Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 13, pp. 135-148. Pergamon Press 1976.

Printed in Great Britain

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock*

S. D. PRIEST,
J. A. HUDSON

The possible distributions of discontinuity spacings along a straight line

through a rock mass are considered. Unless there is a large predominance
of evenly spaced discontinuities, any combination of evenly spaced, clustered
and randomly positioned discontinuities leads to a negative exponential form
of frequency vs spacing value curve. The negative exponential form was confirmed by field discontinuity scanline surveys in three tunnels.
Utilizing the negative exponential distribution, a relation between the Rock
Quality Designation (RQD*) and mean discontinuity frequency per metre
(2) is established: R Q D * = 100e-'tx(0.12 + 1). The agreement with actual
RQD was within 5% at 27 survey locations mainly in chalk and mudstone.
Recommendations are made concerning the method of presenting discontinuity spacing data, the scanline length necessary for reasonable estimates
of discontinuity frequency and the number of sample values required in a
discontinuity survey.

INTRODUCTION

It is also important, however, to obtain data on discontinuity intensity in addition to discontinuity orientation. In the-case of tunnelling, for example, it is
necessary to examine the ratio between discontinuity
intensity and excavation dimensions [8, 9].

Rock discontinuities in engineering

Faults, joints, bedding planes, fractures, fissures and
microfissures are of widespread occurrence in rocks
encountered in engineering practice. The purpose of
this paper is to discuss the spacings between these inter- Indices of discontinuity intensity
ruptions in the rock continuum. The general term 'disThe form of the index adopted to describe disconticontinuity' is used here, avoiding any genetic conno- nuity intensity is often influenced by the nature of the
tations, to describe any mechanical break or interrup- exposure and the survey technique. Skempton et
tion of the properties of a rock [1].
al. [10] described discontinuity intensity in the London
Discontinuity characteristics play a major role in Clay in terms of the number of discontinuities per unit
controlling the mechanical behaviour of a rock volume of material. The values were obtained by dismass [2-4]. The following characteristics were listed by secting blocks of clay. Using a similar technique on
Piteau [5"] as having particular engineering significance: Cretaceous sediments in south-east England, Fo0kes
(a) Nature of their occurrence--i.e, whether members and Denness [1] expressed intensity as discontinuity
of sets or isolated; (b) Orientation and position in area per unit volume.
space; (c) Continuity; (d) Intensity; (e) Surface geoPiteau [5] used a scanline survey technique (measurmetry; (f) Genetic type; (g) Nature and thickness of ing tape) on rock faces and expressed discontinuity inthe joint fill.
tensity as the number of discontinuities per unit disThere are many engineering situations in which a tance normal to the strike of a set of sub-parallel disknowledge of the discontinuity characteristics of a rock continuities.
mass is of importance and a variety of approaches can
The results of a scanline survey or the quality of
be adopted to analyse the stability and behaviour of rock cores recovered during a site investigation proa given rock mass utilizing discontinuity characteristics. gramme can be described using the method proposed
A commonly used technique is that applied to slope by Deere [11]. The Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
stability, based on considerations of discontinuity is the proportion of scanline or borehole core that conorientation viewed in terms of factors of safety against sists of intact lengths that are 0.1 m (4 in) or longer.
failure along critical discontinuity surfaces [6,7].
To calculate the RQD value, these intact lengths are
summed and expressed as a percentage of the total
length:
t Crown copyright 1975. Any views expressed in this paper are
not necessarily those of the Department of the Environment. Extracts
from the text may be reproduced, except for Commercial purposes,
provided the source is acknowledged.
Higher Scientific Officer, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Dept. of the Environment, Crowthorne, Berks, U.K.
Principal Scientific Officer, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Dept. of the Environment, Crowthorne, Berks, U.K.
a.r~.M.s. 13 5 A

RQD = 100

~ x,/L,

(1)

i=1

where 3q is the length of the ith length 1>0.1 m, n is

the number of intact lengths >/0.1 m, L is the length
135

136

S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

of scanline or boreh01e along which the RQD value

is required. Thus, the RQD can be calculated for
various sections or the complete length of the scanline
or borehole.
Deere et al. [12] suggested that a scanline, which can
be used to measure discontinuity intensity at a face,
may be regarded as directly analogous to a borehole
core since the RQD can be found in both cases. This
is important because the site investigation results can
be compared with conditions actually experienced during excavation.

Otstonce from A to the ith

discontinuity :d~

Spocing values (x) given

as x i :d i-dill for i = I ~ n

(o) Discontinuity intersection points along a

straight line (A8)through the rock mOSS

I
I I.
-',,
,l'}
If-B

Af

(b)Sconiine(rr~sorinq tape)on exposed

rock face

IJJll

till(

}/Ill
Ill((

Purpose and content of this paper

The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical
approach to discontinuity spacings and RQD based on
the statistical distributions of spacing values that could
occur along scanlines and to compare these results with
experimental data obtained in field discontinuity surveys.
In the theoretical section, the influence of spacing
distributions on the RQD value is explained, and the
sensitivity of the RQD value to mean discontinuity
spacing is illustrated. In the experimental section, the
scanline measurement technique for assessment of discontinuity spacing distributions in rock is explained.
Experimental results are then presented for three different tunnels in the U.K. and compared with theoretical
values.
Finally, the usefulness of this interpretation of discontinuity spacings and the geotechnicai implications
are discussed.

THEORY

Possible spacing distributions

The discontinuity spacings will be considered with
reference to the distances between points where discontinuities intersect a straight line through the rock
mass--as shown in Fig. l(a). This is equivalent to the
scanline or measuring tape that is used for field determinations of discontinuity spacing or to a thin borehole
core. The spacing values, .xl for i = 1 to n, are shown
in Fig. l(b). The discontinuity intersection points can
be evenly spaced, clustered, random or some combination of these.
If the discontinuities are fairly evenly spaced with
a normal distribution of spacing values, the frequency
distribution shown in Fig. l(c) will be appropriate. This
type of distribution will tend to occur in, say, a uniform
columnar jointed basalt or evenly bedded sandstone
with the standard deviation reflecting the uniformity
of jointing and bedding respectively.
In the case of clustered discontinuities, a high frequency of low spacing values occurs within clusters and
a low frequency of high spacing values occurs between
clusters. This frequency distribution is shown in Fig.
l(d). Clustering can develop as a result of spalling near
a free face or around joints due to stress or weathering
effects. In addition, cyclic variation in lithology such

Discontinuity spacing values, x

Discontinuity spacing values,

(c}Fairly evenly sP~:ed distribution

/ -.\

,
B

(d)Clustered distribuhon

A_ I lIMIt \1 /I.',
I I~

I ~1(

I B_

I~/ I " \ I CIl~,(/ I

Clustered and random

Li \

f(x)=ke_X,

. f ~ - ' ~ distributions mutually---- 1

notiva e, -iol

I ~ e i n f o ~ ~t~w spocms I
II
I|

~.~ I
Discontinuity spacing values,
(e) Random distribution

Evenly spaced ond

rondom distritxJtions
mutually interfere at

Discontinuity s0oeing values, x

(f}Combirmtion of distributions

Fig. 1. Theoretical discontinuity spacing distributions.

