, Beam, Bearings,
Approaches, Parapet
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Dams
Dams are structures constructed across rivers to store water. The water may be used for
drinking, irrigation or hydro electric power generation.
20
Retaining Walls
Retaining walls are walls made of concrete or masonry to retain soil. Generally they are
constructed on the approaches to bridges, for making gardens in sloping grounds and to
protect soil from erosion etc. To design a retaining wall, it is required to find out the pressure
exerted by the soil on the retaining wall. This can be found out by using Rankins theory or
Coulombs theory. The pressure depends on the unit weight of soil, angle of internal friction,
cohesive strength of soil and height of the wall. There is a tendency for the retained material to
move down the slope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which is
termed as active earth pressure. If the retaining wall yields towards the retained soil. the wall is
subjected to passive earth pressure. If there is no movement, the earth pressure is called earth
pressure at rest.
Water tanks
A water tank is a container to store and distribute water. The water may be used for drinking
,irrigation or fire suppression. It can be at the ground level or on an elevated stage. They may
be of steel, concrete or plastics and of circular or rectangular in shape. Now a days for rain
water harvesting also tanks are being used. Rainwater tank (sometimes called a rain barrel ) is
a water tank used to collect and store rain water runoff from roof tops via rain gutters. A rainwater
catchment or collection (also known as "rainwater harvesting") system can yield 2358 litres of water
from 2.54 cm of rain on a 93 m2 roof area. Rainwater tanks are devices for collecting and
maintaining harvested rain. These tanks are installed to use rain water for later use. and aid selfsufficiency. Stored water may be used for watering gardens, agriculture, flushing toilets, in washing
machines, washing cars, and also for drinking, especially when other water supplies are unavailable.
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Underground rainwater tanks can also be used for retention of storm water for release at a later
time.
Silos
Silo is a structure, typically cylindrical in shape in which grain, cement or other materials are stored.
There are different types of silos such as the low-level mobile silo and the static upright silo. Mobile
silos are normally of capacities from 10 to 75 tons. They are simple to transport and are easy to be
set up on site. These mobile silos generally come equipped with an electronic weighing system with
digital display and printer. This allows any quantity of cement or powder discharged from the silo to
be controlled and also provides an accurate indication of what remains inside the silo. The static
upright silos (Tower silos) have capacities from 20 to 80 tons. They are also cylindrical in shape, 4
to 30 m in diameter and 10 to 84 m in height. The stored materials are unloaded into wagons, trucks
or conveyors. Silos can be of steel or concrete. The main differences between concrete and steel
silos are:
All steel silo parts are manufactured in a factory, so the quality can be totally controlled,
whereas cast in place concrete silos involve more variables such as delivery of concrete and
weather.
The slip frame concrete process is slightly complicated. Also, field supervision plays a really
important role in concrete silos: More workers have to be employed and also it takes more time
for construction. Ultimately the cost of construction shoots up.
Concrete silos can be taller than steel silos.
It is easier to erect steel silos and also to install accessories like doors, ladders, samplers, etc.
Steel structure is more flexible, so steel silos have better behavior in case of earthquake.
Regarding air tightness, both structures are normally airtight if the openings are properly sealed.
Steel silos generally give more storage capacity.. They tend to be more cost-effective because
of the higher storage capacity.
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Roads
Roads are for the transport of men and material from one part of the country to another part. In
India, roads are classified under the following categories - National High way, State Highway,
Major District Road, Other District Road and Village Road. There is now a new classification as
Express Way.
The road structure has the following components Sub grade, Sub base, Base, Base Coat and
Wearing Coat.
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Runways
A runway is a rectangular area of land in an airport prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
Runways may be a man-made surface (asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface.
It is generally paved. Shoulders are provided on either side of a run way. They act as safety zones
should an airport move out of the runway during take off or landing. Stop ways are provided at the
ends of a run way to accommodate an aircraft that overshoots or undershoots a run way during
landing or an aborted take-off.
Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of
the runway's heading in deca degrees: A runway numbered 09 points east (90), runway 18 is south
(180), runway 27 points west (270) and runway 36 points to the north (360 rather than 0).
Air ports are of two types: Civil airports, Military airports
The selection of a site for an airport depends on Economic factors, Commercial factors,
Meteorological factors, Physical and Engineering factors.
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The capacity of an airport is defined as the number of aircraft operations during a specified
interval of time corresponding to a tolerable level of delay. The factors that affect the capacity of
an airport are:
-The number of runways and whether they are used for both arrivals and take-offs or separately
for arrivals and take-offs.
- Orientation and configuration of runways
-The taxiway
-The efficiency of traffic control facilities
-Weather conditions
A single runway used both for arrival and departure can have an annual capacity of 170,000 to
215,000 air craft operations.
In an emergency, military aircrafts may land on Express Highways. Recently this facility was
tested by landing and taking off a military aircraft on Delhi Agra Express Highway.
Railways
Railways are the life lines of a nation. For transporting men and material railway net work is
very essential. It was in 1853 that the first train started its maiden journey from Bombay to
Thana a distance of 15 Kms. Now Indian railways have got 65000 route Kms of track, carrying
about 23 million passengers per day by 19000 trains connecting about 8000 stations.. It also
runs about 7,000 freight trains carrying about 3 million tonnes of freight every day. It is the
largest Government department and is the only department which has got a separate annual
budget.
Trains run over two rails which are kept at a specific distance .on a transverse member called
sleeper. The distance between the two rails is called gauge which is 1676 mm for Broad gauge
and 1000 mm for Metre gauge track. Below the rails, there is a layer of broken stones (ballast)
of about 20 cm. Previously the sleepers were of wood, steel or cast iron. But now concrete
sleepers are being used. Similarly earlier the trains were hauled by steam locomotives but now
the same are hauled by diesel or electric locomotives.
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The railway is administered by the Railway Board composed of Chairman and four other
Members. The whole rail network is divided into different zones which are headed by a General
Manager. The zone is further subdivided to Divisions. and Sub divisions.
For design, development and standardization of railways there is a separate organization under
the Ministry of Railways called Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO) based at
Lucknow.
Pipelines
Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. As per statistics of 2014, total of
about 3.5 million km of pipeline is there in 120 countries of the world. The United States has 65%,
Russia 8%, and Canada 3%, thus 75% of all pipe line is in these three countries
Liquids and gases are transported through pipelines. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and
refined petroleum, fuels - such as oil, natural gas and bio fuels - and other fluids
including sewage, slurry and water. Pipelines are useful for transporting water
for drinking or irrigation over long distances. Pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to
transport solid capsules.
Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried underground. The oil is
moved through the pipelines by pumping from stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar
gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Natural gas
pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous
substance to be transported through long-distance pipelines. Hydrogen pipeline transport is the
transportation of hydrogen through a pipe.
Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety
concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target
of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war, pipelines are often the target of military
attacks.
Advantages of transport through pipes:
They require significantly less energy to operate than operating trucks or rail and have a much
lower carbon footprint
Underground pipelines are safe
Points To Ponder
Model Questions
1.Biefly describe the history of Civil Engineering.
2 What is a building?
3. What is the purpose of a building?
4. What is the role of a civil engineer in the nation building?
5. Briefly explain the following items Water tanks, Chimneys, Retaining Walls, Silos, Runways,
Dams, Towers
6.Explin some of the recent systems in operation as part of Indias infrastructure development.
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28
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D-3: Buildings without stages and accommodation for 300 or more persons but no permanent
seating arrangements
D-4: Buildings without stages and accommodation for less than 300 persons.
D-5: All other structures for assembly of people not covered by sub divisions D-1 to D-4. ExCircus tents
D-6: Buildings having mixed occupancy providing facilities such as shopping, restaurants etc.
D-7: All other buildings for assembly of people not covered under D-1 to D-6
Group E: Business Buildings
This group includes any building or part of a building that is used as a shop, store either whole
sale or retail. These are sub divided into
E1 E5: Mercantile Buildings
F1: Shops, stores markets area upto 50sq m
F2: Underground shopping centres, departmental stores with area more than 500 sq m
Group G: Industrial Buildings
These include buildings or part thereof in which materials of all kinds are manufactured or
processed
G1- Buildings used for low-hazard Industries: These are buildings where danger to life and
property may arise from panic or fire from external sources only.
G2- Buildings used for moderate-hazard Industries: The processes in the industries are liable to
give rise to a fire that will burn with moderate rapidity.
G3- Buildings used for high-hazard Industries; The processes in the industries are liable to give
rise to a fire that will burn with extreme rapidity.
Group H: Storage Buildings
These are buildings used for the storage of goods, vehicles or animals.
Group J: Hazardous Buildings
These are buildings used for storage, handling, manufacturing of highly explosive materials or
products which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity producing poisonous gases or
explosions.
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Framed structure
*Transferred through columns and footings
foundation by walls
*Walls need foundation throughout
at least 200mm
*Too many openings for doors, windows and
storey only
Classification of buildings according to the materials used
RCC structure, Steel Structure, Composite Structure:
Classification of buildings according to fire resistance
There are four categories in this regard: Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 and Type 4 construction.
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Points To Ponder
Model Questions
1. What s National Building Code?
2.What are the parameters of classification of buildings?
3.Based on occupancy what are the classifications?
4.What are the classifications of buildings according to type of construction?
5.What are the classifications of buildings according to method of load transfer?
6.What are the classifications of buildings according to material used?
7.What are the classifications of buildings according to fire resistance?
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Plinth: It is the portion of a building between the ground level and the ground floor level. A
damp proof course is provided at the top of the plinth.
Column: These are vertical members which transfer the load from top to the bottom member.
The column can be of timber, steel or concrete. It may be of circular, rectangular or square
section.
Wall: The wall is also constructed to transfer the load from top to the bottom member. It has got
the further function of giving protection to the inhabitants from rain, wind etc. and also
privacy.Walls partition the building into different rooms / compartments.
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Lintel: It is a small beam provided over window and door openings to transfer the load from
above. It can be of wood, steel or RCC. The width of lintel will be that of the wall.
Door and Window: A door is provided to get access to the room and also to lock it for safety.
Window is provided in the exterior wall to have light and air circulation. The window area should
be 15-20 % of the floor area.
Floor: The number of floors depend on the height of the building. The lowermost floor is the
ground floor. It is prepared by filling the basement with soil and then compacting it. The top is
made by marble, tile or stone. The upper floors are generally of RCC. The thickness of slab wil
depend upon the span and the load it is subjected to.
Stair: Stair is constructed to go from one floor to the other. It will have a number of steps. A
landing is normally provided in between the floors.
Roof: It is the topmost part of a building. It serves as a cover for protection from rain, wind and
sun rays. The roof can be flat or sloping. It should be leak proof and should give a good look to
the building.
