THREE-DIMENSIONAL COUPLED DYNAMICS OF A BUOY

AND MULTIPLE MOORING LINES: FORMULATION AND

ALGORITHM
by W. RAMAN-NAIR and R. E. BADDOUR
(National Research Council Canada, Institute for Marine Dynamics, Kerwin Place,
PO Box 12093, St Johns, NF, Canada A1B 3T5)
[Received 9 February 2001. Revise 4 June 2001]
Summary
The equations of the coupled three-dimensional motion of a submerged buoy and multiple
mooring lines are formulated using Kanes formalism. The lines are modelled using lumped
masses and tension-only springs including structural damping. Surface waves are described by
Stokess second-order wave theory. The hydrodynamic loads due to viscous drag are applied
via a Morisons equation approach using the instantaneous relative velocities between the fluid
field and the bodies (buoy and lines). The detailed algorithm is presented and the equations are
solved using a robust implementation of the RungeKutta method provided in MATLAB. The
mathematical model and associated algorithm are validated by comparison with special cases
of an elastic catenary mooring line and other published data.

1. Introduction
The current trend in the oil industry towards the development of deep-water fields has created the
need for reliable methods of analysis to address the problems associated with such developments.
It is likely that oil production systems in the near future will consist of the basic floatermooring
riser configuration and the coupling of the dynamics of the floating structure and the mooring/riser
system is particularly significant for deep-water installations. An uncoupled analysis of buoy-line
dynamics was given by Leonard et al. (1). Coupled analyses were presented by Mavrakos et al. (2)
for two dimensions, and for three dimensions by Sun (3) and Tjavaras et al. (4), assuming only
translational buoy motions. In these works the differential equations of the line are formulated and
solved numerically. As reported in Tjavaras et al. (4) it is necessary in these models to include the
bending stiffness of the line, albeit small, in order to avoid an ill-posed problem when the tension
becomes small. An alternative approach is to model the mooring line by lumped masses connected
by springs, as in the works of Huang (5) and Buckham et al. (6). The lumped mass approach is
attractive because of its intuitive simplicity and ability to tackle problems with complex geometry
and varying material properties and constitutive behaviour. Problems such as line touchdown can
be modelled in a straightforward manner and the large motion dynamics of deep-water systems is
captured.
It is the purpose of this paper to present a method of analysis, based on Kanes formalism (7, 8)
for the three-dimensional coupled dynamics of a subsurface buoy and multiple mooring lines using
a lumped massspring model for the lines, and to present the algorithm for writing the equations
of motion in a form ready for efficient numerical solution. No difficulties are encountered when
Q. Jl Mech. Appl. Math. (2002) 55 (2), 179207

c Oxford University Press 2002

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W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

Fig. 1 Buoy and typical line

the mooring line becomes slack, in which case the tension is set at zero. Bending and torsion are
not modelled in the present work but it is possible to include these effects by using appropriate
rotational springs at the lumped masses. We assume that the hydrodynamic loads are due primarily
to added-mass effects and viscous drag. In this regard, we allow for loading due to an arbitrary
fluid velocity and acceleration field which is assumed to be undisturbed by the system. This allows
for the inclusion of wave and current effects via the use of the Morison et al. approach (9). The
possible load due to vortex shedding is not considered in the analysis but can be included by the use
of appropriate lift coefficients.
A brief outline of the paper is as follows. Section 2 defines the geometry of the problem and
associated generalized cooordinates and generalized speeds. The system kinematics is derived in
section 3. The kinetics is addressed in sections 4 to 8. This involves derivations of inertia forces
as well as internal and external loads due to both hydrodynamic and non-hydrodynamic effects. In
section 9, the equations of motion of the system are assembled in a form amenable for numerical
solution. Section 10 presents three test problems for validation purposes. Discussion and detailed
results of further simulations are outside the scope of this paper and will be presented elsewhere.
2. System configuration
A diagram of the system to be analysed is given in Fig. 1. The origin of inertial coordinates is an
arbitrary point O on the seabed and the inertial frame is denoted by N with unit vectors N1 , N2 , N3 .
Buoy B has a body-fixed frame at its centre of mass G with unit vectors b1 , b2 , b3 parallel to its
central principal axes. Line ( = 1, . . . , ) is attached to B at point P0 . The line is modelled by
n lumped masses m j ( j = 1, . . . , n ) at points P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn . Without loss of generality, the

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

181

system is kinematically constrained by specifying the motion of end-points Pn +1 as

OPn +1 =

3


N
ci (t)Ni

( = 1, . . . , ),

(2.1)

i=1

where N ci (t) ( = 1, . . . , ; i = 1, 2, 3) are prescribed functions of time t. Fixing these endpoints would represent the multi-point mooring system. The system to be analysed consists of the
following subsystems:
rigid body B with six degrees of freedom;
mooring lines L with 3n degrees of freedom ( = 1, . . . , ).
The total number of degrees of freedom is
m =6+3

n .

(2.2)

=1

2.1

Orientation of body B

An arbitrary orientation of body B can be specified by employing space-three 1-2-3 orientation

angles i (i = 1, 2, 3) defined as follows (Kane et al. (8)). Beginning with bi aligned with Ni
(i = 1, 2, 3) we rotate B successively about N1 , N2 , N3 by angles 1 , 2 , 3 respectively. The
body-fixed unit vectors bi are then related to the inertial unit vectors Ni by


N1
 N B  b1
N2 = C b2 ,
N3
b3

(2.3)

where the orthogonal transformation matrix [ N C B ] is called the space-three 1-2-3 rotation matrix
and is given by Kane et al. (8) as

c2 c3 s1 s2 c3 s3 c1 c1 s2 c3 + s3 s1
N B 
(2.4)
C = c2 s3 s1 s2 s3 + c3 c1 c1 s2 s3 c3 s1
s2
s 1 c2
c1 c2
with si = sin i , ci = cos i (i = 1, 2, 3).
2.2 Generalized coordinates
2.2.1 Orientation and position of body B. Define
qiB = i
B
q3+i

= OGbi

(i = 1, 2, 3),
(i = 1, 2, 3).

