INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Objective
Familiarize the student with the basics of computers. This should give the student a
stepping stone to use when learning more specific details about computer hardware.
Definition of a computer
A computer is an electronic device that takes input such as raw data which can be
numbers, text, sound, image, animations, video, etc., processes it, and converts it into
meaningful information that could be understood, presenting the changed input
(processed input) as output. All numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video
used as input are called data, and all numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and
video returned as output are called information.

The data consists of numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video.

The process converts numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video
(data) into usable data, which is called information.

The information consists of numbers, text, sound, images, animations, and video
that has been converted by the process.

The data is inserted using an input device.

The central processing unit (CPU) converts data to information.

The information is put on an output device.

A storage device is an apparatus for storing data and information. A basic computer
consists of 4 components: an input device , a CPU, output devices, and memory.

One of the most common input devices is the keyboard, used to enter text.

Keyboard (not all are the same)[edit]

Keyboard with a Swedish layout

Keyboard with Danish layout

Optimus-113 keyboard with color screens in each key

Apple keyboard with German layout

Symbolics space-cadet keyboard

A computer will process data differently based on the kind of data being handled,
using a set of instructions called a program or routine.

Computer Case[edit]
The CPU and Memory are put into a computer case/ housing.

Macintosh Performa 6400

Power Macintosh 7600

Power Macintosh 8100

Power Macintosh 8200

Fujitsu-Siemens Celvin-1
Monitor[
A computer monitor is the most commonly used output device, for the information
processed by the CPU.

A Fujitsu computer monitor

A CRT computer monitor

KDS XFlat monitor, screen

LCD, SyncMaster 710

Computer System[edit]

The minimum requirements for a functional computer system include; a keyboard, a

case/ housing containing a CPU and memory (although the case itself isn't strictly
necessary), and a monitor. The data is usually entered via the keyboard and the
information is usually presented through a screen; however, information can also be
presented through speakers, braille displays, or any other output devices.
The way components inside a computer fit together helps describe how the computer
works.

Data comes in through an Input Device, and is sent to the CPU by Memory.
The CPU processes the data, based on the input data and the program which is
installed in the computer memory.
When the CPU has finished processing the data, it is presented through the output
device as information.
The information can be stored in the computer memory or presented through an Output
Device.
Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility
which made it an integrated part in all business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for:

Payroll calculations

Budgeting

Sales analysis

Financial forecasting

Managing employees database

Maintenance of stocks etc.

Banking

Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.

Banks provide following facilities:
Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances,
deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers.
The insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using
computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing

procedure to continue with policies

starting date of the policies

next due installment of a policy

maturity date

interests due

survival benefits

bonus

Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).
CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer
to educate the students.
It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is
carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,
write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling
more products.
At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerised catalogues that provide access to product information and permit
direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The
computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It
is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds
and CT Scans etc., are also done by computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of
illness.
Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by
computer.
Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates,
harmful drugs side effects etc.
Surgery : Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation and
modification of images. Some fields are:
Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of
Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.

Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military
also employs computerised control systems. Some military areas where a computer
has been used are:

Missile Control

Military Communication

Military Operation and Planning

Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is
received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for.
Some main areas in this category are:

E-mail

Chatting

Usenet

FTP

Telnet

Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category
are:

Budgets

Sales tax department

Income tax department

Male/Female ratio

Computerization of voters lists

Computerization of driving licensing system

Computerization of PAN card

Weather forecasting

THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT

As it is known from time immemorial that everything in life is like the two side of a coin,
there is always a positive and negative side of every phenomenon. But whether the
effect is positive or negative the effects of Information Communication Technology (ICT)
is far reaching and cannot be overemphasized. The Effects of ICT lens looks at how our
lives have been changed, for better and for worse, by the impact of ICT. It includes both
positive effects and negative effects and looks at how individuals organisations and
society are affected.

POSITIVE IMPACTS OF ICT

ICT CAN HAVE POSITIVE IMPACTS ON PEOPLE
Access to information: Possibly the greatest effect of ICT on individuals is the
huge increase in access to information and services that has accompanied the
growth of the Internet. Some of the positive aspects of this increased access are
better, and often cheaper, communications, such as VoIP phone and Instant
Messaging. In addition, the use of ICT to access information has brought new
opportunities for leisure and entertainment, the facility to make contacts and form
relationships with people around the world, and the ability to obtain goods and
services from a wider range of suppliers.

Improved access to education, e.g. distance learning and on-line tutorials. New
ways of learning, e.g. interactive multi-media and virtual reality. New job
opportunities, e.g. flexible and mobile working, virtual offices and jobs in the
communications industry.

New tools, new opportunities: The second big effect of ICT is that it gives
access to new tools that did not previously exist. A lot of these are tied into the
access to information mentioned above, but there are many examples of standalone ICT systems as well:
a)
ICT can be used for processes that had previously been out of the reach of most
individuals, e.g. photography, where digital cameras, photo-editing software and high
quality printers have enabled people to produce results that would previously required a
photographic studio.
b)
ICT can be used to help people overcome disabilities. e.g. screen magnification or
screen reading software enables partially sighted or blind people to work with ordinary
text rather than Braille.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT ON PEOPLE

Job loss: One of the largest negative effects of ICT can be the loss of a persons
job. This has both economic consequences, loss of income, and social
consequences, loss of status and self esteem. Job losses may occur for several
reasons, including: Manual operations being replaced by automation. e.g. robots
replacing people on an assembly line.Jobexport. e.g. Data processing work being
sent to other countries where operating costs are lower. Multiple workers being
replaced by a smaller number who are able to do the same amount of work. e.g. A
worker on a supermarket checkout can serve more customers per hour if a bar-code
scanner linked to a computerized till is used to detect goods instead of the worker
having to enter the item and price manually

Reduced personal interaction: Being able to work from home is usually

regarded as being a positive effect of using ICT, but there can be negative aspects
as well. Most people need some form of social interaction in their daily lives and if
they do not get the chance to meet and talk with other people they may feel isolated
and unhappy.

Reduced physical activity: A third negative effect of ICT is that users may
adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. This can lead to health problems such as obesity,
heart disease, and diabetes. Many countries have workplace regulations to prevent

problems such as repetitive strain injury or eyestrain, but lack of physical exercise is
rarely addressed as a specific health hazard.
ICT CAN HAVE A POSITIVE EFFECT ON ORGANIZATIONS
There are three main areas in which organisations are affected by the use of ICT,
communications, information management, and security. The three areas have
considerable overlap.

Communication: By using ICT has brought a number of benefits to

organisations, such as: Cost savings by using e.g. VoIP instead of normal telephone,
email / messaging instead of post, video conferencing instead of traveling to
meetings, e-commerce web sites instead of sales catalogues. Access to larger, even
worldwide, markets. Web sites can be seen from all parts of the world and orders
can be taken wherever there is a compatible banking system to process payments,
e.g. credit / debit card, Pay-Pal, bank transfer facility. Web sites also have 24 hour
opening and are available every day of the year. Flexible response. Organisations
with good communications can respond to changes quickly. This may mean better
customer relations, an improved supply chain for goods and services, faster
development of new products to meet a new opportunity, etc.

Information management: Organisations can benefit from using ICT for

information management. e.g. Data mining of customer information to produce lists
for targeted advertising. Improved stock control, resulting in less wastage, better
cash flow, etc.Mangers are better informed and will have more reliable and up-todate information on which to base their decisions.

Security: Although the use of ICT can bring its own security issues, see next
section, it can also solve or reduce some security problems, e.g. Encryption
methods can keep data safe from unauthorized people, both while it is being stored
or while it is being sent electronically. This is important for reasons such as data
protection legislation or commercial secrecy. ICT enables physical security systems
such as fingerprint, iris or facial recognition.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT ON ORGANIZATIONS
a)
Cost: the cost of using ICT may cause a number of problems for organisations. A
lot of ICT hardware and software is expensive, both to purchase and to maintain. An ICT
system usually requires specialist staff to run it and there is also the challenge of
keeping up with ever-changing technology. These extra costs should be offset by the
poitive effects of using ICT, but if an organisation gets its cost-benefit analysis wrong it
may lose money.
b)
Competition: this is usually thought of as being a good thing, but for some
organisations being exposed to greater competition can be a problem. If the
organisation is competing for customers, donations, or other means of funding
nationally or even internationally, they may lose out to other organisations that can offer
the same service for less money.
c)
Security: this is always a problem for any organisation that uses ICT. Data must
be kept secure, Internet connections must be protected from attack, new viruses and
other forms of malware are released nearly every day.
Organisations will usually have legal obligations to protect data such as customer
information. Even if the organisation does not have to comply with a specific data
protection law it will usually be in the organisations interest to protect data from rivals.

ICT CAN HAVE POSITIVE EFFECT ON THE SOCIETY

Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on on society is allowing members of
society to have greatly increased access to information.This can have numerous
positive effects, such as:
a)
increasing opportunities for education
b)
improving communication
c)
allowing people to participate in a wider, even worldwide, society.
The positive impact of ICT on education: On the positive side, the use of ICT in
education can provide opportunities that might not otherwise exist, such as:
1. distance learning, where students can access teaching materials from all over the
world,
2. the ability to perform impossible experiments by using simulations,
3. the possibility for students to have individual learning programs within a topic, rather
than everybody having to do the same thing at the same time at the same pace. More
able students can be given more challenging work, less able students can access
remedial lessons.
the negative impact of ICT on education:
I.
There are large costs involved and poorer students / educational
establishments establishments can end up being disadvantaged. This is often referred
to as being a factor in the digital divide
II.
Students, and sometimes teachers, can get hooked on the
technology aspect, rather than the subject content. Just because a topic can be taught
via ICT, does not mean that it is taught most effectively via ICT.
Even if a subject can be taught effectively via ICT, and there is the money available, it
does not always follow that there is any advantage to it. There have been a lot of
studies / assessments carried out, looking to see if ICT usage improves learning. The
results are mixed. Much simplified, it would appear that:
1. there is some initial impact of using ICT in that students get a wider range of
resources and experience some extra motivation.
2. the motivation effect soon fades as using ICT becomes the new normal
3. the wider resource range remains a positive factor
4. there are some well documented positive effects in specific. e.g. simulation and
modelling is effective in improving science standards, use of word processing and
communication software is effective in developing language skills, but there is concern
that large areas of the curriculum are not benefiting.
The manner in which the subject is taught probably has a larger effect than the mere
use of ICT. i.e. if the teacher does not adapt their methods in order to make best use of
ICT, the students do not gain from that use.
The attitude of the educational establishment also seems to have a greater effect. i.e.
the people running them may not have the knowledge and experience, or often the
money, to enable widespread and effective use of ICT in their schools.
The attitude of society / government can have a large impact of how ICT is perceived
and thus how effectively it is used. Countries where the government encourages ICT
usage and where the majority of the people use ICT on a daily basis are likely to make
better use of ICT in education as well as in the larger society.
On the other hand, in countries where some uses of ICT are restricted because of e.g

political or religious reasons, the use of ICT in education becomes less effective and
may even be seen as a threat to those in power and thus actively discouraged
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY
Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on on society is allowing members of
society to have greatly increased access to information. This can have numerous
negative effects, such as: causing a digital divide between those who can access
information and those who cannot, reducing levels of education and understanding due
to the vast amount of incorrect and misleading information that is available causing
moral and ethical problems due to the nature of some of the material available.