Building Services: The essential building services are: water supply, sanitary fittings and
connections, electric connection, rain water drainage system, cup boards, shelves etc.
The details of each component of a building are being described here in :
Foundation
Foundation is the lowest part of a structure. It is below the ground level. The purpose of the
foundation is to transmit the load of the superstructure to the soil below so that the structure is
safe. The engineer has to study the properties of the soil and design the foundation accordingly.
It should be ensured that the foundation can safely carry the loads.
Requirements of Foundation:
-The pressure exerted on the soil should not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
-Settlement of the foundation should be with in safe limit.
-The foundation should be rigid.
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Types of Foundations
1. Shallow foundation 2.Deep Foundation
A foundation is said to be shallow if its depth is less than or equal to its width. Shallow
foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the fact that
the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing, and then
constructing the footing.
There are several kinds of shallow footings: Spread footing, individual footing, combined footing
, raft foundation etc.
Wall footing (Spread footing): The width of the foundation is gradually increased through
steps. Trenches are made to the required depth and width. Then a leveling layer of concrete is
spread Over that the foundations are constructed in masonry.
Column footing: Columns normally carry heavier loads. Therefore they require footings which
can distribute loads to larger areas. The footings of this type are:
Isolated column footing
Combined footing
Cantilever or strap footing
Continuous footing
Raft or mat footing
Isolated column footing: This footing is adopted for independent column. The size of the
footing will depend on the load on the column and the type of underlying soil.
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Combined Footing: This is a common footing for two columns. This footing can be rectangular
or trapezoidal in shape. This type of footing is adopted when one column is very near the
boundary of a plot where there is not sufficient space for the footing.
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Continuous (Strip) Footing: This type of footing is adopted when more than two columns are
to be constructed in one line very close to each other..
Raft Foundation
This is also known as mat foundation. In some cases the individual columns may be heavily
loaded or the safe bearing capacity of the soil may be low. In that case, the column footings
may overlap each other. Raft foundation is adopted in such situations.
37
Deep Foundations
1..Pile foundation 2. Pier foundation
Pile foundation: A pile is a slender column of wood, steel or concrete. It is driven into the
ground or cast in a bore hole.
Classification of Piles according to the load transfer: Friction Piles
Bearing Piles
Friction piles transfer the load through friction between the pile and soil. The length of the pile
will depend on the frictional resistance.
Bearing piles transfer the load through bearing on a hard strata. For this hard strata should be
available at a reasonable depth.
Classification of piles according to the material used: Timber piles, Steel piles, Concrete piles
Bearing Capacity of Soil: It is defined as the maximum load per unit area which a soil can
withstand without yielding. First the maximum bearing capacity of the soil has to be determined.
There are different methods of determining the bearing capacity. The safe bearing capacity is
then calculated by dividing the maximum bearing capacity by a factor of safety which is usually
taken as 2 or 3.
38
39
number of blows required for the second and third 6 in(150 mm) of penetration is reported as SPT
blow value, commonly termed the "N-value".
The N-value provides an indication of the relative density of the subsurface soil, and it is used to
estimate the approximate shear strength properties of the soils.
SPT N3
[Blows/0.3 m]
Soil packing
Relative Density
[%]
Friction angle
[]
<4
Very loose
< 20
< 30
4 -10
Loose
20 - 40
30 - 35
10 - 30
Compact
40 - 60
35 - 40
30 - 50
Dense
60 - 80
40 - 45
> 50
Very Dense
> 80
> 45
2.Laboratory tests: Undisturbed soil samples are collected from the field and tests conducted
in the laboratory to determine the shear strength of soil. Bearing capacity is then calculated.
Presumptive Bearing Capacity
National Building Code has recommended safe bearing capacity for different soils.
Type of soil
150
245
Soft rock
440
40
Walls
Walls are the vertical elements of a building. They enclose the space within it and also divide
that space
Functional Requirements
The walls are usually constructed of bricks, stones or concrete blocks in cement mortar.
Retaining Wall and Breast Wall
Retaining wall is constructed to retain soil or other fill material. Breast wall is to prevent slippage
of natural slopes .The lateral pressure on the wall is to be calculated and then the design made
accordingly.
Columns
The vertical support which is free from all sides and transfers the load to the floor below is called
a column. The column can be of wood, steel or RCC. It can be of circular, rectangular or square
in section.
41
Beam
Beam is a horizontal structural member supporting the floor above. The beam can be of wood,
steel or RCC.
Slab is constructed to divide the vertical space into various stories. The topmost slab is the roof
slab.
Floors are made of concrete. Steel bars are provided to take up the tensile stresses. The
diameter of the bar and the spacing of the bars will depend on the span of the room and the
intensity of load.
42
Lintel
Lintel is a small beam provided over window and door opening to support the masonry above.
The lintel can be of wood, steel or RCC..
Arches
Arches are curved members provided over openings like door and window to support the wall
above.
Elements of an Arch
Keystone: It is the wedge shaped block provided at the crown of an arch.
Extrados: it is the outer portion of an arch.
Intrados: It is the inner portion of an arch.
Voussoirs: They are the wedge shaped units forming the arch.
43
A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs from one floor to another. It includes
landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. It can be of wood, reinforced
cement concrete, iron or steel. According to their form, the staircases can be with straight flights,
Door
44
Doors are openings in the wall at the floor level for entry and exit of persons, safety, security
and for light and air. The number of doors in a room should be the bare minimum. Its position
should judiciously selected. In genera doors have a frame and one or two shutters. There are
different types of doors Framed and braced door, Panelled door, Glazed door, Flush door,
Revolving door, Sliding door, Folding door etc..
Window
Windows are openings provided in the wall for light, air and outside view. The window has also
got a frame and one or more shutters. There are different types of windows like sliding
window, louvered window, Bay window , Pivoted window. The window frame can be of timber,
steel or aluminium.
Lifts
Normally in an ordinary house, people go from ground floor to other floors through a stair case.
But now a days more buildings are of multi stories whether residential commercial or office
building. In such buildings it is very difficult to move up through a stair case. Lifts are used there
for moving from one floor to another. It can be told that lLift is a moving platform which moves
up and down in a small enclosed space.
Escalator
Escalator is a system of movable stairs used to move people upward and downward
directions. In public places like airports, railway stations, super markets etc escalators
45
are installed for the convenience of general public. The speed of escalators are
generally 0.75 m /second..
Points To Ponder
The basic components of a building are: Foundation, Plinth, Column, Wall, Lintel, Door,
Window, Floor, Stair, Roof
The purpose of a foundation is to distribute the load of superstructure to the soil below.
There are two types of foundations Shallow and deep foundation
Spread footing, combined footing, grillage foundation etc come under shallow
foundation.
Pile foundation, Pier foundation and well foundation come under deep foundation.
Walls provide security to the in -habitants and also protection from rain, wind and sun
Columns are vertical members to transfer the load from top to bottom. Hey may of wood,
steel or concrete and may be of square, rectangular or circular in section.
There are different floors in a building ground floor and upper floor.
The roof is the topmost floor which provides protection to the building from rain, wind,
snow etc. The roof covering may be of tiles, slates or concrete slab.
Doors and windows are provided for access to the building, security for inhabitants, light
and air.
Model Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
46
47
7. STONES
Stones
Stones
are blocks of rock and are used for construction of buildings (foundations, walls,
columns), flooring, broken stones for roads and concrete.
Classification of Rocks
1. Geological Classification
a) Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling of molten material called magma.
These rocks are hard, strong, durable and dense with a crystalline structure. The
rocks are formed on the surface of earth or deep below.
Examples: Granite, Quartzite, Basalt, Dolomite
b) Sedimentary Rocks: Existing rocks are broken down to smaller particles by wind,
water and atmospheric gases. This process is called weathering. The smaller
particles (sediments) thus formed are transported to other places and deposited
there. Gradually the sediments are compressed under their own weight and
sedimentary rocks are formed.
Example; Sand stone, Lime stone
c) Metamorphic Rocks: Igneous and sedimentary rocks when subjected to increased
pressure and temperature are transformed to a new type of rock. This rock is called
metamorphic rock.
Example: Marble, Schist, Slate, Gneiss
2. Physical Classification
a) Stratified Rocks: These rocks exist in distinct layers and can be split along these
layers.
Example: Sand stone, Lime stone
b) Un stratified rocks: These rocks do not exist in layers but occur in huge masses.
Example: Granite, Basalt
48
Hardness Classification
Based on the hardness, rocks are classified as
Soft rocks, Medium rocks, Hard rocks and Very hard rocks
Uses of stones
- Buildings: Foundations, walls, columns, lintels, floorings
- Bridges: Piers, Abutments, Retaining walls
- Roads and Railways: As broken stone (ballast)
- Concrete: As coarse aggregate (broken stone)
Rubble
Rough broken stone as it comes from quarry is called rubble. Rubble may come from Granite,
Basalt, Gneiss or Sand stone. It is used in construction of foundations, walls, road work canal
protection works etc.
49
Laterite
Laterite is a sedimentary rock. It is generally found in tropical climate (hot and wet) regions like
Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra, Tamil Nadu etc. These are cut from quarries in rectangular blocks.
They have to be seasoned (left in air) for about one or two months to attain full strength. The
normal compressive strength of laterite is 1.8 to 3.2 N / sq mm. The blocks of stones obtained
from quarry is to be dressed (giving proper shape and size). The standard size of laterite stone
is 44 cm x 24 cm x 14 cm. Laterite stones are used in walls of buildings and boundary
(compound) walls.
Hardness: When stone is used in floors and pavements, it t is subjected to large amount
of wear and tear. Hardness is very important in these cases. It is determined by the
hardness test.
its
d) Texture: It is the characteristic physical structure indicated by the size, shape and
arrangement of grains in the stone.
e) Water absorption: Stones may have pores in it. When stones come in contact with water,
it may absorb water. A good stone should not absorb water more than 5 % of its weight.
f) Appearance: Stones should have a pleasing appearance specially when used on
exteriors. Light coloured stones are preferred to dark coloured.
h) Workability: The stones obtained from quarries are to be dressed properly before using it.
The process of removing sharp corners, giving proper shape, size and surface finish is called
dressing. Some stones like granite and basalt are very hard, tough and therefore are difficult to
be dressed easily.
i) Weathering: Stones should have the capacity to withstand the effects of weathering action.
Otherwise they may disintegrate and decompose easily.
50
Deterioration of Stones
In course of time, stones may get deteriorated, due to the action of natural agencies like wind,
water and temperature. The colour may also fade out giving a bad appearance. Polluted gases
containing harmful agents from nearby industries may also add to the deterioration of stones.