(2.5)

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W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

2.2.2 Position of lumped masses on line .

GP0 =

3


Let

pi bi

( = 1, . . . , ),

(2.6)

i=1

where pi (i = 1, 2, 3) are constants that specify the location of the attachment point P0 relative to
the centre of mass G of the body. The position of the attachment point relative to the inertial origin
O is given by
OP0 = OG + GP0 =

3


B
(q3+i
+ pi )bi .

(2.7)

i=1

We specify the positions of the lumped masses relative to the point P0 . Define

q3(
j1)+i = P0 P j bi

(i = 1, 2, 3; j = 1, . . . , n ).

(2.8)

The m generalized coordinates are qiB (i = 1, . . . , 6); qr (r = 1, . . . , 3n ; = 1, . . . , ). The

position of the end-point Pn +1 is specified relative to O:
OPn +1 =

3


B
ci (t)bi ,

(2.9)

i=1

where B ci (t) are functions of time t determined from the prescribed position of Pn +1 in inertial
coordinates by the relation
N
B
c1
c1


N c = N C B B c .
(2.10)
2
2
N c
B c
3
3
2.3

Generalized speeds

Define the generalized speeds (Kane and Levinson (7)) as

u iB = B bi

(i = 1, 2, 3),

B
= vG bi
u 3+i

(i = 1, 2, 3),

u 3( j1)+i

=v

P j

bi

(2.11)

( = 1, . . . , ; j = 1, . . . , n ; i = 1, 2, 3),

where B is the angular velocity of B, vG is the velocity of the centre of mass G of body B and

v P j is the velocity of point P j .

2.4 Orthogonal triad of unit vectors associated with each line segment
and P and is denoted by S ( = 1, . . . , ;
The kth segment on line is defined by points Pk1
k
k
k = 1, . . . , n + 1). An orthogonal triad of unit vectors, denoted by tk , sk , hk , is illustrated

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

183

Fig. 2 Unit vectors for line segments

in Fig. 2. The position vectors of the lumped masses and the line end-points relative to the inertial
origin O may be written as
OPk = OP0 + P0 Pk =

3


Yi,k
bi

( = 1, . . . , ; k = 0, . . . , n + 1),

(2.12)

i=1

where we define for = 1, . . . , and for i = 1, 2, 3

q3+i + pi

B + p + q
Yi,k = q3+i
i
3k3+i

B
ci

for k = 0,
for k = 1, . . . , n ,
for k = n + 1.

(2.13)

= P P b (k = 1, . . . , n + 1; i = 1, 2, 3). Then we have for

For segment Sk , let Z i,k

k1 k i
= 1, . . . , and for i = 1, 2, 3

for k = 1,
qi

Z i,k = q3(k1)+i
(2.14)
q3(k2)+i
for k = 2, . . . , n ,

Yi,n +1 Yi,n
for k = n + 1.
and is found as
The length of segment Sk is denoted by Z 4,k

Z 4,k

3


1/2
2
(Z i,k
)

(2.15)

i=1
to P is
The unit tangent vector directed from Pk1
k

tk

Pk1 Pk

|Pk1 Pk |

3
=

i=1

b
Z i,k
i

Z 4,k

(2.16)

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W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

From the diagram in Fig. 2, the unit normal in the same plane as O Pk1
Pk is computed as

hk

OQk
=
=
|OQk |

3
i=1

Z 4+i,k
bi

Z 8,k

(2.17)

where for k = 1, . . . , n + 1; i = 1, 2, 3,


Z 4+i,k

OQk bi

ti,k
= tk bi =

Z 8,k

OPk

(OPk tk )tk

Yi,k

3




Ys,k
ts,k

ti,k
,

(2.18)

s=1

Z i,k

,
Z 4,k
1/2

3


2
= |OQk | =
(Z 4+i,k )
.

(2.19)

(2.20)

i=1

To complete the triad, the unit vector sk is given by sk = tk hk .

3. Kinematics
3.1 Velocity
We need to express the quantities qrB , qr in terms of the generalized speeds, where the dots indicate
differentiation with respect to time t. First we have the standard relations for space-three 1-2-3
rotation angles given by Kane et al. (8) as
s2 B
(u s1 + u 3B c1 ),
c2 2
q2B = u 2B c1 u 3B s1 ,
1
q3B = (u 2B s1 + u 3B c1 ).
c2

q1B = u 1B +

(3.1)

Next, using the expression for vG in terms of generalized speeds (see equation (2.11)) and the
relation
vG =

Bd

dt

(OG) + B OG

we deduce that
q4B = u 4B u 2B q6 + u 3B q5 ,
q5B = u 5B + u 1B q6 u 3B q4 ,
q6B

u 6B

u 1B q5

(3.2)

+ u 2B q4 .

The notation B d/dt indicates time differentiation with respect to the B reference frame and a similar
notation will be used for differentiation with respect to the inertial frame N .

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

185

Using the relations

v P0 = vG + B GP0
and

v P j = v P0 +

Bd

dt

(P0 Pj ) + B P0 Pj

we can similarly obtain the following expressions for the qr :

q3j2 = u 3 j2 u 4B u 2B ( p3 + q3j ) + u 3B ( p2 + q3j1 ),
q3j1 = u 3 j1 u 5B + u 1B ( p3 + q3j ) u 3B ( p1 + q3j2 ),
q3j = u 3 j u 6B u 1B ( p2 + q3j1 ) + u 2B ( p1 + q3j2 ),
= 1, . . . , ; j = 1, . . . , n

(3.3)

3.2 Acceleration
The angular acceleration of B is
B =

Nd

dt

( B ) =

Bd

dt

( B ) + B B =

3


u iB bi .

(3.4)

i=1

The acceleration of G is
aG =

Nd

(vG ) =

Bd

(vG ) + B vG
dt
dt




= b1 u 4B + u 2B u 6B u 3B u 5B + b2 u 5B u 1B u 6B + u 3B u 4B


+ b3 u 6B + u 1B u 5B u 2B u 4B

and the accelerations of the lumped masses are found in a similar fashion as





a P j = b1 u 3 j2 + u 2B u 3 j u 3B u 3 j1 + b2 u 3 j1 u 1B u 3 j + u 3B u 3 j2


+ b3 u 3 j + u 1B u 3 j1 u 2B u 3 j2 , = 1, . . . , ; j = 1, . . . , n
3.3

(3.5)

(3.6)

Partial velocities

Following Kane and Levinson (7), the partial velocities are the coefficients of the generalized speeds
in the expressions for the velocities of the system components and are written by inspection.
3.3.1

Rigid body B.