There are two basic parts to a computer: Hardware & Software

Hardware
The hardware are the parts of the computer itself including the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) and related microchips and microcircuitry, keyboards,monitors, case and drives (hard, CD, DVD, solid-state (ssd),
floppy, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts called peripheral
components or devices includemouse, printers, modems, scanners, cameras and
cards (sound, colour,video) etc... Together they are often referred to as a personal
computer.
Central Processing Unit - Though the term relates to a specific chip or
theprocessor a CPU's performance is determined by the rest of the
computer'scircuitry and chips.
Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel, is the most common CPU
though there are many other companies that produce processors for personal
computers. Examples are the CPU made by Motorola and AMD.

With faster processors the clock speed becomes more important. Compared to some
of the first computers which operated at below 30 megahertz (MHz) the Pentium chips
began at 75 MHz in the late 1990's. Speeds now exceed 3000+ MHz or
3 gigahertz(GHz) and different chip manufacturers use different measuring standards
(check your local computer store for the latest speed). It depends on the circuit
boardthat the chip is housed in, or the motherboard, as to whether you are able to
upgrade to a faster chip. The motherboard contains the circuitry and connections that
allow the various component to communicate with each other.

Though there were many computers using many different processors previous to this I
call the 80286 processor the advent of home computers as these were the processors
that made computers available for the average person. Using a processor before the
286 involved learning a proprietary system and software. Most new software are being
developed for the newest and fastest processors so it can be difficult to use an older
computer system.
Keyboard - The keyboard is used to type information into the computer
or inputinformation. There are many different keyboard layouts and sizes with the most
common for Latin based languages being the QWERTY layout (named for the first 6
keys). The standard keyboard has 101 keys. Notebooks have embedded keys
accessible by special keys or by pressing key combinations (CTRL or Command and P
for example). Ergonomically designed keyboards are designed to make typing easier.
Hand held devices have various and different keyboard configurations and touch
screens.

Some of the keys have a special use. They are referred to as command keys. The 3
most common are the Control or CTRL, Alternate or Alt and the Shift keys though there
can be more (the Windows key for example or the Command key). Each key on a
standard keyboard has one or two characters. Press the key to get the lower character
and hold Shift to get the upper.
Removable Storage and/or Disk Drives - All disks need a drive to get information off
- or read - and put information on the disk - or write. Each drive is designed for a
specific type of disk whether it is a CD, DVD, hard disk or floppy. Often the term 'disk'
and 'drive' are used to describe the same thing but it helps to understand that the disk is
the storage device which contains computer files - or software - and the drive is the
mechanism that runs the disk.
Digital flash drives work slightly differently as they use memory
cards to store information so there are no moving parts. Digital cameras
also use Flash memory cards to store information, in this case
photographs. Hand held devices use digital drives and many also use
removable or built in memory cards.
Mouse - Most modern computers today are run using a mouse controlled pointer.
Generally if the mouse has two buttons the left one is used to select objects and text
and the right one is used to access menus. If the mouse has one button (Mac for

instance) it controls all the activity and a mouse with a third button can be used by
specific software programs.
One type of mouse has a round ball under the bottom of the mouse that rolls and turns
two wheels which control the direction of the pointer on the screen. Another type of
mouse uses an optical system to track the movement of the mouse. Laptop computers
use touch pads, buttons and other devices to control the pointer. Hand helds use a
combination of devices to control the pointer, including touch screens.
Note: It is important to clean the mouse periodically, particularly if it becomes sluggish.
A ball type mouse has a small circular panel that can be opened, allowing you to
remove the ball. Lint can be removed carefully with a tooth pick or tweezers and the ball
can be washed with mild detergent. A build up will accumulate on the small wheels in
the mouse. Use a small instrument or finger nail to scrape it off taking care not to
scratch the wheels. Track balls can be cleaned much like a mouse and touch-pad can
be wiped with a clean, damp cloth. An optical mouse can accumulate material from the
surface that it is in contact with which can be removed with a finger nail or small
instrument.
Monitors - The monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is
called outputting information. When the computer needs more information it will display
a message on the screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in many types
and sizes. The resolution of the monitor determines the sharpness of the screen. The
resolution can be adjusted to control the screen's display.
Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube or liquid crystal display.
Most notebooks use a liquid crystal display monitor.
To get the full benefit of today's software with full colour graphics and animation,
computers need a color monitor with a display or graphics card.

Printers - The printer takes the information on your screen and transfers it to paper or
a hard copy. There are many different types of printers with various levels of quality.
The three basic types of printer are; dot matrix, inkjet, andlaser.
Dot matrix printers work like a typewriter transferring ink from a ribbon to paper
with a series or 'matrix' of tiny pins.
Ink jet printers work like dot matrix printers but fires a stream of ink from a
cartridge directly onto the paper.
Laser printers use the same technology as a photocopier using heat to transfer
toner onto paper.
Modem - A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone lines,
cable, satellite or line-of-sight wireless.

The term stands for modulate and demodulate which changes the signal fromdigital,
which computers use, to analog, which telephones use and then back again. Digital
modems transfer digital information directly without changing to analog.
Modems are measured by the speed that the information is transferred. The measuring
tool is called the baud rate. Originally modems worked at speeds below 2400 baud but
today analog speeds of 56,000 are standard. Cable, wireless or digital subscriber lines
can transfer information much faster with rates of 300,000 baud and up.
Modems also use Error Correction which corrects for transmission errors by constantly
checking whether the information was received properly or not andCompression which
allows for faster data transfer rates. Information is transferred in packets. Each packet
is checked for errors and is re-sent if there is an error.
Anyone who has used the Internet has noticed that at times the information travels at
different speeds. Depending on the amount of information that is being transferred, the
information will arrive at it's destination at different times. The amount of information that
can travel through a line is limited. This limit is calledbandwidth.
There are many more variables involved in communication technology using computers,
much of which is covered in the section on the Internet.
Scanners- Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A
scanner 'scans' the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time and transfers it
to the computer as a series of bits or a bitmap. You can then take that image and use it
in a paint program, send it out as a fax or print it. With optional Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) software you can convert printed documents such as newspaper
articles to text that can be used in your word processor. Most scanners
use TWAIN software that makes the scanner accessable by other software applications.
Digital cameras allow you to take digital photographs. The images are stored on a
memory chip or disk that can be transferred to your computer. Some cameras can also
capture sound and video.
Case - The case houses the microchips and circuitry that run the computer. Desktop
models usually sit under the monitor and tower models beside. They come in many
sizes, including desktop, mini, midi, and full tower. There is usually room inside to
expand or add components at a later time. By removing the cover off the case you may
find plate covered, empty slots that allow you to add cards. There are various types of
slots including IDE, ASI, USB, PCI and Firewire slots.
Depending on the type notebook computers may have room to expand . Most
Notebooks also have connections or ports that allows expansion or connection to
exterior, peripheral devices such as monitor, portable hard-drives or other devices.

Cards - Cards are components added to computers to increase their capability. When
adding a peripheral device make sure that your computer has a slot of the type needed
by the device.
Sound cards allow computers to produce sound like music and voice. The older sound
cards were 8 bit then 16 bit then 32 bit. Though the human ear can't distinguish the fine
difference between sounds produced by the more powerful sound card they allow for
more complex music and music production.
Graphic cards allow computers to produce colour (with a colour monitor of course).
The first colour cards were 2 bit which produced 4 colours [CGA]. It was amazing what
could be done with those 4 colours. Next came 4 bit allowing for 16 [EGA and VGA ]
colours. Then came 16 bit allowing for 1064 colours and then 24 bit which allows for
almost 17 million colours and now 32 bit and higher allow monitors to display almost a
billion separate colours.
Video cards allow computers to display video and animation. Some video cards allow
computers to display television as well as capture frames from video. A video card with
a digital video camera allows computers users to produce live video. A high speed
connection is required for effective video transmission.
Network cards allow computers to connect together to
communicate with each other. Network cards have connections
for cable, thin wire or wireless networks. For more
information see the section on Networks.
Cables connect internal components to the Motherboard, which is a board with series
of electronic path ways and connections allowing the CPU to communicate with the
other components of the computer.
Memory - Memory can be very confusing but is usually one of the easiest pieces of
hardware to add to your computer. It is common to confuse chip memorywith disk
storage. An example of the difference between memory and storage would be the
difference between a table where the actual work is done (memory) and a filing cabinet
where the finished product is stored (disk). To add a bit more confusion, the computer's
hard disk can be used as temporary memory when the program needs more than the
chips can provide.
Random Access Memory or RAM is the memory that the computer uses to temporarily
store the information as it is being processed. The more information being processed
the more RAM the computer needs.
One of the first home computers used 64 kilobytes of RAM memory (Commodore 64).
Today's modern computers need a minimum of 64 Mb (recommended 128 Mb or more)
to run Windows or OS 10 with modern software.

RAM memory chips come in many different sizes and speeds and can usually
beexpanded. Older computers came with 512 Kb of memory which could be
expanded to a maximum of 640 Kb. In most modern computers the memory can be
expanded by adding or replacing the memory chips depending on the processor you
have and the type of memory your computer uses. Memory chips range in size from 1
Mb to 4 Gb. As computer technology changes the type of memory changes as well
making old memory chips obsolete. Check your computer manual to find out what kind
of memory your computer uses before purchasing new memory chips.
Software
The software is the information that the computer uses to get the job done. Software
needs to be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used for process of
accessing software including running, executing, starting up,opening, and others.
Computer programs allow users to complete tasks. A program can also be referred to
as an application and the two words are used interchangeably.
As you already know, all computers require software in order to operate and perform
basic tasks. For instance, software is needed to translate your commands into a form
the computer can understand, to open and close other software programs, to manage
your stored files, and to locate and set up new hardware as it is added to a computer.
The type of software used to perform these tasks is system softwarethe focus of this
chapter. System software runs in the background at all times, launching other software
when needed and making it possible for you to use your computer.
Computers run two types of software: system software and application software.
System software consists of the operating system and utility programs that control a
computer system and allow you to use your computer. These programs enable the
computer to boot, to launch application programs, and to facilitate important jobs, such
as transferring files from one storage medium to another, configuring your computer to
work with the hardware connected to it, managing files on your hard drive, and
protecting your computer system from unauthorized use.
Application software includes all the programs that allow you to perform specific
tasks on your computer, such as writing a letter, preparing an invoice, viewing a Web
page, listening to a music file, checking the inventory of a particular product, playing a
game, preparing financial statements, designing a home, and so forth.
In practice, the difference between system and application software is not always
straightforward. Some programs, such as those used to burn DVDs, were originally
viewed as utility programs. Today, these programs typically contain a variety of
additional features, such as the ability to organize and play music and other media files,
transfer videos and digital photos to a computer, edit videos and photos, create DVD
movies, copy CDs and DVDs, and create slide shows. Consequently, these programs
now fit the definition of application programs more closely. On the other hand, system
software today typically contains several application software components. For

example, the Microsoft Windows operating system includes a variety of application

programs including a Web browser, a calculator, a calendar program, a painting
program, a media player, a movie making program, an instant messaging program, and
a text editing program. A programs classification as system or application software
usually depends on the principal function of the program, and the distinction between
the two categories is not always clear cut.