as alternating layers of sandstone and highly fractured

siltstone could produce this distribution.
For randomly positioned discontinuities, the discontinuity-scanline intersection points are here defined as
random if the presence of one intersection point does
not affect the chance of another occurring in its neighbourhood. In other words, there is no interaction
between discontinuities. This could occur in a homogeneous rock mass where the formation of discontinuities has not been dominated by lithological or structural variability. In Appendix A, from standard statistical theory it is explained that if each small segment
of scanline has an equal but small chance of containing
a discontinuity intersection point, the points are a Poisson process and the associated spacings follow a negative exponential distribution as shown in Fig. l(e).
The negative exponential distribution is mathematically expressed as

f(x) = 2e -a~,

(2)

where f(x) is the frequency of a discontinuity spacing

x, and ). is the average number of discontinuities per
metre. This is a one parameter (2) distribution with
the mean and S.D. both equal to 1/2.
In a geologically complex rock mass with a varied
mechanical history, it is likely that a combination of
the evenly spaced, clustered and random distributions
will be present. This will result in the type of distribution shown in Fig. l(f) which will be similar to the
negative exponential distribution. If, however, the mean
spacing of the superimposed random distribution is

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock

The total number of discontinuities in a scanline =

2L, where 2 = mean number of discontinuities/metre,
L = scanline length.
Thus, neglecting end effects, there are (2L - 1) spacing values just below 0.1 m and the rejected length of
scanline is approximately 0.1 ( 2 L - 1) giving, from
equation (1)

large compared with that of the evenly spaced distribution, the latter will be largely unaffected and consequently dominate. In all other combinations, the clusters are largely unaffected whilst the even spacings are
broken up by superimposed random discontinuity patterns. It is important to note that the orientation of
discontinuities, relative to that of the scanline, in general controls the number of discontinuities intersected
per unit length and not the overall pattern of the discontinuity spacing distribution.

RQD,,In ~- 100[L - 0.1(2L - 1)]/L

"" 10011 - 0.12 + 0. l/L].
For a scanline which is long compared with the 0.I m
threshold value, the term O.1/L can be ignored and

Influence of spacin9 distributions on the RQD

The Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is the percentage of scanline or borehole core that consists of intact
lengths over 0.1 m. Theoretical RQDs can therefore be
determined directly from distribution curves of the type
shown in Fig. 1 by considering the frequency of spacing
values above the 0.1 m threshold value. This leads to
the concept of maximum and minimum values of RQD
for the clustered and evenly spaced distributions and
a relation between discontinuity frequency and RQD
for the random distribution.
The maximum possible value of the RQD for any
mean discontinuity spacing value is always close to
100% because:
(a) if the mean discontinuity spacing is less than
0.1 m, an RQD value close to 100% is obtained when
the discontinuities are very clustered with large intact
lengths between the clusters;
(b) if the mean discontinuity spacing is greater than
0.1 m, an RQD value close to 100% can be obtained
either by clustering or even spacing.
The minimum possible value for the RQD is 0 for
an average spacing less than 0.1 m if the discontinuities
are evenly spaced. When the average spacing is greater
than 0.1 m, the minimum RQD occurs when all but
one of the spacing values are just below 0.1 m with
one high remaining spacing value. This leads to the
linear relation derived below between the minimum
possible RQD value (RQD.,i.) and the discontinuity fiequency.

70

5o

I
/

~ 40
/
IO

i
0

0.1'2) for

2 <~ 10/m.

RQD,* = 100

I:

, Lxf(x) rt' /L

and with a negative exponential distribution of spacing

values, equation (2),

RQD? = 10022

f:

x e -~x dx:

, 7
~

I /
! /

?'

0.1
I
RQD

RQI3P"I~ I-xflxldx/L
0.1
-x,

l
t

\mmolnin(jWtQhspocing~,,OlUe/
,

(3)

This relation is plotted in Fig. 2 in terms of RQDmi,

vs mean discontinuity spacing (1/2).
To calculate the RQD value for a rock having random discontinuity positions, the percentage of scanline
length containing intact lengths greater than 0.1 m is
found by integrating the spacing values from 0.1m to
L for the negative exponential distribution as shown
in Fig. 2. The relation between RQD and discontinuity
frequency for this case is derived below:
The probability of discontinuity spacings occurring
between x and x + dx is given by f(x)dx, where x is
a spacing value, dx is an increment of spacing, f(x)
is the probability density distribution of x.
For a long total length of scanline, L, the total
number of discontinuities is 2L. Thus, the number of
intact lengths between x and x + dx is 2Lf(x)dx and
the length of these is 2Lxf(x)dx. From the definition
of RQD, equation (1), and in the continuous case, the
theoretical RQD (RQD*) with an arbitrary threshold
value, t, is given by:

I ~.~"~'~'~'~r~om discordir~uty
positions
~CP =lOOe'~(O'l
k+i)7

60

RQDm;. " 10011

MaximumpossibleRQDvalue(all discontinuitiesclusteredin smallregionsalongscanline)

I

I001
90 ~
8o
.

137.

I""

I
I

0.2
0.:5
Meondiscontinuityspocin~ I/Mrn)

i ^ ~ ~
_u,Im . . . . .
;

0.4

0.,.5

Threshold volue

Fig. 2. Maximum and minimum possible RQD values and RQD vs mean discontinuity spacing for randomly positioned
discontinuities.

138

S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

~oo

95 % of the scanline consists of intact lengths I>0. I m

"%

" o~

90

7O
N 6O
5O

3O
1 6 0 of the sconlineconsists
of intact lengths >~l.Om

20
tO
0

0,1 0.2

Fig. 3. Variation of

03

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I 1,2 1.3
Mean discontinuity spacing, m

RQD with

mean discontinuity spacing for a range of

For a long scanline, terms containing e -zL can be

ignored and

1.4 1.5

1,6 1.7

1.8 1.9 2D

RQD threshold

values t.