Preservation of Stones
Stones should be protected from weathering action by adopting suitable measures like
application of preservatives. A preservative is a solution which has to be applied on to the
surface of stone so as to protect it from weathering action. An ideal preservative should be
easily applicable, cheap and should penetrate easily into the interior of the stone The commonly
used preservatives are paint, coal tar and linseed oil.
Commonly used stones
The commonly used stones in India are Granite, Laterite, Basalt, Marble, Sand stone and
Lime stone.
Quarrying of stones
The process of extracting blocks of stones from natural rock bed is termed as quarrying.
Methods of quarrying; The following methods are adopted for quarrying.
-
Dressing of stones
The stones after quarrying are to be given to correct size and shape. This processing is known
as dressing of stones. This may be done at the quarry or the construction site.
Testing of Stones
To ascertain the qualities of building stones, different tests are conducted.
Crushing Strength test: The crushing strength is obtained by testing the specimen in a
compressive testing machine.
Attrition test: The stones (coarse aggregates) used in road construction work are subjected to
grinding action of traffic. Attrition test is conducted to obtain the resistance of stones to
abrasion.
Acid test: This test is conducted to ascertain the weathering resistance of stones. The stone
chips are kept in a solution of hydrochloric acid for seven days and then tested.
51
Absorption test: For this test, dried stone chips are kept in distilled water for three days, taken
out ,weighed and absorption calculated.
Hardness test: This test is conducted in Dorrys testing machine.
Impact test: This test is done in an impact testing machine to find out the toughness of stones.
Points To Ponder
Stones are blocks of rock. Rocks are formed by the cooling of molten magma.
There are different types of rocks Igneous , Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks
Stones are used for foundation, wall, pavement etc
Stones can be classified under geological, physical, chemical and hardness categories..
The commonly used stones are - Granite, Laterite, Marble, Gneiss, Slate, Sandstone
Qualities of good stones are - Strength, Durability, Appearance, Water absorption, Fire
resistance, Workability
Stones can be protected from weathering by application of certain
preservatives.(Chemicals)
The process of extracting blocks of stones from natural rock bed is termed as quarrying.
The process of giving proper size and shape to stones is called dressing.
To ascertain the qualities of building stones, different tests are conducted like Crushing
strength, Attrition, Absorption, Hardness, Toughness .
Model Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
52
8. BRICK
Ordinary Brick
magnesia.
53
54
Pug Mill
55
Moulding of bricks
The thoroughly mixed clay is put in the moulds to give proper size and shape. Moulding can be
done by hand or by machine. Hand moulding can be Ground moulding or Table moulding.
Ground moulding: The mould is first dipped in water and kept on a clean and level ground. A
lump of clay is then pushed into the mould. The surplus soil is then removed, the mould is then
lifted. The process is then repeated.
Table moulding: In this case, all the work is done on a specially made table.
Table Moulding
Drying
The moulded bricks are sun dried by keeping them in open air. in stacks for three to eight days.
The drying can be done by artificial methods also.
Burning of bricks
The dried bricks are burnt in clamps or kilns. For smaller quantities clamps are used while for
larger quantities kilns are used. The burning imparts hardness and strength to the bricks.
56
Clamps: In this dried bricks and firewood are kept in alternate layers on a specially prepared
level ground. The heap of bricks is then plastered with mud. The bricks are then ignited from
bottom. The burning is continued for about a month and then allowed to cool for another month.
Kilns: There are two types of kilns Intermittent kilns, Continuous kilns
Intermittent kilns: In this type of kiln, burnt bricks will be available only after complete burning.
The supply of bricks is not continuous.
Continuous kilns: In this type of kiln, it is possible to get bricks at any instant. This is because
there are a number of chambers in this kiln.- while in one chamber the bricks may be loading, in
another it may be burning and in another it may be cooling. There are different types of
continuous kilns.
The Hoffmans Continuous Kiln.
In this there are a number of chambers. There is a central chimney which is connected to all the
chambers. At any point of time, loading will be going in one chamber, preheating in another,
heating in one, cooling in another and cleaning in another and so on.
Cooling and Stacking
The bricks after burning are cooled and kept in stacks for further transport to the construction
sites.
57
Take five bricks at random, keep them in water for 24 hours, take out and wipe out water
from the surface
Spread a layer of cement mortar of 1: 3 proportion, keep them in sacks for 24 hours.
The maximum load divided by the cross sectional area gives the compressive strength.
x 100
W1
Efflorescence Test (IS 1077- 1970)
Take five bricks at random
59
Keep each brick in a flat bottom vessel. Fill distilled water such that the
brick is in water for not less than 2.5 cm deep
The water from the vessel may get evaporated and the bricks may be dried. Add fresh water.
After the second stage of drying, observe for white patches of salt on the surface (efflorescence)
The efflorescence is qualitatively described as Serious, Heavy, Moderate, Slight, Nil.
Dimension Tolerance Test (IS 1077- 1970)
This test is done to check the dimensions of bricks- length, breadth and height.
Advantages of Bricks over Stones
- Bricks can be moulded to any shape
- They are marginally cheaper compared to stones
- They are lighter in weight
- They can be easily handled by mason
- They are more fire resistant
Classification of bricks
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified burnt bricks into four classes- First Class,
Second Class, Third Class and Fourth Class.:
1. First Class bricks:
Characteristics:
Well burnt and having perfect rectangular shape
When two bricks are struck each other a ringing sound is produced
Compressive strength shall not be less than 140 kg/ sq cm
Its absorption of water shall not exceed 20% after 24 hours
Appearance, shape and size should be uniform
60
Uses:
Suitable for all types of construction in the exterior walls when the plastering is not
required.
Suitable for flooring
2. Second class bricks
Characteristics:
Slightly irregular in shape
Marginally over burnt
Should not absorb water more than 22%
Minimum compressive strength 70 kg/sq cm
Uses
Suitable for internal walls
3. Third class bricks
Characteristics:
Not burnt properly
Moderate efflorescence
Should not absorb water more than 24% of its weight
Minimum compressive strength 35 kg/ sq cm
Uses
Used for unimportant and temporary works
Fourth class bricks
Characteristics:
Over burnt, dark in colour, irregular in size and shape
61
Uses
Used as aggregate in concrete and road works
Perforated Brick
62
Points to Ponder
Good brick earth should contain Silica, Alumina, Lime, Iron oxide and Manganese
Harmful ingredients of brick earth are Stone, Pebble, Vegetation and Organic matter.
Recommended field tests to determine the suitability of brick earth are- Consistency,
Suitability for moulding, Strength, Shrinkage and Deformation, Soundness
Steps for manufacture for brick are: Preparation of brick earth, Moulding, Drying, Burning
and Cooling
Tests for determining the quality of bricks are Crushing strength, Hardness, Water
absorption, Soundness, Shape & size
Bricks are classified as First, Second, Third and Fourth class bricks.
If soluble salts are present in the bricks, it may appear as white patches. This is known
as efflorescence
The qualities of good bricks are: Hard, Uniform colour, Free fro cracks, Standard size,
Crushing strength > 3.5 N/sq mm, low thermal conductivity, homogeneous structure
Model Questions
1. What are the qualities of good bricks?
2. What are the different steps of manufacture of bricks?
3. What is efflorescence?
4. What are the different laboratory tests to assess the quality of bricks?
5. What are the field tests?
6. What are the advantages of bricks over stones?
7. What are the different classifications of bricks?
8. What is a frog?
9. What is a clamp?
10. How are bricks burnt?
11. What is a Hoffmans kiln?
63
9.Tiles
A tile is a
generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, and other places. The word tile is
derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula, meaning a roof
tile composed of fired clay. Tiled flooring is commonly used in residential, commercial and office
buildings. Tiles are manufactured in factories under controlled conditions.
Roof Tile
64
Floor Tile
Ceramic Tiles
Wall and floor tile used for interior and exterior decoration belongs to a class of ceramics known
as white wares. The production of tile dates back to ancient times. For instance, the Step
Pyramid for the Pharoah Djoser, built in ancient Egypt around 2600 B.C., contained colorful
glazed tiles. By the beginning of the twentieth century, tile was manufactured on an industrial
scale. The invention of the tunnel kiln around 1910 increased the automation of tile
manufacture. Today, manufacture of tiles is highly automated.
Raw Materials
The raw materials used to manufacture tile consist of clay minerals mined from the earth's crust.
Natural minerals such as feldspar are used to lower the firing temperature. The raw materials
must be pulverized and sorted according to particle size. Primary crushers are used to reduce
large lumps of material.
The initial step in ceramic tile manufacture involves mixing the ingredients. Water is added and
then ground in a ball mill. The resulting compound is then pressed into the desired shape.
Sieves are used to separate out particles in a specific size range. The sieves are kept in a
sloped position and are vibrated mechanically or electromechanically . A glaze is a glass
material designed to melt onto the surface of the tile during firing, and which then adheres to the
tile surface during cooling. Glazes are used to provide moisture resistance and decoration, as
they can be colored or can produce special textures.
65
2 After the ingredients are weighed, they are put together into a mixer. Sometimes it is
necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient batch as well as to
achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is often performed using a
ball mill. The resulting mixture is called a slurry or slip. The water is then removed from
the slurry by filter pressing, followed by dry milling.
Spray drying
3 If wet milling is adopted, the excess water is removed by spray drying. This involves
pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets
of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free
flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming.
Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by granulation. Granulation
uses a machine in which the mixture of previously dry-ground material is mixed with
water in order to form the particles into granules, which again form a powder ready for
forming.
66
Forming
4 Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powder containing
organic binder or a low percentage of moistureflows from a hopper into the forming
die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by
the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high as
2,500 tons.
Drying
5 Ceramic tiles must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming, especially if a wet
method is used. Drying can take several days. This removes the water at a slow rate
to prevent shrinkage cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using
gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwaves. Infrared drying is better suited for thin tile,
whereas microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying,
uses pulses of hot air flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously in the
material flow direction.
Glazing
6. After a batch formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry
or wet milled. The milled glazes are then applied using one of the many methods
available. Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of powders,
crushed frits (glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile surface.
After firing, the glaze particles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.
67
Firing
.
7 After glazing, the tile must be heated in a kiln intensely to strengthen it .
8 After firing and testing, the tile is ready to be packed and shipped.
Fixing of Floor Tiles:
First a layer of mortar is spread to a thickness of 25-mm. Then apply cement slurry to
the bottom and sides of the tile. The tile is then pressed in position by hitting with a
mallet. Then the following day the joints are cleaned of loose mortar, raked up to a
depth of 5 mm and then filled up with coloured cement slurry.
Tests of Tiles
Bureau of Indian Standards recommends the following tests to determine the quality of ceramic
tiles (ISO 10545-1: 1995) Dimensions and surface quality, water absorption, modulus of rupture,
impact resistance, abrasion and chemical resistance.
