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THE

PRINCIPLES

OF

AGRONOMY

TEXT-BOOK

OF

SCHOOLS

CROP
AND

PRODUCTION
SHORT-COURSES

AGRICULTURAL

HIGH-

FOR
IN

COLLEGES-

BY

FRANKLIN
PROFESSOR

OV

S.
AND

AGRONOMY

DIRECTOR
UTAH

ENGINEERINCr,

IN

UTAH

AGRONOMY,

Weto
THE

OF

THE

BOHOOL

AGRICULTURAL

fork
COMPANY

1915
rights reserved

AGRICULTURAL

B.S.

AGRICULTURAL

MACMILLAN

All

OF

COLLEGE

STEWART,

GEORGE
INSTRUCTOR

Ph.D.

HAREIS,

COLLEGE

MftMM
SP"C.
COLL-

H3

Rl5

Copyright,
By

Set up

and

the

1915,

MACMILLAN

COMPANY.

Kortooab
J. S. Cushin^

Co.

Norwood,

December,

Published

electrotyped.

"

^um
Berwick

"

Mass., U.S.A.

Smith

Co.
"^

iQ^S-

PREFACE

Agricultural
extended

instruction

demand

for

The

suitable

variation

schools

the

but

This
one

book

texts

one

few

in

has

that

years

become

the

insistent.

different

in

schools

required.

are

year

high-school

has

teaching

in

precede

agriculture

Some

is

high-

while

agriculture,

written

Although
ought

others

treated

of

only

the

Constant

Bulletins

of

school

by

all

where

United

the
to

of

which

not

of

number

agriculture

cussion
diswho

ciples
prin-

practices.
find

will
the

at

end

publications

are

made

to

H.

L.

States
of

the

each
been

the

taught.

the

ter.
chap-

given

of

Cyclopedia
Farmers'

to

of

Department

in

in

mentioned.

Bailey,

standard
be

help

of

not

is

the

language

has

should

the

farmer

practical

references

been

Agriculture

and

subject,

of

has

reference

American

his

accessible

most

the

readings
list

complete

although

text-book,

information

supplementary
A

for

to

of

more

husbandry.

understanding

non-technical

many

wishing

better

probably

chapters.

useful

in

underlying
Those

the

should

chemistry,

than

more

animal

or

primarily
be

to

in

giving

study

its

and

assist

all, of

schools

horticulture

botany

will

perhaps

find

in

of

presupposed,

will

for

instruction

knowledge

some,

designed

is

course

list

last

text-books

several

give

the

the

four.

give

in

that

great

so

within

rapidly

so

in

works

on

library
Very

of

few

culture,
Agrieach
every
refer-

vi

Preface

have

ences

been

made

since
The
is

possible

order

in

and

crops,

solely

what

and

read

They

A.

A.

the

manuscript

to

N.
and

Butt,

offered

GEORGE

Utah,

May

1,

1916.

relying

the

leagues
col-

agement
encour-

preparation

obligation

E.

Ball,

D.

A.
all

their

for

special

FRANKLIN

Logan,

of

College

Messrs.
I.

soils,

of

number

during

and

with

as

them.

Director

Widtsoe,

dents
stu-

much

as

instead

under

it

as

that

familiar

about

says

are

and

field

principles

criticism

Pederson,

Anderson,

and

Agricultural

friendly

J.
N.

text

Utah

book.

President

of

only

therefore,

directly

indebted

are

the

at

L.

become

the

valuable

suggested,

laboratory

to

authors

this

is

applications

upon

The

C.

It

the

in

is

lications,
pub-

station

available.

not

are

agriculture

practical.
work

of

of

experiment

state

them

of

many

teaching

made

to

F.
of

fessor
Pro-

Bracken,

whom

valuable

to

have

suggestions.

S.
STEWART.

HARRIS,

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

PASK8

1-5

Introductory
.........

is

What
2

and

Agriculture

agriculture

agronomy,

PAKT

Plant

Its

and

of

Factors

Frost,

13

Wind,

19

II

19

10
14

Water,

20

Pests,

16

Adapted

season,

12

Sunlight,

18

of

Length

CHAPTER

21.

crops,

III

23-38

Struotuee

Plant

Cells,
26

leaf,

23

Plant

35;

branches,

25

Tissues,

parts,

27

The

37

Underground

plant,
27

root,

35;

flower,

The

of

Kind

The

seed,

The

26

Crop

stem,

-37;

plants,
30

Buds

The
and

37.

stems,

IV

CHAPTER

Plant

4.

9-22

growth,

plant

Soil,

Environment

Temperature,

in

PLANT

CHAPTER

The

sciences,

agriculture,

book,

this

THE

I.

the

Opportunities

of

of

Scope

Divisions

.3 ;

and

Agriculture

industries,

the

varied,

are

of

Phases

agriculture

39-49

Functions
39

Growth,
Osmosis,

44

Transportation,

Respiration,
Transpiration,
48

Response,

41
46

49.

;
;

Photosynthesis,

42

Translocation,

48

;
;

Contents

viii

CHAPTER

PAGES

The

Plant

as

Factory

compounds, 54
55 ;

plants, 51

on

man

Protein, 56

PART

importance of

VI

soil,68

the

of better

of

Permanence

Minerals

Quartz,
71

rocks, 70

Mica, 71

72 ; Dolomite, 73 ;

rocks, 73
heat

atmosphere,

70-80

Soil-forming minerals, 70;


; Hornblende

Chlorite,72
73 ;

Gypsum,

; Methods

cold, 74

and

VII

feldspars,71

; The

71

soil,68

of the

Soils

op

and

Economic

69.

soil management,

Fokmation

and

soils, 68

; Conservation

CHAPTER
Origik

Storage, 59;

67-69

Definition,67
Need

plant

Is

Soil

the

; The

SOIL

THE

II.

.CHAPTER
What

53 ;, Plant

of the harvest, 62.

; Control

61

Harvest,

oils,56

and

ence
Depend-

Carbohydrates,

concentration, 59;

Animal

factory, 57;

55 ;

Water,

; Fats

Asli, 56

Domestication,

54 ;

Flavors,

animals, 51

plants and

of

Interdependence
of

50-63

of soil

Zeolites, 72

Apatite, 73

formation, 74

of vfater, 75 ;

; Action

78 ; Plants

and

animals, 78

and

ene,
pyrox-

Caloite,

ing
; Soil-form; Action

Ice, 76

of

; The

; Classification

soils,79.

of

CHAPTER
Physical

Properties

of

texture

structure,

83

to

Hovr

gravity of soils,86
87 ; The

.....

organic matter,

88.

according

to

texture, 82

lation
; Re-

water-holding capacity, 83; Soil


to modify structure, 84 ; Specific

; Air

organic matter

81-89

Soil

the

Soil texture, 81 ; Groups


of

VIII

in the

soil,86

; Heat

of the

soil,88

of the

Maintaining

soil,
the

Contents

ix

CHAPTER

IX
PAGES

The

Water

of

Soil

the

90-97

Origin of soil water,


91 ; The

condition

points, 93
Methods
of

of

soil

94;

of soil
92 ;

Capillary water,

90 ; Variations

moisture, 91

Free

of

94 ; Need

water-table, 95

for

ical
crit-

94

; Loss

preventing evaporation,

; The

of soil water,

96 ; Use

field soils, 93 ;

in

water

91

water,

92 ; Other

Hygroscopic water,

Quantity

soil moisture,

expressing the quantity of water,

moisture,

The

in

ture,
of soil mois-

movements

Quantity of

96 ;

used

water

by plants, 96.

CHAPTER

The

Control

Soil

of

Irngation
of water
of

104;
for

Water

to

106.

; Kinds

115

moisture,

; The

drainage,
of

109

of

to use,

; Need

Removing

excessive

Benefits

drainage,

of

The

dry-farming. 111;
soils, 113

tion
ques-

Dry-farm

116.

Tillage methods,

XI

118-124

Soil

the

plants

What

ods
; Meth-

irrigation,106

CHAPTER

Plant-food

102

Installingthe drains, 110.

Dry-farm

; Sources

of water

amount

Over

98

of water,

alkali,108

Removing
of

soil

Drainage

Scope
Dry-farming:
of rainfall.111
crops,

103

irrigate,105

economy,
;

the

; Measurement

applying water,

When

98-117

Increasing

supply, 100

water, 107
108

use

from

the

soil,118

Composition

of

and
serve
reanalysis of soils,120 ; Available
plant-food,121 ; Making plant-foodavailable, 121 ;

soils,119

; The

Quantity

of

foods
Losses
124

that
in

are

plant-food removed
scarce,

122

plant-food,123

; Relation

of

by plants,

of the

Exhaustion

; Plant-food

plant-food to value

121

in
of

Plant-

soil,123

organic matter,
a

soil,124.

Contents

CHAPTER

XII
PAGES

Manukes

125-137

Fektilizers

and

126
Types of fertilizers,

; How

determine

to

fertilizer

127; Nitrogen fixation,


needs, 126; Nitrogen fertilizers,
128

129 ; Lime,
of

128
fertilizers,

Phosphorus

130
fertilizers,

of farm
farm

Value

of farm

134 ; How

of

139

; How

soil

Bacteria

XIII

organisms, 138

soil,139

grow,

140

and

the

farmer,

; Relation

Crop

and

manure

moisture,

149

for

rotation

bacteria,
mation,
for-

humus

to
; The

The

fixation

of
;

144.

XIV

Rotations

145-153

Improving soil structure,


Covering

denitrification,143

and

CHAPTER
Tillage

of

Kinds

nitrogen, 141

to

Nitrification

Bacteria, 139

in the

Relation

142

nitrogen,

136 ;

crops,

138-144

bacteria
141

Handling

of bacteria

number

; Kinds

SoiL

THE

Kinds

133

fertilize different

to

CHAPTER
OF

131

136.

manures,

OKeANISMS

Home-mixing

manure,

in manure,

132 ; Losses

manure,

manure,

Green

fertilizers,

Potassiam

130
fertilizers,

; Indirect

129

and

Controllingweeds, 147

plant residues,

Tillage of

145

of crops, 151

148

various

crops,

Methods

of crop

CHAPTER

Conserving

150

Reasons

rotation,152.

XV

Special

Soil
Alkali

Problems
:

Kinds

growth, 156
Indicators

of

161 ;
of

Erosion
:

soils

Topography

the

alkali,155

soil

Blowing

of judging

of

Reclamation

acidity,157.
158.

154-163

soil, 162

of alkali

of alkali lands, 156.

acidity, 157
Methods

Prevention
:

; Effect

Indicator
of the

of

of

land, 161 ;

; Chemical

plant

Acidity :

Correction

of

soil

preventing erosion,

blowing, 160.

value

on

of native

Depth

analysis,
analysis,163; Productivity, 163.

162

and

Methods

vegetation,
structure

; Mechanical

Contents

PART

III.

xi

CROPS

FIELD

CHAPTER

XVI
PAGES

Wheat

167-190

Relationships,
ground, 170

168

; The

and

kernel, 170

adaptation, 173

175; Seed and seeding, 175


179; Closed

Weeds,

value, 183

and

ing, 187

181

Harvesting, 178

Diseases,
182

186

; Uses

Markets

Prices, 188.

XVII

Maize

or

191-207

Relationships,191
leaves, 193
Dent

corn,

corn,

196

The

195

flower, 194
; Flint

; Soft

or

192

Roots,

corn,

198

Seed

planting, 200

and

201

and

value, 204

Harvesting,

203

195

Types,

196 ; Pop

197 ; Pod

corn,

rieties,
197 ; Va-

; Factors

; Silage,203

production,

in

of the

seed-bed,

199

of the

growing crop,
Enemies, 204 ; U.ses

; Treatment

and

; The

corn,

Preparation

Storage

ear, 194

193

198 ; Sweet

flour corn,

Adaptation, 198

culms,

; The

; The

197 ; Distribution, 197

marketing,

205.

XVIII

CHAPTER
Other

bution
Distri-

Rust, 180;

wheat,

Elevators,

CHAPTER
Corn

in

above

seed-bed,

180;

smut,

Quality

Storage, 184

of

Preparation

plant

The

Varieties, 171

179; Loose

smut,

Insects,180

168

Roots,

208-223

Cereals
Oats:

208
Origin and relationships,

Distribution,210

;_Harvesting

212

Enemies,
and

214.

crop,

222.

222.

and

marketing,

Sowing and

marketing,

Description and

217

Uses,

220.

Bice

221

Uses,

221.

Enemies:

212

and
;

tion,
cultiva213

Uses,

216;
cultivation,

Enemies

209

; Distribution

215

distribution, 219

220

Buckwheat:

Description,

Seeding

Description,

Barley:

adaptation, 216 ;
and

Rye

; Varieties,212

and
;

vesting
Har218.

uses,

Handling

Description and
Description

the

tion,
distribuand

Description, distribution,and

use,

uses,

xii

Contents

CHAPTER

XIX
PAGES

224-240

Potatoes

224

Varieties, 227

Origin,

Relationships, 225 ; Description, 225 ;


Distribution
and
aration
adaptation, 228 ; Prep-

of land, 2.30 ;

Storage, 235

234

and

; Use

and

insects,236

and

value, 239.