Partial velocities rB and vrG :


(r = 1, 2, 3),
br
B
r =
0
(r = 4, 5, 6),

0
(r = 1, 2, 3),
vrG =
br 3 (r = 4, 5, 6).

(3.7)
(3.8)

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W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

P

3.3.2 Connection points P0 ( = 1, . . . , ). Partial velocities vr 0 :

p2 b3 p3 b2

p3 b1 p1 b3

p b p b
1 2
2 1
=
b1

b2

b3

vr 0

(r
(r
(r
(r
(r
(r

= 1),
= 2),
= 3),
= 4),
= 5),
= 6).

(3.9)

3.3.3 Lumped masses at P j ( = 1, . . . , ; j = 1, . . . , n ). Partial velocities vr j :

P
vr j

b1

b
2
=

b3

0,

(r = 3 j 2),
(r = 3 j 1),
(r = 3 j),
otherwise.

r {1, . . . , 3n }.

(3.10)

4. Generalized inertia forces

The non-hydrodynamic generalized inertia force FrB on body B is
FrB = rB T + vrG (M0 aG )

(r = 1, . . . , 6),

(4.1)

where M0 is the mass of the body and T is the inertia torque which is defined as (7)
T = [u1 B I1 u 2B u 3B (I2 I3 )]b1
[u2 B I2 u 3B u 1B (I3 I1 )]b2
[u3 B I3 u 1B u 2B (I1 I2 )]b3 .

(4.2)

Here, the unit vectors bi are chosen parallel to the central principal axes of B and I1 , I2 , I3 are the
moments of inertia of B about b1 , b2 , b3 respectively. The hydrodynamic inertia forces contribute
to what is known as the added-mass effects of the buoy motion in water and will be discussed later.
Equation (4.1) may be written in the form
{F B } = [V B ]{u B } [W B ]{ B },
where [V B ] and [W B ] are 6 6 diagonal matrices with diagonal entries defined as
B
V11
= I1 ,

B
V22
= I2 ,

B
W11
= I3 I2 ,

B
V33
= I3 ,

B
W22
= I1 I3 ,

B
B
B
V44
= V55
= V66
= M0 ,
B
W33
= I2 I1 ,

B
B
B
W44
= W55
= W66
= M0 .

(4.3)

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

187

For a spherical buoy, the off-diagonal entries are zero. The vector {u B } is a 6 1 column vector
with entries u rB (r = 1, . . . , 6) and { B } is a 6 1 column vector with entries
1B = u 2B u 3B ,

2B = u 3B u 1B ,

3B = u 1B u 2B ,

4B = u 2B u 6B u 3B u 5B ,

(4.4)

5B = u 3B u 4B u 1B u 6B ,
6B = u 1B u 5B u 2B u 4B .
For line L with lumped masses m j the non-hydrodynamic generalized inertia force is
Fr =

n


vr j (m j a P j )

(r = 1, . . . , 3n ; = 1, . . . , ).

(4.5)

j=1

This may be written in matrix form as

{F } = [V ]{u } [V ]{ },

(4.6)

where {u } is the 3n 1 column vector of u r values, [V ] is a 3n 3n diagonal matrix and

{ } is a 3n 1 column vector defined as
V3j2, 3 j2 = V3j1, 3 j1 = V3j, 3 j = m j ,
3j2 = u 2B u 3 j u 3B u 3 j1 ,
3j1 = u 1B u 3 j + u 3B u 3 j2 ,
3j = u 1B u 3 j1 u 2B u 3 j2 ,
j = 1, . . . , n ; = 1, . . . , .
5. Gravity, buoyancy and touchdown
The generalized active forces due to gravity, buoyancy and touchdown act in the same direction and
are treated together. We will model the seabed normal reaction forces on the lines at touchdown but
we assume that the buoy B does not experience touchdown. Seabed friction is not modelled. The
generalized active force due to gravity and buoyancy on buoy B (mass M0 and volume V0 ) is

G B/B

Fr

C
31
= M0b gN3 vrG = M0b g

C32

C33

(r
(r
(r
(r

= 1, 2, 3),
= 4),
= 5),
= 6),

(5.1)

where M0b = M0 f V0 and Ci j refers to the elements of matrix [ N C B ], equation (2.4). If we

denote the volume of the portion of line L associated with lumped mass m j by V j , the net force on
b

lumped mass m j due to gravity and buoyancy is m b

j gN3 , where m j = m j f V j . To allow for
the possibility of contact between any portion of the mooring lines and the seabed (touchdown) we

188

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

assume that the seabed normal reaction force is directly proportional to the depth of lumped-mass
penetration into the bed surface. Hence the vertical touchdown reaction force on m j is given by


1
2 k E (|h j | h j )N3

0
k E |h j |N3

if h j
0,
if h j < 0,

where h j = OPj N3 is the height of point P j above the seabed and k E is a seabed stiffness
coefficient. Using equations (2.3) and (2.12) we can write h j as
h j =

3


C3i Yi, j

( j = 1, . . . , n ).

(5.2)

i=1

The net force on m j due to gravity, buoyancy and seabed normal reaction at touchdown is written
as j = j N3 , where

1
j = m b
j g + 2 k E (|h j | h j ).

(5.3)

The generalized active force due to j is

G BT /L

Fr

n


j N3 vr j .

(5.4)

j=1

Using (2.3) and (3.10) we write this as

G BT /L

= j C31 ,

G BT /L

= j C32 ,

G BT /L

= j C33

F3 j2
F3 j1
F3 j

(5.5)

( j = 1, . . . , n ).
6. Line tension

The stiffness k S j of segment S j of line L is defined in the usual way as

kSj =

A0, j E j
l j

where A0, j , E j , l j are, respectively, the area of cross-section, modulus of elasticity and unstretched
(equation (2.15)).
length of the segment. The instantaneous length of the segment is denoted by Z 4,
j
We allow for line tension but not for compression. To this end, we define the elongation of segment
S j as

1
Z 9,
j = 2 [(Z 4, j l j ) + |Z 4, j l j |]

( j = 1, . . . , n + 1),

(6.1)

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

189

which is identically zero if the instantaneous segment length becomes less than the unstretched
length. The magnitude of the tension in segment S j is thus

B j = k S j Z 9,
j.