Precision of the discontinuity frequency and RQD esti.mates

Assuming a negative exponential distribution of

spacing values, it is possible to study the effect of scanFor the conventional RQD, with a threshold value of
line length on the precision of the discontinuity fret = 0.1 m, the theoretical value is
quency (2) estimate. A short scanline, say 10 times the
RQD* = 100e-1~(0.12 + 1).
(5) mean discontinuity spacing, might give a bad estimate
The relation given in equation (5) is also plotted in of 2 and hence the RQD value will not be a good repreFig. 2. Note that equations (4) and (5) only apply if sentation of the rock mass. In fact, widely different
the discontinuity spacing values follow a negative RQD values measured over metre or two metre lengths
of a borehole can simply be a reflection of the random
exponential distribution.
positioning of the discontinuities.
Variation of RQD with the threshold value
The method for studying the precision of the 2 estimate
is explained in Appendix B. Examination of Table
In the conventional RQD, the percentage of scanline
BI
reveals
that if, say, 50 discontinuities are measured
consisting of intact lengths above 0.1 m gives the RQD
along
a
scanline
length of 5 m, the true 2 (i.e. 2L/5)
value. However, it is possible to examine the magnitude
is
within
7.79/m
and
12.66/m at the 90% confidence
of the RQD value for a variety of threshold values, t.
By the same arguments presented earlier, the maxi- level. The estimated 2 of 10/m (i.e. 50/5) gives the
mum RQD value remains close to 100% and the mini- RQD* as 74% from equation (5) but, from the 2 varimum is found by substituting t for 0.1 in equation (3). ationS" at the 90% confidence level, the true RQD*
The intermediate case is the suite of curves generated varies between 82% and 64%. An alternative approach
by equation (4) for various values of t. These are shown is to determine the probability of estimating the disin Fig. 3 with RQD* plotted against the mean discon- continuity frequency (2) to within +20% or + 10% for
different sample lengths; graphs of the resulting probatinuity spacing, 1/2.
The curves in Fig. 3 show that, with the negative bilities are shown in Fig. B1. For example if the sample
exponential assumption, the conventional RQD is sensi- length is 50 times the mean discontinuity spacing, the
tive for mean discontinuity spacings between zero and estimated 2. will lie within + 20% of the true 2 86 times
approximately 0.3 m; above 0.3 m, the RQD is always out of 100.
In Fig. 4, the effect of the sample length on the RQD*
above 95%. The RQD value can be made more sensitive
for high mean discontinuity spacing values by increas- error band is shown. For the specific case of 5 discontinuities per metre encountered in sample lengths
ing the threshold value.
From scanline measurements made in a rock mass ranging from 1 m to 10 m, the RQD* error band varies
with a mean discontinuity spacing of 0.3 m, the conven- from 98%-72% to 94%-87% respectively.
tional RQD is 95%--i.e. 95% of the scanline contains
intact lengths greater than 0.1 m. From equation (4),
FIELD DISCONTINUITY SURVEYS
however, the percentage of scanline containing intact
lengths above any required theshold can be found. For Measurement technique
example, from the vertical line in Fig. 3, 16% of the
In the field surveys, discontinuity characteristics were
scanline contains lengths greater than 1 m when the
measured along scanlines (measuring tapes) set up on
conventional RQD = 95~.
exposed faces. Wherever possible, equal lengths of scanline were established in orthogonal directions to obtain
f 2 is the true population parameter; ;. is the estimate obtained
a true three-dimensional characterisation of the rock
by sampling.

RQD* = 100 e-~'(2t + 1).

(4)

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock

I m sample length

I00
80

,~

4o

5m sample length

I00
80

90% Confidence band

T', \

~ 60

139

60

ROD*=91%
Error bond

95%-84%
.Error band

20

900/.-720

~' ~

'~" ,~

2O

- "~ . . . . . ~ . . . . . . ~ .

I
I
, -- ~ ~ i ~
I0
20
30
40
Obser~<l number of discontinuities

0
0

50

I0

20

30

40

IOta sample length

2m sample length

I00

50

Observed number of discontinuities

;,
t
=o ,o r

o 60
80 I
40
20
0
0

I0

20

30

40

50

Observed number of discontinuities

I0

20

:30.

40

50

Observed number of discontinuities

Fig. 4. Effect of sample length on the

mass [5,13]. In addition to other measurements (such

as orientation and trace length) at points where discontinuities intersected the scanline, the distance along the
scanline was recorded (Fig. i). Discontinuity spacing
values were subsequently calculated by subtraction of
consecutive intersection distances along the measuring
tape.

Experimental results
(a) Chinnor tunnel. Detailed assessment of chalk discontinuity characteristics formed an intrinsic part of
the rock cutting experiments in the Lower Chalk carried out during the full scale tunnelling trials at Chinnor, Oxfordshire. A total of seven thousand discontinuity spacing values was processed for a total scanline
length of approximately 750 m taken in the 23 m deep,
3 m dia shaft and in the 5 m dia tunnel.
Figure 5 shows a discontinuity spacing histogram for
all measurements taken in the shaft, and Fig. 6 a spacing histogram of measurements taken at selected faces
during the first 85 m of tunnelling. The distribution of
measured discontinuity spficing values is not strictly

RQD* error band (90% confidence band).

continuous because the spacing is measured to the

nearest 0.01 m on the measuring tape; parallax and
angle of discontinuity to the tape do not allow greater
measurement precision. For this reason the histograms
have been plotted as single line columns. Figures 5 and
6 include tabulated values of mean spacing and standard deviation together with total scanline length and
number of observed values. In addition, the negative
exponential probability density distribution is drawn
on each histogram, using the parameter ~. equal to the
reciprocal of the mean discontinuity spacing.
The probability density distributions corresponding
to Figs. 5 and 6 are replotted on a logarithmic scale
in Figs. 7 and 8. The fitted negative exponential probability density distribution is a straight line (cf. equation 2):
lnf(x) = In ~. - 2x.

Examination of Figs. 5-8 shows that there is close

agreement between the theoretical and measured form
of the distribution curve. In addition, for each distribution, the value of the mean spacing is approximately

Ol3
.c_

II
Total sconline length 253.81m
Mean discontinuity spacing(~) O . I I 4 m
Standard deviation O.107m
Number of values 2221

~,o

Y9
8

Fitted negative exponential

/ probability density distribution, ~,=8.749/rn

"-- 4
"6
g3

]TITrFrrl-TT ,,

~o

0.01

0.C~

0.10

0.15

020

0.25

0.30

0.35
Discontinuity spacing, m

Fig. 5. Discontinuity spacing histogram. Sum of all scanlines in the

3m

>o5o .
0.40

0.45

0.50

dia shaft (Lower Chalk, Chinnor, Oxfordshire).

140

S. D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

llTotal scanline length 514.57m
Mean discontinuityspacing(~) O,105m
Standard deviation 0,I I 3m
Number of values 4 8 8 4

tO

_=
.,3 6 -

~5>.

"~. 4 c
o

"6

~ d F i t t e d negative exponential

3-

istribution, X: 9.488/m>0,50 ......b~

I-

o;o,

0.05

0.10

0.15

O.aO

0.25

'i''l-:

0.30

0.35

. . . . . .

0.40

0.45

0.50

Discont"inui'fy spacing, rn
Fig. 6.

