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Homeostasis and the Regulation

of Blood Glucose
Using Blood Glucose Concentration as an example of a human
physiological variable, explain how homeostatic mechanisms
regulate the internal environment.

Introduction
Homeostasis is the constant regulation of the body's internal
environment in response to external environmental changes using a
negative feedback system (Saladin, Kenneth, 2001). Homeostasis
regulates many physiological variables throughout the body, these include
blood pH and glucose levels, core body temperature and
norephinepherine levels. There is no particular centre for homeostasis in
the body, although most processes are carried out via the hypothalamus
in the brain.

Overview
The levels of glucose in the blood is regulated by the process of
homeostasis which is controlled by the Islets of Langerhans, located in the
pancreas. Pancreatic hormones and the liver regulate blood glucose
concentrations. These hormones are released from three different types of
cell, alpha: -cells, beta: -cells and delta: -cells. Aerobic respiration of
glucose levels carried in the blood plasma provide energy for neurons in
the brain, therefore the levels of blood glucose must always be
maintained at a constant level. If it is not, this can lead to tissue damage
and hyperglycaemia.

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Process and Function

When a person eats a meal containing carbohydrates, the
concentration of glucose in the blood rises - this is the 'stimulus'. The
Islets of Langerhans detects this, and is therefore the 'sensor' and
activates a secretion of insulin by -cells, the 'effector'. In response,
inhibition of secretion of glucagon by the -cells occurs. The cellular
uptake of glucose into the fat cells, skeletal muscle and liver is therefore
promoted by these higher levels of insulin. The glucose is converted and
stored as the polysaccharide glycogen (Raven et al, 2008).(See Figure 1)

Hormones
Glucagon
Glucagon is a peptide that is made up of twenty nine amino acids.
Between meals, glucose is secreted into the blood by the liver. Stored
glycogen in the liver is broken down by glucagon in a process called
glycogenolysis into glucose-6-phosphate. The phosphate is removed and
the remaining glucose is secreted into the blood. If the glucose levels
remain low, the liver will begin converting lactic acid and amino acids into
glucose by the process of gluconeogenesis (new formation of glucose)
(Campbell and Reece, 2005). The amino acids used for this process are
obtained from the muscles and thus explains the quick muscle wastage
that occurs during fasting. The skeletal muscle lacks the enzyme required
for this breakdown process so the glycogen stored here is not secreted
into the blood. It is used in the process of glycolysis to produce energy.

Insulin
Insulin is a hormone constructed by a polypeptide chain made up of
fifty amino acids. Insulin's main function is to assist in lowering blood
glucose concentration. It promotes storage of glucose by stimulating cell
membranes in connective tissue and muscle cells to increase their
absorption and use of glucose during respiration. Insulin promotes the
process of glycogenesis while inhibiting glycogenolysis and completely
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preventing gluconeogenesis. After these processes have been carried

out, a reduction in blood glucose concentration will be seen. -cells will
continue secreting insulin until the levels of blood glucose in the hepatic
portal vein return within its limits. After many days of fasting, the brain
will begin to use its sources of fatty acids to provide energy. This overdose
of insulin causes a rapid drop in blood sugar and can therefore lead to
coma, and even death.

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Somatostatin
Somatostatin is a hormone compiled of fourteen amino acids and is
released from the -cells of the pancreas during the digestion of a meal.
It inhibits the release of glucagons and insulin in the pancreas (Nelson,
2011)

Figure 1 - Demonstration of negative feedback system in

blood glucose levels. Taken from http://physiology11.wikispaces.com/02+Homeostasis

Disorders Related to Blood Glucose

Diabetes mellitus
This disorder relates to levels of insulin and therefore glucose in the
body. Its name 'diabetes' meaning 'run through' and 'mellitus' meaning
'sweet' - refers directly to levels of glucose in the urine, those who have
this disorder have urine with a characteristic 'sweetness'. There are two
different types of diabetes.
Type one, also known as rapid onset insulin dependent mellitus, is a
disorder in which the -cells of the pancreas are destroyed by the body's
own immune system, thus resulting in an insulin deficiency. It is most
common among young children and adults (Seppo et al 1997). Treatment

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for this condition includes insulin injections which are manufactured from
synthetic insulin produced by genetically engineered bacteria.
Type two diabetes usually develops in adults and is commonly
associated with poor diet, stress or obesity. It occurs when tissue becomes
insensitive to insulin and therefore more insulin is secreted. Nonadipose
tissue cells in the liver become insensitive and this causes a greater
storage of fats into adipose tissue. This and heightened lipogenesis cause
an increase in appetite, food intake and therefore weight gain (Nelson,
2011). Those who have type II diabetes mellitus can often control their
diabetes through diet and exercise and may not need insulin injections at
all.
Furthermore, lack of insulin can result in hyperglycaemia (an excess of
glucose in the blood) which causes fatigue and also osmotic diuresis. This
results in constant thirst and also potentially fatal lack of salt and water in
the body.

Conclusion
In conclusion, glucose is a vital fuel in the function of our bodies. It is used
extensively to research and potentially find ways of reducing the effects of
diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is a massive problem in today's
society due to lifestyle choices and levels of obesity rising in younger
adults and even children.

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Bibliography
Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and
Function, 2nd edition. New York: McGraw Hill, 2001.
Raven, Johnson, Losos, Mason, Singer. Biology: 8th edition. New York:
McGraw Hill, 2008
Campbell and Reece, Biology: 7th edition. Pearson, 2005
Nelson, Randy J. An Introduction to Behavioural Endocrinology: 4th edition
Sinauer Associates, 2011
Dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia predict coronary heart disease events in
middle-aged patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus.
Seppo ; Ronnemaa, Tapani, Haffner, Steven M. ; Pyorala, Kalevi ; Kallio,
Veikko ; Laakso, Markku Diabetes August, 1997, Vol.46(8) [Peer Reviewed
Journal]
http://physiology-11.wikispaces.com/02+Homeostasis (Diagram)

Word Count 1029

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