CHAPTER
Root

planting,

Harvesting

Weeds

and

Cutting

during growth,

233'; Treatment
marketing, 235
Diseases, 236

231

Seed,

XX

241-255

Crops

Sugar-beets : History,
and

seed, and

241

distribution,243

Diseases,248 ; Insects, 249 ;


251.

and

252.

Turnips

Culture, 253 ;

254 ; Culture

and

and

Value,

tation
Adap-

the

land,
247

Harvesting, marketing,
251 ;

Butahagas
254.

Carrots

and

of sugar,

; Manufacture

Description,

of

during growth,

value, 250

Mangel-wurzels

Culture,
253 ;

; Use

Preparation

Treatment

seeding, 245;

storage, 249

Descriptipn, 243

252 ;

Use,

Description,
Description,

255.

use,

CHAPTER

XXI

Alfalfa

256-270
Name

and

origin, 256

258 ; Stems

and

Varieties,261

land

263 ;

value,266

and

; Flowers

and

267

264

and

Roots,

seed, 260

adaptation, 261

seeding, 263

Harvesting,

Mixtures,

259

; Distribution

of the

growth,

leaves,

Relationships, 258

Storage,

Enemies,

265

aration
Prep-

; Treatment

during
; Use

268 ; Seed

and

tion,
produc-

269.
CHAPTER
The

Clovers

Other

and

XXII

Legumes

"
.

Bed

clover

272
clovers

Culture, 273

Alsike

clover,274;

Description,272
;

clover, 274

Crimson

Use
:

Distribution

and

White

clover,275.

value,

and
273.

clover, 274
Field

Peas

tation,
adapOther

Sweet

Descrip-

271-285

Contents

adaptation, 275

and

tion

Culture, 278

282.

Culture,
283.

Cowpeas

Soybeans

Legumes

Miscellaneous

Description, 280

Description, 282

and

Culture

Description, 278;

Beans:

Use, 280.

Sowing, 276

Use, 277.

harvestiug, 277;

xm

ture,
Cul-

Vetch, 284

; Other

legumes, 284.
XXIII

CHAPTEE

286-301

Grasses

Timothy
289

Description, 288

; Use

and

Description,292
and

293.

use,

value, 291

Adaptation,"
294;
Orchard-grass
295

; Value

299

298

use,
;

Culture, 294;
and

Adaptation,

Other

Bermuda-grass,

299

297

Meadows,

Definition,302
plants, 304
Condition

Over-stooldng, 309

312

Kinds

of

304

;
;

Native

304

ture,
pas-

Crop

animals, 307

different

310

good

308

pastures,

;
;

311.

Meadows,
316.

Value, 312; Soiling crops,

XXV

318-332

of

; Distribution

seed-bed

328; Storage

Description,

Relationships,320

Varieties,322

tionship and
Other

laneous
Miscel-

; A

grass,

Improving

Management,

during growth, 325

grass

302-317

pasture, 302

; For

308

Origin,318

Preparation

Enemies,

300

.......

Sorghum
323

oat-grass,

Millets

and

320

Value

Systems

CHAPTER
Sorghums

meadow

pastures,

Soiling: Use,

Culture, 297

XXIV

Soiling

and

Mixtures,

of

Brome-grass

Johnson-grass,

Importance, 303
;

ture,
Adaptation, 295; Cul-

Tall

CHAPTER

303 ;

value,

294.

301.

grasses,

Pastures,

and

Smooth

grasses

Value

Description, 293

Use

296.

use,

ture,
Cul-

Jtedtop:

Culture, 293

Blue-grass

Description,295

Description, 297
and

292

289

292.

Enemies,

Adaptation,

Kentucky

Adaptation,

329

types, 331.

marketing,

Culture, 329.

description,330

326

; Culture

ment
; Treat-

Use, 327

328.

Millets
and

tion,
Descrip-

adaptation,

seeding, 325

Harvesting,

and
;

and

and

Sudan:

Eela^

value, 330

Contents

XIV

XXVI

CHAPTER

PAGES

Fibers
"

Misoellaneoos

and

Fibers

835

Description,

338

Adaptation,

marketing, 337

and

value, 340.

Other

fibers, 341.

Miscellaneous

342

fibers :

Rape, 843

marketing, 345
Fruits,

; Truck

349

Miscellaneous

crops:

Cabbage

and

Enemies,

343.

345

346

and

Use

rabi,
kohlbacco
Toand

Curing

potatoes, 347

Sweet

crop, 351 ; Other

; Timber

351.

crops,

CHAPTER
Improvement
is

; The

tests, 362

Better

Ideal

Steps

of

Importance

be

breeding,

in

356

tion,
; Artificial selec-

chosen, 361

362

tivation,
Cul359

Reproduction,

plants should

best

sought,

selection, 360

; Natural

law, 363

Mendel's

? 354

Seed-testing, 357

Variation, 359
360

.......

improvement

357

XXVII
353-365

Crop

op

What

"

340

vesting
; Har-

tion,
Descrip-

Flax:

Culture,

336

Hemp,

349

crops,

Culture,

337.

Culture, 338

Sugar-cane,

335

Kale, 343

Distribution, 345

Relationships, 334

Use,

Adaptation, 338

.....

History, 333

Cotton.

333-352

Crops

riety
Va-

Crossing, 362

large numbers,

364

seed, 364.
XXVIII

CHAPTER

366-378

Weeds

Definition,366

364

Dissemination,
372 ;

367
Classification,

Eradication,

Herbicides, 376

PART

from

; Losses

383

should

; The

fields,384

tion,
; Preven-

principles,375

MANAGEMENT

FIELD

XXIX

Farm

the

Plan

370

377.

CHAPTER
Planning

Occurrence, 368

weeds,

373 ; General

Summary,

IV.

381-386
be

stable, 381

farmstead,
;

ditches,385

Size
; Use

and

383

shape

of waste

Number

Arrangement
of fields,384

places, 386.

of
and
;

enterprises,
number

Fences

of
and

Contents

CHAPTER

xv

XXX
PAGES

What

Chops

Grow

to

387-391

Crop adaptation, 387


specialties,389
Work

in

Diversity of crops, 388

Conditions

producing

various

for

of

as

that

Caring

for

392-399

Machines

that

seldom

of

392

mechanic,

are

duty

395 ; The

XXXI

.......

equipment, 393
Machines

used,

machinery,

Success

of

Size of farm, 300


402

Good
to

Profits

man

each

from

crop,

404

farm

farmer

402

Keeping

yields

vs.

the

to

labor, 404

horse

A.

Addresses

of

400-406

ing,
farm-

records,
403

acre,

Understanding

Appendix

B.

Laboratory

Appendix

C.

Fertilityin

of

and

Farm

by

United
.

periment
Ex-

States
.

Produce
and

Different

412

....

Value

of Manure

Kinds

of
.

Farm
.

Measures

Appendix

E.

Weights and

Appendix

F.

Quantity of Seed

Appendix

G.

Most

408
411

Bushel

and

Guides

Animals

Common

of the

Agriculture

Composition, Amount,
Produced

407-430

....

Agricultural Colleges

Department

D.

Markets, 404.

Stations

Appendix

Proper type of

APPENDICES
Appendix

buildings,398.

Production

Capital, 401

and

machinery,

date, 394

XXXII

management,

403 ; Profits

farm

Depreciation, 396

; Suitable

Crop

in

of

out

; Size of

395 ;

machinery,
397

395

in

Extremes

get

CHAPTER
Factors

391 ;

crops,

Farm

the

farmer

The

Crop

391.

crops,

CHAPTER

Equipment

various

Planted

Weights

413

414
to the
of

Acre

Seeds

to

416

the
417

Contents

XVI

PAGE

Appendix

H.

Appendix

I.

Rules

418

Rules

Measuring
for

in

Hay

Measuring

419

Stack

the

Appendix

J.

Wheat

420

Calendar

Harvest

....

Appendix

K.

Prices

of

Wheat

on

Chicago

Market

(1863421

1910)
Appendix

L.

Appendix

M.

Crop

for

Statistics

Plowing

as

affected

United

Continental

by

Shape

of

the

423

States

l?ield

424
.

Appendix

N.

Depreciation

Average
the

Acre

for

Farm

Year

Cost

and

425

Machinery
.

Appendix

O.

Glossary

to

426

THE
PRINCIPLES
OF

AGRONOMY

'

Principlesof Agronomy

The

it

processes

He
of

is secreted ; he
composition of milk and the

the

of butter

manufacture

in the

stillhe may

milk

how

and

cow,

undergoes

and

cheese;
cow.

familiar with

be

may

of

stomach

in the

hay is digested

which

by

methods

the

understand

may

how

know

not

milk

to

even

or
a

ciples
training in the underlying scientific prinbut not in the art or handicraft.
agriculture,
has

Agricultureis a business, since it is practicedprimarily


of securing a living. Usuallya farmer is not
as
a means
interested in the art and science of agricultureexcept as
they contribute to his making a better livelihood. Science
helps him to understand why he does certain things,and
gives him a foundation for his practices; he acquires skill
in the practices in order
increase production and,
to
through it,to extend his income.
2. Agriculture and

sometimes

made

that

the
if

sciences.

not
sciences,he would
This is probably true, but no

all the sciences


need

to

learn

if he

even

need
one
were

assertion

familiar

were

person

the

The

"

study agriculture.

to

is able to master

person

able to do

so,

he would

land before finishing


his studies of pure science.
The
real condition,however, is that those who
most

to

do

with

the

land

have

little time

study of science,although they desire


of

all

with

of the applicationsof science to

some

is

the

have

for extensive

brief knowledge

of the

principles
underlyingthe industry in which
the teaching of agrithey are engaged. This justifies
culture
to those who
have had little trainingin the
even
some

so-called pure
natural

be

able

and

sciences.

the

to

Agriculture and
very

better

foundation

the

of

the

understands

one

social sciences,however,

comprehend
agriculture.
3.

The

the

better will

principlesand

industries.

"

all industries.

the
one

problems

Agriculture is

of

at

Manufacturing,

Introductory
mining, and

dependent on
the soil for their existence ; indeed, the
himself

commerce

would

the

are

products of
life of

very

man

be

impossibleif the soil did not directly


of civilization
or
indirectlyyield him food. The advance
and the development of industrial enterprises
are
limited by the agricultural
conditions of the world.
culture
Agriinstead of being a problem merely for those engaged
is a world problem affecting
directlyin its practice,
It is evident, therefore,that
all the activities of man.
it merits serious consideration.

farm, in addition

The

to

being

place where a great


for those engaged in

industry is conducted, is a home


this industry. It should, therefore, be considered
not
entirelyfrom the point of view of economic
efficiency,
but of social efficiencyalso, as the home
of that part
will probably have
of the coming generation which
most
to do with the future welfare of the nation.
culture,
Agrias

aspects quite

as

social and

has

consequence,

important

as

educational

its scientific and

economic

phases.
4.

Opportunities

in

important opportunities are


work

for young
are

men

called with

louder

on
opportunities

every

hand

the forces of nature, and

to

and

satisfaction in being

than

at

for him

who

can

the

history
present,

training.

who
secure

knows

joy

direct producer.

phases of agriculture,such
schools, engaging in demonstration
Other

in

Never

voice

most

with

of intelligence,
industry, and

how

use

The

"

connected

those

the land in its various phases.

on

has the land

There

varied.

agricultureare

as

teaching it

in the

experimental
and working as
work for the states and the government,
are
assuming greater
an
expert adviser for corporations,
importance every year, and offer good opportunitiesto
of abilityand training.
men
young
and

Principks of Agronomy

The

5.

of

Division

"

in many

restorative,tropicalor

according
purposes

into

the

to

in

of

intensive

as

instructional

For

income.

divided

be

it may

or

it has often been divided


colleges,
agricultural
main

three

temperate

source

classed

diversified, exploitiveor

extensive, specialized or

or

be

It may

ways.

divided
be sub-

Agriculture may

agriculture.

parts

animal

agronomy,

husbandry,

horticulture.

and

has usually included a study


subject of agronomy
Under animal
field crops, and farm management.
of soils,
try,
husbandry, the various phases of the live-stock indusThe
study
including dairying, have been studied.
the production of fruits,
of horticulture has included
The

vegetables,and
also

applied divisions,there are


of scientific divisions,such as entomology,

addition

In

chemistry, and
these bears

these

to

number

flowers.
three

animal

plant and

relation to all three of the

It is difficult,
therefore,to find
is logicaland

that

at

the

Phases

of agronomy.

time

are

so

of

pf agriculture

entirely practical,

closelyinterrelated.

The

"

Each

applieddivisions.

subdivision

"ame

since the different branches


6.

pathology.

present volume

deals

with that phase of

sometimes
called agronomy.
agriculture
outside
meaning of this word is not widely known

The

of the schools,and
It

from

comes

fields."

At

even

two

there

Greek

it is used somewhat

words

"

meaning

present, it is usually understood

loosely.

the

to

use

mean

of
the

of the land in the production of field crops.


It is sometimes
divided into three distinct phases : soils,

management

crops,
may

and

farm

management.

be applied to any

one

The

term

"

"

agronomy

of these branches.