The line tensions act on B at points P0 ( = 1, . . . , ) in the directions of the unit vectors t1 . The
generalized active force due to line tension on body B is therefore

T /B

Fr


=1

ar B1

(r = 1, . . . , 6),

(6.2)

where ar = t1 vr 0 and is evaluated as

ar

p2 t3,1 p3 t2,1

p3 t1,1 p1 t3,1

p t p t
2 1,1
= 1 2,1

1,1

t2,1

t3,1

(r
(r
(r
(r
(r
(r

= 1),
= 2),
= 3),
= 4),
= 5),
= 6),

(6.3)

= b tk (i = 1, 2, 3; k = 1, . . . , n
and ti,k
i
+1 ; = 1, . . . , ), given by equation (2.19).
Using similar arguments we write the generalized active force due to tension on the lumped
masses in line L as

T /L

Fr

n
+1

Ajr B j ,

(6.4)

j=1

where

Ajr

P1

t1 vr
P
P
= tj (vr j vr j1 )

P

tn +1 vr n

( j = 1),
( j = 2, . . . , n ),

(6.5)

( j = n + 1)

(r = 1, . . . , 3n ). Using the definitions of the partial velocities, equation (3.10), this is evaluated

190

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

for r = 1, . . . , 3n as

A1r

Ajr

An +1,r

t1,1 (r = 1),

t
(r = 2),
= 2,1

t
(r = 3),

3,1
0,
otherwise,

t1,

j (r = 3 j 5),

t2, j (r = 3 j 4),

t3, j (r = 3 j 3),

= t1,
( j = 2, . . . , n ),
(r = 3 j 2),
j

(r = 3 j 1),

t2, j

t3, j
(r = 3 j),

0,
otherwise,

t +1 (r = 3n 2),

1,n

t2,n
(r = 3n 1),
+1
=

t
(r = 3n ),

3,n +1
0,
otherwise.

(6.6)

7. Mooring line structural damping

In any line segment, the damping force on the end masses is of the form Cs (v R t)t, where v R is
the velocity of one mass relative to the other, t is the unit tangent vector along the segment and Cs
is a structural damping coefficient. We write the velocity of Pk in the form

v Pk =

3


i,k
bi

(k = 0, . . . , n +1 ; = 1, . . . , ).

(7.1)

i=1

Here

i,0

B
B
B

u 4 + u 2 p3 u 3 p2
= u 5B u 1B p3 + u 3B p1

B
u 6 + u 1B p2 u 2B p1

i,k
= u 3(k1)+i

i,n
+1

B
vi

(i = 1),
(i = 2),
(i = 3),

(i = 1, 2, 3; k = 1, . . . , n ),
(i = 1, 2, 3),

(7.2)

where B vi (i = 1, 2, 3) are the components of the specified velocity of point Pn +1 in the B frame
and are computed from the known inertial velocity components N ci using the transformation matrix
[ N C B ], that is,
N
B
c1
v1


N c = N C B B v .
(7.3)
2
2
N c
B v
3
3

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

191

due to structural damping in segment

It is then possible to write the force on points Pk and Pk1

Sk in the form

D Pk /Sk = gk tk = D Pk1 /Sk

(k = 1, . . . , n ),

(7.4)

where

gk = C Sk (v Pk v Pk1 )tk sign (Z 9,k

)

C Sk sign (Z 9,k
)

3


(i,k
i,k1
)ti,k

(k = 1, . . . , n +1 )

(7.5)

i=1

and C Sk is the damping coefficient for segment Sk . The generalized active force due to line
structural damping on body B is
S D/B

Fr


=1

(r = 1, . . . , 6; = 1, . . . , )

ar g1a

(7.6)

and on line L
S D/L

Fr

n
+1

Akr gk .

(7.7)

k=1

The quantities ar and Akr are given by (6.3) and (6.6) respectively.
7.1 Viscous drag
If the dimensions of body B are small compared to the length of the surface waves we can assume
that the fluid velocity field is not affected by the presence of the body. We assume that the rotational
damping torque T D due to fluid drag can be written in the form
T D = 12 f A B C R 3B | B | B ,

(7.8)

where A B is the surface area of the body, R B is the typical radial body dimension and C is a
rotational damping coefficient.
For the drag resisting translational motion we need the velocity of the body relative to the fluid:
G
G
VG
R = v UF ,

(7.9)

where UG
F is the fluid velocity at the location of the bodys centre of mass G. The drag on the body
is
F BD =

3


(i)

FD ,

(7.10)

i=1

where the drag in direction bi is given by Morisons formula (Chakrabarti (9)):

(i)

(i)

(i)

G
F D = 12 f A B C D |VG
R bi |(V R bi )bi .

(7.11)

192

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

(i)

(i)

Here A B is the projected surface area of the body normal to bi and C D is the associated drag
coefficient. The generalized active force due to viscous drag on body B is
D/B

Fr

= 12 f A B C R 3B [(u 1B )2 + (u 2B )2 + (u 3B )2 ] 2 u rB ,
(r )

D/B

(r )

B
B
F3+r = 12 f A B C D |u 3+r
B UrG |(u 3+r
B UrG )

(r = 1, 2, 3).