68
Points to Ponder
The types of tiles are - Floor tiles, Roof Tiles, Wall tiles and Drain tiles
The steps of manufacturing bricks are - batching, mixing, grinding, spray-drying, forming,
drying, glazing, and firing.
Bureau of Indian Standards recommends the following tests to determine the quality of
ceramic tiles (ISO 10545-1: 1995): Dimensions and surface quality, water absorption,
modulus of rupture, impact resistance, abrasion and chemical resistance.
Model Questions
1. What is a tile?
2. What for tiles are used?
3. What are the points to be taken into consideration while selecting tiles?
4. What are the steps of manufacturing tiles?
5. What are the tests to be conducted to determine the quality of tiles?
69
10.CEMENT
One material which has completely revolutionized the construction industry is cement. It was in
1824, a mason of England by name Joseph Aspidin developed cement by burning at high
temperature a mixture of lime and clay and then grinding it into fine powder. This is known as
Ordinary Portland Cement.
Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement
Ingredient
Average (%)
Lime
62
Silica
22
Alumina
Calcium Sulphate
Iron oxide
Magnesia
Alkalies
Sulphur
Manufacture of Cement
There are three operations in the manufacture of cement:
1. Mixing of raw materials
2.Burning
3.Grinding
1. Mixing of raw materials: There are two processes for mixing raw materials1. Dry Process 2. Wet Process
70
Dry Process
The raw materials lime stone and clay - are air dried and then separately ground into fine
powder in ball mills and stored in silos or hoppers.. They are then mixed in correct proportions.
Wet Process
The raw materials are crushed separately and are stored in silos. They are then drawn from
silos into the wet grinding mills. Water is added and ground to a fine paste (slurry).
71
Wet Process
Burning
The slurry or the dry mixture is then burnt in a rotary kiln. The rotary kiln consists of a
steel tube of diameter of 250-300 cm and of length 60 m to 120m. The kiln rotates about
its axis at the rate of one revolution per minute. The slurry is injected at the upper end of
the kiln. Hot air is pumped from the lower end. As the dried slurry comes down to the
burning zone, it is converted into small lumps which are then converted into clinkers.
Rotary Kiln
72
3. Grinding: The grinding of the clinkers is done in ball mills or tube mills. During grinding 2
to 4 % gypsum is added to control the initial setting time of cement. The finely ground
cement is stored in silos, packed in bags and then transported to the market.
Properties of Portland Cement and Tests for its Determination
The properties can be classified in three categories: Chemical Composition, Physical
Properties, Mechanical Properties
Chemical Composition:
The quality of cement depends on the ratio of the major components like lime, alumina,
silica and iron oxide. As per IS 269 (1973), the recommended compositions are:
-The ratio of percentage of lime to percentage of silica, alumina and iron oxide
shall not be more than 1 and shall not be less than 0.66.
-Weight of insoluble residue shall not exceed 1.5%
- Weight of magnesia shall not be greater than 5%
Physical Properties:
Fineness: Finer cement particles impart better quality. It is determined by sieve test or specific
surface test.
Soundness: It is the capacity of cement to form a hard and strong mass on setting. It is
determined by the Le Chatelier test.
Setting of cement: When water is added to cement it forms a thick paste. Gradually as time
passes, it transforms into a non-plastic rigid mass. The setting time is influenced by the amount
of water added to the cement, the temperature at which the cement paste is allowed to set and
the humidity of the atmosphere. The setting of cement is identified in two stages, initial setting
and final setting. The setting time is determined in the laboratory by Vicat Needle Apparatus As
per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), for ordinary cement , the initial setting time shall not be
less than 30 minutes and the final setting time should not be more than 10 hours.
73
Mechanical Properties:
Compressive strength: Cement mortar cubes of size 7.06 cm are made out of mortar of 1: 3
composition ( 1 part of cement to 3 parts of sand) and tested in a Universal compressive testing
machine. Normally the tests are done after 3, 7 and 28 days.
Tensile strength: Test pieces (briquettes) are made out of cement sand mortar 1: 3 and tested in
a standard tensile testing machine after 3, 7 and 28 days.
Compressive and Tensile strength as per BIS
Ordinary Portland Cement
Period
Strength
3 days
Compressive
Tensile
Compressive
Tensile
7 days
74
Grades of Cement
Cement is graded according to its compressive strength. Cement mortar of 1: 3 proportion is
made and then cubes of surface area 50 sq cm is made and then tested after 28 days.
Cement type
75
Grade 33
33
Grade 43
43
Grade 53
53
Points to Ponder
Model questions
76
11.AGGREGATES
Sand
Sand is a natural aggregate obtained by disintegration of rock. Sand is required for making
cement mortar and cement concrete. They range in size from 2 mm to 0.075 mm.
Types of sand:
Natural Sand
Sands are of three types based on the mode of origin, composition and grain size.
- According to mode of origin:
River sand, Pit sand, Sea sand
-According to size of grains
Fine sand, Coarse sand, Gravelly sand
-According to shape of grains
Angular, Rounded, Flaky
Artificial sand (M sand)
Due to extensive use of natural sand for construction works, it has become short in supply. This
has necessitated the search of alternate sources. Some such alternate sands are: surkhi ( finely
ground burnt bricks),coal ash and stone screenings (M sand).
Grading of sand:
A group of sand may contain particles of different sizes. Determination of the proportions of
various sizes is known as grading. This is done by sieve analysis. Proper grading of aggregates
helps in producing dense concrete. Also, it helps in improving workability, strength, economy
and durability. The smaller size particles fill the gap (voids) of larger particles.
77
Fineness Modulus:
This is an index which gives an idea of the fineness or coarseness of the particles. Higher value
of fineness modulus indicates higher coarseness of particles. The fineness modulus is
determined by sieve analysis. In this, a known quantity of sand is passed through a set of
sieves ( 80 mm to 150 microns) The weight of sand retained on each sieve is noted. Their
percentages and cumulative percentages are then calculated.
Fineness modulus = (Sum of cumulative percentages retained on sieves) / 100
Based on fineness modulus, sands are classified as
Type
Fineness Modulus
Fine sand
2.2 to 2.6
Medium sand
2.6 to 2.9
Coarse sand
2.9 to 3.2
Bulking of sand:
The increase in the volume of sand due to surface moisture is called bulking . The increase in
volume may range from 20 % to 40% when moisture content is 5 to 10 %.
78
79
Points to Ponder
Model Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
80
Crushed stone and natural gravel are the materials generally used as coarse aggregates.
For
Characteristics:
The main characteristics of broken stones that are taken into considered are:
Strength, Shape, Size, Grading, Porosity, Abrasion resistance, Durability, Soundness:
Strength: Strong aggregates are essential for obtaining strong concrete.
Surface texture: It affects the bond to the cement paste and also influences the quantity of
water to be added to the mix.
Grading: It is the particle size distribution of particles as determined by the sieve analysis. The
grading of aggregate must be so that the workability and density of concrete are not
adversely affected .Grading is determined in the laboratory by the fineness modulus test.
81
Porosity (Permeability): It may affect the bond between the aggregates and the cement paste.
Organic Impurities: It may interfere with the setting and hardening of concrete.
Soundness: It is the ability of aggregates to resist volume change to environmental effects like
temperature change and alternate wetting & drying.
Abrasion resistance It is also known as resistance to wear. It is of importance when concrete
is used for road construction and factory floor works Its vale is determined in the laboratory by
Los Angeles test.
Aggregate size: Larger the size of aggregates, smaller the surface area to be wetted. This
reduces the requirement of water. So for the same workability and cement content, higher
strength can be obtained.
82
Collect the sample passing through 12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve. Dry the
sample by keeping it in oven at 105-110 degree centigrade; cool the material. Find the weight of
the test specimen and then put in the test cylinder. (A). Apply the test load.(40 t).Remove the
load, pass the test sample through IS 2.36 mm sieve Find the weight of aggregate particles
passed through sieve.(B).
Crushing value = (B/A) x 100
83
Collect the sample passing through 12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve. Dry the
sample by keeping it in oven at 105-110 degree centigrade; cool the material. Fill the cup of the
test machine and find the weight (A). Compact it with a tamping rod. Drop the hammer from the
specified height on the specimen. Repeat the test by dropping the hammer 15 times. Remove
the sample, sieve it through 2.36 mm IS sieve and find the weight of the passed sample (B).
Aggregate Impact value = (B / A) x 100
Grading of Aggregates
Grading refers to the particle-size distribution of aggregate. Grading limits and maximum
aggregate size affect the amount of aggregate, cement and water as well as workability and
durability of concrete. In general, if the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in
grading can be used without a major effect on strength.
84
Points to Ponder
The main characteristics of broken stones are: Strength, Shape, Size, Grading, Porosity,
, Durability, Soundness
The recommended main tests on aggregates are - Los-Angeles Abrasion Test,
Aggregate Crushing strength test, Aggregate Impact value test
Grading refers to the particle size distribution of aggregates
Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete
Model Questions
1.How is broken stones obtained?
2. What are the main charactarestics of good broken stones?
3. What are the tests conducted on broken stones?
4. What is fineness modulus?
5. What is Los - Angeles test?
6. What is grading of aggregates?
7. What are the effects of shape and size of aggregates?
85
Cement mortar is a compound made by mixing cement and fine aggregate (sand) with a
specified quantity water. The mortar can be used for jointing of bricks and stone blocks,
plastering over brick / stone masonry, flooring etc..
Grades of Cement Mortar
Masonry mortars are specified as different grades depending upon their minimum compressive
strength, when tested on 28th day. Different grades of cement mortar and their mix proportions
are given below.
Mortar Mix (by Loose Volume)
Grade Name
Compressive
Strength on 28th
Cement
Sand
MM 0.7
0.7 to 1.5
MM 1.5
1.5 to 2.0
MM 3
3.0 to 5.0
MM 5
5.0 to 7.5
MM 7.5
Above 7.5
86
87
the
Types of mortar
Based on bulk density
Heavy mortar: Bulk density should be greater than 15 kN / m^3
Light mortar: Bulk density < 15 kN / m^3
Based on binding material
Mud mortar, Lime mortar, Cement mortar, Gypsum mortar
Special mortar
Light weight mortar, Fire resistant mortar, Sound absorbing mortar
Uses of Mortar
- Mortar is used to join bricks and stone blocks.
- For plastering of walls
- For pointing of brick and stone blocks in walls
- To fill cracks in the structure
- For flooring of rooms
Crushing strength
Adhesiveness
Tensile strength
Setting time
Points to Ponder
Model Questions
1. What is cement mortar?
2. What are the uses of cement mortar?
3.