To
give the beginner in
Scope of this book.
agriculturalstudy a general idea of the principlesof successful
production of crops, and to furnish him a basis for
7.

"

Introductory

study

in

of

present

the
Part

will
as

the

be

of

well

is

part

service

to

made

of

apply

studying

and

III
in

other

Part

and

of

its

plant

the

object

take

growth,

In

discussed.

agriculture.

Part

II,

as

of

to

the

problems

Some

This

management.

entirely

numbers

and

horticulture

up

horticulture

devoted

IV,
are

phases

later

to

is

of

agronomy.

soil

the

management
to

who

fundamental
Part

field

students

those

to

is

agriculture,

principles

the
to

likewise

crops

of

volume.

agronomy.

field

branches

discusses

as

is

study

other

of

well

as

study

to

of

relating
these

also

The

10

8.

of

Factors

six factors which

Principlesof Agronomy
plant growth.
must

general,there are
in order for plants to
(1) a home, or place

In

"

be favorable

growth. These are :


in which to find lodgingand support, (2) water, (3) heat,
and (6) plant-food. The
general
(4) light,(5) oxygen,
determines, the character of the vegetation
environment
(Figs.1-3).
of growth for agricultural
Fine soil is the medium
speciesflourish in water or on rock.
plants,though some
determines
the kind of
The
quantity of available water
plant that may grow in a given spot and the degree of
attain. A proper
degree of warmth
development it may
is essential to germination and to growth. Most
plants
All
requiresunlight,though a few do better in the shade.
in order to carry on their
livingcells must have oxygen
Lack of air in over-wet
soils kills some
functions.
plants.
tion
Certain soils lack mineral
plant-food in a soluble condiand, therefore,produce poor yields if not fertilized.
Carbon
the
from
dioxide, a gaseous
plant-food, comes
the best

make

air.
Of

these

six factors,man

can

control but two

(1) the

and
supply of soils,
(2) the plant-food available.
do littlethat will influence
regards a given spot, man
can

water

As

heat, light,oxygen,
His method

and

depth

or

texture

of soil.

of control in respect to these

depends on his
and, by so doing, to

change his place of abode


select a district having desirable climate and soil. Length
of season
and daily temperature, together with the kind
of soil,determine the degree of warmth.
Clear or cloudy
weather
regulatesthe sunshine and light. Rainfall and
winds supplemented by irrigation,
drainage, and tillage
the factors controlling
are
the water
supply. The fineness,
of the soil measure
depth, uniformity,and fertility
both
the plant-foodand the opportunity for root development.

power

to

"

The

Plant

and

its Environment

11

The

12

Principlesof Agronomy

Cropping systems aid materially in causing plants to


respond properly,while the plant is the subjecton which
interact.

forces

these

plant diseases

Insects, rodents, weeds, and

nuisances, and

in

with

reckoned

be

to

as

such

are

are

pests

production. They are


counted negativeor hindering
crop

factors.
of

Length

9.

season.

the

Of

"

the
controlling
States, lengthof season
factors

distribution of crops in the United


is one
of the most
powerful. Between
and
Of

Canada

several well-marked

are
no

course,

singlefactor

alone

moisture, soil,and
for

count

effect of
the

South

much,
short
to

the Gulf of Mexico

they

moved

barley

have

into

the
causes

the

though
Al-

of temperature

overcome

growing-seasonthat

fail when

wheat, oats, and

range

production.

for this.

accounts

daily

cannot

belts of

injurious

crops

North.

from
That

shorter

periods of growth
is well known.
than potatoes and corn
Cotton requires
seven
or
eight months without a frost,while barley or rye
can
having only two or four months
get on with a- season
between
frosts. Oranges and
bananas
not
are
grown
in semi-tropicalclimates where
the growing-season
save
lasts almost the whole
Coconuts
are
produced
year.
only in tropicalregions; corn extends over a rather broad
from
the tropics well into the temperate
zones.
area,
of adaptability
This power
comes
largelyfrom the power
of corn
to adjust itself to shorter growing-seasons. By
the selection of early-maturingplants, corn-growing has
gradually extended well up toward the Canadian
ary.
boundAll crops have
of growth to suit the

they

are

carried.

cowpeas

power

seasons

of

A crop

will usually grow


and

some

are

of
new

changing

district into which

that thrives under

under
confined

the time

certain conditions

others less favorable.


almost

entirelyto the

ton
Cotsec-

Plant

The

tion of the United

its'Enmonment

and

13

States south of the

of latitude.

thirty-seventh
degree
red clover are
widely grown

north

not

Timothy and
of this parallel,
but

in the

Potatoes

South.

in every
potato-growing
state, but profitable
is limited to the states in the North ; corn
does best in
are

grown

the central part. The questionof seasonal adaptability


is one
of profitableproduction rather than of successful

growth.

Although

"

the

corn

belt," other

corn

well north

grows
crops

south

and

of

better at the extremes

pay

and

they replace it. In the intermediate regions,corn


It is not so much
is the most
profitablecrop to grow.

that

one

does not

crop

Economical

pay,

problems

that another

as

An

of crop
response.
in which
is grown
a crop

our

and
agriculture

into

enter

survey

areas

generalboundaries of climate
to supplant another.
Abbe^
100

miles have

soil that

caused

never

of the

extensivelywill
and

disturb

examination

show

cause

estimates that variations in climate

square

better.

pays

crop

one

over

areas

than

more

the

50

of
per

5 per cent
fluctuation in crop yields,and not over
for the whole
United States.
Though in moving a crop
cent

from

much,
to

section

one

to

very

littlecan

This

is largelydue

little when

vary

however,
that

another

have

plants,if

Tender

not

attributed

be

to

abnormal
are

to

it in

are

seasons

for

counts

season
a

the tendency of

long periods

well

done

length of

given

climate

considered.
and

occur

tion.
sec-

casiona
Occrops

by untimely frosts.
nipped and retarded in

killed

killed,are

growth.
10.

Frost.

melons,

are

"

wheat

succulent

frost-bitten when

slightlybelow
and

Many

are

plants,such

the temperature

freezing. Hardy crops


not readily injuredeven
1

Weather

Bureau

Bui.

36,

as

corn

and

drop is but
like rye, barley,
by rather sharp

p. 364.

Principlesof Agronomy

The

14

but

potatoes droop after

Alfalfa and

frosts.

and

grass

show

wheat

sign of

no

slightfrost,
injury. Many
a

orehardists,maintaining that it is not the frost but sudden

thawing
in

latent heat ; breezes prevent cold air from

spot

one

largerunning

air.

cold

the

away
to

the

hold

water

At

any

in sections with

occur

When

stems

or

cells into the

streams

are

tling
setcarry

less

likely

air drainage.

good

and

between

is drawn
there

out

of the
times
Some-

frozen.

will freeze the whole

in temperature

drop

to

seem

rate, frosts

freeze,water

buds

spaces

sudden

slopes

that

morning sun in order to avoid immediate


but this is probably an error.
Large bodies of

from

away

land

kills fruit buds, choose

that

thawing

freezingis the result of


of water
the withdrawal
from the plasma membrane
to
form
ice crystals. When
frosts may
extremely severe,
Frozen
plants have
rupture the bark, exposing wood.
it is.

plant just as

wilted

drouth
leaves
that

from

blightedappearance
A day or so
heat.
or
look as though they had
or

Records

if

as

after

been

injuredby
a

frost,the
scorched

excessive

injured
by a fire

close.

too

was

how

Death

of

district for

number

of years show
early in autumn

late in the

about

frosts
spring and how
be expected. These will vary
but, as already
may
some,
settler
pointed out, not so widely as to prevent a new
from
anticipatingwhat crops will mature;
provided,
of course,
that he knows
how
long the crop requires
and
how
farm
hardy it is. General
practice in the
climatic
localitywill gradually readjust itself to meet
demands.
far wrong

Farmers
in

regard

in

established

to

time

of

districts do

planting and

not

choice

go

of

crops.

11.
range

Temperature.
of

"

After

length of

season,

temperature is the chief consideration

daily
affecting

The

Plant

and

its Environment

15

Principlesof Agronomy

The

16

in the Great
as
warm
supply. Days are practically
Lakes
region or in the Great Basin as they are at New
Mornings, evenings,
Orleans, but only for a few hours.
cooler,whereas in the South nights
and nights are much
well as days keep warm.
Many plants are sensitive to
as
even
though it remains several
a lowering of temperature
tions
degrees above freezing. On this account, daily fluctuaof considerable importance.
are
heat

Some

evidence

indicate that total heat

to

seems

found

by multiplyingthe temperature by the length of the season


determines
the growth of some
plants. Duggar ^ cites
in which yieldsof date palms increased with the
case
one

about
to use
spring wheat seem
the same
quantityof heat for ripening. Spring grain has
warmer
a shorter but
growing period.
decreases.
As elevation increases,temperature
Going
from low to higher land is nearly equivalentto moving
southward
from the equator.
northward
or
High mountains
in the tropics show
all gradations of vegetation
in passing from tropicalto arctic regions. Many
found
the equator are covered
with perpetual snow.
peaks near
Aside
from
the
creased
change produced, intemperature
Fall and

total heat.

elevations

plant growth if

to

seem

soil and

have

moisture

little influence
relations

on

equally

are

favorable.
12.
has
How

Water.

noticed

Every

"

the

person

at

all familiar with

effect of abundant

the foothills are

moisture

in

on

plants
them.

earlyspring,and how brown


after extended periods of drouth.
they become in summer
When
lawns begin to lose their uniform green color,they
need water.
A hose is essential to a good lawn almost
be watered
everywhere. House-plants must
frequently;
greenhouse plants are usually sprinkled in order to keep
green

Duggar,

Plant

Physiology, p.

406.

Principlesof Agronomy

The

18

fall
unending struggleagainstevaporation,and heavier rainis a theme
Not

of constant

prayer.

all the effects of low

rainfall

are

gation
Irri-

harmful.

apply water to one crop and


withhold it from another, thereby hasteningmaturity or
Wheat
the size and qualityof the harvest.
controlling
loses part of its
to dry, hot weather
long accustomed
enables the farmer

hardness

when

grown

to

in moist climates.

Excessive

injuresthe cooking qualityof potatoes, and


other crops to be too succulent.
Lands
in late spring do not
wet

warm

many

causes

up

water

suflBciently

Drying the soil cools


it because of the heat used in evaporation. Conversely,
soils that are dry and bare, especially
sandy ones, heat
to abnormal
temperatures which are harmful to ordinary
plants directly,
plants. In addition, then, to influencing
water
affects them by changing the temperature and length
of the growing-season.
13. Sunlight.
Nearly every lawn with trees on it
has weak
sod and pale green
grass in the shady spots.
This is most
marked
under trees with dense foliage,
such
Lack of sunlightcauses
as
this
low-growing evergreens.
injury. Plants vary as to their sunlight requirements,
however, as they do in regard to heat and moisture.
The
best qualityof celeryand lettuce,and the finest tobacco
leaves grow
in half-shade.
Orchard-grassis named from
itsfondness for shady spots. Rhubarb
stems
be made
can
long and tender, and asparagus stems white,by
ing
blanchto

permit sowing

to

early crops.

"

"

"

with boards

branches
The
crops

because

or

earth.

lack

of

height, branching,and
are

Forest trees do not

have

lightkills the shaded


coarseness

low

limbs.

in flax and

other

controlled by thickness of

planting.
great quantitiesof starch

Crops that store


such as sugar-beetsand potatoes, are

benefited

or

sugar,

by clear

The

Plant

its Environment

and

19

weather.

Sunlight is essential to starch and sugar production.


Therefore,in very rainy regionswhere the sky
is overcast
with clouds much
of the time, sugar-beets,at
least,do not thrive so well as they do in sunnier sections.
14. Wind.
One
have
reason
why large trees must
strong trunks is that heavy winds exert enormous
pressure
on
leafy tree-tops. Weak plantsand even
giganticforest
Vines
broken down
trees are
or
uprooted in tornadoes.
and clinging
plants lie close to the ground or clingto the
"

branches
from

of trees, or

getting under

stems,

or

grains.

or

behind

strong wind

Sometimes
that roots

to walls.

This

prevents air

currents

them.

shifts the surface soil so

badly

of young
Tender
leaves,
plantsare uncovered.
sand
flowers may
be rasped by the wind-borne
Plants with tough coverings,such as cacti and

grasses, suffer less.

The

formation

of sod

greatly
aids the farmer in preventingthis injuryand in reducing
with blown soil particles. Where
that caused by contact
hot,dry winds blow for several days continuously,evaporation
and transpirationare
increased to such an
extent
burned
from sudden
that plants are
drying. Crops
subjected to such winds present a dry, blasted appearance
not far different from frost or fire injury.
Winds
are
temperature regulators,for they mix the
some

"

air, preventingcold

"

or

warm

air from

remaining in

one

placelong enough to do injury.