(7.12)

The quantities B UrG are the components of UG

F in the body-fixed frame.
Consider segment Sk , diameter dk , unstretched length lk (k = 1, . . . , n + 1). Assume that the
segment Sk has a velocity equal to the velocity of its mid-point and is given by

V Sk =

1
2

v Pk + v Pk1

(k = 1, . . . , n + 1).
S

(7.13)

k
Let the fluid velocity at the segment mid-point be U Fk . Let C DT
, C DkN be the tangential and normal

drag coefficients for segment Sk . The associated areas are

A Tk = dk lk

A Nk = lk dk .

and

(7.14)

The velocity of Sk relative to the fluid is

S

V Rk = V Sk U Fk

(7.15)

and its evaluation will be discussed below. The viscous drag on segment Sk is, by Morisons
equation (9),
S

k
F Dk = 12 f A Tk C DT
|V Rk tk |(V Rk tk )tk

12 f A Nk C DkN |V Rk hk |(V Rk hk )hk

12 f A Nk C DkN |V Rk sk |(V Rk sk )sk .
S

(7.16)

For segments S1 , Sn +1 , we apply drag forces F D1 , F Dn +1 to masses m 1 , m n at P1 , Pn

respectively. For segments Sk (k = 2, . . . , n ) we apply

D/Sk

1 Sk
2 FD

to masses m k , m k1 at points

. Let F
Pk , Pk1
(r = 1, . . . , 3n ) be the generalized active force due to viscous drag on
r
segment Sk , defined by
D/S1

Fr

D/Sk

Fr

D/S
Fr n +1

(k = 2, . . . , n ),

S
P
F Dn +1 vr n .

D/Sk

To facilitate the evaluation of Fr

S

= F D1 vr 1 ,
P 
S  P
= 12 F Dk vr k + vr k1

(7.17)
S

we note that F Dk bi may be written in the form

F Dk bi = i,k
+ i,k
+ i,k

(i = 1, 2, 3; k = 1, . . . , n + 1),

(7.18)

193

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

where
S

k
i,k
= 12 f A Tk C DT
|V Rk tk |(V Rk tk ) ti,k
,

(7.19)

i,k

(7.20)

i,k
=

S
A Nk
S
12 f A Nk

12 f

S
S
S

C DkN |V Rk hk |(V Rk hk ) h i,k

,

S
S
S

C DkN |V Rk sk |(V Rk sk ) si,k

(7.21)

= b t , h = b h , s = b s .
for i = 1, 2, 3; k = 1, . . . , n + 1 and ti,k
i k
i k i,k
i k
i,k
The generalized active force due to viscous drag on line L is
D/L

Fr

n
+1

D/Sk

(r = 1, . . . , 3n ).

Fr

(7.22)

k=1

We now
the fluid velocity and acceleration fields at the segment mid-points. Since
3 determine
b (k = 0, . . . , n + 1), the position vector of the mid-point of segment S is
OPk = i=1
Yi,k
i

k
OSk =
=

1
2
1
2

OPk1 + OPk

3


(k = 0, . . . , n + 1),

(Yi,k1
+ Yi,k
)bi .

(7.23)

i=1

Define
[ N O S] = [ N C B ] [ B O S] ,

(7.24)

where the kth column of matrix [ B O S] is the vector OSk given in equation (7.23). Then the
columns of matrix [ N O S] are the position vectors in inertial coordinates of the mid-points of
segments Sk . The fluid velocity and acceleration fields are calculated by function subroutines
based on Stokess second-order wave theory (9). These subroutines calculate the fluid velocity and
acceleration vectors U F , a F in inertial coordinates at an arbitrary position x and time t. To evaluate
S

the segmentfluid relative velocity V Rk we use equation (7.1) to write, for k = 1, . . . , n + 1,

V Sk =


Pk
+ v Pk1 =
2v

1

V Rk =

1
2

3 


i,k
bi ,
+ i,k1

i=1
S
Sk
V U Fk ,

(7.25)
(7.26)

where U Fk must be expressed in the B frame, that is,

{ B V R } Sk = { B V } Sk { B U F } Sk
= {B V }

Sk

(7.27)
Sk

[ N C B ]T { N U F } .

(7.28)

A similar procedure is used to calculate the relative velocity VG

R between the centre of mass G of
body B and the fluid in frame B.

194

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

8. Hydrodynamic pressure forces

As before, we assume that the fluid velocity field is unaffected by the presence of body B. The fluid
acceleration at G is aG
F = DU F /Dt evaluated at G where
D

=
+ u.
Dt
t

(8.1)

Let [ N A] be the added-mass matrix of body B in the inertial frame. Define the inertia matrix [ N E]
in the inertial frame by
[ N E] = f V0 [I ] + [ N A],

(8.2)

where V0 is the volume of the body B and [I ] is the 3 3 identity matrix. The hydrodynamic
pressure force H B on body B may be written (Landau and Lifshitz (10)) as
H B = H I /B + H A/B ,

(8.3)

where H I /B is due to fluid inertia and H A/B is due to added mass. Let the vectors H I /B and H A/B
have inertial components { N H I /B } and { N H A/B }. Then
{ N H I /B } = [ N E]{ N a FG },

(8.4)

{ H

(8.5)

A/B

} = [ A]{ a },
N

N G

where { N a FG } is the fluid acceleration at G in the absence of the body and { N a G } is the acceleration
of G, both in the inertial frame. In frame B, we write equations (8.4) and (8.5) as
{ B H I /B } = [ B E] { B a FG },

(8.6)

{ H

(8.7)

A/B

} = [ A] { a }.
B

B G

The vector { B a G } is given by (3.5). Matrix [ B A] is the added-mass matrix of B in frame B and is
known from tables (regular shapes). Matrix [ B E] is computed as
[ B E] = [ N C B ]T [ N E][ N C B ] = f V0 [I ] + [ B A]

(8.8)

and { B a FG } is found from

B

 N
T  N G 
a FG = C B
aF .
I /B

The generalized active force on B due to fluid inertia is Fr

I /B

Fr

= 0,

I /B

I /B

F3+r = B Hr

(8.9)

= H I /B vrG and is given by

(r = 1, 2, 3).
A/B

The generalized inertia force on B due to added-mass effects is Fr

need to isolate the u rB and we obtain

(8.10)

= H A/B vrG . In this case we

{F A/B } = [M A/B ]{u B } [M A/B ]{ B },

(8.11)

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

195

where [M A/B ] is a 6 6 diagonal matrix defined by

[M A/B ] = diag(0, 0, 0, B A11 , B A22 , B A33 )

(8.12)

and { B } is the 6 1 vector defined in (4.4). In (8.12) we have neglected the added inertia terms
due to body rotation in the fluid. Subscripts 11, 22 and 33 refer to the principal body axes. The
quantities B Aii are the components of the added-mass matrix of body B in the B frame. We remark
that for a spherical body B Aii is half of the displaced mass of water (i = 1, 2, 3).
For line L , the transformation matrix between the local Sk frame and the body-fixed B frame is
S
k