89
Cement concrete
From a small house to a muti-storey building, dams, bridges like that for almost all structures,
concrete is a must for its construction. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, broken stone and
water. The paste, composed of portland cement and water, coats the surface of the fine and
coarse aggregates. Through a chemical reaction called hydration, the mix hardens and gains
strength to form a rock-like mass known as concrete. The concrete: is plastic when newly
mixed but strong and durable when hardened..Concretes durability, strength and relatively low
cost make it the backbone of buildings and all other infrastructure works.
Grades of Concrete
As per IS 456-2000, concrete is graded according to the compressive strength of nominal test
cubes. The grade is specified by M15, M20. like that where M stands for the mix and the suffix
number 15, 20 etc specifies the compressive strength of 15 cm size concrete cubes tested
under a compressive load after 28 days of casting. The compressive strength is specified in N /
sq. mm.
Grades of Concrete and their uses
Grade
Proportion
M5
1:5:10
M10
1:3:6
M15
1:2:4
M20
1:1.5:3
M25
1:1:2
90
Uses
M35
Design Mix
Proportioning of Concrete
This is the process of selecting the quantities of cement, sand, broken stone and water so as to
obtain a concrete of required strength, durability and workability.
The proportioning is done in two ways:
-
Nominal mix
Design mix
Nominal Mix
In this type of mix, all the ingredients are specified and their proportions are quantified. It is
generally used for relatively unimportant and simpler concrete works. Nominal mix concrete may
be used for concrete of M-20 or lower.
Design Mix
It is a performance based mix where choice of ingredients and proportioning are decided by the
engineer. The user has to specify only the requirements of concrete in fresh as well as
hardened state. The requirements in fresh concrete are workability and finishing characteristics,
whereas in hardened concrete these are mainly the compressive strength and durability. Trial
mixes are to be made and then tested in the laboratory.
Manufacture of concrete
The manufacture of concrete involves the following steps - Batching, Mixing, Transporting,
Laying (Placing), Compacting and Curing.
Batching: In this, the different materials- cement, sand, broken stone, water - are measured and
kept separately. Batching is by: a) volume batching b) Weight batching
Mixing: The mixing of raw materials can be done manually or mechanically.
Manual mixing91
Add water and mix again with a shovel till a uniform mixture is obtained
In machine mixing, a mixer is used for the process. This is adopted for bigger works and is
more efficient.
Transporting: The mixed concrete is to be transported to the work site from the mixing plant.
For smaller quantities, this can be done as head load in iron pans. Wheel barrows and hand
crafts are used for relatively large works, while belt conveyors are employed for very large
works.
Placing (Laying): Before placing the concrete, the form work should be cleaned and oiled.
Care should be taken to see that the concrete is not dropped from a height as otherwise
separation may take place. The concrete must be placed in proper layers.
Compacting: The laid concrete has to be compacted to remove the entrapped air. If air gets
entrapped, it will reduce the strength. Compaction can be done by hand or by vibrators.
Curing: The freshly laid concrete has to be kept wet for a brief period to obtain the required
strength. This process is called curing. Normally it is done for 14 days. Curing is done by
different methods like spraying of water, keeping wet gunning bags over the surface or by
applying curing compounds.
Properties of Cement concrete
- Concrete has high compressive strength; but weak intension
- It binds with steel and therefore steel is used to reinforce concrete
- It forms a hard surface on setting
- There is no appreciable effect of weather on concrete surface
- Due to loss of water, concrete may have shrinkage
- Concrete hardens with age
92
Bleeding of concrete:
When there is excess of quantity of water in the mix, water along with cement particles will rise
to the top surface of freshly laid concrete. This is called bleeding. This can be due to excess
compaction also. Bleeding causes formation of pores in the concrete making it weak.
Workability of concrete
Workability is defined as he relative ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported, placed
and compacted in position.
Factors affecting workability:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
93
Slump test:
The test is carried out using a mould as shown the figure below. The cone is placed on a hard nonabsorbent surface. This cone is then filled with fresh concrete in three layers. Each layer is tamped
using a rod of standard dimensions. At the end of the third stage, concrete is struck off flush to the
top of the mould. The mould is then carefully lifted vertically upwards. This subsidence is termed as
slump and is measured in mm.
Recommended slumps for various works are:
Normal RCC work
80 to 150 mm
Mass Concrete
25 to 50 mm
Procedure
94
Place the concrete sample in the upper hopper to its top edge and level it.
Open the trap door at the bottom of the upper hopper. The concrete will fall in to the
lower hopper
Open the trap door of the lower hopper and allow the concrete to fall in to the cylinder
below
Remove the surplus concrete above the top level of cylinder and level it.
Weigh the cylinder with concrete. This weight is known as the weight of partially
compacted concrete (w1).
- Empty the cylinder and then refill it with the same concrete mix in layers; compact each
layer and then level the surface.
- Weigh the cylinder with fully compacted concrete. This weight is known as the weight of
fully compacted concrete (w2).
- Find the weight of empty cylinder (w).
Compaction Factor = (w1- w2) / (w2-w)
Segregation
When concrete is dropped from a slightly more height, separation of coarser particles take
place. This is known as segregation. Segregation causes reduction of strength. Segregation
can be reduced by Reducing the quantity of water and by Restricting the height of pouring
concrete.
Harshness
Harshness is defined to the resistance offered by freshly laid concrete to surface finishing. This
can be due to insufficient quantity of water, lesser quantity of cement and use of poorly graded
aggregates.
95
Advantages of Concrete
Refer to para above- Properties of concrete
Disadvantages of Concrete
- Plain cement concrete is weak in tension
- Self weight of concrete is relatively high
Admixtures
Certain materials are added to the concrete to improve its properties. These are called
admixtures.
Accelerators: Some times it will be necessary to have the strength of concrete developed
quickly. For this, certain chemicals are added. Calcium chloride, aluminium chloride, sodium
carbonate etc are some of the chemicals added as accelerators. It has been found that the
addition of these chemicals reduce the strength of the concrete. As such its use must be closely
watched.
Retarders: These are added to get time in setting and hardening. In certain cases, concrete will
be made at one place and the same will have to be transported to another place. This may take
more time. In these cases, retarders are added to delay the setting of concrete. Gypsum is a
good retarder.
Plasticizers: These are added to the concrete to make it more plastic without further addition of
water. As such, the quantity of water required is less.
Air entraining agents: If the concrete contains some air in it in the form of air bubbles, its
durability and frost resistance can get improved. The compounds used for this purpose are
resins, aluminium and zinc powders.
96
Types of Concrete
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC): Ordinary concrete has not got the capacity to with
stand tensile stresses. As such, steel bars are introduced in the concrete to take up the tensile
stresses. Such concrete is called Reinforced Cement Concrete. The diameter of the bars, and
the number of bars will depend on the load the member is subjected to. In a building, beams,
slabs, columns, lintels etc are subjected to both compressive and tensile stresses and therefore
these are made of RCC..
Pre stressed Cement Concrete (PSC) In this, pre stressing is done by pulling the steel
wires. This will introduce compressive stresses in the concrete section enabling to take more
tensile stresses. With this system, thin sections carry more load. It is used for construction of
bridge girders poles, railway sleepers, pipes etc.
Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC): Ordinarily concrete is manufactured at the worksite itself.
But in case of ready mixed concrete (premix concrete), the concrete is prepared at a central
mixing plant. This ensures better quality control and also work can be done at a faster rate. At
certain locations there may not enough space at the work site to set up the plant. There, getting
concrete from a central plant will be more ideal.
Cellular Concrete:
Cellular Concrete is lightweight portland cement concrete containing a high percentage of gas
cells created by the addition of foaming agents. The density of this concrete may range from
320 to 1900 kg/m3 . This low density is due to the uniformly distributed non-contiguous air cells.
This also gives high workability and thermal conductivity. This concrete is generally used
where reduction of load is required.
98
Points to Ponder
Concrete is graded as M5, M10 etc where 5 and 10 are the strength of concrete
cubes (N / sq mm) after 28 days.
Curing is the process of keeping freshly laid concrete under wet conditions.
Form work is a temporary support so that the concrete can be laid over it.
Concrete is used for making Floors, Foundation bottom layer, Plastering of walls
and RCC.
There are different types of concrete like Light weight concrete, Fibre
reinforced concrete, Reinforced Cement concrete, Pre-stressed concrete, Rapid
hardening cement, Cellular concrete etc
Water cement ratio is the amount water to be added to the cement to obtain
concrete of good workability and strength.
Certain chemicals are added to the concrete to improve its properties. These are
called admixtures.
99
Model Questions
1. What is cement concrete?
2.
100
Iron ores are extracted from earth through mining. This is then melted in a blast furnace and pig
iron is generated. The pig iron is then remelted, impurities are removed and cast iron and
wrought iron are obtained. Cast iron may contain 2 to 4% carbon while wrought iron may
contain 0.15%.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with small percentage of sulphur and phosphorus. The main
physical properties of steel are strength, elasticity and ductility. These properties are influenced
by the amount of carbon and the heat treatment.
Pig Iron: It is the basic form of iron. It is impure and raw. After further processing, cast iron,
wrought iron and steel are made.
Manufacture: The stages of manufacture are Selection of Ore, Dressing of ore, Calcination,
Roasting and Smelting
Selection of ore: Natural sources from which iron can be extracted are called iron ores.
Common iron ores are: Haematite, Siderite, Magnetite
Dressing of ore: The ore as it is extracted from the ground contains lot of impurities and also it is
in large lumps. The process of breaking the lumps and removing the impurities is called
dressing.
Processing of ore: This is done in a blast furnace. Hot air is created and blast into the furnace
from bottom. The charge consisting of coke, ore and lime stone is introduced from the top. The
molten iron and impurities (slag) is collected at the bottom of the furnace and removed from
there.
Cast Iron: Cast iron is essentially remelted pig iron. It contains about 2- 4% carbon and small
proportions of manganese, silicon and sulphur. The remelting is done in cupola furnace which is
similar to blast furnace but smaller in size. The raw materials pig iron, steel scrap, coke and
lime stone are introduced at the top to previously heated cupola furnace. Air is continuously
pushed inside. Impurities get oxidized and the slag formed floats on the surface.
101
The properties of cast iron are influenced by the amount of carbon and nature in which carbon
is present.
Properties of Cast Iron:
-Hard and brittle; Not ductile; Does not rust; Specific gravity 7.5; Shrinks on cooling; Weak in
tension
Uses of cast Iron
For making columns, Pipes, Sewers, Man hole covers, Parts of machineries
Wrought Iron
It is the purest form of iron. Pig iron is heated in Puddling furnace. It is a small form of
reverbaratory furnace. The charge is heated to 1200 degree centigrade. The impurities form a
slag on the top surface which will be removed. Wrought iron is collected at the bottom.
Properties of wrought iron
High tensile strength, Malleable, Ductile and tough, Density 7.8 g /cubic cm.