Discontinuity spacing histogram. Sum of all scanlines in the first 85 m of tunnel (Lower Chalk, Chinnor. Oxfordshire).

equal to the standard deviation; this is a theoretical

characteristic of the negative exponential distribution
and serves to confirm the conclusion based on visual
comparison.
(b) Kielder experimental tunnel. The Kielder experimental tunnel, Rogerley Quarry, Co. Durham, was
excavated in rocks belonging to the Carboniferous
Limestone sequence. The tunnel was driven at three
levels: in sandstone, limestone and mudstone horizons.
During tunnel excavation, a detailed assessment of rock
quality at selected faces in the sandstone and mudstone
horizons was undertaken by the authors. A part of this
rock quality assessment included an examination of
rock discontinuity characteristics using measurement
techniques described earlier.
10
9
8 )o

Discontinuity spacing histograms for the sandstone

and mudstone horizons are presented in Figs. 9 and
10 together with the corresponding negative exponential probability density distributions plotted for the
appropriate value of mean discontinuity spacing. Figs.
9 and 10 show that there is good agreement between
the theoretical and measured distributions. In addition,
for each distribution there is close agreement between
the mean spacing and standard deviation. This serves
to verify the applicability of the negative exponential
distribution in describing the real discontinuity spacing
distribution for these Carboniferous rocks. It is important to note that Figs. 9 and 10 illustrate that the negative exponential distribution is equally applicable to the
highly fractured mudstone as the less fractured sandstone.

7 ~oo Fitted negative exponential

6

~o Fitted negative exponential

~..^r~oabil~ density dimibution,

~Al~obobiiity densify distribution,

5 ~ i / m

.c

o>
.E

0.9
0.8
~ 0.7

21

._ 0.7

0.6
0.5

~ 0.5

i .
0.5
0.3

e o

ooo

0.2

02

0.1

..i..,.i.,,,

O. I _..~....,....,....,....~....,....,....,....,...o.,o.._
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
Discontinuityspacing, m

I.,.,h.,,I,...I..,,I.,,,I..,,I.,..I.,,

O.lO 0.20 0.30 040 0.50

Discontinuity spacing, m

Sample probability density distribution of discontinuity spacing values, plotted on a logarithmic scale. Sum of all scanlines in
the 3 m dia shaft. 2221 Values (Lower Chalk, Chinnor, Oxfordshire).
Fig. 7.

Sample probability density distribution of discontinuity spacing values, plotted on a logarithmic scale. Sum of all scanlines in
lirst 85m of tunnel. 4884 Values (Lower Chalk, Chinnor,
Oxfordshire).
Fig. 8.

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock

141

Total sconlinelength 37.22m

Meandiscontinuityspacing(~) O. 129m
Standarddeviation O. 116m
Numberof values 249

tO .

~ 9 -

.~ 7
=g6Fitted negative exponential
^
~robability density distribution, X=7.-F;'8/rn

4
3
2

>0.50--.-~I
OOI

0.05

O.10

0.15

0.20
0.25
0.30
Discontinuity spocincj, rn

ne

....
0.40

0.35

,,..I
0.45

0.50

Fig. 9. Discontinuity spacing histogram. Rogerley Quarry tunnel. Sum of all scanlines in the sandstone.
In the section dealing with the theoretical approach construction programme provided an additional opporit was stated that a feature of the negative exponential tunity for examining in situ Lower Chalk. Assessment
distribution is that the mean spacing is equal to the of discontinuity characteristics was carried out using
standard deviation. Fig. 11 is a graph plotting the mean the scanline techniques described earlier. Figure 12
discontinuity spacing against the standard deviation of shows a histogram of discontinuity spacing values, for
the spacing for separate survey locations at Chinnor a 0.5 m class interval. The fitted negative exponential
and Rogerley Quarry. The data have been divided into probability density distribution indicates a reasonably
two groups based on the sample size: <200 values and good agreement between actual and theoretical distri> 200 values. The straight line in Fig. 11 indicates the butions considering the small sample size.
idealised relation for which the mean discontinuity
spacing is equal to the standard deviation. It is clear General considerations
from this figure that the experimental results conform
In searches of published data only two papers, Mahwell to the theoretical line, particularly for the larger tab et al. [14] and McGown et al. [15], were found
samples where sampling error is lower. Agreement is giving the results of measurements of discontinuity
within 20~o for samples containing more than 200 spacing in histogram form. Although the class interval
values. It is worth noting that in other distributions, was rather wide the indications are that the distribufor example the normal distribution, the mean and tions tended to follow the negative exponential form.
standard deviation are totally independent.
In view of the tunnel data presented in this section,
(c) Channel tunnelt. Excavation of the machine erec- it is felt that the negative exponential probability dention chamber during Phase II of the Channel tunnel sity distribution provides a good approximation to the
Totalscanline length
Mean discontinuity spacing (~)
Standard deviation
Number of values

60.75m
O.O=,L3rn
O.O~.rn
1828rn

0.22
Number of values
in sample
<200 >200
values values
Lower chalk Chionor
O

Sandstone Rooerley uorry -

ML~stone Rogerley cluarry a

0.20

50

~28

0. 18

-G 26

24

O
/

O. 16

2-00

E 0.14

;o

.~ 18

'-

16

~ 1.4

12

O
o O

./.:

e4'
oO

o,0

0.08

IO

~
r ~

Fitted negativeexponential A
obability der
~E

p!!"
0.01

0.0,$

0.05
0.07
0.09
0.11
Discontinuity spacing, m

te: if the
~di~:onti~i~

0.04

=//

0.02
0.13

0.15

Fig. 10. Discontinuityspacing histogram. RogerleyQuarry tunnel.

Sum of all scanlinesin the mudstone.
t The Channel tunnel project was cancelled in January, 1975.

r,

0
0

0.02

~ing

distribution follows the

neojative eq)onentiol distribution
the means0ac~,g =
the standard deviation

0.04

0.06

ODe

0.I0

0.12

0.14

0.16

Standard deviation,

0.18

rn

Fig. l l. Mean discontinuity spacing and standard deviation

measuredin the shaftand tunnelat Chinnor,and in the experimental
tunnel, RogerleyQuarry.

142

S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

Total scanlinelength 50.65m
Mean discontinuityspacing(i) 0.378m
Standard deviation 0.585m
Number of values 134

2O
t9

of rock types. It is hoped that, in the future, further

work will shed light on the validity of wider application
of the negative exponential distribution.

18

DISCUSSION

Validity of the negative exponential discontinuity spacing

distribution assumption

._~

.-~ I0

:=

]
(Spacing >1.5 m)

Fitted negative exponential

/ ~ o b a b i l i t y densitydistribution, Jl

5 ~

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Discontinuity spocinq, rn
Fig. 12. Discontinuity spacing histogram. Channel tunnel. Sum of
vertical and horizontal scanlines (Lower Chalk).

distribution of discontinuity spacings measured in the

field. The applicability of the negative exponential has
only been verified at a few locations for a limited range

The validity of the negative exponential distribution,

verified for the available experimental data, indicates
that equation (5) can be used to calculate the RQD
for a rock given the mean discontinuity spacing (1/2).
Table I summarises values of RQD, calculated from
measurements using equation (l), and RQD* calculated
from theory using equation (5) for the measurement
locations discussed earlier. This table, presented graphically in Fig. 13, demonstrates the close agreement
between RQD and RQD*.
The good agreement between the measured and
theoretical RQD values is not a confirmation of equation (5) but a measure of how closely the discontinuity
spacing values follow the negative exponential distribution in each location. The implication is that a value
of RQD, accurate to within 5~, could have been
obtained at each of the twenty-seven locations by
simply counting the discontinuities and calculating the
discontinuity frequency, 2.