B

t1,k

= h 1,k

s1,k

t3,k
h 3,k .

s3,k

t2,k
h 2,k

s2,k

Then we write

tk
b1



h = Sk C B b2 .
k
sk
b3

The added-mass matrix [ Bk A Sk ] of segment Sk in the B frame is related to its local Sk frame

representation [ Sk A Sk ] by
B

 T  S S   S B 

k A k
k C
.
A Sk = Sk C B

(8.13)

The matrix [ Sk A Sk ] is given by

S

A11k = 0,

A22k = A33k = f V Sk = f

2 S
(d ) k
4

(8.14)

for a cylindrical body, where subscripts 11, 22 and 33 refer respectively to the tangential and normal
directions as described in section 2.4. The hydrodynamic pressure force on segment Sk is

H Sk = H I /Sk + H A/Sk ,

(8.15)

where the terms correspond to fluid acceleration and added-mass effects, respectively. Considering

the first term in (8.15), the components of H I /Sk in the B frame are
B



  B Sk 
H I /Sk = B E Sk
aF ,

(8.16)



E Sk = f (d 2 ) Sk [I ] + B A Sk
4

(8.17)

where
B
and
B


T  N Sk 
S 
a Fk = N C B
aF .

(8.18)

196

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

S

Here, the vectors { N a Fk } and { B a Fk } are the fluid accelerations at the mid-point of segment Sk in
the inertial and B frames respectively, the former being computed by an independent routine as
I /Sk

mentioned previously. Let Fr

be the generalized active force due to H I /Sk on segment Sk . Then

I /S1

= H I /S1 vr 1 .

Fr

(8.19)

For k = 2, . . . , n ,
I /Sk

Fr

= 12 H I /Sk (vr k + vr k1 )

(r = 1, . . . , 3n )

(8.20)

and for k = n +1 ,
I /Sn +1

Fr

=H

I /Sn

+1

vr n .

(8.21)

The generalized active force on L due to fluid inertia is then

I /L

Fr

n
+1

I /Sk

(r = 1, . . . , 3n ).

Fr

(8.22)

k=1

We now consider the second term in (8.15). In keeping with the lumped-mass approximation, we

apply the forces H A/Sk to the points Pk . Specifically, the added-mass forces of segment 1 and half
of segment 2 are lumped at point P1 . Similarly, the added-mass forces of segment n +1 and half
of segment n are lumped at point Pn . The added-mass effects of the other segments are lumped

in halves at the ends. Denoting by H A/Pk the hydrodynamic pressure forces corresponding to the
added mass of the segments lumped at points Pk , we have

H A/P1 = H A/S1 + 12 H A/S2 ,

A/Pn

A/Sn

H A/Pk = 12 (H A/Sk + H A/Sk+1 )

H

= 12 H

+H

A/Sn +1

(k = 2, . . . , n 1),
.

(8.23)

In general, H A/Pk has components in frame B

B

H A/Pk

  B P 
= Q Pk
a k ,

(8.24)

where







Q P1 = B A S1 + 12 B A S2 ,
 P  1  B S  1  S 
(k = 2, . . . , n 1),
Q k = 2 A k + 2 B A k+1


 P  1  B S 

Q n = 2 A n + B A Sn +1 ,

(8.25)

and { B a Pk } is given by (3.6). We can write

a Pk = Pk + Pk ,

(8.26)

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

197

where

Pk = u 3k2 b1 u 3k1 b2 + u 3k b3 ,

Pk

(8.27)

= (u 2B u 3k u 3B u 3k1 )b1
+ (u 1B u 3k + u 3B u 3k2 )b2
+ (u 1B u 3k1 u 2B u 3k2 )b3 .

(8.28)

We can thus write

H A/Pk = S Pk + R Pk ,

(8.29)

 

{S Pk } = Q Pk { Pk } (k = 1, . . . , n ),
 

{R Pk } = Q Pk { Pk } (k = 1, . . . , n ).

(8.30)

where

A/Pk

Let the generalized forces due to S Pk and R Pk be X r

A/Pk

Xr

A/P
Yr k

A/Pk

, Yr

(8.31)

respectively, defined as

Pk

= S Pk vr ,

(8.32)

Pk

P
vr k .

(8.33)

=R

For line L , define

A/L

Xr

n


A/Pk

Xr

(r = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(8.34)

k=1

This may be written as




{X } A/L = M A/L {u },

(8.35)

where [M A/L ] is a block-diagonal matrix defined by

 A/L 
    
 
= diag Q P1 , Q P2 , . . . , Q Pn .
M

(8.36)

For line L define

A/L

Yr

n


A/Pk

Yr

(r = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(8.37)

k=1

This may be written as

where { } is defined by


{Y } A/L = M A/L { },

(8.38)

3k2
= { Pk } (k = 1, . . . , n ),
3k1

3k

(8.39)

198

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

with { Pk } given by equation (8.28). The generalized inertia force on subsystem L due to added
mass is
A/L

A/L

= Xr

Fr

A/L

+ Yr

(r = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(8.40)





} = M A/L {u } M A/L { }.

(8.41)

From equations (8.35) and (8.38)

A/L

{Fr
8.1

Externally applied forces and moments on body B

Any system of applied forces and moments may be replaced by an equivalent forcecouple system
F0 , T0 , where force F0 passes through the centre of mass G of B. Let
F0 =

3


Fi0 Ni =

i=1

T0 =

3


3


Fi0 bi ,

(8.42)

Ti0 bi .

(8.43)

i=1
N

Ti0 Ni =

i=1

3

i=1

The generalized active force due to F0 and T0 is

E/B

Fr

= F0 vrG + T0 rB

(r = 1, . . . , 6),

(8.44)

that is,
E/B

Fr

= B Tr0 ,

E/B

F3+r = B Fr0

(r = 1, 2, 3),

(8.45)

where the force and torque components in the B frame are calculated from
{B F 0} =
{B T 0} =

N
N

CB
C

T


B T

{ N F 0 },

(8.46)

{ N T 0 }.