15. Soil.
Crops do not thrive in hard, dry soils
Soils may
be loose
impervious to water, air, and roots.
bake," or
enough to blow readih',or stickyenough to
shallow
Soils that are
underlaid
or
puddle, when wet.
ing
with gravelare likelyto dry out easily,
thereby diminishThe
the supply of available moisture.
principal
formity,
soil factors that influence plantsare fertility,
depth, uniSometimes
a
and water-holding power.
plant
"

"

20

The

Principlesof Agronomy
get enough

cannot

food

mineral
enable

it to

abnormal

to

grow;

ment
arrange-

size of soil

or

particlesmay

vent
pre-

proper

root

As
development.
alreadypointedout,

moisture

moderate

in the

favorable

"^

treme

"

"

soil is

more

than

wetness

exor

dryness. Decayed
leaves,stubble,and
soils

render

'^

manure

capable of holding

"S

more

"
"

S
1
"

thus

water,

insuring a steady,
reliable supply. To
create

these

desir-

able conditions
to

control

weeds,

insects,and
diseases
chief

and

plant
the

are

virtues

cultivation

of
and

manuring.
16.

Pests."

Great

numbers

of

weeds hinder growth

by shading,
by

ing
steal-

moisture

plant-food,and

and

by

The

Plant

and

its Environment

21

both in the ground and above it. Insects


usurping room
that eat leaves,flowers,roots, and stems
of the growing
plant or that suck sap not only retard development, but
in some
kill the crop entirely. Plant diseases which
cases
do likewise usually feed upon
the sap preventingproper
nourishment.
Smut
of wheat or oats injuresthe quality
of the grain or prevents its maturity. Potato diseases
hinder the crop almost more
than any other single
factor.
Control of these pests is at some
time a problem in every
boll-weevil
locality.In Texas, for example, the cotton
is drivingcotton
from some
lands and compellingbetter
culture methods
everywhere. Fire-blightof pears has
almost ruined the pear industry in much
of the West.
Attention to these negative factors may
be as important
for the farmer loses all the labor
to the positiveones,
as

put

on

17.

the

crop

which

Adapted

he cannot

crops.

growing-seasonof

"

any

harvest.

Only those
section

are

crops

that mature

in

grown

there to advantage.

than others.
varieties will prove more
thrifty
farther north than ordinary
alfalfa thrives much

Some
Grimm

varieties ; alsike clover resists much


soils than red
wetter
clover ; and Turkey red wheat is adapted to dry climates.

Finally,a varietyof
section
drouth.

any

plantlong cultivated

develops resistance

Desirable

strains may
resisted some

to

be

in

ular
partic-

frost,water, heat,
started

from

or

single

fully
successhardship more
than other plants. This is only a part of the constant
to their
attempt of plants to adjust themselves
has modified the plant and
surroundings. Environment
will continue to do so.
Meantime, it gradually becomes
better and better adapted to the section. This is the
for home-grown
seed. By this means,
chief argument
to fit
lends a helping hand to the plant struggling
man
itselffor its surrounding.

plants that

have

of

Principles

The

22

READING

SUPPLEMENTARY

Any
Plant

of

textbook

Physiology,

(Ecology

of

botany.
B.

Geography,

A.

Plant

Physiology

and

Between
Bureau

M.

E.

Plants,

Plant

Relation

Agronomy

Duggar,

400-436,

and

494-507.

Abbe,

Weather

Warming.
W.

F.

Schimper.
F.

Ecology,

Climates
Bulletin

1-14,

pp.

No.

and
36.

E.

Clements.

Crops,

Cleveland

CHAPTER

PLANT

Just
and

as

farmer

of
their
in

plants in order

large

is

the

on

farmer

handle

to

particularly

obstacles

the

18.

(Fig. 4)

Roots,

readily distinguished

pith of

and

wheat,

observation.

openings
eye,

leaves
which
in that
In

the

corn

Neither
in

the

be

seem

to

they
outer

of plants

wide-awake

microscope,

can

but

seen,

be

are

bark

in

more

or

can

of

vast

less

23

such

which

skin
be

knows

with

independent

of compact
remains

of

minute
one

aided
un-

of them.

stomata

of

nor

the

knows

of

of

common

animals

seen

the

and

bran

of
of

be

bark,

melons,

matters

as

must

everybody

number

nothing

tion
loca-

and

leaves,

of

only

separated by walls
of trees,

kind

schoolboy

not
a

the

processes.

plant will enable

that

likewise

pores

tion
produc-

conditions

rind

wood,
are

leaves

yet every
the

Under

in

Rings

them.

of

way

satisfactorily. This

stems,

about

the

location

and

control.

so

the

abnormal

for effective

are

of

more

crop

nature

"

economic

and

tion
func-

determines

structure

within

on

under

in the

activity of life

understood

flowers

mechanism

Plant

his

true

plant diseases,

Cells

and

remove

goes

parts

the

understanding

activity that

the

smoothly,

unobstructed

clear

know

to

keep it working

to

plant functions,

measure

Therefore,

the

to

development.

depends

of

engine

understand

must

best

engineer needs

of his

arrangement
the

so

STRUCTURE

locomotive

III

the

parts
another

substance.
but

the

walls

Principlesof Agronomy

The

24

which

to be built of

seem

When

structures.

cut

the cells of

extent

the

within

of small, box-like

number

they resemble

honey-comb.

Originally,"cell"
inclosed space

vast

across,

cell was

name

to

of this

Because

some
blance,
resem-

chosen.
used

was

to

designate only

the

Examination

of

the box-like walls.

living plants showed


that neither the ing
openthe wall was
nor

important in the
make-up of the plant
so

as

the

mass

substance

living
occupying
of

It

the inclosure.

this

that

found

was

substance

ing
liv-

instead

of being uniform was


composed of several

chiefly
parts differing
in

compactness.

Moreover,

it

covered
dis-

was

that each cell


took in food and

gen
oxy-

independentlyof
Fig.

4.

"

Plant

cell

showing
'""'''"''^'"^''^'""''''

DuggiT'

other cells ; that one


cell-wall, cell might live or die
^'^"''*
without
materially
others
affecting

growth

consisted

of individual

in

an

cells; and

increase of the size and


that

when, work

that

nimiber

is done, the

cells do it.
Since
processes

named

primary consideration in the life


of the plant,the substance
composing it was
protoplasm from proto, meaning the first,and
the cell is the

The

26
20.

Kind

of

Principlesof Agronomy
Only higher plants have

plant.
"

well-

developed tissues. The structure in one class of plants,


few which
cell or at most
the bacteria,consists of one
a
tions
Each cell performs all funcnot grouped into tissues.
are
for itself. As the scale of plant life ascends, cells
and
themselves
into more
more
complex tissues
group
until in seed plantseach tissue or organ is highlyspecialized
function.
and performs only one
said to belong
Plants alike in all essential points are
to the same
species; closelyrelated speciesbelong in the
Genera
same
(pluralof genus) that resemble
genus.
in turn
form
each other comprise a family. Families
orders,and these, sub-classes or classes. A final grouping
of classes gives rise to four great groups which make
Among the seed plantsknown as
up the plantkingdom.
Thallophytes,
spermatophytes,all the crop plantsoccur.
bryophytes,and pteridophyteswhich are representedby
and ferns,respectively,
the other
seaweeds, mosses,
are
Beginning with thallophytesand ending
great groups.
with
a
spermatophytes, these plants show
gradually
increasingcomplexity. There is no exact place where a
ends with absolute cera group,
speciesor genus, or even
tainty.
It is hard
certain organisms
to tell whether
belong to the plant or to the animal kingdom.
botantists sometimes
Though even
disagreein regard
to the speciesto which
some
plants belong,these classes
definite and the names
are
well
sufficiently
are
sufficiently
chosen to enable students of plants to identifythem rather
and
of the genus
accurately by the names
the species.
These Latin names
because the same
are
necessary
plant
is popularly known
in different counby different names
tries,
and
21.
are

even

in different parts of the

Crop plants.

much

"

like each

Plants in the

other.

The

same

country.

same

species
all seed plants

group

tissues of

or

Plant

Structure

resemble
(spermatophytes)

each

27

scribed
enough to be deIn method
of growth, there are two
as
a group.
kinds, monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous. Grasses
are
monocotyledonous,that is,they have undivided seeds.
They grow largelyby increase in size of cells; dicotyledonous
plantshave splitseeds and grow by layingdown rings
of new
tissue. Practically
all crops, save
only the grasses
and grains,grow
fering
by adding tissue in rings. Though difin growth habits and in appearance,
they do work by similar means.
22. Plant
Crop plants
parts.
have
roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
seeds, and buds which
are
simply
leaves or flowers in protectivecoverings.
The
anchor
the plant
roots
other

"

in the soil and


mineral
hold

leaves and

and

water

carry, elaborated

as

the roots.
a

This

and

water

flower up

sunlight,
transport

the

to

up

plant-foodin solution. Stems

the

the

take

place

mineral
food from

Some

the leaves

salts, and
the leaves
them

plantsuse

in which

elaborated

to

to

into

food.

store

plant-foodis

factured
manu-

by the leaves in the presence


of sunlight,when
moisture,
carbon
dioxide, and mineral salts
are

available.
of

the

plant transmits

The

flowers

runnersFig.
fore-

are

seed

by which the
life and reproduces

on

5.

"

radish.

Root-hairs

(After

Duggar.)

plant is composed of a number of


tissues which enable it to perform its functions.
careful examination
A
23. The
root
(Figs. 5-7).
with a microscope of a longitudinalsection of a living
its kind.

Each

crop

"

The

28

Principlesof Agronomy

growing section to be a short distance


behind the tip. The very tip is the root-cap composed of
of firm cells which push aside the soil particles
a
group
tender growing cells could
the root lengthens. The
as
soil.
their way through the hard, compact
not make
the threadlike
and stillon
Just behind the growing area
are
extremely
the root-hairs. These
rootlets are
root

shows

the

Fig.

6.

"

Root-hair

soil.

in the

small

that radiate outward


from the root to
projections
and dissolved plant-food. The
take in water
root-hairs
cells extending out from the small roots into the soil.
are
They contain within a thin cell-wall,plasma membrane,
A concencytoplasm, nucleus, plastids,and vacuoles.
trated
solution of numerous
salts known
as
cell-sapfills
the vaculoes.
Considerable
hairs to

as
adjustability

force themselves

and
particles

to fitinto every

into
space

to

shape permits

close

contact

and around

root-

with
every

soil

angle.

Plant

Wherever

with

contact

Structure

solid

body

29

is made,

substance

causingit to

develops on the outside of


clingtightly. Very close contact

root-hairs and

Root-hairs may

new

ones

root-hairs

7.

"

They

the

form

to

of

corn.

various
up

and

coat.

tissues form
water

known

and

sorption
ab-

long,though they are


short-lived,old ones
dying

are

Root-tip

nearly water-proof

small tubes

between

inch

an

(After Curtis.)

forming continually.

cease

xylem, takes

the cell-wall

possiblea rapid
and plant-food.

be half

less.

Fig.

and

inous
mucilag-

soil particlesmakes

of film moisture

usuallymuch

the

As the root

gets older,

epidermis takes

Beneath

this protective epidermis,

in layers. One
carries it toward

tracheal tubes

on

these, the

the stem

in

elongated cells
known
tracheids.
Between
this water-transporting
as
tissue and the epidermis lies the endodermis, a layer of
cells rich in starch,and the cortex, a layer of corky cells.
as

or

in

of

Principlesof Agronomy

The

30

Water

these cellsreaching the xylem, which

between

passes

partlyoutside of the phloem in roots,


This
the phloem is always outside.
though in stems
the tracheal
to enter
alternatingarrangement permits water
tubes without
passing through the phloem, which
from the leaves.
carries the true sap downward
Water,
after ascending the roots, passes into the stem, stillgoing
upward in the tubes of the xylem.
All the roots and root-branches
of a plant form a rootlies partlyinside and

faster than
If the central root grows
subordinatingthe side roots, the plant has

the others,

system.

system, of which

with,

the central

outgrow

or

root-system, such
24.

The

the

of

to

the

passage

which

this

minute
end

walls

inch

leaves.

from

with

spirallyor

roots

length.
pits in woody

have

fibrous

with

continuous
of

means

leaves is effected,are

walls.

In

each

continuous

in

more

somewhat

to

directlyabove

connects

root,

tracheal tubes, by

thickened

leaving

or

The

to

pace

xylem of the stem,

the

affording a

roots

of cells

out

keep

cereals.

and

The

"

from

passes

transfer

tubes

dissolve
an

water

xylem

of grasses

(Figs.8-9).

stem

into which

those

as

givingrise

roots

root-

pigweeds

red-root

In other plants,the side roots

examples.

are

alfalfa,carrots, and

tap

formation
other

opening

The

walls

walls.

the

gradually
sometimes
thickened

are

This

thickening
strengthensthe stem, while the thin placespermit a more
ready passage of liquid into and out of the tubes. At
the end,

one

tube

but is

to
slightly

water

necessary.

Examination
shows

row

does not
one

In
of

with
directly

connect

side making

the next,

lateral movement

of

this way, a straightliftis avoided.


xylem cross-section under a microscope

the

enlarged tracheal openings arranged in a


alternatingwith a row of more
wood
tissue
fine-grained

which

supports the weaker

tube

area.

These

wood

cells

Plant

CAoas

Structure

seer/o/f
r*ind

UDI

LONC/T
Fig.

8.