Uses of Wrought Iron
For making plates, sheets, pipes, tubes, railway couplings
Steel
Steel is a variety of iron containing 0.1 to 1.5 % carbon . It is manufactured by three processes Bessemer process, Open hearth process and Electric process.
Types Steel
Percentage of carbon
1. Mild steel
0.25%
0.25% to 0.60%
0.60% to 1.50%
102
Heat treatment
The process of heating the metal to high temperature and then cooling to room temperature is
called heat treatment. The main heat treatment processes are Annealing, Normalising,
Quenching and Tempering. This is done to improve the properties of steel.
103
104
Points to Ponder
* Metals are classified under two categories - Ferrous metals and Non-ferrous metals
* Cast iron, Steel etc are ferrous metals
* Aluminium and its alloys come under non - ferrous metals
*Pig iron is the basic form of iron. It is manufactured in three stages Selection of ore,
Dressing of ore, Blast furnace treatment.
* The main iron ores are Haematite, Magnetite, Siderite
* The iron ores are extracted from earth (mines)
* The process of removal of impurities and the reduction in size is called dressing.
*The charge consisting of ore, coke and lime stone is introduced at the top of furnace, and
heated air is blast from the bottom.
105
The molten iron and impurities are collected from the bottom.
Cast iron is remelted pig iron. The remelting is done in cupola furnace.
The raw materials are pig iron, steel scraps, fuel and fluxes.
Cast iron is used in Agricultural machinery, Railway equipments ,Automobile
parts
Wrought iron is the purest form of iron. There are two forms of manufacture of
Wrought iron Puddling process and Aston process
The important properties of Wrought iron are Strength, ductility, malleability
and toughness
It is used for making plates, sheets, pipes, tubes etc
Steel is a type of iron containing 0.1 to 1.5 % carbon
Steel is manufactured by Bessemer process, Open hearth process and Electric
process
Plain carbon steel is divided into three categories Low carbon steel, Medium
carbon steel and High carbon steel.
The process of heating the metal to high temperature and then cooling to room
temperature is called heat treatment.
The main heat treatment processes are Annealing, Normalising, Quenching
and tempering.
Model Questions
106
15.
As mentioned earlier, plain cement concrete is weak in tension but strong in compression. A
structural member is normally subjected to both compression and tension. Therefore steel bars
are embedded in concrete to take up the tensile stresses. The diameter of the bars and number
of bars will depend on the span of the member and the loads subjected to it. Such a concrete is
called reinforced cement concrete.
Advantages of RCC
The advantages of RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) are.
1. Reinforced Cement Concrete can withstand both compressive stress and tensile stress .
2. It has good fire resistance and weather resistance.
3. RCC protects steel bars from buckling and twisting at high temperature.
4. RCC prevents steel from rusting.
5. RCC is durable.
6. Maintenance cost of RCC is practically nil.
Disadvantages of RCC
1. The structure of RCC is comparatively heavier
2. It takes more time to construct a member with RCC as it involves form work,
mixing of cement, aggregates and water, transporting, placing, compacting and curing
107
Reinforcement Details
The figure shows the arrangement of steel bars in a RCC beam. The tensile reinforcement bars
are provided at the bottom, the anchor bar is provided at the top. The stirrups bind the bars.
The diameter and the number of bars will depend on the span and the load to be carried.
108
109
Points to Ponder
Cement concrete in which steel bars are embedded is called reinforced cement
concrete.(RCC).
Ordinary cement concrete cant take tensile stresses.
It has got good fire resistance and weather resistance.
Now a days all structural members like beams, slabs, columns, lintels etc are
manufactured with RCC.
RCC members are quite heavy, it takes more time to construct and it requires
form work.
Model questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
110
What is RCC?
What are the advantages of RCC?
What are the precautions to be taken in RCC works?
What is ferro cement concrete?
What is pre stressed concrete?
Where pre stressed concrete is used?
What is fibre reinforced concrete?
16.Timber
Timber is wood for engineering purposes. Timber is one such building material which is being
used from time immemorial to construct huts, buildings and make furniture, boats etc. But
recently due to paucity of timber coupled with its high cost, its use has been drastically
reduced. Large scale felling of trees leads to environmental problems. As such, its use is being
discouraged while recommending alternate materials to timber.
Classification of trees: For engineering purposes, trees are classified according to their mode
of growth:
.a) Endogenous b) Exogenous
a). Endogenous trees: These type of trees is largely confined to tropical semitropical regions.
Timber from these trees has very limited engineering applications. Example of endogenous
tress is: - Palm, Bamboo.
b). Exogenous trees: These trees grow outwards and annual rings are formed in the horizontal
section of such a tree. Exogenous trees are further subdivided into Conifer (evergreen) trees
and Deciduous trees. Conifer trees have pointed leaves and their leaves fall when new ones
are grown up. Deciduous trees have broad leaves. e g : Teak, Mahogany
Classification of Wood
Wood can be divided into two groups: a) Hard wood: Teak b). Soft wood: Deodar
The classification is based on: Strength (strong, weak), Colour (dark, light), Fire resistance
(moderate, poor), Medullary rays (distinct, less distinct), Weight (heavy, light).
111
Pith (Medulla): It is the inner most part of a tree. When the tree becomes old, the pith
disappears and becomes fibrous and dark. It varies in size and shape.
Heart Wood: This is the portion surrounding pith. It is dark in colour and strong. This portion is
useful for various engineering purposes. It consists of several annular rings.
Sap Wood: It is the layer next to heart wood. It denotes recent growth and contains sap. As the
trees grow, sap moves in upward direction.
Cambium Layer: It is a thin layer of fresh sap lying between sap wood and the inner bark. It
contains sap which is not yet converted into sap wood. If the bark is removed and cambium
layer is exposed to atmosphere, cells cease to be active and tree gets extinct..
Inner Bark: It is an inner skin of tree protecting the cambium layer.
Outer Bark: It is the outer skin of the tree and consists of wood fibres.
Medullary Rays: These are thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer. They hold
annular rings together. In some of trees they are broken and some other they may not be so
prominent.
112
Properties of Timber
Strength: Timber should have high strength in bending, shear and direct compression.
Fire resistance: A good timber should have high resistance to fire.
Hardness: Harder timbers are strong and durable.
Warping: Good timber should not warp under changes in environmental conditions.
Toughness: Timber should be capable of resisting shocks.
Density: Higher density indicates stronger timber.
Workability: Timber should be easily workable.
Durability: Good timber should be capable of resisting the attack of fungi and insects
Defects: Good timber should be free from defects like dead knots, shakes
Colour: It should be uniform.
Odour: When freshly cut, the odour should be pleasant
Soundness: When struck, it should give a clear ringing sound
Texture: Texture of good timber is fine and even.
Abrasion: Good timber should not deteriorate due to wear. This property is of importance when
it is used for flooring.
Permeability: Good timber should have low water permeability.
113
Seasoning of Timber
Fresh timber may contain moisture. The process of removal of moisture from wood is called
drying of wood or seasoning of wood. This reduces the chances of decay, improves load
bearing properties, reduces weight, makes the timber workable, and improves thermal &
electrical insulation properties.
Methods of Seasoning
-Natural seasoning
-Artificial seasoning
Natural Seasoning
Air Seasoning
Air seasoning is the traditional method for drying wood. Air seasoning , takes about nine to ten
months. For this, logs of wood are stacked in open air in such a manner that air can circulate all
around the timbers. The timber pieces should be kept away from vegetation and damp ground.
The stack should be properly covered.
Water seasoning
In this method, the cut pieces of wood are kept in the running water of a river for about two to
four weeks. The sap will be washed away during this period. The cut pieces are then taken out
of water and allowed to dry in air.
Natural seasoning is simple, cheap and does not require skilled supervision. But the drying of
different surfaces may not be uniform and also the space required for stacking is quite large.
Artificial seasoning
The artificial methods of seasoning are: Boiling, Chemical seasoning, Kiln seasoning and
Electrical seasoning.
Seasoning by boiling: The timber is kept immersed in water in a vessel. The water is heated to
boiling temperature. It is kept boiling for four to five hours. The timber is then taken out of water
allowed to dry in air.
Chemical seasoning: The timber pieces are quoted with a chemical solution like sodium
chloride, sodium nitrate or urea. Then the timber is exposed to natural drying.
114
Kiln seasoning: The timber pieces are dried in specially designed kiln. Here there is perfect
control over temperature, humidity and circulation of air. The process is comparatively costly but
the quality of seasoning is quite high.
Electrical seasoning: .High alternating current is passed through green timber pieces. The heat
generated dries out the moisture. This technique is costly as costly equipments are to be
installed and also the consumption of electricity is high.
Comparison of Natural Seasoning and Artificial Seasoning
In natural seasoning, it is difficult to control moisture content, while in artificial seasoning the
moisture can be reduced to any extent.
Natural seasoning is simple and economical while artificial seasoning is comparatively costlier.
Natural seasoning is a slow process while artificial seasoning is fast.
Natural seasoning requires more space while for artificial seasoning the requirement of space is
less.
Defects in timber
The defects which are likely to occur in timber are due to:
(i) Natural forces
(ii) Defective seasoning
(iii) Conversion
(iv) Attack of insects and fungi
The natural forces cause the following defects. Knots, Shakes, Wind cracks, Upsets
a) Knots: When branches are cut off or broken from the tree, knots are formed. Knots are dark
and hard spots. Grains are distorted in this portion. Figure below shows some varieties of knots.
If the knot is intact with surrounding wood, it is called live knot. If it is not held firmly it is dead
(decayed) knot.
115
b) Shakes: The shakes are cracks in the timber which are caused due to excessive heat,
frost or twisting due to wind during the growth of a tree. Depending upon the shape and the
positions shakes, are classified as star shake, cup shake, ring shakes and heart shakes.
c) Wind Cracks: These are the cracks on the outside of a log due to the shrinkage of the
exterior surface. They appear as shown in Fig. below.
.
(d)
Upsets: Figure shows a typical upset in a timber. This defect is due to high compression in
the tree when it was young. Upset is an injury by crushing. This is also known as rupture.
116
(ii)
Defects due to Defective Seasoning: If seasoning is not uniform, the converted timber may
warp and twist in different directions and even cracks may appear. This type of defect is more
common
in
case
of
kiln
seasoning.
(iii) Defects due to Conversion
During conversion of timber to commercial sizes and shapes, the following defects are likely to
occur: chip marks, torn grain, diagonal grain etc.
(iv) Defects due to Fungi and Insects Attack: Fungi are very complex multi cellular
organisms. These attack wood when the moisture content is above 20%.. Wood becomes weak
and
stains
appear
on
it.