As well any document that you create, graphic you design, sound you compose, file
you make, letter you write, email you send or anything that you create on your computer
is referred to as software. All software is stored in files.
Software is stored on a disk, card, tape or one of the dozens of
other storage devices available.
There are millions of different pieces of software available for almost every conceivable
need. Software is available commercially through stores and mail order and also
available on the Internet. Software is also available through an Open Source license
which allows anyone to use the Open Source software free of charge as long as the
license is maintained. If you can't find the application that you need software
development companies can custom design software for you.
The largest software companies offer packages of software or suites that include many
of the programs that the average person or business needs. Software packages or
suites contain programs that work together and share information, making it easier to
combine that information in versatile ways. For example when writing a letter you can
get the mailing address from an address book, include a letterhead from a graphics
program and included a financial chart from a spreadsheet and combine this collection
of information in the body of the letter.
The four basic types of software are; commercial, shareware, open
sourceand freeware.
Commercial software comes prepackaged and is available from software stores and
through the Internet.
Shareware is software developed by individual and small companies that cannot afford
to market their software world wide or by a company that wants to release a
demonstration version of their commercial product. You will have an evaluation period in
which you can decide whether to purchase the product or not. Shareware software often

is disabled in some way and has a notice attached to explain the legal requirements for
using the product.
Open Source software is created by a collaboration of programmers working together.
Open source programs are often open for anyone to contribute to and the end products
of open source projects are commonly released for public use. Open Source software is
not public domain in that the company or individual that develops the software retains
ownership of the program but the software can be used freely. Many popular Open
Source applications are being developed and upgraded regularly by individuals and
companies that believe in the Open Source concept. There is usually a copyright notice
that must remain with the software product and is similar to freeware.
Freeware is created by generous programmers and developers and released is
distributed freely, usually accompanied a copyright notice and terms of service that must
remain with the software product. Freeware is generally free for anyone to use and
distribute so long as the copyright notice and terms of service remain with the software.
Operating Systems
All computers need some sort of Operating System (OS). The majority of modern
home computers use some form of Microsoft's operating systems. The original Microsoft
operating system was called DOS (Disk Operating System) though most computers use
Windows. Windows comes in various versions beginning with version 3.x then 95, 98,
ME, XP, Vista and currently version 7. A few computers use IBM's O/S2. Apple's Mac
use their own operating system beginning with OS 1 through to OS 10.x. In the past
large companies and institutions would have an operating system design exclusively for
them but as the commercial operating systems become more sophisticated the benefits
of this practice is becoming less apparent. Some computer professionals, Internet
Service Providers (ISP) andmainframe computer users use an operating system such
as UNIX (or a variant such as Linux), Windows NT or 2000 (Win2k) or one of the other
network or server based operating systems.
There are many smaller operating systems out there. The problem is that software is
currently being developed only for the main operating systems and only the newest
versions of these OS. Many older computers with unique operating systems have lots of
software already developed for them but there is very little new software being
developed for the older computers. The older operating systems are less likely to
offer technical support than the more modern operating systems.

The operating system controls the input and output or directs the flow of information to
and from the CPU. Much of this is done automatically by the system but it is possible to
modify and control your system if you need to.
When you turn your computer on it first needs to load the operating system sometimes
referred to a booting up. Basically the computer starts from scratch every time you turn
the power on.
It checks all its components and will usually display a message if there is a problem.
Loading the system is usually automatic.
Once the system is loaded the user can start the application or program that they are
going to use.
Most computer users will run Microsoft Windows, Mac OS or Linux as their operating
system. These OS are Graphic User Interface (GUI) which allows the user to control
or run the computer using a Mouse and Icons. The user simply moves the mouse on a
flat surface, rolls the trackball, or moves their hand over the touchpad to control a
pointer. They then choose the option they want by pressing a button or tapping the pad.
Without a GUI the user controls the computer using the keys on the keyboard. This is
referred to as a Command Line Interface (CLI)
USER INTERFACE
Visual part of computer application or operating system through which a user interacts
with a computer or a software. It determines how commands are given to the computer
or the program and how information is displayed on the screen. Three main types of
user interfaces are (1) Command language: the user must know the machine and
program-specific instructions or codes. (2) Menus: user chooses the commands from
lists displayed on the screen. (3) Graphical user interface (GUI): user gives commands
by selecting and clicking on icons displayed on the screen.
Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/userinterface.html#ixzz3vVvIRTb4
Disk and Storage
Disks and cards are used to store information. All information on computers is stored
in files. The size of a file is measured in bytes.
A byte is approximately one character (letter 'a', number '1', symbol '?' etc....).

A byte is made up of 8 bits. A bit is simply an on or an off signal which passes through
the computers circuitry. Every piece of software can be broken down into a series of on
or off signals or it's Binary Code.

About a thousand bytes is a kilobyte (KB).

About a million bytes is a megabyte (MB).
About a billion bytes is a gigabyte (GB).
About a trillion bytes is a terabyte (TB)

* Editor's Note: I say 'about' because everything in computers must be divisible by 8 so

a kilobyte is actually 1,024 bytes. The reason for this goes beyond the scope of an
introductory level document but as it can cause some confusion I thought it should be
mentioned. I recommend Wikipedia as an excellent resource for people who want more
detailed information.
Disk are a common way of transporting information such as bringing files home from
work or sharing files. Floppy disks have become less useful as file sizes increase
and Compact disks (CDs), Flash drives and Digital Video Devices (DVDs) are
becoming more popular. Most software is sold on a CD. Internal Hard disksare the
most common storage device.
Compact disks or CDs can store large amounts of information. One disk will store 650
Mb. One type is a CD-ROM which stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory.
Another type is a CD-RW which stands for Compact Disk - Read/Write. CD drives can
copy information or burn information on to a blank CD. CommonRead Only CD blanks
can only be written to once though more expensiveRead/Write CD's can be used over
and over again.
DVD disks can store 4.5 GB on standard disk, 8 GB on a dual layer disk and 16 GB on
a blue-ray disk.
Digital recorders allow you to store large files, such as movies, on a single disk.
Hard disks store the majority of information on today's modern computer. Some of the
first hard disk stored 10 to 40 MB. Today a standard hard disk can store 1000 GB or 1
TB (terabyte) (this number is constantly increasing). Information can be stored and
deleted as necessary. As files get larger the speed that hard disks can read and write
become more important.

Solid-state drives, Flash drives or Memory cards range in size. Unlike disk drives
there are no moving parts.
Floppy disk or diskette comes in two basic sizes; 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch. Both have a
low and high density versions though 3.5 inch high density disks are the most common.
Due to low storage capacity most modern computers do not come wth a floppy disk
drive.

Disk size

Amount of storage

Approximate printed
8.5 x 11 inch pages

3.5 high
density

1.44 MB

720 pages

CD

650 MB

a small library

DVD

4.5 GB

a feature length movie

DVD dual layer 8 GB

a long feature length movie with

extras

There are many other storage devices including tape, portable disk drives and many
others. Innovation in storage technology is advancing rapidly and some technologies
have become obsolete.
Information is stored in an electromagnetic form much like a cassette or video tape.
Note: Keep electromagnetic storage devices away from strong electric or magnetic
fields including x-rays. Be aware of high electromagnetic areas in the room such as
televisions, speakers, high tension wires, etc... Use disks only at room temperature and
keep them out of direct sunlight. If possible avoid passing electromagnetic storage
devices through airport x-rays. In theory information stored on a disk will last indefinitely
but the physical storage device will wear out with usage and time so be sure to back
up (copy) your important files to a second storage device.
Basic Computer Operations

How Computers Work

Input: Information and programs are entered into the computer through Input
devices such as the keyboard, disks, or through other computers via network
connections or modems connected to the Internet. The input device also retrieves
information off disks.
Output: Output Devices displays information on the screen (monitor) or
theprinter and sends information to other computers. They also display messages
about what errors may have occurred and brings up message or dialog boxasking for
more information to be input. The output device also saves information on the disk for
future use.
Processing: The CPU or central processing unit is sometimes called the Control
Unit and directs the operation of the input and output devices. The Coprocessoror
the Arithmetic-Logic Unit does arithmetic and comparisons.
The memory orRAM temporarily stores information (files and programs) while you are
using or working on them. The BIOS or basic input/output system controls the
dialogue between the various devices.
Keyboard Layout and Data Entry
ENTER or RETURN - Moves the cursor down one line and to the left margin. Enter also
processes commands such as choosing an option in a dialog (message) boxes and
submitting a form.
DEL or DELETE - Deletes the character at cursor and/or characters to the right of the
cursor and all highlighted (or selected) text.
BKSP or BACKSPACE - Deletes the character to the left of cursor and all hightlighted
text.
SPACE BAR - Moves the cursor one space at a time to the right
SHIFT KEY - Use the shift keys to type capital letters and to type the upper character
on keys with two characters on them
CAPS LOCK - Locks the keyboard so it types capital letters (a light goes on when caps
lock is on)
TAB - Moves the cursor five spaces to the right (number of spaces are usually
adjustable). Tab moves to the next field in a form or table (Shift-Tab for previous field).

ESC or ESCAPE - Cancels a menu or dialog box

ARROW KEYS - Moves the cursor around document without changing text
FUNCTION KEYS or F KEYS - Access commands by themselves or in combination
with the three command keys; CTRL, SHIFT, and ALT

Command or Special Keys

Command keys normally do nothing on their own but work in combination with other
keys. Each piece of software uses the command keys differently though there is a move
to standardize some functions. The Control key or Ctrl is often used to access
commands. The Alternative key or Alt is often used to access menus. The Shift key is
used to type CAPITAL LETTERS. As well the command keys are all used to move
through documents and edit text faster and easier. As well many computers
have Special keys designed specifically for the particular computer. Apple computers
have the Apple keys and Macs have Command keys. Many keyboards now have
a Windows key specifically for Windows 9x and newer systems. Many older computers
also have special keys used for a variety of different functions.
Some Notebook or Laptop keys are left out because of space limitations and they
usually have a Special function key which allows other keys to double for the missing
ones.
Basic Typing Rules
Place one space between each word, after a punctuation mark and at the end of a
sentence. Always start a sentence with a capital letter. Use capitals for names,
addresses, provinces and countries, places, organizations, businesses, associations,
schools, colleges, universities, days of the week, months, holidays, nationalities, ethnic
groups and languages.
Learning the keyboard is the first step to learning computers. Learning
involvespractice. It really is as simple as that. There are two kinds of typing.