"

Section

31

of oak

NAl.

branch

tissues.

(cr*eDftex}

CCCT/OM

showing

longitudinal

(After Osterhout.)

and

cross-section

Principlesof Agronomy

The

32

die leaving only heavy cell-walls. Just at the outer


of the xylem is a layer of thin- walled cells that grow
tubes

divide leaving new


or

xylem side; while

phloem.
Xylem, phloem,
what

is known

These

outer

and

at

on

and

the inner,

side it lays down


tissue known

as

the growing layer,cambium,

the fibro-vascular

as

small

are

the

fiber

wood

new

of less compact

quantity

smaller

on

and

edge

bundles

the

form

of the plant.

first,but if the plant is perennialand

ring of new
growth each year, they increase
in size until they form a series of wedge-shaped bundles
radiating from the central pith. Medullary rays pass
these bundles dividing them
from each
radiallybetween
other.
Along these medullary rays, food, air, and water
bark
When
to deeper tissues.
is stripped from a
move
willow, for example, it parts from the wood at the cambium
The rings of the
exposing a smooth, moist surface.
division between
the tubes and the
a
woody part mark
completes

finer,more

compact

wood

cells; the radial

markings are

medullary rays ; and the pith is a region of broken-down


cells that originally
composed the first stem of the plant.
Several distinct layers come
off in the bark.
On the
outside is a membranous
tissue,the epidermis,which is
composed of flattened cellswith tough walls and which is
covered

with

Beneath

this is a

beneath

is

Stone

an

cells are

substance

that renders

them

regionof thickened walls,and stillfarther


of corky cells known
area
the cortex.
as
scattered throughout this tissue. A layer

of cells rich in starch, called the endodermis


and

dermis, skin),divides the

cortex

from

This last ring is composed of thin-walled


less regularareas

water-proof.

of

(ehdo,inner,
the

cells and

pericycle.
more

or

strong-walled,fibrous cells known


as
bast.
the phloem, which
Finally comes
lies next
the
and just in from the xylem.
cambium

The

34

Principlesof Agronomy

of this group
grasses and palms
usually slender for their height. In some, such as
with
the internodes are filledwith pith interspersed

this account, members


are

"

corn,

harder

much

at

the nodes

at the

than

stem

internodes, and

is
it is

is farther from

that

successive internode

smaller in each

The

bundles.

of the fibro-vascular

strands

the

"

ground.

the

Water-conducting tissue
(Figs.10-11).
distribute the
of the xylem joins the leaf-veins which
leaf

The

25.

Fig.

water

10.

"

of leaf showing

Section

"

cellular

structure.

throughout the leaf,finallyleavingit in the

between

the

cells. The

cells absorb

the water

spaces

and

also

through the stomata, as the small


openings in the epidermisof the leaf are called.
The cross-section of a leaf shows a layer of flattened

cpbon

dioxide taken

cells with stomata

in

at

intervals

lower epidermis. With


is greater
is

across

small
the

on

the under

cell so

most

side.

both

the upper
and the
ordinary plants,the number
on

On

each side of the opening

placed that when

the leaf wilts,it falls

opening partly closingit,and

loss of water.

Beneath

cells containingmany

the upper

thus reduces

is a
epidermis

group

the
of

plastids. If the chlorophyll


cells are elongated vertically
and lie side by side,as they
often do, they are known
as
palisade cells. Below these
green

cells lie others called sponge


cells which
knit together, thereby allowing more

are

space

less

closely

between.

Plant

Just

above

Structure

35

opening, the sponge


leavinga largerchamber
(Fig.11).
Leaf-veins may
a

midrib

cells

an

branch

in alfalfa.

as

of net-work

at the

In this

base
case

in grapes, or
the veins form

that is,have

and

grains

the midrib.
large central one known
as
venation is typicalof monocotyledons.

Leaves

"

may

Stomata

of carnation

be borne

directlyto

the

on

leaf.

of beans.

They

may

plant. They
be

or

This

without
kind

be compound

may
or

two-ranked

of

(AfterDuggar.)

leaf-stem,or petiole,or

and the potato,


with clover,alfalfa,

sort

parallel-veined,

are

the veins side by side either with

11.

This is typicalof all

Fig.

from

as

called netted venation.

dicotyledons. Grasses

spread apart

simple as in the
as

in the

case

tached
atas
case

of

grains. A leaf grows from a node, wraps


ward.
closelyabout the stem for a distance,and spreads outis the leaf
The part that clasps about the stem
sheath,and the part that grows outward the leaf blade.
be the
Seed production seems
to
flower.
26. The
prime purpose of all functions of the plant,which dies or

grasses

and

the

"

The

36

discontinues

growth

the fore-runner

as

flower

The

mature.

as

soon

floral parts

These

are

the

pistil.

and

corolla, calyx, stamens,


The

is

product of

of the seed, in that the seed is a

of the floral parts.

union

Principlesof Agronomy

showy part of the

corolla, the

flower, consists of petals,singleor


united, regular or irregularin shape
ture.
and size,and usually of delicate texof
calyx is composed
firmer tissues,single or united, usually
regular in size and shape, and
The
calyx is
nearly always green.
envelope for the remainder of the
an
flower and
the petals attract
insects
useful in cross-pollination.
The

Each

stamen

stalk and

powdery

pollen.

three

to

flower

consists of

hollow

twenty

or

slender

receptaclebearing
There

from

are

stamens

more

on

and

they are situated inside


the corolla, usually surrounding the
pistil. The pistilconsists of a roughened
divided stigma supported on
or
a stylethat reaches
upward from the
a

Fig.

12.

legume

"

ovule

or

tube

comes

Flowers
a

are

borne

close,compact

called

head.

singly or
one,

such

at

in contact

which it fertilizescausing a
cell,
is

the base

(Fig.12).
When
pollen grains reach the stigma
they germinate and send long, slender
tubes down
the style to the ovule.
Pistil
of
tilization.
fershowing
Dissolvingits way to the ovule, this
ovary

seed to

red

or

the egg

begin development.

in clusters.
as

with

If the

white

cluster arranged like oats

cluster

clover,it is
with

long,

Plant

slender branches

panicle;

extent

is called

connecting the separate flowers is called

while

that

37

Structure

with

one

the flowers

the branches
in

are

shortened

elongatedmass

compact,

spike. Wheat, barley,and timothy

the

to

are

spikes.

As

maturity approaches, the seed


characteristic shape, size, and apa
gradually assumes
pearance
and
Some
smooth
are
nearly bare as alfalfa
seed ; others,such as some
grasses and barley,are covered
with a hull ; stillothers are largeand protected only by
a membranous
covering as with corn, peas, and beans.
Within
the seed is (1) an embryo, or germ,
which is a
miniature
plant; and (2) a food supply to nourish the
kind of
Some
plantletuntil it can gather nourishment.
covering or hull surrounds the seed protecting it from
is absorbed
water
injury until germination time, when
through the hull to start growth.
27.

The

seed.

28.

Buds

and

have

must

bud.

leaves and
are

the weather, and

to

makes

buds

up

until conditions

protect the tender leaves

or

resinous

or

this protectivecoveringcalled

lined with

are

flowers

strong enough

series of scales coated with

substance

Some

Budding

"

protectionuntil they

some

favor growth.

branches.

themselves

to expose

gummy

"

soft,fluffymaterial

flowers from

to

cold wind, and to

prevent excessive drying.


Branches
At

begin growth

first the union

from

extends

bud

only to

in the axil of
the cambium,

leaf.

but

as

in
rings of growth are added the branch is embedded
Just
deeper tissue. Thus, knots are formed in timber.
at the base of a branch
the stem is usuallyenlarged.
29.

Underground

modifications

of

lack much

stone, wood,
strong-walled

and weeds

Potatoes

"

enlargedstems.

tissues described,but
of

stems.

send rootstocks

or

and

They show
tissue that

onions

the various
is composed

bast cells. Many

horizontallybeneath

are

grasses

the surface

The

38

soil.

These
of

roots

plants

plants.

as

to

necessary

in

only

closely

sending

textbook

of

Plant

Anatomy,

Plant

Physiology,

Cyclopedia
Methods

of
of

and

stems

and

formed

adapted

plants

this

READING

botany.
W.

C.
B.

American

Plant

perform

to

Stevens.

M.

Duggar,

pp.

Agriculture,

Histology,

C.

J.

15-63.
Vol.

Chamberlain.

II,

stem

and

Root-crowns

pp.

lions,
dande-

and

united

new

up

SUPPLEMENTARY

Any

alfalfa,

carrots,
are

parts.

stem

modifications

simply

is

sod

means,

beets,
which

root-crowns,

Buds

develop
are

such

plants,

root.

both

start

underground.

spread

form

will

this

By

Agronomy

of

which

buds

contain

new

Many

Principles

11-22.

rootstocks
function.

and

can

CHAPTER

PLANT

Specialization
number

in

kind

tissues

of the

work.

plant

with

thrived

slowly developed

best-adapted

best.

fitted

to

Since

specialized

more

differentiated, have
have

to

seems

varied

the

on

is

and

expression

in

in

conducive

land, where

tions
condi-

The

in

ture,
mois-

demanded

turn,

best

the

greater

varying

naturally

to

and

more

This

ocean.

This,

response.

others.

out

texture,

differences,

way

in the

light,soil

as

temperature

complexity

greater

on

best

evolved.

been

true

work

structures

crowded

gradually
more

of forces, such

number

individual

effective, plants

they did

than

more

necessity

essential

doing

have

more

much

of the

with

plants

activities

work

been

of

performs

highly probable

for existence, the

means

Gradually

carry

it is

great

difference

tissue

account

on

struggle

the

This

is,each

Moreover,

rise to

given

tissues.

functions, that

of work.

In

has

higher plants

different

definite

that

FUNCTIONS

variety of structural

and

presupposes
a

IV

good

required
of

the

plant.
30.

Growth.

maturity,
As

"

they have

and

leaves, stem,
and

rootstocks
of tissues

cases

runs

or

few

but

proceeds,

growth

higher

Though

Buds,

roots.

of

it.

just

are

after

original sprout
branches,

later.

come

accompanies

ahead

tissues

the

tubers

plants

increase

Many
39

in

complex

at

germination.
develops

into

flowers,

seed,

tion
rapid differentia-

size, and

plants develop

in

some

tracheal

Principlesof Agronomy

The

40

epidermiswhile

cortex, and

tubes, sieve tubes, cambium,

plant is stillsmall.

the

whether

Growth,

by the development of

enlargement,

new

of cells. Each

number

in the

increase

or

by the increase in size or


only from
come
tissues,can

measured

partly responsible.At first,the originalcells


they reach a point where little
increase in. size,but soon
is

process

plants,both

processes

cells in

Thin-walled
divide and

at the

on

go

growing parts of

redivide forming

granular to

time.

same

fibrous

mass.

plant constantly

first sign of

cellS. The

new

beginsto change from

cell-divisionis in the nucleus,which


a

In all crop

growth results unless the cell divides.

more

Shortly it

to

seems

be

splitlengthwise
entirely of strands. These
and then crosswise forming pairs of small bodies which
the middle
themselves in two parallelrows
across
arrange
of the cell. Fine thread-like strands graduallypullthese,

composed

half to

one

end, and

half to the other

end.

they

Here

farther apart and become


partly unite. The two move
distinct. Following this, the cytoplasm begins to show
signsof separationby developing a concentrated layernear
the middle

hardened

and

into

cells have

come

between

the two

nuclei.

When

this has

cell-division is complete and


cell-wall,
from

the

originalone.

In

few

two

hours,

few

cells may
divide giving rise
days, the two new
to more
cells,each behaving as the first so long as
new
growth continues in that region of the plant.
Young plantsat firstgrow throughout,but soon
ledonous
dicoty-

or

plants develop
in other

branches.

All

growth. This
to

cambium

parts except
later

the phloem.

at

and
the

tinues
growth discontip of elongating

thickening results from

ring of

active,buildingfirstone
other

cells

remains

thin-walled

side to the xylem and


Just what

cambial

determines

then

and
on

which

the
cell

The

42

will
over

to

cease

water

because

Principlesof Agronomy
the air is used

when

grow

up.

A coat

of oil

containingseed greatlydelays germination,

oxygen

is unable

to

penetrate the oil.

On

the

germinate freelyin water not so treated.


Actual
respirationtakes place inside the cell which
Oxygen is necessary
partly decomposes in doing work.
of cellular compounds.
the proper
to
breaking down
to repair the wear.
also necessary
Food
and water
are
stances
Cells are
constantlylosingweight as protoplasmic sublikewise
and
become
off; they are
gas
pass
gainingweight as food is made into protoplasm. This
protoplasm for food which becomes
exchange of worn-out
new
body tissue is respiration.Carbon dioxide is excreted
along with water and other products of slow combustion.
wilt if kept in a light,
Potatoes and apples soon
fairly
and
carbon
warm
place, because of the loss of water
dioxide due to respiration
which increases much
in rapidity
as
temperature and lightincrease. Again, if a plant be
in the dark, it also loses
made
in distilled water
to grow
weight. In this case, the water
suppliesno food, and
darkness
prevents the plant from manufacturing any.
is active; it has used substance which
Only respiration
through lack of food it is prevented from replacing.
32. Photosynthesis.
Ordinary plantsgrowing in dark
acteristi
places do not gain in weight ; their leaves lack the charing
green color of normal
crop plants; and the buildof tissue can
Both sunonly for a short time.
light
go on
other hand, seeds

"

and

the green

substance

known

chlorophyllare
essential to increase of dry weight. Young seedlings
grow
in darkness
if other conditions
are
favorable, yet no
increase takes place,for they move
food from the seed
storehouse to growing tissue. The quantity of food available
last
must
until the roots can supply water
and mineral
salts,and until leaves have reached into light and air
as

Plant Functions
and

become

can

then feed itself.