(8.47)

9. Equations of motion
Now, in order to formulate the equations of motion for the entire system we define the system
generalized coordinates qi (i = 1, . . . , m), where m is the number of degrees of freedom
(equation (2.2)) as follows:
qi = qiB
qm +k =
m =

qk

(i = 1, . . . , 6),
( = 1, . . . , ;

6 + 3

1

r =1

nr

(9.1)
k = 1, . . . , 3n ),

(9.2)

( = 1),
( = 2, . . . , ).

(9.3)

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

199

Similarly, let the system generalized speeds be u i (i = 1, . . . , m), where

u i = u iB
u k

u m +k =

(i = 1, . . . , 6),

(9.4)

( = 1, . . . , ; k = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(9.5)

To write the equations of motion we assemble the components of the generalized inertia and active
forces for the system. Matrices will be denoted by square brackets and column vectors by curly
brackets.
The non-hydrodynamic generalized inertia forces for the system are denoted by FrN H (r =
1, . . . , m), where
FiN H = FiB

(i = 1, . . . , 6)

(9.6)

H
FmN
+k

( = 1, . . . , ; k = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(9.7)

Fk

We write (4.3) and (4.6) as

 
 
W S { S },
{F N H } = V S {u}

(9.8)

where u r (r = 1, . . . , m) are the system generalized speeds,

{ S } = ({ B }, { 1 }, . . . , { })T ,

(9.9)

and [V S ] and [W S ] are (m m) block diagonal matrices defined as

[V S ] = diag([V B ], [V 1 ], . . . , [V ]),

(9.10)

[W S ] = diag([W B ], [V 1 ], . . . , [V ]).

(9.11)

The generalized active forces for the system due to gravity, buoyancy and touchdown are denoted
by FrG BT (r = 1, . . . , m), where
G B/B

FiG BT = Fi

(i = 1, . . . , 6),

FmGBT
+k = Fk

( = 1, . . . , ; k = 1, . . . , 3n ).

G BT /L

(9.12)

The generalized active forces for the system due to mooring line tension are denoted by FrT (r =
1, . . . , m), where
T /B

FiT = Fi
FmT +k =

T /L
Fk

(i = 1, . . . , 6),
( = 1, . . . , ; k = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(9.13)

The generalized active forces for the system due to structural damping in the mooring lines are
denoted by FrS D (r = 1, . . . , m), where
S D/B

FiS D = Fi

S D/L

FmS D+k = Fk

(i = 1, . . . , 6),
( = 1, . . . , ; k = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(9.14)

200

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

The generalized active forces due to viscous drag on the system are denoted by FrD (r = 1, . . . , m),
where
D/B

FiD = Fi
FmD +k

(i = 1, . . . , 6),

D/L
Fk

( = 1, . . . , ; k = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(9.15)

The generalized active forces for the system due to fluid inertia and added mass are denoted by FrI
and FrA respectively (r = 1, . . . , m). These are defined by
I /B

FiI = Fi

(i = 1, . . . , 6),

I /L

FmI +k = Fk

( = 1, . . . , ; k = 1, . . . , 3n ).

(9.16)

From (8.11) and (8.41)

[M A ]{ S },
{F A } = [M A ]{u}

(9.17)

where u r (r = 1, . . . , m) are the system generalized speeds and [M A ] is an m m block diagonal

matrix defined by

[M A ] = diag([M A/B ], [M A/L ], . . . , [M A/L ]).

(9.18)

The generalized active force for the system due to externally applied forces and moments is

E/B
Fr
(r = 1, . . . , 6),
E
Fr =
(9.19)
0
(r = 7, . . . , m).
The total generalized inertia force for the system is
{F S } = {F N H } + {F A }
[W S ]{ S } [M A ]{u}
[M A ]{ S }
= [V S ]{u}
[B S ]{ S },
= [A S ]{u}

(9.20)

where
[A S ] = [V S ] + [M A ],

(9.21)

[B ] = [W ] + [M ].

(9.22)

The total generalized active force for the system is

[F S ] = [F G BT ] + {F T } + {F S D } + {F D } + {F I } + {F E }.

(9.23)

We are now able to write the system of 2m coupled nonlinear equations of motion of buoy B and its
mooring lines (Kane and Levinson (7)) as
{F S } + {F S } = {0}.

(9.24)

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

201

From (9.20) we have

= [A S ]1 ([B S ]{ S } + {F S }).
{u}
Define the 2m 1 column vector {x} by

(9.25)


{q}

.
{u}

(9.26)

 
{q}

{x}
=
.

{u}

(9.27)

{x} =
The system of equations to be solved is then

The functions q r (r = 1, . . . , m) are supplied by the kinematic analysis presented in section 3

and the functions u r (r = 1, . . . , m) are given by (9.25). When appropriate initial conditions
are specified, equation (9.27) is solved by the implementation of the RungeKutta algorithm
ode45 provided in MATLAB (11). No numerical difficulties are encountered for the test problems
considered in the sequel. Discussion of the results of further simulations will be presented in
subsequent work.
10. Test problems
10.1 Problem 1: the elastic catenary
To test the algorithm we consider the case of a single-point mooring system which is a special
case of the present formulation with = 1. For comparison purposes, we make use of the closed
form solution for an elastic catenary presented by Irvine (12). This solution was rewritten for the
geometry illustrated in Fig. 3. For an anchored line of unstretched length L 0 , area of cross-section
A0 , modulus of elasticity E, submerged weight per unit length b g, the stretched line profile as a
function of unstretched arclength s is given by





Hs
V b gL 0 + b gs
V b gL 0
H
x(s) =
sinh1
sinh1
,
(10.1)
+
E A0
b g
H
H


s
1
z(s) =
V b gL 0 + b gs
E A0
2


 1 
 1 

H
V b gL 0 + b gs 2 2
V b gL 0 2 2
+
,
(10.2)
1+
1+
b g
H
H
where the top end is supported by a force whose horizontal and vertical components are H and V
as shown in Fig. 3. The distances a and b (Fig.3) are obtained from equations (10.1)and (10.2) by
putting s = L 0 , that is,
 



H L0
H
1 V
1 V b gL 0
a=
sinh
sinh
,
(10.3)
+
E A0
b g
H
H


1 

 1 

L0
1
H
V2 2
V b gL 0 2 2
b=
V b gL 0 +
.
(10.4)
1+ 2
1+
E A0
2
b g
H
H

202

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

Fig. 3 The elastic catenary

The tension at any point is

1

T (s) = [H 2 + (V b gL 0 + b gs)2 ] 2 .