The first is called Touch Typing. The Touch Typist uses the Home Keys (asdf for the
left hand and jkl; for the right) and all the fingers on both hands as well as the thumbs
for the Space Bar while typing. There are many commercial and public domain
programs that are designed to teach this method.
The other method is some times called 'Hunt and Peck' or depending on finger strength
'Search and Destroy'. This involves using one or more fingers on one or two hands to
type. It is a perfectly acceptable way of using a computer and many people get along
fine with this technique.
Properly used, a computer can help you to become more organized, work more
efficiently, and accomplish many tasks. You'll need a variety of information in
order to accurately assess the technology requirements for your small business.
COMPUTER HARDWARE & SOFTWARE SELECTION
Perhaps you've been able to make do with using a personal computer for business
tasks, but find that as your business grows you need a computer set-up to meet your
business needs. Or maybe you've added employees to your business and you would
like to set up a network of computers in your workplace.
Your first step should be determining how you specifically intend to use a computer to
aid your business. Otherwise, you may find that you've tied up excess capital in a
system that does far more than you really need or, even worse, that you've acquired a
system that doesn't accomplish what you expected.
You will want to list which tasks you believe would be more efficiently performed if
computerized. Labor-intensive tasks such as recordkeeping, computing payroll,
invoicing, analyzing financial projections, writing letters, and preparing advertisements
and promotional materials are prime candidates. It's a good idea to speak with other
business owners to find out how they are using computers to assist their business and
to leverage their time. You may also have industry specific requirements to consider.
What steps should you take next?

Choose computer software: The tasks you envision computerizing should

identify your general software needs.
Choose computer hardware: Once you've determined the types of programs
you'd like to use, you can then make an informed decision as to what you'll need in
terms of computer hardware to properly run the programs.

Comparison shop: Checking pricing is more meaningful if you can compare

among different retailers your desired system's cost as opposed to the costs of each
of its parts.
Protect your computer system: One aspect of computerizing many of your
business records and operations is that you tend to concentrate a lot of valuable
information in a potentially fragile format. Therefore, you must take adequate steps to
protect your data and equipment.

Choosing Computer Software

For a computer to accomplish the tasks you desire, you must supply it with the proper
applications software. Applications software are computer programs that instruct the
computer on how to perform specific functions.
You can purchase the most expensive business computer available, but it won't do
much for your business if the software it's running doesn't do what you want. You can
run into a similar problem if the computer you acquire isn't capable of effectively running
your desired software. Accordingly, it's frequently better to determine which software
applications you'll be using before you decide what computer hardware to acquire.
Operating system software. The most basic kind of software is operating system
software, which is a program such as one of Microsoft's Windows iterations - Vista, 7
etc. - that controls the computer's monitor, drives, printer, and other components and
also controls how the components work with your applications software. Most
computers come with the most up-to-date version of this software preloaded.
Applications software. Apart from operating system software, the general types of
applications software that you may find to be useful include:

Word processing programs. These effectively convert your computer into a

sophisticated typewriter and enable you to write and quickly edit letters, reports, and
other documents. Perhaps the greatest utility of these programs is that you don't
have to retype an entire document to make corrections or changes to a few words or
lines.
Spreadsheet programs. These programs are especially helpful in creating
budgets, business plans, financial statements, and other reports that require
mathematical calculations. The beauty of these programs is that if you change one or
more numbers in the spreadsheet report, all related numbers are automatically
adjusted. For this reason, spreadsheet programs are a great time saver in
performing "what if" scenarios with your financial projections.
Database management programs. You can store, organize, manipulate, and
update large amounts of business information with the assistance of database

management programs. For example, you can use these programs to keep track of
your customers, suppliers, or inventory levels.
Accounting and bookkeeping programs. These programs run the gamut from
those that merely assist you in maintaining your financial records to those that assist
you with managing your payroll or accounts receivable or payable to those that
assist you in completing your tax returns.
Desktop publishing programs. You can use these types of programs to help
you produce professional-quality layouts for your own catalogs, newsletters,
brochures, forms, and other documents.

Complete software packages. If you expect that you'll be using more than one of
these programs, you may want to consider these options:

Shop around for an integrated software package, sometimes known as an

"office suite."Integrated packages effectively combine several tools into a single
program. For example, there are several products on the market that combine word
processing, spreadsheet, and database management functions.
Have a program custom-made. Another option for obtaining applications that
will work well together is to hire a software consultant to create a custom-made
program for your business. This is more expensive than purchasing ready-made
software off the shelf, but may well be worth the investment if you can't find existing
programs that meet your specific needs.
Purchase industry-specific software. You may be able to purchase a package
that has been developed specifically for your industry. For example, one industry this
may be particularly important for is retailers, who tend to have very large and specific
information needs.

In seeking answers to your software questions, your best source may be other business
operators. (This is not to say that competent salespeople and company reps are not
valuable information sources, only that they're not in a business similar to yours, and
they may have a financial interest in influencing your purchasing decision.)
Go online for information from sources such as industry and technology websites and
blogs. Consult with other business owners to learn which tasks they've effectively
computerized and which applications software they're running. Are they happy with their
software? What do they like and dislike about the software? How easy was it to put the
software to work? How much training was required?

Identifying and Fulfilling Computer Hardware Needs

The physical equipment that comprises a computer system represents the system's
"hardware." The basic hardware components of any computer are the central

processing unit, a monitor, a keyboard, the hard drive, and a printer. Other common
business components include DVD drives, modems, and scanners.
Other than the mandatory components, Which of the following you'll actually need will
depend largely on the types of software programs you choose to run and the types of
tasks you want to accomplish.

Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU controls the speed at which the
computer processes information. The primary factor in this speed is the CPU's
processing chip. Another important factor in a computer's speed is the amount of
its random access memory (RAM). RAM is where your computer temporarily
stores information being used by programs it's currently running.
Monitor. This is the screen at which you'll be staring for countless hours as you
do your work. As you compare monitors, the key is to find a monitor that you can
read without undue eyestrain. The size of the monitor is also important. Generally,
the larger the monitor, the easier it is to read.
Keyboard.As is the case with the monitor, the key issue in comparing keyboards
is your comfort in using them. Ergonomic keyboards that place the keys in what is
believed to be a more natural alignment for your fingers to access are available. A
supplement to the keyboard for entering work and executing commands is the
mouse. These also come in various styles, so you should look for one that's
comfortable and easy to use. You can choose a wireless keyboard and mouse and
avoid all those cords and cables.
Hard drives. The hard drive is where your computer stores programs and other
information on a somewhat permanent basis. With software applications continuing
to grow in size, you're usually best off getting as large a hard drive as you can afford.
Printers. Your options for a printer range from rather slow and inexpensive (inkjet
printers) to fast and more expensive (laser printers). In comparing the costs of
different printers, it's important to look beyond just the initial purchase price. For
example, if a particular printer requires special paper, find out how much that paper
costs. Also consider how much it will cost to replace the printer's ink supply and how
frequently you'll be incurring that cost.
Apart from cost and features (including the ability to print in color; the ability to print
on different paper sizes; the ability to print checks, labels, envelopes, photos and
other special documents, etc.), an important factor in deciding what type of printer
your business needs is who will be seeing the documents you print out. For example,
if your business calls for sending computer-generated materials to customers,
suppliers, or creditors, then you'll probably want a high quality color printer.
CD-ROM and DVD drives. A CD-ROM drive runs applications and retrieves
information stored on compact discs, which are capable of holding data. CD-ROM
drives are also able to store information to CDs. CD-ROMs now often have RW (read
and write) capabilities. If you will be keeping financial or other records that must be
retained in electronic format, some sort of backup should be used to safeguard your
information. You can use your CD-ROM drive as a tool for backing up the computer's

hard drive. (For backing up larger quantities of data, an external hard drive is a better
choice). DVDs also store information and are particularly useful for storing photos
and the like.
Flash drives. Also known as jump drives, these very small devices are inserted
into a port (a standard feature) on your computer to store data from your computer.
Their convenient small size, rewrite capability, sturdiness, and the ability to hold very
large amounts of data has resulted in flash drives usurping the use of disks for data
storage.
External hard drives. External hard drives allow you to duplicate information
you have stored on your computer's hard drive. They easily connect to your
computer and their size varies from larger (more expensive) models that are faster
and hold more data, (usually used to regularly back up data on a desktop computer)
to smaller, more portable versions that travel easier. What you need will depend on
your personal situation.
Modems, broadband, and wireless connectivity. The dial-up modem enables
your computer to communicate with other computers over the telephone lines, but
your phone line is tied up. For a modem, the main feature is its transmission rate
because that determines how quickly a file can be transmitted and how long your
phone line will be tied up. Today, the dial-up modem is the dinosaur of choices.
Higher transmission speed alternatives other than regular phone lines are offered by
telephone companies through digital subscriber lines (DSL) and cable modem
companies. These "broadband" alternatives have become quite common.
Wireless connections to the Internet work through wireless routers. The router (an
electronic box-like device) connects to your modem or cable Internet connection and
broadcasts a signal. Your computer, whether it is a desktop or a notebook must be
able to pick up the wireless signal (through, for example, a WiFi card or other built in
feature) in order to go online.

With most modems currently on the market, you can also use your computer to send
and receive computer documents by fax.
Scanners. A scanner is used to quickly input an existing written document or
photograph into your computer. The scanner converts the item into a digital file that
you can then edit or manipulate.
Notebooks/Laptops. Today's notebook computers are almost as powerful as
desktop computers, so you may find that it's best to choose this option. Some
notebooks can function as desktops, by adding separate screens and keyboards.
Netbooks and tablets (for example, the iPad) perform functions such as surfing the
net and reading email. However, they don't perform all the functions of desktop and
notebook computers, so they are best used as an added technology rather than the
primary computer equipment for business owners.
Smart phones. While "smart" phones (for example, the iPhone or the
Blackberry) make and receive phone calls, they have more in common with
computers than they do with phones. Using wireless networks (the 4G network is

one example), these phones can offer almost unlimited connectivity for business
owners and their workers. They can be used to access email accounts, download
applications, surf the Internet, and be set up to access computers and devices such
as printers in the physical office. There are many options available, so make sure
that you chose the phone and wireless service plan that best fit your daily mobility
requirements. Also, like netbooks and tablets, a smart phone is not a complete
replacement for a computer.
Networks. Even those working solo can benefit from computer networking-basically connecting two or more computers through a router (wired or wireless) so
that they can share tasks and applications. For work purposes, accessing files on
other computers on your network and using one printer for all the computers are the
main purposes for having a computer network. A wireless network is great when you
want access to your desktop computer files on your laptop and vice-versa. If you
have employees, you can all be on the network, and you have the option to share
only the information you choose to--it's not an all or nothing choice. The complexity
of your needs will likely determine whether you set up your business computer
network or enlist outside assistance.