Under

green.

43

favorable conditions the plant

Water, dissolved salts,and

gases

are

taken

in by the

plant. From these raw food products it is able to


grain,straw, leaves,fruit,and roots composed of
starch, cellulose,protein,fats, ash, and various
substances.
Carbon
dioxide,present in a very
percentage

in

the

air,

enters

the

leaves

make
sugar,

other
small

through

the

Diffusingin the spaces between the sponge and


it comes
in contact with water that is making
palisadecells,
its way
in the oppositedirection.
Chlorophyllwith the
and
carbon
dioxide into
help of sunlightunites water
stomata.

Considerable

is liberated in this process


infinitely
greater quantitiesthan the plant uses in respiration.
sugar.

In

consequence

plant. This
the plant,but

oxygen

from

oxygen

"

of this,oxygen
not

comes

is given off by the

from

the manufacture

the

breathing of

of food in the leaves

which is called photosynthesis(from photo,light,


and from
to put together)
synthesis,

in an unknown
Chlorophyll,
of plant-foodafter
accomplishesthis manufacture
way,
which the plant nourishes itself. The followingchemical
reaction shows the different beginningand end products :
.

6 CO2

Sugar, under

6 H2O

C6H12O6

6 O2.

the action of certain chemical

ferments,

lose,
changes to starch and this to oil or celluBut nitrogen,
calcium,
plants,to wood.
potassium,phosphorus, sulfur,iron, and magnesium are
brought from the soil. Nitrogen and sulfur togetherwith
class of comlittle phosphorusare united into another
a
pounds
for any organic
called proteins,a general term
product containingnitrogen.
the raw
Such is the way
in which plantsmanufacture
All these
inorganicelements into productsthey can use.
called enzymes,
and in some

The

44

union

of

in various parts of the plant. This


into usable compounds is essential
elements

find

compounds
raw

Principlesof Agronomy

use

to the existence of all life.

33.

Osmosis.

yet

it

long time

was

that

known

plants,
clear understandingexisted as to how
they enter
part they take in plant growth. Some thought
the plant feeds entirely
on
water, and
such,
others that soil particles,
as
the plant. Jethro Tull, about
enter
be
that intertillage
1674, advocated

no

what

or

For

nourishment

and

water

"

taken

are

from

the soil by

practicedto fine the soil in order that


it might enter
the plant. Just how
he expected this entrance
to be made
is not

clear.

showing that

Soon

discoveries

came

neither

water

soil

nor

alone is plant-food,
but that certain soil

elements,water, and carbon dioxide are


united by photosynthesisto form the
materials

out

their tissues.
leaves
FiG.

13.

used

Apparatus

"

to

demonstrate

(From

osmosis.

Bailey.)

science

of

was

of water

which

The

plants

build

intake of carbon

by

established ; the entrance


with mineral salts in solution

by osmosis
of these

of

was

basic

proved.

Knowledge

enabled
principles

the

with
hitherto
plant production to advance
unknown
rapidity.
Kernels of grain,germinated on wet cloth or
paper over
of wet sand or sawdust, develop root-hairs for the
a box
and mineral
food. The
absorption of water
seedlings
will grow
and use water, as will a geranium cutting passed
through a stopper with the cut end under water.
Roots
will develop, the plant will continue
to grow,
and
the
quantityof water in the bottle will diminish though open-

Plant

Functicms

45

ings around the stopper and plant be sealed


other way
evaporation. Since there was
no
for the water, it must

have

passed upward through the stem.


the plant accomplishes osmosis
and

gases

"

solids

even

in

prevent

of escape
into the plant and

taken

been

to

The

by which

process

is complex.

some

cases

"

Liquids
driven

are

caused to diffuse into one


another
or
through membranes
by a giganticforce spoken of as osmotic pressure.
When
sulfate (blue vitriol)
crystalsare covered
copper
with water, solution begins and a blue color gradually
throughout the water until a uniform color exists.
creeps
Samples taken from any part of the vessel would show
nearly equal concentrations of copper
sulfate,which, at
the beginning of the experiment, was
confined
to the
immediate
crystals. This
vicinity of the immersed
diffusion,or mixing of the salt throughout the water,
was
impelledby the power of diffusion or osmotic pressure.
If the vessel containingwater
be divided by a partition
of parchment or pieceof animal bladder,a change in the

After awhile the water


final result is apparent.
side of the membrane
rises and lowers on
the
Since
but not

the

membrane

admits

of salt,
fresh water

the

is driven

free passage

through in

on

one

other.

of water
an

attempt

Some
salt
liquidof uniform concentration.
ment
through into the fresh water, but the chief movepasses
is made
by the water.
To demonstrate
osmosis, a strong solution of common
salt may
the largeend of
be placed in a thistle tube, over
which a pieceof parchment paper or bladder is tied tightly
air (Fig. 13). If the solution stands high
to shut out
enough to reach into the small tube above the bulb, a piece
of stringor an elastic band can be used to mark the height.
to

make

the

After immersion

in fresh water

from

few minutes

to

few hours, the solution rises in the tube showing the intake

The

46

of

is the
agriculturally,

Osmosis;

water.

which

Principlesof Agronomy

the

from

water

by

process

through a
concentrated,

flows

dilute solution

into the more


semi-permeable membrane
in an attempt to equalizethe strengthof the solution.
It is by osmosis and due to osmotic pressure that roots

Root-hairs contain concentrated solutions


which set up a difference in osmotic pressure
in the cell-sap
of
Students
outside.
the cell and the water
between
take in water.

that this pressure is enormous,


creases
to tons, and that it in-

physicalchemistry have found


cases
amounting in many
as

cell-sapis more
inward.

the

and

the

cells become

the

brought in contact
or
goes in the opposite
flabby and wilt. This

If strong solutions
ceases

as

the soil solution,water

than

concentrated

long

So

rises.

temperature

osmosis
with the root-hairs,
direction

creases
in-

solution-concentrations

in
.

and

passes

difference

the

as

are

injury caused by strong alkali.

is one

Plants
;

able to exercise

seem

that is,if salts are

used

not

absorption
plant,they enter

of selective

power

by the

only in small quantities; while the useful elements go in


rather freely. This careful adjustment helpsto keep out
harmful

substances

foods.

Plant

shape.

As

to

enter.

one

to

take in the

cells full of water

the

planttheir

hold

causes

pressure

plant there

is

more

some

ment
move-

due to osmosis.

Transpiration.

"

Not

only do

enough to maintain the plant in


they must, in addition, maintain
entirelythrough the plant. Because
from

mineral

raw

rigidand

are

loses water, osmotic

Throughout

of water
34.

and

the leaves is in the form

take

roots

in water

rigid condition, but

a
a

stream

the water

of vapor,

that

passes

evaporated

it cannot

be

seen

under

ordinary conditions. On cool mornings, however,


droplets of moisture are often visible on the surface of
leaves.

Water

vapor,

escaping by

means

of the stomata.

Plant Functions

47

partly condenses when cooler air is reached.


Even
on
hot days, in livingor school rooms,
transpiration as
this giving off of water
is called
be demonstrated
can
by coveringa leafyhouse-plantsuch as a geranium with a
clean glassjar or open"

"

"

mouthed
two

bottle.

In

three hours

or

the

will
transpired water
collect on
the glass in
able
drops,and under favorconditions

with

healthy plant will drip


down

the sides.

Plants transpire
mous
enor-

quantities. For
each pound of dry substance
they add to their
weight by growth, over
200
pounds of water
have
passed through
the plant. Measurements
of transpiration
show

that

pounds

about

300

water

are

of

requiredfor one pound


of growth in corn
and
about
500 pounds for
one

pound

Fig.

14.

wheat

"

of water
used with
Comparison
(AfterWidtsoe.)
produced.

growth in
A pint of wheat
(Fig.14)
or

weighs a pound, but 60


gallonsof water are necessary to produce it. If the straw
weighs as much as the grain,three 40-gallonbarrels full of
This
water
are
transpiredin growing the pint of wheat.
quantityof water used in growing a pound of dry substance
is called the water-cost
of dry matter
for the particular
plant.
wheat

The

48

Principlesof Agronomy

Crops growing in hot, sunshiny regions transpiremore


than in humid
water
regions. Dry air,winds, poor soil,
weak

plants,and

more

water

dry

for

be used

to

much

water

they do

that

according to whether
of water

at

water

more

during the
water

more

diminishes
35.

crops

have

wilting. Some

die from

not

of developing few

the power

also have

have

they

large quantities
plants transpiremuch

small

or

disposal. Some
than others ; most
to be wasteful
plantsseem
period of bloom ; and quick-growingcrops use
than
Darkness
also
steady-growing ones.
their

transpirationconsiderably.

Translocation.

the leaves would

Since

"

all the

starch

be the

largestpart

and

other

be moved

must

of the

plant.

zymes
En-

change sugar into starch for storage, and then to


of
again when moving is begun. The solubility

sugar

allows the sap stream


to carry
for storage. For
root for use
or

sugar
or

plants
stomata

many

or

plant-foodis elaborated in the leaves,this


or

Desert

produced.

matter

the power
to hold
spiration
in their tissues against the forces of tran-

plants and drouth-resistant


so

in the soil cause

of water

abundance

an

it to the fruit,stem,

example, great

of sugar or starch are


be moved
to the flowers and

seed when

and

move

seed is set.

fruit. Seed

Fruit trees

in early summer

one

translocation.
porous

in stem

36.

to

crop

roots, or

food from

wood

to the

is called

less
plants become
more
or
in both, during the seed-setting

the transfer of food material.

Transportation.

through the

to

plant matures

part of the plant to another

Most
or

period owing

the

of carrots

fruit often grow


so
rapidly that storage
is necessary.
This movement
of elaborated

and

food from

stored in roots

tities
quan-

tracheal

the

sieve tubes, or

can

flow down

"

Water

tubes

and

is transported upward
sap, downward
through

radiallyalong medullary rays.


Sap
largelyby gravity and radiallyby capil-

CHAPTER

if they

in their purpose

energies
other

bent

are

of aim

variety of

the
in

itself

the

foods

raw

elaborate

and

of

the

plant against

In

the

the

fruit

that
Often

containing

draws

his

but

of life to

other

or

cell-contents

has

been

seeds, and

sap,

beets

and

carrots

grain

and

beans
and

put

to

useful

seeds,

cane-sugar

some

is

50

and

sap

sap

cork,

in the

part

or

midst

for rubber

Every

is both

tein
pro-

harvesting.

wood,

plant

stems,

seed,

oil, or

of

or

the

leaves, flowers,
For

products.

hay

the

stem,

as

forage,

roots,

roots,

are

the

for sugar.

use;

all furnish

are

for

stems

adjustment

sugar,

producing

takes

he

the

manifestations

the

cell-walls,such

times

get immature

turpentine,

blossoms,

dead

of

is vitally interested.

man

starch,

in

energy

pounds,
com-

species.

sometimes

stored

gather

part

some

than

the

plant,

roots,

it is just the

straw;

plant

of the

it is the

in

more

perpetuate

products

Sometimes
or

to

preserve

to

needs, and

greater

plant

tissue-building

products

of

to

Power

into

nothing

are

struggle

them

gleness
Sin-

of the

it attempts

existence.

these

time

surroundings

of the

for

ting
is,of transmit-

organization

the

in which

ways

struggle

storage

to

show

to

seems

some

generation.

another

to

All their

toward

or

species,that

the

simple

are

such.

to have

production

seed

toward

characteristics

life and

and

be said

can

continuing

of

means

complexity, plants

their

Notwithstanding

FACTORY

AS

PLANT

THE

stem

example,
and

perfumery

is made

product.

Drugs

leaf,
of
and

The

stimulants, such
from

Plant

as

Factory

opium, tobacco, and

as

substances known

as

51

quinine,come

alkaloids that may

in

be found

part.

any

38.