TABLE 1. COMPARISON BETWEEN MEASURED AND THEORETICAL

Rock formation,
location
Lower Chalk
Chinnor shaft

Lithology
Chalk

RQD ",,

RQD* %

Scanline
configuration

(from
equation 1)

(from
equation 5)

Average
number of
discontinuities
per m,
/.

Horizontal
scanlines
Vertical scanline I
Vertical scanline II

79
67
7(/

81
70
75

7.9
11.0
9.5

91
87
80
83
82
78
78
72
60
66
79
64
71
64
65
63

89
87
81
87
81
81
81
74
64
69
79
65
73
68
69
63

5.6
6.3
7.9
6.4
7.9
8.0
8.0
9.9
12.5
11.3
8.5
12.3
10.1
11.7
11.3
12.8

Vertical plus
horizontal scanlines

83

82

7.8

Vertical plus
horizontal scanlines

100

98

2.0

Chainage =

Lower Chalk
Chinnor tunnel

Chalk

Sandstone

RQD

Horizontal
plus
vertical
scanlines
for
each face

9.9m
ll.5m
12.1m
14.0m
18.1m
20.4m
35.9m
55.4m
57.5m
60.5m
65.2m
70.2m
72.7m
73.9m
79.3m
85.0m

Measured

Theoretical

Carboniferous
Limestone
Rogerley
tunnel

Limestone
Mudstone

Vertical plus
horizontal
scanlines at
selected faces

12
32
14
22

12
31
17
26

37.0
23.8
32.5
26.3

Lower Chalk
Channel tunnel

Chalk

Vertical plus
horizontal scanlines

99
88

99
90

1.2
5.3

143

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock

Chinnor,Lowef Chalk

discontinuities already present in the rock mass and

to results obtained from scanlines set up on rock faces.
If, however, the discontinuity spacings are obtained
LO0
from a borehole core, there is a possibility that additional discontinuities may have been introduced by
9O
the sampling process---i.e, drilling the borehole [3].
Figure 15 summarises data presented by Deere et
80
al. [12] from cores and scanlines in a variety of rock
70
types. Figures 15(a--d) show the comparison between
RQD* and the measured values of Deereet al., broken
6O
down into the four rock types. These figures indicate
50
that for a given ~., equation (5) predicts an RQD* higher
than the measured value. The effect causing RQD to
be <RQD* (in particular for 2 >i 10/m) is a tendency
3O
for the discontinuities to be more evenly spaced than
predicted by the negative exponential distribution (cf.
20
J
RQD=TheoreticolRQOlfrom equotion 51
Fig. 14). Most of the data in Fig. 15 relate to NX
I0 /
core; it is possible, therefore, that the process of rotary
drilling added a more evenly spaced component of dis~
I
I
I
0 /~
I
I
I
I
0
I0
20 30
40
50
60
70
80
90
I00
continuities to the recovered core, though this could
RQD, %
only be confirmed by detailed surveys on freshly
Fig. 13. Comparison between measured and theoretical RQD.
exposed rock faces.
Experience at Chinnor has shown that lengths of inFigure 14 shows a graph of equation (5) relating
RQD* to 2 together with the experimental data points tact core can snap near the centre during drilling; this,
presented earlier. Between values of 2 = 6/m and together with the phenomenon of discing due to high
2 = 16/m the relation between ;t and RQD* is approxi- field stresses could lead not only to an artificially lowmately linear. The curve in Fig. 14 has an inflection ered RQD but also to an artificially imposed discontipoint P at 2 = 10/m; at this point the curve has a slope nuity spacing distribution. These effects must be borne
equal to dRQD*/d2[~=lo = - 1 0 e -1 = -3.68 m. The in mind and allowed for when interpreting results constraight line drawn through P, tangential to the curve cerning rock quality obtained from boreholes referring,
ideally, to the results of scanline surveys taken on
defined by equation (5) is therefore described by
freshly exposed faces.
RQD* = -3.682 + 110.4.
This line, shown in Fig. 14, gives a good approximation
Geotechnical implications
of RQD between values of 2 = 6/m and 2 = 16/m.
The RQD, commonly adopted as a rock quality index
Bieniawski [16], by reference to Deereet al. [12] sugis
here regarded as having two major drawbacks when
gested that the relation between 'fracture frequency' (i.e.
viewed
in the light of the present approach:
2) and RQD is linear; this statement is generally in
(a)
Calculating
RQD is a time consuming process
agreement with Fig. 14 within the stated range of 2.
which, when applied to borehole cores, can give results
Discontinuities imposed by sampling
unrepresentative of the rock mass.
In both the theoretical and experimental sections of
(b) The conventional RQD is insensitive to variations
this paper, the discussion has been with reference to in rock quality when the average discontinuity spacing
Ro~ey, sondstom |

# R o ~ I w , limestone} Corboniferous Limes~ae

Rol~ey, mudstone J
o Channel tunneI,LowefCholk

I00

Linear approximation RODe=- 3.68), + I 10.4

# .~for6<X<16

90

U'l"e,~

80

~"-~
L~
9w ~
" ~

70

Experimental doto points

ChinnortLowerChalk

Inflection point P

I'lk.

. . . . . .
I.)eVlOTIOn aue to
clustered discontinuities
.~

#RoQerley,limestone]
CarboniferousUmestone
a RogerlElYtmu~mne---J-L--I
J
0 Chores, tunneltLower Chalk

~g 6o
~ /
/ '

c$5o

Theoreficol curve
.-~1
RQ~-IOO. x (O. I X + I )

~ 40
:50
20
I0
0
0

I
2

I
4

I
8

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ~1
I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Averoge number of discontinuities per m, X

Fig. 14. R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
R.MM.S 13 5 a

RQD a n d

I
32

I
34

mean discontinuity frequency.

I
36

I
38

40

144

S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

I O0

r~~l

II B

50

100

ROD.