Beetles, marine borers and termites (white ants) are the insects which eat wood and weaken
the timber.
Rosewood: It is strong, hard, durable and costly. It is used for furniture and ornamental
carvings.
Sal: Sal is hard and close-grained. It is of dark brown colour. It is durable and can resist
termites attack. It is used in building construction, bridge construction and ship building. It is
found in U P Bihar and Assam.
Tamarind: It is durable, dark brown coloured. It is used for form work in concrete construction.
Preservation of Timber
The purpose of applying preservatives on the surface is to protect the timber from the attack of
insects and fungi and thus prolong the life of the components / systems made of timber.
The different methods of preservation are:
Painting, Tarring, Creosoting, Application of ASCU powder developed by Forest Research
Institute of India.
Furniture
Form work
Packing case
Mango
Railway sleepers
Teak, Irul
118
Fibre boards: These are made by pressing together fibrous materials which are first heated and
pressed hard. On cooling, a rigid material of light density is obtained. These are used for flush
doors, wall panels, insulation boards etc.
Points to Ponder
119
The cross section of a tree shows the following components Bark, cambium
layer, sap wood, annual rings, heart wood, medullary rays, pith.
The factors to be taken into account before felling a tree are age of tree, time /
season of felling, method of felling.
Conversion is the process of cutting and sawing the wood for planks, battens etc.
Seasoning is the process of removing moisture from freshly cut timber.
A defect is an irregularity or abnormality in or on the wood which may lower its
strength, durability or utility.
Timber is said to be decayed if it loses its value as an engineering material.
Preservation of timber is done to protect it from attack of insects, fungi etc.
The common tests conducted on timber are to ascertain compressive strength,
moisture content, specific gravity, shrinkage and swelling
Model questions
1 What are the different types of trees?
2. Draw the cross section of a trunk of a tree and mark the parts?
3. What is seasoning? What are the different methods of seasoning?
4. What are the defects found in timber?
5. Suggest suitable types of timber for: Furniture, Door and Window frames and panels, Railway
sleepers, Packing cases
6. What is seasoning of wood?
7.What are the special timber products?
8. What are the common Indian timbers?
9. What is conversion of wood?
10. What are the main properties of wood?
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Building construction
121
There are many factors which must be taken in to account while selecting a site for a commercial,
industrial l or a residential building. Some of these factors are given below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A. Residential Building
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4. Availability of Amenities:
Plot for a residential building should be taken in the area provided with amenities like electricity,
telephone, Internet, Gas, School, Colleges, University, Hospital etc Another important facility is the
good and fast transport system..
5. Availability of Water:
The water should be available from wells in the vicinity or other wise it must be available through
pipes provided by local government agencies.
6.Orientation of the site: Orientation of the site has some bearing on its selection. Site should
be such that early morning sun and late evening sun is available in the building.
7. Good Landscape: The site should have a good landscape to promote a peaceful and serene
environment.
8. Good surroundings: For a happy and comfortable living, the residents in the neighbourhod
should be of almost equal status.
B. Industrial Building
1. The factory site should be away from residential locality.
2. There must be space for future expansion
3. Raw materials should be available in the neighbor hoods.
4. It is preferable that the site is on an elevated plot so that the rain water will not get stagnated.
5. The site should be well connected by road, rail and air.
6. Electric power is readily available.
7. There must be facility for treatment of the effluent before discharging out.
8. Availability of local trained labour
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C. Educational Building:
1. The site should be away from the main city centre
2. The site should be well connected by road
3. The surroundings should be neat and clean with out noise pollution
4. Drinking water should be available through out the year
5. It is preferable that the building site is slightly elevated so that water will not get stagnated
6. Natural light is available
7. There must space for play ground as well as for future expansion.
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4. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked by thread with pegs
at appropriate positions.
5. The excavation width is then marked with lime or with furrow by spade.
See the video clip for setting out a building-Part 1,2,3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lyb20DhmT90
For detailed information about setting out visit the site:
http://www.tcd.ie/civileng/Staff/Brian.Caulfield/3A1/3A1%20Lecture%2011.pdf
126
Stone masonry refers to the construction of various structures like buildings, compound walls,
retaining walls etc using blocks of stone joined together with mortar.
Materials for stone masonry
The materials required for stone masonry are: Mortar, Stones
Mortar: Mortar consists of binding material and sand in specified proportions. The binding
material may be mud, lime or cement. Generally cement sand mortar (1: 3) is used for stone
masonry.
Stones for the Masonry
Granite: It is of igneous rock, strong and durable. It is available in Kerala, Karnataka, Kashmir,
UP, MP, Punjab, Assam etc.
Sandstone: It is of sedimentary rock. It is easy to work and sufficiently strong. These stones are
available in almost all states of India.
Marble: This is of metamorphic rock. They are available in different colours and are available in
Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Laterite: This is found in coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and West Bengal.
When freshly cut, they will be soft but in due course hardens on exposure to atmosphere. They
are porous and as such they must be plastered with cement mortar to protect it from rain.
Limestone This is of calcareous rock. It is available in different colours and is easy to work. It is
available in almost all states. It easily gets disfigured in acidic atmosphere.
Dressing of Stones
After quarrying, the stones are to be cut to proper size and surface finishing done. This process
is known as dressing. This may be done at the quarry site or construction site.
Types of stone masonry:
Stone masonry is of two types: 1. Rubble Masonry 2.Ashlar Masonry.
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The masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed stones are used is called random
rubble masonry. Random rubble masonry is divided into the following types:
Rubble Masonry
Un coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid
without forming courses is known as un coursed random rubble masonry. This is the roughest
and cheapest type of masonry and is of varying appearance. The stones used in this masonry
are of different sizes and shapes. Before laying, all corners of stones are slightly knocked off.
Joints are filled with mortar and flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to
increase their strength. Through stone is used for every square meter of the face area for joining
faces and backing.
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Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of ordinary buildings.
Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid in
layers of equal height is called coursed random rubble masonry. In this masonry, the stones are
laid in somewhat level courses. Headers of one coursed height are placed at certain intervals.
The stones are hammer dressed.
Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, godowns, boundary walls etc.
Square Rubble Masonry : In this type of masonry, stones are given straight bed and sides by
hammer dressing.
Polygonal Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, stones are arranged in such a manner to
give a polygonal shape. The stones are hammer dressed.
Flint Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry flints of varying thickness and length are used.
The thickness may range from 50 mm to 75 mm and length from 150 mm to 300 mm.
Dry Rubble Masonry: In this rubble masonry stones are laid without using any mortar. It is an
ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m.
(compound walls)
Dry Rubble
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Ashlar Masonry
In Ashlar masonry, finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar. The courses are of
uniform height, all the joints are regular, and have uniform thickness. Since the stones are to be
properly dressed, it takes time and as such is this type of masonry is more costly. This masonry
is mainly used for architectural buildings, abutments of bridges etc.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
- Ashlar fine tooled masonry: In this type of stone masonry, stone blocks of same height in
each course are used. Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is uniform
through out. It is an expensive type of stone masonry as it requires more skilled labour
Wastage of material while dressing is also more.
- Random coursed ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed
ashlar. The courses are of different thicknesses, depending upon the type of the building.
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Coursed Ashlar
- Rough tooled ashlar masonry: In this type of ashlar masonry the sides of the stones are
rough tooled and dressed with chisels. Thickness of joints is uniform.
- Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled
type but the margin is left rough on the face.
- Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced. But the edges are bevelled or
chamfered.
Chamfered Ashlar
- Block-in course masonry: It is a type of ashlar masonry which is in-between rubble and
ashlar. The stones are all squared and properly dressed. It resembles to coursed rubble
masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.
- Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best ashlar masonry. This type of masonry is very
expensive. So it is commonly used in works of great importance and strength. For economy
the facing is built in ashlar and the rest in rubble.
Quality control of stone masonry construction
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- In course of time, cracks may develop in the masonry. Small cracks should be cleaned by wire
brush, and then filled with cement paste. If the cracks are wider, first remove the loose material
and then fill it with 1:2 cement mortar.
- Due to leakage of water through masonry, sometimes layers of white soluble salts get
deposited on the surface of masonry. This should be removed by scrubbing with a brush and
water.
- To prevent leakage of water through masonry, waterproofing materials should be applied on
the surface.
- Oil stains should be removed by scrubbing with benezene or petrol.
Points to Ponder
132
Stone masonry means construction of structures using stone blocks and mortar.
Mortar is a mixture of binding material and sand.
The binding material can be mud, lime or cement.
The common types of stones used in India are granite, marble, laterite, sand
stone, slate.
The cutting the sharp corners of stone blocks, cutting it to proper size and giving
the finishing touch is called dressing.
There are mainly two types of masonry rubble masonry and ashlar masonry.
In ashlar masonry, stones are cut to proper size , sharp corners removed and
finishing touch is given while in random rubble masonry stones of irregular
shapes are used.
Proper quality control should be followed during the construction.
The following maintenance works are suggested for old masonry water
proofing, removal of efflorescence, removal of stains and repair of cracks.
Model Questions
1. Define masonry.
2. What are the two types of masonry?
3. What are the main building stone blocks used in stone masonry?
4. What is dressing?
5. Explain quality control of masonry construction
6. How should stone masonry be maintained?
133
Bricks were used from time immemorial for construction of buildings. Even now bricks are being
used as a construction material to a large extent. Brick masonry is constructed with brick and
mortar. The mortar can be of mud, lime or cement. Bricks are manufactured by moulding clay to
proper size, drying and then burning in kilns. The standard size of bricks is 190 x 90 x 40 mm.
Some Definitions
Stretcher: It is a brick with its length in the direction of the wall.
Header: A brick is called a header if its shorter side is exposed.
Closer: It is the portion of the brick cut in the longitudinal direction.
Bond
Bond is the method of arranging the bricks so that the individual bricks are joined together in
layers (courses) and that the vertical joints do not come in the same line.
Rules for bonding:
The lap should be at least th brick along the length and brick across the thickness of wall.
Brick bats should be used for the minimum.
All bricks should be of same size and shape.
The vertical joints in alternate layers should be in the same line.
13.4 Method of brick laying
Brick laying is an art. Only a skilled mason can do the work efficiently. First clean the surface
over which the wall is to be built. Then spread 15 mm thick cement mortar over the area. The
corner of the wall is marked. The first brick is laid at the corner over the mortar and pressed
well. The other bricks are laid subsequently. The corners are raised first and then the inbetween portion is raised.
13.5 Types of Brick Bonds
The different types of brick bonds are:
1. English-bond
2. Flemish bond,
3. Stretching bond,
4. Heading bond,
5. Garden wall bond,
6. Facing bond,
7. Raking bond,
8. Dutch bond,
9. English cross-bond,
10. Zig-Zag bond,
11. Silver locks bond.
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English Bond
English bond consists of alternate courses of headers and stretches. In the English bond
arrangement, vertical joints in the header courses come over each other while the vertical joints
in the stretcher course are also in the same line. For the breaking of vertical joints in the
successive course it is essential to place a queen closer, after the first header in each heading
course.