Still unsure of what you need? One small office technology expert with years of
experience offers this general advice: Unless you plan to work on large presentations or
manipulate graphics, a high-performance computer is really not needed.
What is needed is a mid-range computer with an office automation suite (work
processor, spread sheet, presentation, email client). Because computer outages often
equate to a stop in productivity (depending of course, on your particular business), it's in
your best interest to purchase the computer with an extended warranty complete with
on-site repair service.
You will also need Internet connectivity and the main choices available today are forms
of cable or DSL access. Speed should be at least 768 kilobits per second (kbps)
inbound to your office and 265 kbps outbound.
Finally, keep in mind that Internet connectivity, telephone service and even wireless
service is available as a "bundle" from some service providers which can save you
serious money!

Shopping for Your Computer System

As is the case with most anything you purchase, the key to getting the best computer
deal for your money is to first identify what you want and how much you're willing to
spend, and then to invest some time in comparison shopping. You probably won't have
any problems finding places to shop. Check out your area's electronic superstores

(including some that specialize in just computers), department and discount stores, and
local shops that assemble their own systems. Open a computer magazine or go online,
and you'll find a number of manufacturers and retailers that will sell to you by mail.
As you shop around, request specification sheets for the systems you like. These
sheets should identify the price, the components, and the service and support policies
for the systems. As you compare systems, adopt the assumption that you're going to get
what you pay for. If one system is significantly cheaper than another, try to find out why
that's the case. Are less reliable parts being used? Is it backed by a short warranty or an
unfavorable service and support policy? There's a saying to the effect that "a computer
is only as good as its weakest component." Try to identify what that may be for each
system you compare. Rarely will the lowest priced system be the best overall value.
Other points to keep in mind as you shop around include the following:

Try to look for a system that can easily be upgraded with new components as
your needs change.
Be prepared to accept trade-offs among your desired components. The idea here
is to be willing to make concessions with respect to those items that can easily be
upgraded or added later if that enables you to get a better overall system under your
initial cost limitations.
If you decide to go with a locally assembled system, try to find a shop that has
been in business for a few years and that has established a track record with respect
to reliability and service.
If you're contemplating a mail-order purchase, proceed with caution. The system
that shows up at your door will essentially arrive "sight unseen," so you need to be
sure that you're dealing with a reputable company.
Carefully read through each seller's return policy. The best policies are those that
will allow you to return the system within a specified period with no questions asked
and no restocking or other fee being charged.
Compare service and warranty agreements. If you run into problems, will you
have to take the system in or will someone come out to your business to perform onsite repairs? Is there a toll-free number that you can call at any time, including
weekends and evenings, for help or advice? How long does the warranty agreement
run? Is an extended service contract available and, if so, is its cost worth the added
protection?
Consider using your credit card even if this means losing a cash discount. Your
credit card company can be an invaluable ally in helping you resolve post-sale
problems with the seller and getting you a refund if the system doesn't do what was
promised.
Don't delay in setting up your system once you've purchased it. Make sure you've
received everything you bargained for and that the system functions properly. If a
vendor offers a delivery and set-up service, take advantage of it and don't let the
service person leave your premises until your system is up and running.

Protecting Your Computer System

So, you've acquired your computer system and it has likely become an integral part of
your business operations. Where would you be if you should happen to lose the use of
your computer or the information it contained?
As is the case with any of your valuable business assets, you need to be concerned
about protecting your computer system from theft and damage by natural causes
(floods, fires, earthquakes, tornadoes, etc.). Accidents, ranging from coffee spills to
accidental destruction of computer files, are another threat to your system, as are
intentional acts of destruction and damage.
Apart from insuring your computer system, steps you can take to protect your system
include the following:

Run all of your computer equipment through a surge suppressor rather than
directly through a wall outlet. Abrupt changes in electrical flow can instantly damage
sensitive components and corrupt files. Surge suppressors ensure that the electrical
flow to your system remains constant. If you're in an area that suffers frequent
blackouts or brownouts, you should probably look into acquiring a unit that provides
both surge suppression as well as back-up battery power.
Dust is another enemy. When feasible, keep your computer and printer covered
when they are not being used, and store your CDs and DVDs in enclosed cases.
Avoid allowing dust to accumulate on open and uncovered equipment.
Make two backup copies of all your software and important work files. Keep one
set of the copies at your work site (where they'll be readily available if needed) and
safely store the other set off site.
If you want to limit access to the computer, look for a system that's equipped with
a lock to prevent it from being turned on without a key. Another option is to install
password protection, which can be configured to allow specific individuals varying
degrees of access to data residing on the computer. This allows you to keep
sensitive information on the computer without fear of someone unauthorized reading
it.
Get a program that detects and removes computer viruses. Be careful about
what you download from the Internet, and check all CDs, DVDs, etc. that you receive
from others for viruses before you transfer the information to your computer. Also get
in the habit of regularly running a virus check on your hard drive. Remember, it takes
only one unchecked virus to cause a potentially devastating loss of both information
and the use of your valuable computer equipment.
Install a firewall program. A Firewall is software or hardware that stops
unauthorized access from the Internet to your computer. Spyware is a growing threat
that must be dealt with because it threatens the security of information on your
computer as well as others if you are on a computer network. A firewall should be
used in conjunction with an anti-virus protection program in case something harmful

does get past the firewall (for example, you click on a link that infects your
computer).

Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information through
a process. Data is manipulated to produce results that lead to a resolution of a problem
or improvement of an existing situation. Similar to a production process, it follows a
cycle where inputs (raw data) are fed to a process (computer systems, software, etc.) to
produce output (information and insights).
Generally, organizations employ computer systems to carry out a series of operations
on the data in order to present, interpret, or obtain information. The process includes
activities like data entry, summary, calculation, storage, etc. Useful and informative
output is presented in various appropriate forms such as diagrams, reports, graphics,
etc.
Stages of the Data Processing Cycle
1) Collection is the first stage of the cycle, and is very crucial, since the quality of data
collected will impact heavily on the output. The collection process needs to ensure that
the data gathered are both defined and accurate, so that subsequent decisions based
on the findings are valid. This stage provides both the baseline from which to measure,
and a target on what to improve.
Some types of data collection include census (data collection about everything in a
group or statistical population), sample survey (collection method that includes only part
of the total population), and administrative by-product (data collection is a byproduct of
an organizations day-to-day operations).
2) Preparation is the manipulation of data into a form suitable for further analysis and
processing. Raw data cannot be processed and must be checked for accuracy.
Preparation is about constructing a dataset from one or more data sources to be used
for further exploration and processing. Analyzing data that has not been carefully
screened for problems can produce highly misleading results that are heavily dependent
on the quality of data prepared.
3) Input is the task where verified data is coded or converted into machine readable
form so that it can be processed through a computer. Data entry is done through the
use of a keyboard, digitizer, scanner, or data entry from an existing source. This timeconsuming process requires speed and accuracy. Most data need to follow a formal and
strict syntax since a great deal of processing power is required to breakdown the

complex data at this stage. Due to the costs, many businesses are resorting to
outsource this stage.
4) Processing is when the data is subjected to various means and methods of
manipulation, the point where a computer program is being executed, and it contains
the program code and its current activity. The process may be made up of
multiple threads of execution that simultaneously execute instructions, depending on
the operating system. While a computer program is a passive collection of instructions,
a process is the actual execution of those instructions. Many software programs are
available for processing large volumes of data within very short periods.
5) Output and interpretation is the stage where processed information is now
transmitted to the user. Output is presented to users in various report formats like
printed report, audio, video, or on monitor. Output need to be interpreted so that it can
provide meaningful information that will guide future decisions of the company.
6) Storage is the last stage in the data processing cycle, where data, instruction and
information are held for future use. The importance of this cycle is that it allows quick
access and retrieval of the processed information, allowing it to be passed on to the
next stage directly, when needed. Every computer uses storage to hold system and
application software.
The Data Processing Cycle is a series of steps carried out to extract information from
raw data. Although each step must be taken in order, the order is cyclic. The output and
storage stage can lead to the repeat of the data collection stage, resulting in another
cycle of data processing. The cycle provides a view on how the data travels and
transforms from collection to interpretation, and ultimately, used in effective business
decisions.
Hierarchy of Data [Figure 6.1][Slide 6-4]
Data are the principal resources of an organization. Data stored in computer systems
form a hierarchy extending from a single bit to a database, the major record-keeping
entity of a firm. Each higher rung of this hierarchy is organized from the components
below it.
Data are logically organized into:
1. Bits (characters)
2. Fields
3. Records

4. Files
5. Databases
Bit (Character) - a bit is the smallest unit of data representation (value of a bit may be a
0 or 1). Eight bits make a byte which can represent a character or a special symbol in a
character code.
Field - a field consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute (a
characteristic or quality) of some entity (object, person, place, or event).
Record - a record represents a collection of attributes that describe a real-world entity.
A record consists of fields, with each field describing an attribute of the entity.
File - a group of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for
which they are primarily used (employee file). A primary key in a file is the field (or
fields) whose value identifies a record among others in a data file.
Database - is an integrated collection of logically related records or files. A database
consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data
records that provides data for many applications. The data is managed by systems
software called database management systems (DBMS). The data stored in a database
is independent of the application programs using it and of the types of secondary
storage devices on which it is stored.
6.2 File Environment and its Limitations
There are three principal methods of organizing files, of which only two provide the
direct access necessary in on-line systems.
File Organization [Figure 6.2 & 6.3]
Data files are organized so as to facilitate access to records and to ensure their efficient
storage. A tradeoff between these two requirements generally exists: if rapid access is
required, more storage is required to make it possible.
Access to a record for reading it is the essential operation on data. There are two types
of access:
1. Sequential access - is performed when records are accessed in the order they are
stored. Sequential access is the main access mode only in batch systems, where files
are used and updated at regular intervals.
2. Direct access - on-line processing requires direct access, whereby a record can be
accessed without accessing the records between it and the beginning of the file. The
primary key serves to identify the needed record.

There are three methods of file organization: [Table 6.1]

1. Sequential organization
2. Indexed-sequential organization
3. Direct organization
Sequential Organization
In sequential organization records are physically stored in a specified order according to
a key field in each record.
Advantages of sequential access:
1. It is fast and efficient when dealing with large volumes of data that need to be
processed periodically (batch system).
Disadvantages of sequential access:
1. Requires that all new transactions be sorted into the proper sequence for sequential
access processing.
2. Locating, storing, modifying, deleting, or adding records in the file requires
rearranging the file.
3. This method is too slow to handle applications requiring immediate updating or
responses.
Indexed-Sequential Organization
In the indexed-sequential files method, records are physically stored in sequential order
on a magnetic disk or other direct access storage device based on the key field of each
record. Each file contains an index that references one or more key fields of each data
record to its storage location address.
Direct Organization
Direct file organization provides the fastest direct access to records. When using direct
access methods, records do not have to be arranged in any particular sequence on
storage media. Characteristics of the direct access method include:
1. Computers must keep track of the storage location of each record using a variety of
direct organization methods so that data can be retrieved when needed.
2. New transactions' data do not have to be sorted.

