Motivation

28th December 2012

Motivation

Sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation]
http://psychology.about.com/od/mindex/g/motivation-definition.htm

[http://psychology.about.com/od/mindex/g/motivation-definition.htm]

Motivation is the psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal and elicits, controls,
and sustains certain goal directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological drive that compels or
reinforces an action toward a desired goal. Motivation elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal-directed behaviors.
For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat. Motivation has been shown to have roots in
physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social areas.
Motivation is conceptually related to, but distinct from, emotion [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion] and may be rooted in
a basic impulse to optimize well-being, minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure. It can also originate from specific
physical needs such as eating, sleeping/resting, and sexual reproduction.

Components of Motivation
There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence and intensity. Activation involves the decision
to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even
though obstacles may exist, such as taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a
significant investment of time, energy and resources. Finally, intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that
goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study
regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class.
Extrinsic Vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivations are
those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition or
praise. Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the individual, such as doing a complicated cross-word
puzzle purely for the personal gratification of solving a problem.
Instinct Theory of Motivation

According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily
programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonal migration. These animals do not learn to do
this, it is instead an inborn pattern of behavior.
William James [http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/jamesbio.htm] created a list of human instincts that
included such things as attachment, play, shame, anger, fear, shyness, modesty and love. The main problem with this
theory is that it did not really explain behavior, it just described it. By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in
favor of other motivational theories, but contemporary evolutionary psychologists still study the influence of genetics
and heredity on human behavior.
Incentive Theory of Motivation
The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For example, you
might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid. Behavioral learning concepts such
as association and reinforcement play an important role in this theory of motivation.
Drive Theory of Motivation

According to the drive theory [http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/a/drive-reduction-theory.htm] of motivation, people

are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For
example, you might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst. This theory is
useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger or thirst. The problem with the
drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always motivated purely by physiological needs. For example,
people often eat even when they are not really hungry.
Example:
Freud's theory of Motivation:

Freuds theory of drives evolved throughout his life and work. He initially described a class of drives known as the life
instincts and believed that these drives were responsible for much of behavior. Eventually, he came to believe that
these life instincts alone could not explain all human behavior.
Freud determined that all instincts fall into one of two major classes:
the life instincts or the death instincts.
Life Instincts (Eros)
Sometimes referred to as sexual instincts, the life instincts are those that deal with basic survival, pleasure, and
reproduction. These instincts are important for sustaining the life of the individual as well as the continuation of the
species. While they are often called sexual instincts, these drives also include such things as thirst, hunger, and pain
avoidance. The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido.
Behaviors commonly associated with the life instinct include love, cooperation, and other prosocial actions.
Death Intincts (Thanatos)
Initially described in his book Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud proposed that the goal of all life is death (1920).

He noted that after people experience a traumatic event (such as war), they often reenact the experience. He
concluded that people hold an unconscious desire to die, but that this wish is largely tempered by the life instincts.
In Freuds view, self-destructive behavior is an expression of the energy created by the death instincts. When this
energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence.

Arousal Theory of Motivation

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels of
arousal. When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person might watch and exciting movie or go for a jog. When
arousal levels get too high, on the other hand, a person would probably look for ways to relax such as meditating or
reading a book. According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level
can vary based on the individual or the situation.
Humanistic Theory of Motivation

Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive reasons to perform
various actions. This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow'shierarchy of needs
[http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/hierarchyneeds.htm] , which presents different motivations at
different levels. First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of
safety, love and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for selfactualization [http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/hierarchyneeds_2.htm] , or the desire to fulfill one's
individual potential.

Q: What is Achievement Motivation?

Achievement Motivation: Psychologist David McClelland studied workplace motivation extensively and
theorized that workers as well as their superiors have needs that influence their performance at work. One of
these needs is Achievement Motivation - which can be defined as an individual's need to meet realistic goals,
receive feedback and experience a sense of accomplishment.
For example, employees who are Achievement-Motivated thrive very well in corporations where they receive
regular performance evaluations. They feel energized and satisfied with their jobs because goals are set, they
are given positive or negative feedback on past behaviors and given some type of rewards if they performed
well.