Theorei'icol curve

:....-;,<

Theoreticol curve
RQD*

~
75

50
or~

O
e.
25

25

J)NX core, Hockensock Siltstone

0
= I I = I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20

b) NX core, John Day Basalt

0

AverSe number of discontinuities per m,

I00
ff--u,,,~,~

I
2

t
4

I
6

= I I I I I
8 10 17' 14 16 18 20

Avero, ~ number of discontinuities per m, ~,

I00 ~
o
Theoretical curve

T t ~ o r e t i c a l curve

- "~

.-

ROD~

75

d 50
o
e~

50
0
w"

Average number of discontinuities per m, ~,

between measured

O
n

6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20

Fig. 15. C o m p a r i s o n

25

25 ,:) NXcore, Dworshok Darn,

granite gneiss

Tunnel woll, scanli ne

o across discontinuities
Tunnel wall,sconline
parallel to discontinuities

t) Climax Stock Granite

0

2 4

o
I

a NX core

1~3.4~

6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20

/&verage number of discontinuities per m,

and theoretical

exceeds 0.3 m. For example, for a large excavation,

transition from 'favourable' to 'unfavourable' conditions may be represented by a variation in RQD of
only 3%, from 98% to 95%.
RQD has, however, an advantage over simple indices
which express, say, an average discontinuity frequency
per metre (2) in that it makes statements about the
distribution of block sizes. If the negative exponential
distribution is accepted as valid, from a simple knowledge of ~. additional data concerning RQD can be calculated if required. Moreover a two-tier RQD index
can be produced by adopting a pair of threshold values
at, say, 0.1 m and 1.0 m. The selection of the second
threshold value, 1.0 m, ensures sensitivity of the two-tier
RQD for mean spacing values up to 2.5 m for use when
considering particularly large excavations. The suggested rock quality index would therefore be, for
example: ).= 3.3/m, RQD&I=95%, RQD*.o= 16%,
which gives information on discontinuity frequency,
percentage of rock containing spacing values greater
than 0.1 m and percentage of rock containing spacing
values greater than 1.0 m.
Acceptance of the negative exponential distribution
allows calculations to be made concerning the precision
of the discontinuity frequency estimates made from any
given scanline. In this way, it is possible to determine
the minimum scanline length, expressed as a multiple
of the mean discontinuity spacing, required to produce
a rock quality index at a specified precision. For
example, if the sample length is 50 times the mean discontinuity spacing, the estimated 2 will lie within
-t-20% of the true 2, 86 times out of 100.
A knowledge that the distribution of discontinuity
spacings follows a negative exponential form can be
of use in rockbolt design. Rockbolt design criteria may
embody requirements that the bolt should be of sufficient length to penetrate, say, at least the third joint
block back. The probability of intersecting three joint

RQD (RQD

values from Deere

et al.,

1967).

blocks for a given rockbolt length can be calculated

directly from the statistical theory.
The distribution of discontinuity spacings in a borehole is of critical importance when measuring mass permeability using packer test methods. In order to obtain
a precise picture of mass permeability, minimising variations caused by sampling error, it is necessary to
design the packer test length with regard to mean discontinuity spacing. Thus, a similar approach to that
used when considering the effect of sample length on
the precision of the ). estimate can be used to determine
effective packer permeability test lengths.
Snow[17,18] described a method for determining
discontinuity frequency from the proportion of zero
discharge packer permeability tests that occur. He
made the basic assumption that the occurrence of open
discontinuities in a given length of borehole obeys the
Poisson distribution. A corollary of the Poisson process
is that the discontinuities follow a negative exponential
distribution. The assumptions in Snow's work, though
dealing with the particular case of open, water bearing
discontinuities, may therefore be valid for the rocks
examined here.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The possible distributions of discontinuity spacings
along a straight line through a rock mass were considered. The effects of evenly spaced, clustered and randomly positioned discontimJities were examined from
a theoretical standpoint. It was found that, unless there
is a large predominance of evenly spaced discontinuities, any combination of evenly spaced, clustered and
randomly positioned discontinuities will lead to a negative exponential form of frequency vs spacing value
curve.
Analysis of field results obtained from scanline
measurements carried out by the authors indicated that

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock

a negative exponential distribution of discontinuity
spacing values is a good approximation to the true distribution patterns. Deviations from negative exponential form in other rocks, though possibly a reflection
of the true discontinuity characteristics of the rock
mass, could in some cases result from data compiled
from a small number of measurements (sampling error),
or data obtained from borehole core (discontinuities
superimposed by drilling).
Using the negative exponential distribution of discontinuity spacing values, a relation was established
between the theoretical Rock Quality Designation
(RQD*) and the average number of discontinuities per
metre:

RQD*= 100e-'l;(0.12 + l).

With this formula it was possible to compare the theoretical RQD, obtained from the discontinuity frequency
alone, with the actual RQD calculated from the spacing
values. This was done for all measurement locations.
The maximum error was 5%, indicating that the RQD
could have been found to within 5% simply by counting
the number of discontinuities along the scanline and
using the formula. In addition, the formula shows that
the conventional RQD with a threshold value of 0.1 m
is insensitive when the mean discontinuity spacing is
above 0.3 m.
The authors recommend presenting discontinuity
spacing data obtained from scanlines in the following
form:
(a))., the mean number of discontinuities.per metre,
or ~ the mean discontinuity spacing (~ = 1/2).
Since RQD is a commonly used method of expressing
discontinuity spacing data in site investigation, a twotier RQD may be used:
(b) RQDo.I, the conventional RQD.
(c) RQDLo, the RQD with a threshold value of
1.0 m.t
If the theory outlined earlier is applicable, (b) and (c)
can be calculated directly from (a).
It was also found that to estimate the number of
discontinuities per metre to within a reasonable precision requires a scanline length at least fifty times the
mean discontinuity spacing. Thus, if there are about
five discontinuities every metre, the scanline must be
at least ten metres long. Moreover, at least two
hundred measurement values were generally required
before the negative exponential distribution form
became clear on a histogram. One of the features of
this distribution is that theoretically the mean and standard deviation are equal: this was found to be the case
to within 20% for the nineteen measurement locations
in Lower Chalk and Carboniferous Limestone where
greater than two hundred readings were taken.
These sampling factors are relevant to packer permeability tests where water flow occurs essentially
through the discontinuities. Very large variations of
t" A threshold value of 1.0 m is recommended for general use; however any value can be used to suit particular conditions.

145

water flow should be expected if the test lengths are

only of the order of ten times the mean discontinuity
spacing, implying that correlation of permeability
values from borehole to borehole should not then be
attempted.
It is suggested that discontinuity surveys should be
carried out in a variety of rock types to assess the wider
applicability of the concepts presented in this paper.
These surveys should be carried out on freshly exposed
faces, with sample sizes consistent with the recommendations detailed above.
Acknowledgements--The work described in this paper forms part of
the programme of the Transport and Road Research Laboratory
and is published by permission of the Director. The authors wish
to thank the following organisations for their help: Rugby Portland
Cement Co; Mort Hay and Anderson; Sir Robert McAlpine and
Sons Ltd; Soil Mechanics Ltd; Rio Tinto Zinc; Cross Channel Contractors and the Steering Committee for the Kidder Water Scheme
Experimental Tunnel.
The research was carried out under the general direction of Mr.
M. P. O'Reilly, Head of Tunnels Division, Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, Dr. P. B. Attewell and Dr. I. W. Farmer, both
of the Engineering Geology Laboratories, University of Durham. The
authors would like to thank Dr~ F. Garwood for helpful statistical
advice and Dr. E. T. Brown, Imperial College of Science and Technology, Mr. J. B. Boden, Mr. C. McCaul and Mr. G. H. Alderman
of TRRL for help in obtaining and recording discontinuity spacing
data.

Received 29 September 1975.