(10.5)

We now consider the case of a solid spherical buoy, radius a0 , with one line attached to its centre
starting from an initial condition in which the line is unstretched. A constant horizontal force
H = 1000 N is applied to the spheres centre. When the steady-state rest position is attained,
the line is being held by the following force components H, V at its top end:
H = 1000 (N),
V = |(M0 f V0 )g|,

(10.6)
(10.7)

where M0 , V0 are respectively the mass and volume of the sphere. Knowing these values of H and
V we can determine the expected steady-state line profile and tension from (10.1), (10.2) and (10.5).
A simulation was conducted with the following parameters: sphere radius a0 = 1 m, sphere density
0 = 800 kg m3 , volume V0 = 43 a03 , mass M0 = f V0 ; line diameter d0 = 35 mm, line length
L 0 = 13 m, mass per unit length = 50 kg m1 , modulus of elasticity E = 107 N m2 .
The line was modelled using 10 lumped masses. The steady-state line profile after a simulation
of t = 400 s, using the presented algorithm, and the profile determined from the static solution
equations (10.1), (10.2) are shown in Fig. 4 with no noticeable difference. A comparison between
the steady-state tensions in the segments and the tensions computed from (10.5) at the segment midpoints is shown in the following table, where the segments are numbered consecutively from 1 to
11 starting at the buoy. The difference in segment 1 is about 3 per cent, in segments 2 to 10 at most
02 per cent while in segment 11, at the anchor, it is about 8 per cent. Alternative distribution of the
line mass may give different accuracy at the line ends but the exploration of this point is outside the
scope of the present paper.

DYNAMICS OF A BUOY AND MOORING LINES

203

Fig. 4 Test problem 1: steady-state cable profile and analytic solution

10.2

Segment no.

Tension (N) in segment

lumped-mass model

Tension (N) at segment centre

analytic solution

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

31525
39713
45233
50783
56340
61901
67481
73088
78731
84373
92850

34282
39752
45274
50832
56414
62015
67629
73254
78887
84527
90172

Problem 2: sphere and three mooring lines

The initial configuration is shown in Fig. 5. Three mooring lines are symmetrically connected to a
sphere at its centre and anchored at points A1 , A2 , A3 . The characteristics of the sphere and each
line are as follows: sphere radius a0 = 1m, sphere density 0 = 500 kg m3 , volume V0 = 43 a03 ,

204

W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

Fig. 5 Sphere and symmetrically arranged mooring lines

mass M0 = f V0 ; line diameter d0 = 35 mm, line length L 0 = 13 m, mass per unit length
= 50 kg m1 , modulus of elasticity E = 106 N m2 .
The sphere is held with the lines initially unstretched and then released from rest at time t = 0,
that is, referring to Fig. 5, the sphere is initially at height h = 5 m and the anchor points are at
distances d = 12 m from the origin O. From symmetry, we expect the sphere to rise vertically
and attain a steady-state equilibrium position in which each line assumes the elastic catenary shape
given by (10.1) and (10.2). By solving (10.3) with a = 12 m using Newtons method, the value of
H is found to be 68515 N. Then, knowing that for each line in steady state V = 13 |M0 f V0 g|, we
determine the profile of each line using (10.1) and (10.2). For the simulation, each line is modelled
by 10 lumped masses. A plot of the steady-state line profiles and the analytically determined profiles
is shown in Fig. 6.
10.3

Problem 3: single-point mooring of sphere in waves

We consider a single-point mooring system consisting of a submerged sphere and a line attached to
its centre subjected to wave loading and compare with the results published by Tjavaras et al. (4).
The sphere has a diameter of 15 m, mass 1611 kg, added mass 907 kg and drag coefficient 02. The
line has an unstretched length of 20 m, cross-sectional area 785 105 m2 , modulus of elasticity
6369 108 N m2 and density 1140 kg m3 . The system is moored in 25 m of water and is subject
to an incident wave of period 5 s. The interaction between the buoy and the free surface is neglected.
For a wave amplitude of 01 m the response is regular (non-chaotic) and a plot of the normalized

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205

Fig. 6 Test problem 2: steady-state cable profiles and analytic solution

line tension at the buoy is shown in Fig. 7. Based on a visual inspection, this is the same result
presented by Tjavaras et al. (4, Fig. 9). For example, the maximum and minimum tension values as
well as the period of vibration and its beating pattern are the same.
11. Multi-line simulation results
Using the same parameters for the sphere and lines as in Problem 3 above, we conduct a simulation
of a mooring system in waves, consisting of three mooring lines symmetrically arranged and initially
unstretched as in Fig. 5 with d = 12 m, h = 16 m. The water depth is 25 m and the wave period is
5 s. The wave propagates in the positive x direction (O X ) and has an amplitude of 025 m. The line
tensions at the sphere are shown in Fig. 8. From symmetry, the tensions in lines P0 A2 and P0 A3
are the same. The tension in line P0 A1 which lies in the plane normal to the wave front is generally
higher. Discussion and results of further simulations are outside the scope of this paper and will be
presented elsewhere.
12. Conclusions
A systematic analysis procedure (formulation and algorithm) for the three-dimensional dynamics
of a submerged buoy and multiple mooring lines has been presented and validated by comparison
with known results for special cases as well as with available published data. We remark that in the
present formulation it is possible to simulate the motion of a towed body by specifying the motion
of the line end-points. The method is based on Kanes formalism which is well known to provide
an efficient way of formulating the equations of motion of multibody systems. Further development
is needed to model the effects of bending and torsion for the purpose of studying, for example, the
dynamics of marine risers.

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W. RAMAN - NAIR AND R . E . BADDOUR

Fig. 7 Test problem 3: tension of cable at buoy

Fig. 8 Tensions in three-line mooring system under wave excitation

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207

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the referees for their comments.
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