Need for achievement

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Need for achievement (N-Ach) refers to an individual's desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills,
control, or high standards. The term w as first used by Henry Murray [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Murray] [1] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-1] and associated w ith a range of actions.
These include: "intense, prolonged and repeated efforts to accomplish something difficult. To w ork w ith singleness
of purpose tow ards a high and distant goal. To have the determination to w in". The concept of NAch w as
subsequently popularised by the psychologist David McClelland [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClelland] .[citation needed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed] ]
This personality trait is characterized by an enduring and consistent concern w ith setting and meeting high
standards of achievement. This need is influenced by internal drive for action (intrinsic motivation), and the
pressure exerted by the expectations of others (extrinsic motivation). Measured by thematic appreciation tests,
need for achievement motivates an individual to succeed in competition, and to excel in activities important to
him or her.[2] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-2]
Need for Achievement is related to the difficulty of tasks people choose to undertake. Those w ith low N-Ach may
choose very easy tasks, in order to minimise risk of failure, or highly difficult tasks, such that a failure w ould not be
embarrassing. Those w ith high N-Ach tend to choose moderately difficult tasks, feeling that they are challenging,
but w ithin reach.
People high in N-Ach are characterised by a tendency to seek challenges and a high degree of independence.
Their most satisfying rew ard is the recognition of their achievements. Sources of high N-Ach include:
1. Parents w ho encouraged independence in childhood [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood]
2. Praise and rew ards for success
3. Association of achievement w ith positive feelings
4. Association of achievement w ith one's ow n competence and effort, not luck
5. A desire to be effective or challenged
6. Intrapersonal Strength
7. Desirability
8. Feasibility
9. Goal Setting Abilities

Theory
The pioneering research work of the Harvard Psychological Clinic in the 1930s, summarised in Explorations in
Personality, provided the start point for future studies of personality, especially those relating to needs and
motives. David C. McClelland's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClelland] and his associates' investigations of achievement motivation have particular
relevance to the emergence of leadership. McClelland was interested in the possibility of deliberately arousing
a motive to achieve in an attempt to explain how individuals express their preferences for particular outcomes
a general problem of motivation. In this connection, the need for achievement refers to an individual's
preference for success under conditions of competition. The vehicle McClelland [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClelland] employed to establish the
presence of an achievement motive was the type of fantasy a person expressed on the

Thematic Apperception Test [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_Apperception_Test] (TAT), developed by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray, who note in
Explorations in Personality that "...when a person interprets an ambiguous social situation he is apt to expose
his own personality as much as the phenomenon to which he is attending... Each picture should suggest some
critical situation and be effective in evoking a fantasy relating to it" (p531). The test is composed of a series of
pictures that subjects are asked to interpret and describe to the psychologist. The TAT has been widely used to
support assessment of needs and motives.[3] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-multiple-3]
In 1961 McClelland published The Achieving Society, which articulated his model of human motivation. McClelland
contended that three dominant needs -for achievement, for power, and for affiliation- underpin human motivation.
McClelland believed that the relative importance of each need varies among individuals and cultures. Arguing that
commonly used hiring tests using IQ and personality assessments were poor predictors of competency,
McClelland proposed that companies should base hiring decisions on demonstrated competency in relevant fields,
rather than on standardized test scores. Iconoclastic in their time, McClellands ideas have become standard
practice in many corporations. [4] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-4]
The procedure in McClelland's initial investigation was to arouse in the test audience a concern with their
achievement. A control group was used in which arousal was omitted. In the course of this experiment,
McClelland discovered through analyzing the stories on the TAT that initial arousal was not necessary.
Instead, members of the control group individuals who had had no prior arousal demonstrated significant
differences in their stories, some writing stories with a high achievement content and some submitting stories
with a low achievement content. Using results based on the Thematic Apperception Test [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_Apperception_Test] , McClelland demonstrated
that individuals in a society can be grouped into high achievers and low achievers based on their scores on what he
called "N-Ach".[3] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-multiple-3]
McClelland [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClelland] and his associates have since extended their work in fantasy analysis to include different age group
s, occupational groups, and nationalities in their investigations of the strength of need for achievement. These
investigations have indicated that the N-Ach score increases with a rise in occupational level. Invariably,
businessmen, managers, and entrepreneurs are high scorers. Other investigations into the characteristics of the
high achievers have revealed that accomplishment on the job represents an end in itself; monetary rewards
serve as an index of this accomplishment. In addition, these other studies found that the high achievers, though
identified as managers, businessmen, and entrepreneurs, are not gamblers. A high emotional intelligence calls
for a high need for achievement while a low emotional intelligence calls for a lower need for achievement. They will
accept risk only to the degree they believe their personal contributions will make a difference in the final outcome.[5] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-5]
An experiment realized to entry level managers of AT&T from 1956 to 1960, studied the level of achievement
attained during a period of 8 to 16 years, showing that High n-Achievement was associated with managerial
success at lower levels of management jobs, in which promotion depends more on individual contributions than it
does at higher levels. At the higher levels, in which promotion depends on demonstrated ability to manage others
, a high n-Achievement is not associated with success; by contrast, the leadership motive pattern is so
associated, in all likelihood because it involves a high n-Power, emerging as a concern for influencing people. [6] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-6]
These explorations into the achievement motive seem to turn naturally into the investigation of national
differences based on Max Weber's thesis that the industrialization and economic development of the Western
nations were related to the Protestant ethic and its corresponding values supporting work and achievement.
McClelland and his associates have satisfied themselves that such a relationship, viewed historically through an
index of national power consumption, indeed exists. Differences related to individual, as well as to national,
accomplishments depend on the presence or absence of an achievement motive in addition to economic resources
or the infusion of financial assistance. High achievers can be viewed as satisfying a need for self-actualization
through accomplishments in their job assignments as a result of their particular knowledge, their particular
experiences, and the particular environments in which they have lived.[7] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need_for_achievement#cite_note-7]