Walls having their thickness equal to an even number of half bricks, i.e., one brick thick wail, 2
brick thick wall, 3 brick thick wall and so on, present the same appearance on both the faces,
i.e. a course consisting of headers on front face will show headers on the back face also.
Isometric view of 1 brick wall in English bond , and plans of 1, 1 , 2, 2 , 3 brick walls are
shown below,
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See the video showing the procedure of laying bricks in English bond
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qn9Y5FpYn1Q
Flemish Bond
In this arrangement, stretchers and headers are placed alternately in the same course. There
are two types of Flemish bond: 1.Double Flemish bond 2. Single Flemish bond
1 .Double Flemish Bond: In this type of bond, headers and stretchers are alternately placed in
each course in front as well as back. In the case of single Flemish bond, the front is made in
Flemish bond and back in English bond.
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See the video showing the procedure of laying bricks in English bond
https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=7UGYc9uzEMA
3.Stretching bond:
In this arrangement, all the bricks are laid as stretchers. Each alternate course is commenced
with a half brick bat. Stretching bond is used for half brick wall only. This bond is also termed as
running bond It is commonly used for the construction of half brick thick leaves of cavity walls,
Partition walls etc.
4. Header bond :
In header bond all the bricks are laid as headers on the faces. The overlap is obtained by
keeping a three-quarter bat in each alternate course at quoins. This bond permits better
alignment. Therefore it is used for walls curved on plan.
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.
5.Garden wall bond:
This type of bond is generally adopted for garden wall of one brick thick wall. This type of bond
is not strong as English bond. As such, it is used to construct dwarf walls or other similar types
of walls. .
There are two types of garden wall bond,
(a) English garden wall bond
(b) Flemish garden wall bond
(a) English garden wall bond. In this bond bricks are arranged in similar to that of English
bond. But the heading courses are inserted at every fourth or sixth course. Usually the
arrangement consists of one course of headers to three courses of stretchers.
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(b) Flemish garden wall bond. In this, alternate course is of one header to three or five
stretchers in series. Each alternate course will have a three quarter bat placed next to the quoin
header and a header is laid over the middle of each central stretcher.
6.Facing bond:
This bond is adopted for thick walls, where the facing and backing are to be constructed with
bricks of different thicknesses. In this bond, heading and stretching courses are so arranged
that one heading course comes after several stretching courses. The number of joints in the
backing and the facing are different. This may cause unequal settlement of the of the wall.
7.Raking bond:
In this bond, bricks are laid at any angle other than zero or ninety degrees. This arrangement
increases the longitudinal stability of thick walls built in English bond. This bond is kept at
different intervals along the height of a wall.
There
are
two
types
of
raking
bond
;
(a) Herringhone-bond
(b) Diagonal bond.
(a) Herring-bone bond. This type of bond is ideal for very thick walls. In this, bricks are laid in
course inclined at 45 in two directions from the centre. This bond is also generally used for
pavings.
140
(b) Diagonal bond. This bond is used for walls of 2 to 4 brick thick. This bond is kept at fifth or
seventh course along the height of the wall. The bricks arc kept end to end.
8.Dutch bond:
In this bond alternate courses are of headers and stretchers. Each stretching course starts at
the quoin with a three-quarter bat and every alternate stretching course has a header placed
next to the three-quarter brick bat at the quoin.
141
9.English cross-bond:
This is similar to English bond. But queen closer is introduced next to quoin headers and each
alternate
stretching
course
has
header
placed
next
to
quoin
stretcher.
143
Poor quality bricks may absorb moisture, thus weakening the structure
With the absorption of moisture, the brickwork may swell.
When the brickwork comes in contact with water, white crystals may appear on
the surface creating a bad appearance.
By using inferior quality bricks, the structure may settle leading to cracks
In cold regions due to frost action , cracks can develop in brick construction
Points to Ponder
joined
There are different types of bonds; but the most common are English bond and Flemish
bond
In English bond alternate courses are of headers and stretchers while in Flemish
bond in each course there are alternate stretchers and headers.
The main points to be observed in brick masonry works are use of good quality
bricks, mortar to be of proper mix, brick masonry to be cured for two weeks by
sprinkling water, bricks to be soaked in water before use.
Model Questions
1. Define stretcher and header.
2. What is bond?
3. What are the main bonds?
4. Compare brick masonry with stone masonry.
5. What are the main points to be observed in the brick masonry
construction?
6. What are the main defects in brick masonry?
144
A floor is the bottom surface of a room. In a building, there is the ground floor, first floor, second
floor like that. Floors may be of stone, wood, concrete or any other material that can support the
expected load. The levels of a building are often referred to as floors although a more proper term
is story. Floors typically consist of a subfloor for support and a floor covering used to give a good
walking surface.
Requirements of a floor
- It should be durable
- It should have an attractive finish
It should be impervious
- The floors should be strong enough to with stand the load
It should not be too costly
- The maintenance cost should not be high
It should have a level surface
Factors to be taken into the selection of flooring materials
Durability, Appearance, Damp resistance, Fire resistance, Resistance to abrasion, Initial cost
,Maintenance
Types of Flooring
Mud, Brick, Cement Concrete, Terrazzo, Mosaic , Marble, Tile, Timber, Rubber, Linoleum
Construction of floor
Ground Floor
First the soil is compacted. A layer of broken stones or brick bats is then pressed into it. Then a
layer of concrete of 1:4:8 mix is laid for about 150 mm thick as base course. The floor finish is
then laid. The floor finish generally adopted is Terrazzo, Mosaic, Marble, Tiles, Timber.
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Upper Floors
The upper floor are supported on walls and columns. The floors have to withstand self weight
and live load. Therefore they are designed for strength, limiting the deflection to the allowable
limits. The types of floorings are listed above.
Cement Concrete Flooring
The most commonly adopted flooring is of cement
concrete. For the construction of the floor, soil is first filled
up in the basement and compacted. Then the whole area
is divided into convenient sizes of squares or rectangles.
These bays are then filled with concrete, compacted and
finished smoothly. After curing, the floor is washed and
cleaned.
Mosaic Floor
First the base course of concrete is laid. Over which a layer of 3040 mm thick mortar is spread. Broken pieces of marble chips are
set on this layer. After drying for a day, the top surface is rubbed
with carborandum stone to get a polished surface.
Mosaic Floor
Timber Floor
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Timber Floor
Tiled Floor
Tiled Floor
Maintenance and repair of concrete Floor
Cracks may develop in the floor. The cracks may be surface cracks or structural cracks, The
structural cracks may start from the base and extend to the surface while the surface cracks
may be in the surface only. Structural cracks are caused due to shrinkage, temperature
variations or settlement. For repairing structural cracks, that portion will have to chipped off and
then filled up with fresh concrete. Hair cracks can be repaired by filling it with some varnish.
147
Points to Ponder
Floor is that part of a building over which people stay and move.
The bottom most floor is the ground floor. The upper floors are there at the
The floor finishes are of marble, tiles, stone, wood, rubber, mosaic, terrazzo etc.
Model Questions
1. What is a floor?
2. What are the requirements of a floor?
3. What are the common floor finishes?
4. What are the factors to be taken into the selection of flooring materials?
5. How is a concrete floor repaired?
6. Describe the procedure of construction of a concrete floor.
148
Roof is the topmost part of a building. It serves as a cover protecting the inhabitants from rain,
sun and wind. The roof can be pitched or flat; tiled or of concrete.
Requirements of a good roof
It should be leak proof
Flat roofs are used where rainfall is low to moderate, sloping roofs are used in places of heavy
rainfall. Folded plates and shell roofs are used to cover large column free areas such as
auditoriums.
Flat Roofs
Flat roofs are horizontal but with a slight slope to drain out rain water.
Advantages
-The roof can be converted into a floor by constructing another storey
-Over head water tanks and other services can be installed
-The roof can be used as a terrace for recreational purposes
149
Disadvantages
- There is a chance for leakage of rainwater
- The dead weight is more
- The initial cost of construction is high
-
150
RCC roofs
These type roofs are commonly used now. The thickness of slab, diameter of bars, spacing of
bars etc will depend on the load and span of the room. A typical cross section of slab and plan
is shown in the above figure.
Pitched (sloping) roofs
Sloping roofs are adopted in places of heavy rain fall. It consists of a structure over which
roofing materials like tiles, GI sheets, AC sheets are fixed. The slope of the roof varies from 10
degrees to 60 degrees. This type of roofs are generally adopted for large span buildings like
factories, work shops, auditoriums etc.
There are three types of pitched roofs: Single, Double and Trussed roofs.
Single roofs: These roofs consist only common rafters which are fixed on to the wall plate and
ridge. There are four types of single roofs Lean-to roof, Couple roof, Couple- close roof,
Collar-beam roof
Lean to roof
Double roofs: These roofs are also known as purlin roofs. The purlins act as intermediate
supports to rafters.
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Purlin Roof
Trussed Roof:
A truss is a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements The external
forces applied to the system and the reactions at the supports are generally applied at the
nodes. The principal force in each element in a truss is axial tension or compression. For
shorter spans wooden trusses and for larger spans steel trusses are used. Tiles, GI sheets are
used as covering over the roof truss. There are different types of trusses but the most common
trusses are- King post truss and Queen post truss.
152
Steel Truss
153
Shell Roof
Shell roofs are curved roofs. These can be built to cover large areas with out columns.
Comparison of shell roof with conventional roof
Advantages
-Shell roofs have good aesthetic view
-Less material is required
- Large column free area can be obtained
- Form work can be removed early
Disadvantages
-Analysis of shell roof more tedious
-Form work is costly
-The top surface is curved
154
Points to Ponder
Roof is the topmost part of a building. It protects the inhabitants from rain, sun,
wind etc.
There are three types of roofs Sloping, Flat and shell & folded plate
Flat roofs are generally made of reinforced cement concrete.
Sloping roofs are covered with tiles, slates, GI / Asbestos sheets
Truss is a frame work of slender members
The more popular wooden trusses are King post and Queen post truss
Now a days trusses are of steel rather than timber
For column free halls, folded plate /shell roofs are adopted
Model Questions
1. What is a roof?
2. What are the types of roofs?
3. What is a king post truss?
4. Compare steel truss roof with timber truss?
5. What is a folded plate truss?
6. What are the materials commonly used for covering sloping roof?
155
Acknowledgement
In compiling this text, a large number of publications from the print media as well as from
the internet have been referred to and the same is kindly acknowledged herewith.
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