3. Processing that requires immediate responses or updating is easily performed.

6.3 Database Environment [Figure 6.6][Slide 6-5]
A database is an organized collection of interrelated data that serves a number of
applications in an enterprise. The database stores not only the values of the attributes
of various entities but also the relationships between these entities. A database is
managed by a database management system (DBMS), a systems software that
provides assistance in managing databases shared by many users.
A DBMS:
1. Helps organize data for effective access by a variety of users with different access
needs and for efficient storage.
2. It makes it possible to create, access, maintain, and control databases.
3. Through a DBMS, data can be integrated and presented on demand.
Advantages of a database management approach:
1. Avoiding uncontrolled data redundancy and preventing inconsistency
2. Program-data independence
3. Flexible access to shared data
4. Advantages of centralized control of data
6.4 Levels of Data Definition in Databases [Figure 6.7]
The user view of a DBMS becomes the basis for the date modelling steps where the
relationships between data elements are identified. These data models define the
logical relationships among the data elements needed to support a basic business
process. A DBMS serves as a logical framework (schema, subschema, and physical) on
which to base the physical design of databases and the development of application
programs to support the business processes of the organization. A DBMS enables us to
define a database on three levels:
1. Schema - is an overall logical view of the relationships between data in a database.
2.Subschema - is a logical view of data relationships needed to support specific end
user application programs that will access the database.
3.Physical - looks at how data is physically arranged, stored, and accessed on the
magnetic disks and other secondary storage devices of a computer system.

A DBMS provides the language, called data definition language (DDL), for defining the
database objects on the three levels. It also provides a language for manipulating the
data, called the data manipulation language (DML), which makes it possible to access
records, change values of attributes, and delete or insert records.
6.5 Data Models or How to Represent Relationships between Data
A data model is a method for organizing databases on the logical level, the level of the
schema and subschemas. The main concern in such a model is how to represent
relationships among database records. The relationships among the many individual
records in databases are based on one of several logical data structures or models.
DBMS are designed to provide end users with quick, easy access to information stored
in databases. Three principal models include:
1. Hierarchical Structure
2. Network Structure
3. Relational Structure
Hierarchical:
Early mainframe DBMS packages used the hierarchical structure, in which:
1. Relationships between records form a hierarchy or tree like structure.
2. Records are dependent and arranged in multilevel structures, consisting of
one rootrecord & any number of subordinate levels.
3. Relationships among the records are one-to-many, since each data element is
related only to one element above it.
4. Data element or record at the highest level of the hierarchy is called the root element.
Any data element can be accessed by moving progressively downward from the root
and along the branches of the tree until the desired record is located.
Network Structure:
The network structure:
1. Can represent more complex logical relationships, and is still used by many
mainframe DBMS packages.
2. Allows many-to-many relationship among records. That is, the network model can
access a data element by following one of several paths, because any data element or
record can be related to any number of other data elements.

Relational Structure:
The relational structure:
1. Most popular of the three database structures.
2. Used by most microcomputer DBMS packages, as well as many minicomputer and
mainframe systems.
3. Data elements within the database are stored in the form of simple tables. Tables are
related if they contain common fields.
4. DBMS packages based on the relational model can link data elements from various
tables to provide information to users.
Evaluation of Database Structures
MODEL

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Hierarchical Data
Structure

Ease with which data

can be stored and
retrieved in structured,
routine types of
transactions.

Hierarchical one-to many

relationships must be specified in
advance, and are not flexible.

Ease with which data

can be extracted for
reporting purposes.

Network Structure

Cannot easily handle ad hoc

requests for information.
Modifying a hierarchical database
structure is complex.

Routine types of
transaction processing
is fast and efficiently.

Great deal of redundancy.

More flexible that the

hierarchical model.

Network many-to-many
relationships must be specified in
advance

Ability to provide
sophisticated logical
relationships among the
records

Requires knowledge of a
programming language.

User is limited to retrieving data that

can be accessed using the
established links between records.
Cannot easily handle ad hoc
requests for information.
Requires knowledge of a
programming language.

Relational
Structure

Flexible in that it can

handle ad hoc
information requests.

Cannot process large amounts of

business transactions as quickly
and efficiently as the hierarchical
and network models.

Easy for programmers

to work with. End users
can use this model with
litter effort or training.
Easier to maintain than
the hierarchical and
network models.
6.6 Relational Databases [Figure 6.11, 6.13]
A relational database is a collection of tables. Such a database is relatively easy for end
users to understand. Relational databases afford flexibility across the data and are easy
to understand and modify.
1. Select, which selects from a specified table the rows that satisfy a given condition.
2. Project, which selects from a given table the specified attribute values
3. Join, which builds a new table from two specified tables.
The power of the relational model derives from the join operation. It is precisely because
records are related to one another through a join operation, rather than through links,
that we do not need a predefined access path. The join operation is also highly timeconsuming, requiring access to many records stored on disk in order to find the needed
records.
6.7 SQL - A Relational Query Language
Structured Query Languages (SQL) has become an international standard access
language for defining and manipulating data in databases. It is a data-definition-andmanagement language of most well-known DBMS, including some nonrelational ones.
SQL may be used as an independent query language to define the objects in a
database, enter the data into the database, and access the data. The so-called
embedded SQL is also provided for programming in procedural languages
(host languages), such as C, COBOL, or PL/L, in order to access a database from
an application program. In the end-user environment, SQL is generally hidden by more
user-friendly interfaces.

The principal facilities of SQL include:

1. Data definition
2. Data manipulation
6.8 Designing a Relational Database
Database design progresses from the design of the logical levels of the schema and the
subschema to the design of the physical level.
The aim of logical design, also known as data modeling, is to design the schema of
the database and all the necessary subschemas. A relational database will consist of
tables (relations), each of which describes only the attributes of a particular class of
entities. Logical design begins with identifying the entity classes to be represented in the
database and establishing relationships between pairs of these entities. A relationship is
simply an interaction between the entities represented by the data. This relationship will
be important for accessing the data. Frequently, entity-relationship (E-R) diagrams,
are used to perform data modeling.
Normalization is the simplification of the logical view of data in relational databases.
Each table is normalized, which means that all its fields will contain single data
elements, all its records will be distinct, and each table will describe only a single class
of entities. The objective of normalization is to prevent replication of data, with all its
negative consequences.
After the logical design comes the physical design of the database. All fields are
specified as to their length and the nature of the data (numeric, characters, and so on).
A principal objective of physical design is to minimize the number of time-consuming
disk accesses that will be necessary in order to answer typical database queries.
Frequently, indexes are provided to ensure fast access for such queries.
6.9 The Data Dictionary
A data dictionary is a software module and database containing descriptions and
definitions concerning the structure, data elements, interrelationships, and other
characteristics of an organization's database.
Data dictionaries store the following information about the data maintained in
databases:
1. Schema, subschemas, and physical schema
2. Which applications and users may retrieve the specific data and which applications
and users are able to modify the data

3. Cross-reference information, such as which programs use what data and which users
receive what reports
4. Where individual data elements originate, and who is responsible for maintaining the
data
5. What the standard naming conventions is for database entities.
6. What the integrity rules is for the data
7. Where the data are stored in geographically distributed databases.
A data dictionary:
1. Contains all the data definitions, and the information necessary to identify data
ownership
2. Ensures security and privacy of the data, as well as the information used during the
development and maintenance of applications which rely on the database.

6.10 Managing the Data Resource of an Organization

The use of database technology enables organizations to control their data as a
resource, however, it does not automatically produce organizational control of data.
Components of Information Resource Management [Figure 6.17]
Both organizational actions and technological means are necessary to:
1. Ensure that a firm systematically accumulates data in its databases
2. Maintains the data over time
3. Provides the appropriate access to the data to the appropriate employees.
The principal components of this information resource management are:
1. Organizational processes
- Information Planning and data modeling
2. Enabling technologies
- DBMS and a Data Dictionary

3. Organizational functions
- data administration and database administration
Database Administration and Database Administration [Figure 6.18]
The functional units responsible for managing the data are:
1. Data administrator (DA)
2. Database administrator (DBA)
Data administrator - the person who has the central responsibility for an organizations
data.
Responsibilities include:
1. Establishing the policies and specific procedures for collecting, validating, sharing,
and inventorying data to be stored in databases and for making information accessible
to the members of the organization and, possibly, to persons outside of it.
2. Data administration is a policy making function and the DA should have access to
senior corporate management.
3. Key person involved in the strategic planning of the data resource.
4. Often defines the principal data entities, their attributes, and the relationships among
them.
Database Administrator - is a specialist responsible for maintaining standards for the
development, maintenance, and security of an organization's databases.
Responsibilities include:
1. Creating the databases and carrying out the policies laid down by the data
administrator.
2. In large organizations, the DBA function is actually performed by a group of
professionals. In a small firm, a programmer/analyst may perform the DBA function,
while one of the managers acts as the DA.
3. Schema and subschemas of the database are most often defined by the DBA, who
has the requisite technical knowledge. They also define the physical layout of the
databases, with a view toward optimizing system performance for the expected pattern
of database usage.

Joint responsibilities of the DA and DBA:

1. Maintaining the data dictionary
2. Standardizing names and other aspects of data definition
3. Providing backup
4. Provide security for the data stored in a database, and ensure privacy based on this
security.
5. Establish a disaster recovery plan for the databases
6.11 Developmental Trends in Database Management
Three important trends in database management include:
1. Distributed databases
2. Data warehousing
3. Rich databases (includes object-oriented databases)
Distributed Databases [Figure 6.19][Slide 6-8]
Distributed databases are that are spread across several physical locations. In
distributed databases, the data are placed where they are used most often, but the
entire database is available to each authorized user. These are databases of local work
groups (LAN), and departments at regional offices (WAN), branch offices,
manufacturing plants, and other work sites. These databases can include segments of
both common operational and common user databases, as well as data generated and
used only at a user's own site.
Data Warehouses Databases [Figure 6.20]
A data warehouse stores data from current and previous years that has been extracted
from the various operational and management databases of an organization. It is a
central source of data that has been standardized and integrated so it can be used by
managers and other end user professionals from throughout an organization. The
objective of a corporate data warehouse is to continually select data from the
operational databases, transform the data into a uniform format, and open the
warehouse to the end users through a friendly and consistent interface.
Data warehouses are also used for data mining - automated discovery of potentially
significant relationships among various categories of data.

Systems supporting a data warehouse consists of three components:

1. Extract and Prepare Data
- the first subsystem extracts the data from the operational systems, many of them older
legacy systems, and scrubs it by removing errors and inconsistencies.
2. Store Date in the Warehouse
- the second support component is actually the DBMS that will manage the warehouse
data.
3. Provide Access and Analysis Capabilities
- the third subsystem is made up of the query tools that help users access the data and
includes the OLAP and other DSS tools supporting data analysis.
Object-oriented and other Rich Databases
With the vastly expanded capabilities of information technology, the content of the
databases is becoming richer. Traditional databases have been oriented toward largely
numerical data or short fragments of text, organized into well-structured records. As the
processing and storage capabilities of computer systems expand and as the
telecommunications capacities grow, it is possible to support knowledge work more fully
with rich data. These include:
1. Geographic information systems
2. Object-oriented databases
3. Hypertext and hypermedia databases
4. Image databases and text databases
Basic file organization techniques
Given that a file consists, generally speaking, of a collection of records, a key element in
file management is the way in which the records themselves are organized inside the
file, since this heavily affects system performances ad far as record finding and access.
Note carefully that by ``organization'' we refer here to the logical arrangement of the
records in the file (their ordering or, more generally, the presence of ``closeness''
relations between them based on their content), and not instead to the physical layout of
the file as stored on a storage media, To prevent confusion, the latter is referred to by
the expression ``record blocking'', and will be treated later on.