Theories of Motivation
Page

history
[http://flvsmotivation.pbworks.com/w/pagerevisions/7154171/February%3A%C2%A0Theories%C2%A0of%C2%A0Motivation] last edited by Rebecca
Heinzmann [http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3758176346163541054] 3 years, 10 months ago
Introduc on
The word mo va on is coined from the La n word "movere", which means to move. Mo va on is a reason or set or reasons for
engaging in a par cular behavior. Mo va on can be dened as the processes that account for an individuals intensity, direc on
and persistence of eort towards a aining a goal. The mo va on of people depends on the strength of their mo ves. Mo ves are
dened as needs, wants, drives, or impulses within an individual. Mo ves are directed towards goals, which may be conscious or
subconscious. Mo va on can be described as the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. A posi ve mo va on
philosophy and prac ce should improve help produc vity, quality and service. Mo va on helps people to:

achieve goals

gain a posi ve perspec ve

create the power to change

build self-esteem and capability

manage their own development and help others with theirs

What is Mo va on?
The term Mo va on Theory is concerned with the processes that describe why and how human behavior is ac vated and directed. It
is regarded as one of the most important areas of study in the eld of organiza onal behavior. There are several dierent mo va on
theories; however, none of them are universally accepted. No single theory can account for all aspects of mo va on, but each of the
major approaches contributes something to our understanding of mo va on. Here is an overview of the most popular mo va onal
theories.
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
One of the most widely men oned theories of mo va on is the Hierarchy of Needs theory by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow
saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs
is sa sed, this kind of need ceases to be a mo vator. Needs can be categorized as:
Physiological needs- These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and
educa on are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need sa sfac on. Maslow believed that un l these
needs were sa sed to a degree to maintain life, no other mo va ng factors can work.
Security or Safety needs- These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter. It
also includes protec on against any emo onal harm.
Social needs - Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to sa sfy their need for
aec on, acceptance and friendship.
Esteem needs- According to Maslow, once people begin to sa sfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by
themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such sa sfac on as power, pres ge status and self-condence. It includes
both internal esteem factors like self-respect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem factors such as states, recogni on
and a en on.
Self-actualiza on needs- Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is capable of
becoming; it includes growth, achieving ones poten al and self-fulllment. It is to maximize ones poten al and to accomplish
something.

Herzbergs Mo va on-Hygiene Theory

In the late 1950's, the American psychologist Frederick Herzberg analyzed the founda ons of job mo va on based on a large-scale
literature review and a survey amongst 200 engineers and accountants from the Pi sburgh area. He challenged the tradi onal view
that workers are only sa sed or dissa sed with their jobs and proposed a system with dual con nuums of sa sers and
dissa sers to understand employee mo va on and sa sfac on. Thus, when workers are sa sed, they a ribute their sa sfac on
to the work itself. When they are dissa sed with their jobs, they are concerned about their work environment. He named this dual
con nuum mo va on and hygiene.
Hygiene Factors
The factors that help prevent dissa sfac on. They do not lead to higher levels of mo va on but dissa sfac on exists without them.
The factors are primarily extrinsic:

company's policies and administra on

quality of supervision

working condi ons

interpersonal rela ons

salary

status

job security

Mo va on Factors
The ve factors that lead to job sa sfac on and higher levels of mo va on. These factors are neutral if they are not ac vated. They
are primarily intrinsic factors:

achievement

recogni on

the work itself

responsibility

advancement

Preferably, the two approaches, hygiene and mo va on, must be carried out simultaneously. Treat people so they obtain a minimum
of dissa sfac on. Use people so they achieve, get recogni on, grow and advance in their careers. Based on Maslow's Hierarchy,
Herzberg theorized that the factors that mo vate the worker or are likely to sa sfy their needs, lead to posi ve job a tudes.