REFERENCES
1. Fookes P. G. & Denness B. Observational studies on fissure
patterns in Cretaceous sediments of south-east England. Geotech.
19. 493-497 (1969).
2. Trollope D. H. The mechanics of discontinua or elastic
mechanics in rock problems. In Rock Mechanics in Engineering
Practice. (Edited by Stagg K. G. & Zienkiewicz O. C.), Chap.
9. pp. 275-320 (1968).
3. Jaeger J. C. & Cook N. G. W. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics.
p. 513. Methuen, London (1969).
4. Hock E. & Bray J. W. Rock Slope En~lineeriml. p. 309. Inst. Min.
Mctall. (1974).
5. Piteau D. R. Geological factors significant to the stability of
slopes cut in rock. S. Af Inst. Min. Met., Syrup. Planning Open
Pit Mines, Johannesburg. 33-53 (1970).
6. AtteweU P. B. & Woodman J. P. Stability of discontinuous rock
masses under polyaxial stress systems. In Stability of Rock Slopes.
13th Syrup. Rock Mech. (Edited by Cording E. J.) pp. 665-683.
ASCE, NY. (1971).
7. Hock E., Bray J. W. & Boyd J. M. The stability of a rock slope
containing a wedge resting on two intersecting discontinuities.
Q. J. Engng Geol. 6, 1-55 (1973).
8. Watkins M. D. Terminology for describing the spacing of discontinuities of rock masses. Q. J. Engng Geol. 3, 193-195 (1971).
9. Barton N., Lien R. & Lunde J. Analysis of rock mass quality
and support practice in tunneling, and a guide for estimating
support requirements. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Internal report, 19 June (1974).
10. Skempton A. W., Schuster R. L. & Petley D. J. Joints and fissures
in the London Clay at Wraysbury and Edgware. Geotech. 19,
205-217 (1969).
11. Dcere D. U. Technical description of rock cores for engineering
purposes. Rock Mech. Eng. Geol. 1, 17-22 (1964).
12. Dcere D. U., Hendron A. J., Patton F. D. & Cording E. J. Design
of surface and near surface construction in rock. In Failure and
Breakage of Rock (Edited by Fairhurst C.), pp. 237-302. AIME,
NY. (1967).
13. Terzaghi R. D. Sources of error in joint surveys. Geotech. 15,
287-304 (1965).
14. Mahtab M. A., Boistad D. D. & Kendorski F. S. Analysis of
the Geometry of Fractures in San Manuel Copper Mine, Arizona. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. No.
RI 7715, 24 (1973).

146

S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

15. McGown A., Saldivar-Sali A. & Radwan M. Fissure patterns

and slope failures in till at Hurlford, Ayrshire. Q. d. Engng Geol.
7, 1-26 (1974).
16. Bieniawski Z. T. 13ngineering classification of jointed rock masses.
The Civil Engineer in South Africa 15, 335-343 (1973).
17. Snow D. T. Rock fracture spacings, openings, and porosities. J.
Soil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, 94, SMI Proc. Paper 5736, 73-91
(1968).
18. Snow D. T. The frequency and apertures oi' fractures in rock.
lnt J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 7, 23-40 (1970).
19. Lindley D. V. Introduction to Probability and Statistics--l. Probability, p. 259. Cambridge University Press, London (1965).
20. Garwood F. Fiducial limits for the Poisson distribution. Biometrika, 28. Parts 3 and 4, 437-442 (1936).
21. Pearson E. S. & Hartley H. O. Biometrika Tables for Statisticians.
Vol. I. Cambridge University Press, London (1954).

APPENDIX A
The Poisson and negative exponential distributions

In practice, the probability of a small unit length

of scanline being intersected by a discontinuity need
not be one half as for the unbiased coin. Thus, the
analogy becomes direct for a biased coin1" with a different probability value for tails producing a random
sequence such as
HHHTHHHHTHTH

HHH

HTTH

HT.

The probability of k tails occurring in n tosses, or

k discontinuities in a length n units, is given.by the
binomial distribution as:
p~k
tails io~ = (n!/(n -- k)!k!)qkp"-k,
x n losses /

(A1)

where P(x)= probability of x occurring, p = probability of a head (or an intact unit), q = 1 - p = probability of a tail (or a unit containing a discontinuity).
The probabilities associated with encountering a certain number of discontinuities in a given length of scanline can be calculated from equation A I given q the
probability of a discontinuity intersecting a unit length
of scanline. The mean and standard deviation of the
binomial distribution are np and x/npq respectively.
However, we are also interested in the distribution
of spacings between successive tails and, by analogy,
the distribution of spacings between discontinuities. In
this case, the probability of each sequence is considered.
Assuming that a tail has just occurred, the sequences
in Table A1 can follow:

Using the scanline technique, discontinuity spacings

are measured by setting up a measuring tape across
the rock face and noting the tape positions where discontinuities are present. If it is assumed that each small
section of scanline has an equal chance of containing
a discontinuity, the discontinuity positions are random
and the spacing distribution can be studied in two
ways:
(a) the discrete case--a unit length of rock (say
10 mm) is considered intact if no discontinuity is present, and fractured if a discontinuity is present; the total
scanline length must then be an integral multiple of
TABLE A 1 . SPACING SEQUENCES BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE TAILS
the unit length;
(b) the continuous case--the unit lengths become inNo. of heads
Probability for
finitely small and the total scanline length can have
(spacing between
unbiased coin
Sequence
tails)
Probability
(p = I/2)
any value.
In the discrete case, the binomial and geometric dis- T-T
0
q
1/2
tributions provide the probabilities associated with fre- T-HT
1
pq
1/4
2
ppq
1/8
quency of occurrence and spacing values respectively. T-HHT
3
pppq
1/16
In the continuous case, the equivalent distributions are T-HHHT
T-HHHHT
4
ppppq
1/32
the Poisson and negative exponential functions. The
discrete case is explained via a coin tossing analogy
This probability density distribution is called the
and the continuous case as a limit to the discrete case
geometric distribution because the probability is
when the number of units becomes infinite. The coin
reduced by the constant factor p for each unit increase
tossing analogy is useful because it provides an intuitive
o f spacing.
understanding of why the most likely spacing value is
Thus
zero when the discontinuities are randomly positioned.
p / k heads between'~
~
~suessive tails ) = pkq
pk(l
p).
(A2)
(a) Discrete case. Consider, in analogy, an unbiased
coin tossing sequence of heads and tails where a head This distribution is plotted in Fig. A1 for a specific
represents a unit length of intact rock and a tail rep- value of p (19 = 0.91): for p = , the coin is unbiased;
resents a unit length containing a discontinuity. For for other p values, the coin is biased but the coin tossing sequence is still random. Note that for all p values,
example:
the most frequently occurring spacing value is zero. The
Coin sequence:
THHTHHTHTTTHHTHT
THT
I(I I Ill I h i I/IIKI I I/I I / l l l I/1
mean of the geometric distribution is equal to p/(1 - p).
Scanline:
I
~
~. ', ~,
/
t ~ /
(b) Continuous case. In the coin tossing analogy, the
There is an analogy between the number of tails that coin can only be thrown an integral number of times
will occur in n tosses and the number of discontinuities and hence the scanline length can only be an integral
that will occur along a scanline of length n units. In multiple of the unit length. The equivalent distribution
addition, the spacings between successive tails and the that characterises the number of events occurring in
spacings between successive discontinuities are analo- a continuous interval x is the Poisson distribution. The
gous.
probability of k events occurring in the interval x is
t Although biased, the result is still random--similar to selecting given by
a ball from a bag containing different numbers of black and red
pek
.... ts xi,~] ~ e - xx(2x)k/k!,
(A3)
~interval
balls,