Choosing a file organization is a design decision, hence it must be done having in mind
the achievement of good performance with respect to the most likely usage of the file.
The criteria usually considered important are:
1. Fast access to single record or collection of related recors.
2. Easy record adding/update/removal, without disrupting (1).
3. Storage efficiency.
4. Redundance as a warranty against data corruption.
Needless to say, these requirements are in contrast with each other for all but the most
trivial situations, and it's the designer job to find a good compromise among them,
yielding and adequate solution to the problem at hand. For example, easiness of
adding/etc. is not an issue when defining the data organization of a CD-ROM product,
whereas fast access is, given the huge amount of data that this media can store.
However, as it will become apparent shortly, fast access techniques are based on the
use of additional information about the records, which in turn competes with the high
volumes of data to be stored.
Logical data organization is indeed the subject of whole shelves of books, in the
``Database'' section of your library. Here we'll briefly address some of the simpler used
techniques, mainly because of their relevance to data management from the lower-level
(with respect to a database's) point of view of an OS. Five organization models will be
considered:

Pile.

Sequential.

Indexed-sequential.

Indexed.

Hashed.

Pile
It's the simplest possible organization: the data are collected in the file in the order in
which they arrive, and it's not even required that the records have a common format
across the file (different fields/sizes, same fields in different orders, etc.are possible).
This implies that each record/field must be self-describing. Despite the obvious storage
efficiency and the easy update, it's quite clear that this ``structure'' is not suited for easy
data retireval, since retrieving a datum basically requires detailed analysis of the file
content. It makes sense only as temporary storage for data to be later structured in
some way.

Sequential
This is the most common structure for large files that are typically processed in their
entirety, and it's at the heart of the more complex schemes. In this scheme, all the
records have the same size and the same field format, with the fields having fixed size
as well. The records are sorted in the file according to the content of a field of a scalar
type, called ``key''. The key must identify uniquely a records, hence different record
have diferent keys. This organization is well suited for batch processing of the entire file,
without adding or deleting items: this kind of operation can take advantage of the fixed
size of records and file; moreover, this organization is easily stored both on disk and
tape. The key ordering, along with the fixed record size, makes this organization
amenable to dicotomic search However, adding and deleting records to this kind of
file is a tricky process: the logical sequence of records tipycally matches their physical
layout on the media storage, so to ease file navigation, hence adding a record and
maintaining the key order requires a reorganization of the whole file. The usual solution
is to make use of a ``log file'' (also called ``transaction file''), structured as a pile, to
perform this kind of modification, and periodically perform a batch update on the master
file.
Indexed sequential
An index file can be used to effectively overcome the above mentioned problem, and to
speed up the key search as well. The simplest indexing structure is the single-level one:
a file whose records are pairs key-pointer, where the pointer is the position in the data
file of the record with the given key. Only a subset of data records, evenly spaced along
the data file, are indexed, so to mark intervals of data records.
A key search then proceeds as follows: the search key is compared with the index ones
to find the highest index key preceding the search one, and a linear search is performed
from the record the index key points onward, until the search key is matched or until the
record pointed by the next index entry is reached. In spite of the double file access
(index + data) needed by this kind of search, the decrease in access time with respect
to a sequential file is significant.
Consider, for example, the case of simple linear search on a file with 1,000 records.
With the sequential organization, an average of 500 key comparisons are necessary
(assuming uniformly distributed search key among the data ones). However, using and
evenly spaced index with 100 entries, the number of comparisons is reduced to 50 in
the index file plus 50 in the data file: a 5:1 reduction in the number of operations.
This scheme can obviously be hyerarchically extended: an index is a sequential file in
itself, amenable to be indexed in turn by a second-level index, and so on, thus exploiting
more and more the hyerarchical decomposition of the searches to decrease the access

time. Obviously, if the layering of indexes is pushed too far, a point is reached when the
advantages of indexing are hampered by the increased storage costs, and by the index
access times as well.
Indexed
Why using a single index for a certain key field of a data record? Indexes can be
obviously built for each field that uniquely identifies a record (or set of records within the
file), and whose type is amenable to ordering. Multiple indexes hence provide a high
degree of flexibility for accessing the data via search on various attributes; this
organization also allows the use of variable length records (containing different fields).
It should be noted that when multiple indexes are are used the concept of sequentiality
of the records within the file is useless: each attribute (field) used to construct an index
typically imposes an ordering of its own. For this very reason is typicaly not possible to
use the ``sparse'' (or ``spaced'') type of indexing previously described. Two types of
indexes are usually found in the applications: the exhaustive type, which contains an
entry for each record in the main file, in the order given by the indexed key, and the
partial type, which contain an entry for all those records that contain the chosen key
field (for variable records only).
Hashed
As with sequential or indexed files, a key field is required for this organization, as well
as fixed record length. However, no explicit ordering in the keys is used for the hash
search, other than the one implicitly determined by a hash function.
DATA CAPTURE METHODS
1. Introduction
Any database or information system needs data entered into it, in order for it to be of any use.
There are many methods which can be used to collect and enter data, some manual, some
automatic.
2. Automatic Data Capture
Here are some of the methods that can be used to capture data directly.
Barcode reader
A bar code reader uses visible red light to scan and 'read' the barcode. The scanner converts
the the lighter and darker bands of the barcode into data.

The digital data is then input into the computer. The computer may display the results on a
screen and also input it into the correct fields in the database.
Typical uses:

Shop - to find details on the product sold and price

Library - record the ISBN number of the book and the borrower's card number

Warehouse - to check the lables on boxes delivered against what is recorded on the
delivery sheet.

Challenge see if you can find out one extra fact on this topic that we haven't already
told you
Click on this link: Barcode Reader

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

The numbers at the bottom of a cheque are written in a special ink which contains iron particles.
This ink is magnetised and commonly called 'magnetic ink'.
Optical Mark Readers (OMR)
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) enables the computer to identify written or printed

characters.
An OCR system consists of a normal scanner and some special software. The scanner is used
to scan the text from a document into the computer. The software then examines the page and
extracts the text from it, storing it in a form that can be edited or processed by normal word
processing software.
The ability to scan the characters accurately depends on how clear the writing is. Scanners
have been improved to be able to read different styles and sizes of text as well as neat
handwriting. Although they are often up to 95% accurate, any text scanned with OCR needs
careful checking because some letters can be misread.
OCR is also used to automatically recognise postcodes on letters at sorting offices.
Speech Recognition
The user talks into a microphone. The computer 'listens' to the speaker, then translates that
information to written words and phrases. It then displays the text on to the monitor.

This process happens immediately, so as you say the words, they appear on the screen. The
software often needs some "training" in order for it to get used to your voice, but after that it is
simple to use.

An Optical Mark Reader is a scanning device that reads carefully placed pencil marks on a

specially designed form or document.

A simple pen or pencil mark is made on the form to indicate the correct choice e.g. a multiple
choice exam paper or on the National Lottery ticket selection form.
The completed forms are scanned by an Optical Mark Reader (OMR) which detects the
presence of a mark by measuring the reflected light. Less light is reflected where a mark has
been made.
The OMR then interprets the pattern of marks into a data record and sends this to the computer
for storage, analysis and reporting.
This provides a very fast and accurate method of inputting large amounts of data, provided the
marks have been made accurately and clearly.

It can be read by a special machine called a Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).
5. Manual Data Capture
Although there are many methods of capturing data automatically, many businesses prefer to
capture it manually.
Paper Form

This is the most commonly used method of collecting or capturing data.

People are given a form to fill in with their personal details, e.g. name, address, telephone
number, date of birth etc.
Once the form is completed, it is given to a member of staff who will enter the data from it, into a
database or information system
6. Data Entry
Whilst the customer is present or on the telephone, a member of staff asks questions which they
enter on the data entry form they have on screen.

Once saved, this data will then be stored in the appropriate database table.
If paper-based data capture forms are used (previous page) then the member of staff can take
the information from the data capture form and manually type it into the data entry form.
If staff are doing this, it is important that the fields on both forms are laid out in the same order to
speed up the process of entering the data.
7. Design Techniques 1
Data capture forms are simple enough to design aren't they? Don't you just open up a word
processing document and put a few headings and a few boxes?

Not quite, we will look at techniques that you can use to improve the design of your data capture
Have a careful look at the diagrams on this page and make note of the features used to improve
the design of this data capture form:

Other instructions that you could include:

Where to return the form to after completion

Whether to fill in the form in blue/black ink

Whether to fill in the form using block capitals

Which fields are compulsory to fill in - you could indicate this with a * and then
put a code at the bottom of the form

The table below summarises the main methods of data collection

Method

Commentary

Manual Input Methods

Keyboard

A very familiar input device. Typically used to input data into personal computer
applications such as databases and spreadsheets

Touch-sensitive
screens

Developed to allow computer monitors to be used as an input device. Selections

are made by users touching areas of a screen. Sensors, built into the screen
surround, detect what has been touched. These screens are increasingly used to
help external customers input transactional data - e.g. buying transport tickets,
paying for car parking or requesting information

Automated Input Methods

Magnetic ink
character
recognition
(MICR)

MICR involves the recognition by a mchine of specially-formatted characters

printed in magnetic ink. This is an expensive method to set up and use - but it is
accurate and fast. A good example is the use of magnetic ink characters on the
bottom of each cheque in a cheque book

Optical mark
reading (OMR)

Optical Mark Reading (OMR) uses paper based forms which users simply mark
(using a dash) to answer a question. OMR needs no special equipment to mark a
form other than a pen/pencil. Data can be processed very quickly and with very
low error rates. An OMR scanner then processes the forms directly into the
required database. An example you are probably familiar with is the National
Lottery entry forms, or answer sheets for those dreaded multiple choice exam
papers!

Optical character
recognition (OCR)
and scanners

OCR is the recognition of printed or written characters by software that processes

information obtained by a scanner. Each page of text is converted to a digital
using a scanner and OCR is then applied to this image to produce a text file. This
involves complex image processing algorithms and rarely achieves 100%
accuracy so manual proof reading is recommended.

Intelligent
Character
Recognition (ICR)

Intelligent Character Recognition (ICR) again uses paper based forms which
respondees can enter handprinted text such as names, dates etc. as well as dash
marks with no special equipment needed other than a pen/pencil. An ICR scanner
then processes the forms, which are then verified and stored the required
database.

Bar coding and

EPOS

A very important kind of data collection method - in widespread use.