If only
Interdependence of plants and animals.
the earth,then the provisionof nature
plants were
upon
for

"

plants to give up

for animals

Animals

to

and

carbon

use

these processes,
and
plants,directly

would

reverse

feed upon

when

oxygen

dioxide and
be useless.

indirectly
; directly
and indirectly
when
plant-eaters,
they are

they are
for the prey of carnivorous animals either
flesh-eaters;
ate
plants, or animals that ate plants. On the other
hand, decayed bones, flesh,and manure
restore
to the
soil and air substances upon which the plants feed either
directlyor indirectly
plant-foodis at once
; directlywhen
taken from the broken-down
tissues,and indirectlywhen
these decaying substances promote the growth of soil bacteria
which take atmosphericnitrogen
and make compounds
that the plant absorbs.
Soil devoid of organicmatter
is almost useless
decaying plant and animal substance
It can
of its being compact.
hold water
account
on
for only a short time ; air and heat cannot
pass through
it readily.
Many
plants requirelimestone soils for development.
Part of the limestone ledges supplying lime is composed
largelyof shells of small animals that extracted lime from
in which they lived. These animals probably
the water
released as
fed on
water
plants,and breathed oxygen
of nature, plants
In the economy
by plant processes.
"

"

and

animals

39.

need

Dependence

each other.
of

man

on

plants.
"

Since

animals

depend on plantsfor their food,man, who in turn depends


mately
be regarded as being ultion
plants and animals, may
dependent on plants. It is not difficult to see
that almost all human
food, save
only a few minerals

Principlesof Agronomy

The

52

such

entirelyas

salt, comes

as

result of life processes.

Milk, cheese, butter, flesh,and eggs are body products


"greens"
of animals;
bread, fruit, vegetables,and

they are produced


almost entirelyby domesticated plantsand animals.
sources.
largelyfrom the same
Clothing,likewise,comes
wool, hair, cotton,

from

made

Cloth
as

Furthermore,

plantcontributions.

are

truly the product of

garments of the Eskimo

plantsas

the leaf and

or

are

bark

the skin
of

raiment

furs,gloves,shoes, and straw hats


directlyfrom products of the life processes.

the

tropicalsavage;

are

made

buildings consist largelyof

Modern

of skins.

or

and

built of wood

dwellingplaceswere

Formerly, most
leaves

and

animals

flax fiber is just

or

brick, stone, concrete, and metal, but wood is used in


and
lathing,for floors,door and window frames,for roofing,
for walls in many
for years to come,
wood.

is

forestryindicates that

to

an

effort to

far back

Moreover,

always,be composed largelyof

if not

making

rock, and

brick-clay,some

Especiallyis this

part.

true

an

as

organicprocess

preserve

in the

realizes

man

his timber

sources.
re-

history of cement,

metals, life has played

some

exist,since others
from

useful tools will

Attention

this and

and

Furniture

cases.

wherever
well

as

carbonate

limestone

somewhere

pounds
com-

have

sulted
re-

in the chain

of

interaction of the elements.


The

carbon

originalsource

not

all substances

such

gas.

used

the
photosynthesiswas
only of all carbonate products,but of
wood, coal,petroleum,and natural
as
of these materials yieldsheat energy

dioxide

Combustion

used

iii

dwelling and office,to furnish power for


drivingthe engines of factory and transportation,and to
for both power
and light.
generate electricity
to

warm

Animals
drawers

themselves
of loads.

are

Horses

direct bearers

of burdens

pull tillageimplements

and
and

The

haul

farm

burros

carry

wagon

and

herds;

Plant

products

goods

locomotive.
cats

and

bees and

Factory

market

to

and

man

as

Horses

53

camels, llamas, and

in

regionsinaccessible to
and dogs assist in tending

birds in the control of mice

and

sects;
in-

flyingfolk pollinateflowers. Not


lessened by dumb
beasts that
only are the labors of man
live on plants,but his pleasureis also increased by them.
Riding and driving are healthful recreations ; ponies,
dogs, and birds gladden the hearts of children who have
them
for pets ; zoologicalgardens and
aquariums are
places of beauty; and caring for and breeding fancy
avocations
of many.
Flower
animals
are
gardens and
house plantsalso beautifythe home.
Vegetablegardens
in the same
and ornamental
men
plants satisfysome
that good animals do others.
way
Many raw
products that are transformed by factories
into new
forms, whether food, clothing,tools,or books,
and newspapers,
of plant or animal origin. Books, pictures,
are
so

other

essential in education

and

in national

and

of paper
or
cloth,both plant
products. Medicines, dyes, and chemicals are supplied
in part by plants. Finally, more
peopleearn their living
by the culture of plants and the rearingof animals than
made

artistic well-being,
are

live in and
cannot
pursuit. Plainly,man
of hunself ; he must be fed,clothed,warmed, and sheltered
Since he cannot
dispensewith plants,
from the weather.

by

any

let him
40.

other

not

Domestication.

civilized
savages

them.

scorn

were

do.

savages,

Wild

When

"

the

they lived

people who are now


much
present-day
as

fruits,nuts, roots, and

tender

shoots

In the wild, enemies


fed, clothed, and sheltered them.
were
frequent and they often preventedman's obtaining
also caused
food.
Rigorous winters and dry summers

sufferingto

some,

while

those

in better

provided areas

Principlesof Agronomy

The

54

Stern necessitydrove

less disturbed.

were

creatures

useful, the

were

savage

subjectionby

brought under
fire and make

most

machines

alone

who

man

throw

to

as

Originally,
If they
native haunts.
brutes were
gradually

from

came

mestica
do-

animals

plants for food and shelter, and


assistants in hunting and in moving about.
all tame

to

man

arrows

or

could

stones.

use

Weaker

plants,he studied their ways


Seed was
the useful ones.
of subjecting
and found ways
kept
planted in protectedplaces and other plants were
tation.
took up a fixed habiThen tillagebegan and man
out.

than

animals

many

and

plantsand animals have been so long cultivated


earliest
relatives have
wild
that
disappeared. The
vated
cultirecords tell us that wheat, barley,and alfalfa were
of civilization. Constantly new
at the dawn
plants
of plants recently
In the cases
being used for crops.
are
Some

domesticated, the wild

relatives

are

still in the

fields.

plums and roses, native grasses, and vetches may


stillbe found, but the plantsfrom which wheat and corn

Wild

disappeared. Plants

have

came

doubtless

be

found

varieties appear,
41.

Plant
are

many

that

would

useful

not
serve

yet known
man,

and

could
as

new

plantswill be developed.

of kinds of subHundreds
stances
compounds.
found in plants. Some of these man
finds useful
"

So closelyrelated
use.
appropriatesfor his own
these compounds that they may
be included in eight
are
(1) water, (2) carbohydrates, (3) proteins,(4)
groups:
inal
ash, (5) fats and oils,(6) aromatic substances, (7)medicand
(8) acids. In importance the last
properties,
and

three rank
be

far below

the first five,yet

even

these

are

not

neglected.
42. Flavors, perfumes, and
other characteristic odors,
such as lemon, mint, and rose-water, have various uses.
to

The

Flavors

of

Carbon,
and

Plant

fruit and

hydrogen,

arrangement

as

nuts

and

55

distinguishthem.

to

serve

in

oxygen

various

'

quantities

these substances.

compose

and stimulants,such

Factory

The

drugs
quinine,

morphine,strychnine,and
usuallycontain nitrogenin addition; while the acids of
fruits,such as malic acid in apples and tomatoes, citric
acid

as

in citrus-fruits and

tartaric acid

and

currants,

in

consist of carbon,

grapes,

three

classes of

These
hydrogen, and oxygen.
compounds promote palatability,
give

variety,increase healthfulness,or
rather than

system
43.

Water

weight

serve

of green

constructive

as

from

composes

60

plants. (1)

content

keeping the

solvent

which

stimulate

It forms

cells full and

carries mineral

90

to

of the

cent

part of the cell

rigid; (2) it

salts and

nervous

foods.
per

the

acts

as

distributes elaborated

of
plant-foods
; (3) it regulates the temperature
from root to
stream
plants by maintaining a constant
leaf where
heat, reduces
evaporation,which uses much
the temperature

to

normal.

performs similar functions.


in plant tissues
by water

In

the animal

The

extra

increases

body,

succulence

water

caused

Dry
palatability.

lack something that green feeds


for the use of milch cows.
r
possess, particularly
consist of carbon, hydrogen, and
44. Carbohydrates
feed and

oxygen

water

to

usually in the ratio Ci(H20)". They comprise


to 95 per cent of the dry weight of plantsand are

from

80

made

from

cellulose
the

seem

water

in the

occur

tissues.

and

carbon

sugar

sugar-cane

Starch, sugar, and

plant,scattered widely throughout

Cellulose makes

strong cell-walls. Starch


while

dioxide.

all woody tissue and

up

is the

usual

form

the

of storage,

form, though in
is ordinarilythe temporary
of the storage compounds.
and sugar-beetsit is one

When

carbohydrates

.beast, they supply work

and

are

heat

digested by
energy

and

man

may

and

be

The

56

made

combustion
sugars
as

Never, however, do they become

into fat.

of the muscle,

ligaments,and

in the

cells

uses

connective
these

Slow

tissue.

foods.

part

Starch

and

easilydigested,but cellulose,often designated

are

crude

Principlesof Agronomy

fiber,is but partly digested. However,

it furnishes

bulk, which is necessary.


Protein
compounds contain

nitrogen and sulfur


lar,
and sometimes
phosphorus. Out of these foods, muscuconnective, and vital tissues of the body are formed.
and brain use
lungs, nerves,
Flesh, stomach, intestines,
45.

eats
meat
to supply
composition. Man
these needs because plantsare not usually rich in nitrogenous

these in direct

substance.

Animal

bodies

must

first get

them

from

in storage. Leaves,
plants which contain them
embryo of seeds,and a layer of cells justbeneath the seedrich in nitrogen. Leguminous plants are much
coat
are
richer in proteinthan grasses or cereals ; and legume seed,
such as peas and beans, are composed largelyof protein
and vital;
Proteins, then, are both scarce
compounds.
they cost about three times as much as carbohydrates if
ordinary pricesare considered.
46. Ash
to several,
comprises from a fraction of one
but usually less than 2 per cent, of the dry matter.
It
is scattered through the plant as stone
cells of the stem
and leaf,in the cell-sap
to promote
osmosis, and in the
into the
protoplasm itself. A small quantity enters
composition of protein. It is called ash because it remains
after burning. Animals
this mineral,
so
concentrate
in the bones and teeth,and use it in smaller proportions

in blood
47.

and

and

flesh.

simply carbohydrates rich in


carbon and poor in hydrogen and oxygen.
Seed embryos
and the flesh of nuts
the storage tissues. All grains
are
contain some
about 5 per cent ; seed of flax,sun: corn
Fats

oils

are

The

58

the

caused

Principlesof Agronomy
important reaction

most

This

knoAvn.

is

whole

beginning of the food which feeds all. The


ultimately be solved
problem of feeding the world must
ratus
Figure 15 represents appaby chlorophylland sunshine.
showing aeration of the leaf.
the

Fig.

15.

Apparatus

"

Without
of time
would

green

showing

plants,it

until life'could
die and

these would

not

animals
use

up

essential is sunshine,which

of the

aeration

would
exist

would

be
on

feed

the food and


not

(After Detmer.)

leaf.

simply

earth.
upon

First
them.

matter

plants
ually
Grad-

then die.

only enables

it into clouds
but vaporizeswater, lifting

Equally
plantsto grow,
which

return

The

the water

Plant

as

it run
rain, letting

as

Factory
down

59

hillsideand hollow.

In this

journey,it washes soil and grinds rock, it floods


meadows
and turns water-wheels,it grinds grain and saws
lumber, it dissolves mineral for plants and generates
electricity.
Sunshine,then, is the source
of water power
well as the original
as
of warmth
and food. In this
power
whole world, only chlorophyllis able to make
of it
use
for food manufacture.
Just what
found

this strange substance

is,has

yet been

not

Plants

growing in the shade continuously


have none,
but as soon
as
they are exposed to sunshine,
it develops. Simshine
and the livingcell can
bring this
vital substance into action and perhaps into being. Truly
the plant is a factory: sunshine furnishes the power
to do
work ; chlorophyll
to be the machinery ; and water,
seems
dissolved salts,
and carbon dioxide are the raw
products.
49. Animal
concentration.
Proteins occur
only in
small percentages in plant tissue. ^Vhen
the plant is
eaten and digested,carbohydrates and oils are
burned
and
in doing work
the refuse excreted.
Water
is the
in plant, animal, and stream.
Some
ash is used,
same
but save
in young
animals, it is mostly discarded in the
Protein is also partly excreted when
fed in
ma,nure.
out.

"

"

abundance, but part of it is retained and made

"

into flesh,

blood, and sinew. The animal has graduallyaccumulated


it is
a
body composed largelyof the vital tissue. When
butchered, man
gets a concentrated food which began in
the plant cell,
but which was
refined in the plant and in
Brain
the animal, and when cooked is adapted to his use.
look
and brawn, which have so changed the world, must
far back

to

find the

beginningof their working power

and

of their tissues.
50.

Storage.
besides

"

Man

eat;

and

hence

other animals

they

eat

must

do

quantity and

thing
some-

gain

Principlesof Agronomy

The

60

energy

reserve

to

carry

on

Finally,fat and muscle

stored food.

Should

meal.

stillothers be omitted, they live

and

the followingmeal

tillthe next

them

waste

and

away

starvation results.
in the plant when
Something quite similar to this occurs
During the fruitingperiod,plants use
storage is made.
it. Perhaps
food more
rapidly than they manufacture
to say that the plant moves
be more
accurate
it would
the food,
or

leaf.

part of it,to the seed from the stem, root,


and biennials, the seed gets most
In annuals
or

in

of the food, while


method

of storage

seed, root,
When

or

sugar

The

it gets only part.


perennials,
identical

in

the

it changes into starch.