147

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock

Geometric

0.IO~

distribution

Nc~jofi~ e~oon~t~l
O. lO

heads between~_^k q ~',

pL~ __~'
K )"" ~ -v,
~/s_ive toils
Where P(Head) : p
P(Tail) = l-p=q
Mean spacing
= p/(l - p] Heads

0.08 I

~0.06

X = O . I/unit length

i, Mean spacing
value= I 0 heads

:~

"~
0.

004

I I

0 1

10

15

o.o~ I-

Meonspecing

value= IOunits

',

O/
0

25

20

0.02 I-

f(x)=Xe-x=
whereh =nunt~ of events/unitlength
Mean spacing=l/X units

\
X

0.08

p= 0.91

~ 0.06

distribution

t
i
5
tO
15
20
Spacing value,x, arbitrary units

Spacing value, K heads

25

Fig. A1. Geometric and negative exponential distributions.

where 2 is the mean number of events occurring in

a unit interval. In the Poisson distribution, the values
of the mean and variance are both 2.
Since we are interested in the discontinuity spacing
probability density distribution, consider the distance
/ from one discontinuity to the next:

APPENDIX B

Precision of the mean discontinuity frequency estimate

P(d <<,x ) = t - P(d > x)

= 1-

accidents follow a Poisson distribution. In the discontinuity context, an apparent clustering of discontinuities
will occur as a natural consequence of the random positions.

P(no discontinuities in distance x)

and from equation (A3), with k = 0

P(t' ~ x) = 1 - e-xx.

(A4)

This is a negative exponential cumulative probability

distribution. The probability density distribution (f(x))
is the derivative of equation (A4) with respect to x:

f(x) = 2e -xx.

(A5)

This spacing distribution (equation A5) is plotted in

Fig. A1 for a specific value of 2 (2 = 0.l/m). The mean
and standard deviation are both equal to 1/2.
In both the geometric and negative exponential distributions, the most likely spacing value is zero. Lindley [19] suggests that this is the reason for the phrase
"it never rains but it pours" since rare events such as

The parameter 2 in the negative exponential distribution (cf. equation 2) is estimated by counting the
number of discontinuities intersecting a scanline and
then dividing by the scanline length: The estimated
number of discontinuities per metre (2) is given by

n/L,

(B1)

where n is the number of discontinuities encountered;

and L is the scanline length. We wish to know the
probability of estimating 2 within a certain error band
as a function of the scanline length.
For example, if the true 2 = 10/m and a scanline
length of one metre is taken, then 10 discontinuities
must occur for 2 to be within 59/o of the value 10/m;
if 9 or 11 discontinuities occurred, 2 would be 10%
in error.

Curves ore upper envelopes of probability

The actual curve has a saw tooth shape becausethe error bonds ore artificial (c. Appendix B)
It is only passible to measure an integral number of discontinuities.Thus,if XL =3.4,it is not
,ossibleto estimate within IO%-i.e. measureo numberof discontinuitiesbetween 3.06-3.74

1.0

"""'"""""*20/~r~--"~--

E'~ 0.8

=g
/

~ OA

""'~

~:to%etror bond

-- -- --

-- -- Ex~ple:To estimate X to within :1:10%, either 18,19,20,21 or 22 discontinuities

must occur in the samplelength20 times the mean dsoontindty spaci~
Fromequation AS,the pmpabili~ is given as

x
0

"1

K=I8

I0

15

20

25

30

~20~/Kt =0.42
I

35

-I

40

45

50

XL-Numl~r of times the sample length is91mtetfhanthe mean dsco~inuity spacing

(for either sconline,borehole or packer permeability test length)

Fig. B1. Graph for determining the probability of estimating the discontinuity frequency (2) to within +20% or + 10%
for different sample lengths.

148

S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

Equation (A3) gives the probability of k events occurring in an interval x as

p t k ,nts in~
I,inlcr',al x }

e- ;x(~.x)k/k!

(B2)

Thus, for the example above

pOO
di. . . . tinuitics] = e-1o 101o/10! = 0.125.
~in one metre
In this case, for a true ). of 10/m and taking a scanline
length of 1 m, the probability of estimating ). within
5 ~ is only 0.125. Note that the use of 5 ~ is arbitrary
here because the same probability applies to estimating
2 to within any percentage less than 10~--i.e. when
ten discontinuities are measured, ). will be exactly equal
to 2.
In general for ~ to lie within a certain error
band, + ~,
2(1 - E) ~< 2 ~< 2(1 + E)

(B3)

and, from equation (B1)

2L(1 - ~) ~< n ~< 2L(1 + e).

(B4)

From equation (B2), the probability of this occurring

20, 21, n2 = 22. The probability of this occurring is

0.423---calculated from equation (B5).
However, because of the arbitrary error band, it is
preferable to use the upper and lower limits of 2L from
the observed number of discontinuities at, say, the 98~o
or 90~o confidence limit [20] as in Table B I below. A
larger table is available in Pearson and Hartley [21].
TABLE B I . VARIATION OF 2 L AT 98% AND
900o CONFIDENCE LEVELS GIVEN THE OBSERVED
NUMBER
OF
DISCONTINUITIES,
FROM

GARWOOD [20]
Possible variation of 2L
n

98% confidence

90% confidence

0
1
5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50

0-4.61
0.01-6.64
1.28-13.11
4.13-20.14
7.48-26.74
11.08-33.10
14.85-39.31
18.74-45.40
26.77-57.35
35.03-69.07

0-3
0.05-4.74
1.97-10.51
5.43-16.96
9.25-23.10
13.25-29.06
17.38-34.92
21.59-40.69
30.20-52.07
38.96--63.29

is
k= a2

e-aL(2L)k/k!,

(B5)

k=nt

for integral values of nt to n2, satisfying inequality (B4).

If, for example, the scanline length is 20 times the mean
discontinuity spacing (2L = 20) and a 10~o error band
is allowed (e = 0.1), n can take the values nt = 18, 19,

If 50 discontinuities are observed in a scanline length

of 5 m, 2L varies from 38.96 to 63.29 at the 90~o confidence level (Table BI); i.e. 2 varies between 7.79/m and
12.66/m. From equation (5), the theoretical RQD* value
then varies from 82~o to 64?/0. This illustrates the high
sampling error in using short scanlines or borehole
lengths for RQD determinations.