Bar codes are made up of rectangular bars and spaces in varying widths. Read
optically, these enable computer software to identify products and items
automatically. Numbers or letters are represented by the width and position of
each code's bars and spaces, forming a unique 'tag'. Bar codes are printed on
individual labels, packaging or documents. When the coded item is handled, the
bar code is scanned and the information gained is fed into a computer. Codes are
also often used to track and count items.
Businesses of all types and sizes use bar code systems. Best known are retailers
using Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS) technology, familiar in supermarkets
and many retail operations. Not only saving time at checkout, EPOS cuts
management costs by providing an automatic record of what is selling and stock
requirements. Customers receive an accurate record of prices and items
purchased. Producers use bar coding for quick and accurate stock control,
linking easily to customers.Distributors use bar codes as a crucial part of
handling goods. Larger businesses and those with high security requirements can
use bar codes for personnel identification and access records for sensitive areas.

EFTPOS

EFTPOS stands for Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale. You will find
EFTPOS terminals at the till in certain shops. An EFTPOS terminal electronically
prints out details of a plastic card transaction. The computer in the terminal gets
authorisation for the payment amount (to make sure it's within the credit limit) and
checks the card against a list of lost and stolen cards.

Magnetic stripe
cards

A card (plastic or paper) with a magnetic strip of recording material on which the
magnetic tracks of an identification card are recorded. Magnetic stripe cards are
in widespread use as a way of controlling access (e.g. swipe cards for doors,
ticket barriers) and confirming identity (e.g. use in bank and cash cards).

Smart cards
A smart card (sometime also called a "chip card") is a plastic card with an
embedded microchip. it is widely expected that smart crads will eventually
replace magnetic stripe cards in many applications. The smart chip provides
significantly more memory than the magnetic stripe. The chip is also capable of
processing information. The added memory and processing capabilities are what
enable a smart card to offer more services and increased security. Some smart
cards can also run multiple applications on one card, this reducing the number of
cards required by any one person.
One of the key functions of the smart card is its ability to act as a stored value
card, such as Mondex and Visa cash. This enables the card to be used as
electronic cash. Smart cards can also allow secure information storage, making
them ideal as ID cards and security keys.

Voice recognition

A data collection technology that converts speech into text or interprets it as a

sequence of computer commands. Voice recognition is most common in data
entry and word processing environments, and fields where a user needs to
interact with a computer without using their hands.

Web Data Capture

Web data capture use electronic forms on either on an Intranet or Internet. They
are becoming increasingly popular and have the advantage of being accessible
by any user having access to a computer. Users complete the questions online
and the returned data is then imported in electronic format to the required
database.

Most computer processing systems require some input from the user. The way this processing
is to be carried out is determined at the system design stage of the System Life Cycle.

This is called the 'processing mode'. The ones you need to understand are

Batch mode

Interactive mode

Real Time mode

1. Batch Processing
It is often not desirable to deal with a set of data inputs until a certain number have occurred or
a set time has passed. So they are stored until the system comes online to process the data in
one 'batch'.

For example

A stock control programme may store records of

every item sold in a shop that day. Then, at the end of each day it calculates what needs
to be ordered.

An online competition stores all the entries until it is time to find the winner.

Electricity, gas and telephone bills are usually calculated on a monthly basis.

Producing monthly bank statements to send out to customers

Payroll runs which may be weekly or monthly

After loading the data into the system, batch processing does not usually require any further
interaction on the part of the user. Therefore the user interface is often code-based. The user
enters the parameters of the batch run then leaves it to carry on.

Batch processing data sets

The advantage of batch processing is that it can be done during less-busy times on the
computer or jobs can be queued up in order to fairly share a computing resource such as a
super-computer.
For example, a scientist may have data-logged a huge amount of data on an experiment perhaps he is working at the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland and has Gigabytes of data to
process. He submits the data to the super-computer as a batch run. Once complete an output
data set is available for further analysis and visualisation.

Batch processing print outs

This is probably the most common form of batch processing. Namely, an input data set results
in a set of printed documents.
For example, a payroll run results in a set of pay slips to be issued.

Disadvantage
The main disadvantage of batch processing is the time delay between collecting the input data
and getting an output. It can also be frustrating to find out only later that a batch run has failed
due to a data input problem.

2. Interactive or Transactional processing

Inputs are noted by the computer, but it deals with them after a short delay. It spends that delay
handling other inputs and managing data movements.

The delay may be so brief that it looks to you as

if it has happened straight away. But in terms of
'computer time', where each computer cycle is
far less than a millionth of a second, it will have
spent many cycles doing other things.
For example:

Booking pop concert tickets

Ordering books online

Handling bank accounts

Booking a holiday

Interactive processing takes place one

transaction at a time.
Once the transaction is accepted, the database will be updated. For example, if you use an
online system to book a hotel room, you will fill in a web form, submit it and it will come back to
inform you of the room you have booked.
The user interface is very important with interactive processing. It must be clear, intuitive, easy
to use and responsive. Usually a fair bit of data validation also takes place to ensure the correct
input data is present. For instance the form may check that you have entered an address or
telephone number.
A graphical user interface is the most common type of interface for transactional or interactive
processing.

3. Real time processing

Real time processing is usually found in systems that use computer control.
This processing method is used when it is essential that the input request is dealt with quickly
enough so as to be able to control an output properly. The is called the 'latency'.
For example, the computer inside the Engine Control Unit in a car has to manage the engine at
every moment based on what the driver wants to do.
Real time processing has to be programmed very carefully to ensure that no input events are
missed.
Note that real-time processing does not have to be 'fast'.
For example, a traffic light system is a real-time system but it only needs to process data
relatively slowly. On the other hand, controlling a car engine has to deal with input events

happening every thousandth of a second so a very fast computer is needed to do this -but both
the traffic-light and the car engine computers are carrying out 'real-time' processing.
Examples:

Traffic lights

Heart rate monitoring

Aircraft control

Computer games

Controlling robots

The user interface of a real-time system may use specialist input devices to provide data input..
For example, a car driver will be providing input data to the onboard computer with throttle and
brake pedals. A gamer may be using a joystick or hand held control to interact with the real-time
game. A traffic light system may sense the car at the lights using a buried inductive loop.

OTHER DATA PROCESSING METHODS

1 Multi-programming
Multi-programming is a method of operating such that severalprograms appear to be
running at once.
The operating system switches jobs in and out of processor time according to priority.
For example, while one job is being allocated printer time, another will be being
processed in memory. The processor is so fast that it seems that many jobs are being
processed at the same time.
Multi-tasking

This isn't just about running more than one application at the
same time. Multi-tasking allows multiple tasks to run concurrently,
taking turns using the resources of the computer.
This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a
document to the printer and downloading a web page.
Multi-access or multi-user

Modern personal computers can allow multi-user access. A multi-access (or

multi-user) system is one where several users can use the same system together
via a LAN.
The CPU (central processing unit) deals with users in turn; clearly the more
users, the slower the response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast
that the response time at the most is a fraction of a second and the user feels
they are being dealt with immediately.

data processing system

Definition

Computerized system that performs mathematical operations (manipulations) on input-data

to transform it into the output (audio/video, graphic, numeric, or text) form desired by a
system user.

TYPES OF DATA PROCESSING (OR) LEVELS OF DATA

PROCESSING)
There are three types of data processing.
1) Manual data processing
2) Mechanical data processing
3) Electronic data processing

1) Manual data processing

In manual data processing data is processed manually. No machine or tool is used.

All the calculations on data are performed manually. This is a slow method and errors may
occur. This is an old method. It was used before the invention of calculators. But data is still
processed manually in many small shops.
Example: A book seller ( a small book shop ) records his daily transactions manually. He
prepares bills by pen,paper and carbon paper ( no doubt, brain is the main data processor
in this case ). At the end of day he will use carbon copies made on a particular date to know

how many books he sold and how much income he got.

2) Mechanical Data Processing

In mechanical data processing data is processed with the help of devices or machines.
These machines that help the people in data processing may be calculators and type
writers etc. Obviously, this method is faster easier and more accurate than manual data
processing.

Example: Book seller can use a calculator to speed up his data processing system. There
will be a less chance of errors in calculations. Bill calculations will be much more faster with
a calculator and easier too.

3) Electronic data processing

It is the latest and fastest method of data processing. Data is processed with the help of
computer. First of all, data and set of instructions are given to the computer. Computer gives
output results after processing the data according to instructions. This method of data
processing is very fast and accurate. Electronic data processing is used in banks and
business firms, Government offices, colleges, schools, universities, businesses and other
institutes. Electronic data processing is being used in almost every field of life.
Example:Suppose there are 800 students in a college. There is a manual library sytem in
this college. If we want to know which students have not returned books since one year?
We will have to search registers for 800 students record. But computer can do this job with
in seconds.

In short, we can say that:Electronic data processing:

i) is more fast
ii) is less time consuming
iii) can process large amounts of data easily
iv) can present information in more attractive way
v) will give 100 % error free results, if input and instructions are accurate.

ntroduction
An information system is integrated and co-ordinate network of components, which combine
together to convert data into information.

Components of information systems

An information system is essentially made up of five components hardware, software, database,
network and people. These five components integrate to perform input, process, output,
feedback and control.
Hardware consists of input/output device, processor, operating system and media devices.
Software consists of various programs and procedures. Database consists of data organized in
the required structure. Network consists of hubs, communication media and network devices.
People consist of device operators, network administrators and system specialist.
Information processing consists of input; data process, data storage, output and control. During
input stage data instructions are fed to the systems which during process stage are worked
upon by software programs and other queries. During output stage, data is presented in
structured format and reports.

Classification of Information System

In any given organization information system can be classified based on the usage of the
information. Therefore, an information system in an organization can be divided into operations
support system and management support system.

Operations support system

In an organization, data input is done by the end user which is processed to generate
information products i.e. reports, which are utilized by internal and or external users.
Such a system is called operation support system.
The purpose of the operation support system is to facilitate business transaction, control
production, support internal as well as external communication and update organization
central database. The operation support system is further divided into a transactionprocessing system, processing control system and enterprise collaboration system.

Transaction Processing System (TPS)

In manufacturing organization, there are several types of transaction across department.
Typical organizational departments are Sales, Account, Finance, Plant, Engineering,
Human Resource and Marketing. Across which following transaction may occur sales
order, sales return, cash receipts, credit sales; credit slips, material accounting, inventory
management, depreciation accounting, etc.
These transactions can be categorized into batch transaction processing, single
transaction processing and real time transaction processing.

Process Control System

In a manufacturing organization, certain decisions are made by a computer system
without any manual intervention. In this type of system, critical information is fed to the
system on a real-time basis thereby enabling process control. This kind of systems is
referred as process control systems.

Enterprise Collaboration System

In recent times, there is more stress on team effort or collaboration across different
functional teams. A system which enables collaborative effort by improving
communication and sharing of data is referred to as an enterprise collaboration system.

Management Support System

Managers require precise information in a specific format to undertake an organizational
decision. A system which facilitates an efficient decision making process for managers is
called management support system.
Management support systems are essentially categorized as management information
system, decision support system, expert system and accounting information system.

Management information system provides information to manager facilitating the routine

decision-making process. Decision support system provides information to manager facilitating
specific issue related solution.

Further Classification
An information system can be categorized based upon activity into strategic planning system,
tactical information system and operational information system.