Alderfers ERG Theory :

Clayton Alderfer extended and simplied Maslow's Hierarchy into a shorter set of three needs: Existence, Relatedness and Growth
(ERG). Unlike Maslow, he did not see these as being a hierarchy, but being more of a con nuum.
Existence- At the lowest level is the need to stay alive and safe, now and in the foreseeable future. When we have sa sed existence
needs, we feel safe and physically comfortable. This includes Maslow's Physiological and Safety needs.
Relatedness- At the next level, once we are safe and secure, we consider our social needs. We are now interested in rela onships
with other people and what they think of us. When we are related, we feel a sense of iden ty and posi on within our immediate
society. This encompasses Maslow's Social and Esteem needs.
Growth- At the highest level, we seek to grow, be crea ve for ourselves and for our environment. When we are successfully growing,
we feel a sense of wholeness, achievement and fulllment. This covers Maslow's Self-actualiza on.
The major conclusions of this theory are:
1.

In an individual, more than one need may be opera ve at the same me.

2.

If a higher need goes unsa sed than the desire to sa sfy a lower need intensies.

3.

It also contains the frustra on-regression dimension.

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor, in his book The Human side of Enterprise, states that people inside an organiza on can be managed in two ways. The rst
is basically nega ve, which falls under the category X and the other is basically posi ve, which falls under the category Y. A er
viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a managers view of the nature of human
beings is based on a certain grouping of assump ons and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior towards subordinates
according to these assump ons.
Under the assump ons of theory X

Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will a empt to avoid it.

Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.

Employees avoid responsibili es and do not work un l formal direc ons are issued.

Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display li le ambi on.

Under the assump ons of theory Y

Physical and mental eort at work is as natural as rest or play.

People do exercise self-control and self-direc on and if they are commi ed to those goals.

Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagina on, ingenuity and crea vity in solving the
problems of the organiza on.
People have poten al.

Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals and Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate
individuals. An organiza on that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature. In contrast, Theory Y organiza ons
can be described as par cipa ve, where the aims of the organiza on and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can
achieve their own goals best by direc ng their eorts towards the success of the organiza on.

McClellands Acquired Needs Theory

David McClellands achievement mo va on theory states that a person has need for three things but people dier in degree in which
the various needs inuence their behavior:
1.

Need for Power

2.

Need for Alia on

3.

Need for Achievement

People who have a high need for power are inclined towards inuence and control. Power seekers want power either to control
other people (for their own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good). They seek neither recogni on nor approval from
others, only agreement and compliance.
In the second category are the people who are social in nature. Alia on seekers look for harmonious rela onships with other
people. They will thus tend to conform and shy away from standing out. The seek approval rather than recogni on. They are driven
by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social recogni on and alia on with others
provides them mo va on.
People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and
they set for themselves moderately dicult tasks. They are analy cal in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are mo vated
to perform when they see at least some chances of success. Achievers seek to excel and appreciate frequent recogni on of how well
they are doing. They will avoid low risk ac vi es that have no chance of gain. They also will avoid high risks where there is a
signicant chance of failure.
McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and achievement increased rather than Alia on.
He also observed that people who were at the top, later ceased to be mo vated by this drives.

Vrooms Valence x Expectancy theory

One of the most widely accepted explana ons of mo va on have been propounded by Victor Vroom. His theory is commonly known
as expectancy theory. The theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specic way depends on the strength of an
expecta on that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the a rac veness of that outcome to the individual to make this
simple, expectancy theory says that an employee can be mo vated to perform be er when there is a belief that the be er
performance will lead to good performance appraisal and that this shall result into realiza on of personal goal in form of some
reward. Mo va on is thus a combina on of:

Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?)

Instrumentality: The belief that if I complete certain ac ons then I will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?)

Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the ac ons. (My capability?)

The theory focuses on three things:

Eorts and performance rela onship

Performance and reward rela onship

Rewards and personal goal rela onship

Conclusion
All human beings have the same types of needs. Just remember that people experience these needs at dierent mes and to dierent
degrees. Further, other cultures provide diering contexts for the sa sfac on of these needs. As a supervisor it is vital to be
prepared to deal with these truths in order to create and maintain a sa sed and produc ve workforce.

References
Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. H., & Johnson, D. E. (2001). Management of organiza onal behavior: Leading human resources
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren ce Hall.

(8th ed.).

Webb, D.L. & Norton, M.S. (2003). Human resources administra on; Personnel issues and needs in educa on (4 th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pren ce Hall.
h p://changingminds.org/explana ons/theories/a_mo va on.htm

[http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/a_motivation.htm]

Posted 28th December 2012 by JayDee

1

View comments

Eshan 15 January 2015 at 03:10

Really great post!!! Motivational leadership is the skill to boost and encourage people to perform at their best. Thanks.
http://www.blanchardinternational.co.in/optimal-motivation
Reply

Enter your comment...

Comment as:

Publish

subhas9804009247 (Google)

Preview

Sign out

Notify me