At

is almost

whether

stem.

is first made

night,starch can. usually be found in healthyleaves,but


usually not early next morning. Enzymes have changed
it to sugar and the plant has transportedit to the place
into
of storage. Here it is again changed by enzymes
starch which now
fillsthe white plastidsof the cell just
A microscope shows
this
as
chlorphylldid the green.
starch to be in ringswith the center
of formation on one
in the middle

side in the potato, and


after plastidmay

composed

be laden

of starch.

in beans.

until the whole

Here

it remains

cell seems

Plastid
to

be

until translocation

turn it to sugar and


begins,when enzymes
the plantcarries it upward through the tracheal tubes.
Proteins are deposited in the cytoplasm as crystalsor
Less storingis done than in the
globules,or as both.
of starch,but it is handled in nearly the same
case
way.
Fats and oils usuallyenmesh
themselves in the cytoplasm.
to

Much
can

the seed

seed storage is in the form


be

so

stored

oil,supposedly

on

in

given

of oil since most

space.

Embryos

are

energy

rich in

this account.

Plants that store sugar

depositit as

false crystalsin the

The

vacuoles

when

the

concentrated

found

are

Plant

Factory

61

cell-sapdries,leaving the

remain

to

as

dissolved.

Less

too

sugar

soluble

sugars

in storage than

in the sap of the same


plant.
is natural, since insoluble starch and cellulose,
and

This

slightlysoluble saccharose (cane sugar) are much


less
easilydisturbed than the highly-soluble
glucose (grape
sugar) of the
51.

sap.

Harvest.

advances

Plants

"

in

vary

composition

as

age

because

nitrogen and ash are taken up early


and
later. The
carbohydrates are manufactured
place
of storage changes,leaving a plant part rich in food at
time

one

know

almost

for what

what
he

and

devoid

he wishes

of it at another.

the

plant. He

part he wishes to harvest and when


in that

wants

bloom

part.

in the soft

or

nearly mature.

Wheat

makes

Man

must

also know

must

he will find what


the

best hay at

dough, but is useless for grain until

Beets

and

carrots

yield roots

at

the end

of the first year, but seed only at the end of the second.
It is rather generalfor stems, roots, and leaves to lose food
material

rapidlyas the

If hay is the crop,


the leaves and stems

They

not

or.

plants advance
shell out

biennials
the tops

let the grass


are

are
are

or

legume be

way

as

not

by shattering. When
to

cut

when

rich in delicious,digestible
food.

be cured in such

must

leachingwith rain
the

seed forms.

maturity.

Care

to lose value

seed
that

by
is desired,

seed

does

If roots are required,


is all that is necessary.
if seed, then
harvested the first autumn;
cut

the second.

Fruit

is picked when

full

enough to be delicious,
yet when firm
enough to withstand handling. Cotton is picked after
the bolls break, but before the lintweathers from the seed.
it is in the
Man
cuts short the life of the plant when
grown

and

will best fit his purpose.


Curing begins
and goes on in sunshine or shade, hastilyor gradu-

condition
at

once

mature

that

Principlesof Agronomy

The

62

ally,by air

by heat according to the product expected.


ment
knowledge of plants and effects of treat-

or

Considerable

required. He who does this work


his ground and work with precision.
are

of the

Control

52.

gained more

More

and

better machines,

largefields within
any

have

and

has

given him

within

short

two

or

time.
;

timothy.
larger hayfields. Some

control

to

power

vanced,
ad-

over

ture.
na-

tively,
effec-

propelledmore

harvest

be
Orchard-grass must
timothy may be mown

three weeks.

chosen to grow

much

more

enormous

an

few days of bloom

within

time

civilization has

As

"

man

have

cut

harvest.

know

must

American

This enables them


wheats

shell

more

farmers
to

tend

easily

ripen earlier than


All
others; and alfalfa is richer in proteinthan grass.
these factors enable man
to control the harvest by choosing
his crop wisely.
Better cultivation,more
thorough manuring, and wiser
Utah
Station
irrigationproduce greater yields. The
found
that the time of applicationand the quantitiesof
affected the proportionof stem, leaves,and
water
irrigation
grain,and also the chemical composition of these parts.
It was
found that moderate
irrigationproduced better
of grain,potatoes, and fruit than did excessive
qualities
which promoted woodiness and stem development.
water
Thick plantingyieldsslender, straightflax stems
ing
bearlong fiber but littleseed ; thin planting,which allows
seed.
branching,begets short fiber but much
Pruning
direct food from small useless growth to fruit,and
may
thinninggivesfewer but largerfruits.
than

If

others;

some

potato

varieties

will but learn the ways of his crop, he may


have
largelywithin his grasp the power to get what he desires
from

man

the

action ;

He
plant world.
set
may
and then, at the rightmoment,

certain

forces

in

gather a harvest

The

in

superior

yield

"

God

And

fruitful,
it

moveth
"

it

aod

have

fowl

And

in

tree,
shall

them

multiply,

God

said,
which

which

is

for

air,

and

Plant

Physiology,

Chemistry
Plant

of

is

Chemistry

Principles

of
of

Plant

less

diligent

earth,

fish

of

and

the

living

every

Be

them,

unto

the

the

have

the

upon

fruit

of

given

you

face

of

tree

yielding

i. 28,

(Genesis

the

due
suband

sea,

that

thing

herb

every

earth,
seed

and

every
to

29).

PART

ON

botany.
B.

M.

Duggar,
C.

Agriculture,

Physiology,

said

the

over

Behold,

meat"

of

textbook

God

over

REFERENCES

Any

his

earth.

seed,

be

63

of

replenish

and

the

the

that

to

and

dominion

of

Factory

says:

blessed

upon

bearing

Bible

and

the

over

as

quality

and

The

neighbors.

Plant

Jost,

L.

and

Irrigation

W.

pp.

Animal

Practice,

250-279.

pp.

Stoddart,

pp.

50-106.

102-190.

Life,
J.

A.

Harry
Widtsoe,

Snyder,
pp.

pp.
216-230.

175-234.

you

CHAPTER

WHAT

The
but

soil

is

the

most

the

world.

basis

of

and

yet

common,

The

fact

for

possible

that

entire

places where

the

get

all

of

human

the

this

precious,

of

soil is scanty

It

the

the

covers

makes

globe

almost

is
in

thing

blanket

productive

area

agriculture,

prosperity.

most

living

IS

foundation

land

to

man

SOIL

the

only

the

practically the

in

THE

not

it is also

VI

it
but

anywhere;

dwellings of

man

are

few.
53.

Definition.

earth's
from

and

of the

in

nature

from

scarcely

Some

organic
soils

some

are

rich

some

are

low

of

some

soluble

fact

that

thing, but
The

begun,

in

rich

in
in

varies

which

of

feet, and

weathering

which

on

almost

composed

soil

tirely
en-

This

is called
have
be

required by plants

foods
but

elements

practically

salts.

soil may

rock

of

sary
neces-

surface

land

hundreds

to

all the

certain

soils in arid

may

layer of soil,

muck

to

entire

foods

roots

matter.

are

what

the

of the

their

for

certain

secure

inches

fragments

from

of

with

few

to

material

home

Almost

growth.

is covered

earth

thickness

able

are

loose

find

plants

they

their

in

while

which

which

for

has

in

crust

soil is the

The

"

of

all

the

regions contain

"

soil

almost

"

any

considered
67

is

by

necessary

no

the

foods

makes

clear

means

composition
as

others

quantities

excessive

variation

great

in

deficient

waste

or

the

definite

structure.

heap

of

na-

Principlesof Agronomy

The

68

everything eventually

ture, since almost


of substances

make

to

of minerals

and

of all the plants and animals

remains

in the soil to make

soils.

of

destroyed

The

"

and

the

thrive.

plantsmay

soil cannot
the

from

removed

or

rocks

brought together

are

in which

of it a home

Permanence

54.

blanket-coveringfor the earth.

of all kinds

Fragments

remixed

and

it is mixed

into the soil where

finds its way


with all sorts

be

earth.

lutely
abso-

It will

and furnish him


always remain as a heritageto mankind
of making a living. Floods may
a means
rage, fires may
the land, man
be at war, dynasties may
over
sweep
may
rise and

fall,but

soil will

the

of producing food.

means

remain

It may

be

ever-present

an

abused

and

have

its fertility
lessened,but it cannot

be entirelydestroyed ;
and, if left to the reviving action of nature, it will in time
have

restored.
part of its lost fertility

55.

The soil is at
importance of the soil.
foundation, not only of agriculture,but of all

Economic

"

the very
welfare.
human
he

would

should

be

The

industries of

left without

food

and

fail to produce its bounties.

railroads would

clothingif
Mines

and

cease,

the

would

soil

close,

operate, factories would

to

cease

would

man

stop

their wheels, in fact,every human


activitywould in time
be discontinued if the soil should lose its producing
power.
The

growth of all cultivated plants is dependent on


the soil,and the yield of crops is a direct reflection of its
condition.
livestock

Since livestock

maintained

are

industry also depends

by

crops,

for its existence

on

the
the

productivityof the soil.


56.

Conservation

resources,

the

Forests may
will continue
of ages

one

grow

of
most

the

in need

in the

work

"

"

Of

all the

of conservation

lifetime

after he is gone

of nature's

soil.

of man,

but the soil

when

is the soil.

and
"

national

waterfalls

the product

depleted, can

be

re-

the

What

newed

only

at

great

the

therefore,

Weed

57.

of

tilled

are

by

of

of

and

as

of

of
date

based

do

of

on

of

this

would

of

handling
information

country
its

soils
to

of

soil,
than

and
tillers

factors
exist.

to

are

other

out

methods

greatly

of

was

plants,

soils

add

welfare
the

little

known

while

methods.

the

handling

founded

tions.
genera-

food

account

soils

rule,

but

the

to-day

the

soils.

best

when

or

of

adopted,

to

the

into

are

productivity

of

take

take
under-

previous

be
time

its
As

from

servation
con-

to

"

soils

not

Since

importance
ways

of

well
if

farming.
the

at

methods

not

are

of

fertility

not,

may

which

which,

greater

better

they

nation

any

down

nature

present

and

profits

of

the

known

are

real

production

crop

Many
of

the

important

management.

devised

were

result,

or

69

most

for

the

handed

may,

them

known

soil

better

methods

These
Most

of

preservation

Is

The

expense.

movement,
is

Soil

to

the

the

nations

nothing

could

be

discovery

of

the
the

of

prompt
the

land.

is

semination
dis-

VII

CHAPTER

from

largely
of the

rocks

the

earth

of

up

of which

material

Thk

FORMATION

AND

ORIGIN

in

but

vegetable

soil is made

the

soils

some

is

which

matter

intimately mixed
tell in all

It is difficult to
which

and

weathering

mixing

of

since

often

the

organic

of

matter.

of rock

from
of

amount

great

it almost

causes

plants.

dead

mineral

the

crust

is made

part

just the kind

cases

soil is derived,

given

with

derived
the

quantity

certain

been

bodies

the

All agricultural soils contain

has

considerable

from

matter

SOILS

composing

minerals

and

OF

to

lose

its

be

defined

original identity.
Minerals

58.
as

solid

any

substance

and

nature,

having

and
be

may

made

of

minerals

Elements
united
rocks

and

59.

rocks

occurs

been

going

has

been

mica.
in

"

for
to

it is

mineral

the
kinds

content.

compounds
of minerals

form

are

compose

soils.

It is probable
in the

that

every

ing
soil,since weathersince

every

weathering

action

has

70

with

contains

and

ages,

rock

usually

Different

their

aggregates

in

position
com-

associated

which

compounds;

somewhere

exposed

rock

and

minerals.

on

but

minerals

disintegrate to

mineral
has

form

minerals

Soil-forming

known

that

form

of
is

chemical

crystalline form.

considerably
to

may

origin, occurring

single mineral;

feldspar,

vary

unite
to

definite

Granite

quartz,

granites

inorganic

aggregate

an

mineral

practically definite

of

impurities.

some

of

usually

"

of
a

composed

up

rocks.

and

mineral
been

car-

Origin and

Formation

ried into the soil in great

minerals
soil-forming

of Soils

71

small quantities. The

or

main

the

spars,
following: quartz, the feldhornblende and pyroxene,
mica, chlorite,talc and
serpentine,the zeolites,
calcite,dolomite, gypsum,
tite,
apaare

and the iron minerals.


60.

which
Both

Quartz
makes

is composed of silicon dioxide, or silica,


up about 60 per cent of the crust of the earth.

silicon and

minerals, and
composed
Hornstone

oxygen

are

are

found

present in

61.

soda,
of

great many

rocks.

most

of quartz, which

soils contain

is almost

other

Quartzite is

of fine grains of quartz firmly held


and
flint,sandstone, jasper, and

composed mainly of silica. Some


90 per cent

in

together.
opal are
more

than

entirelyinsoluble.

The
or

feldsparsare compounds of silicatesof potash,


with the silicate
lime, one or all,in combination

alumina.

They

prominent ingredientsof most


crystalline rocks. Potash
feldspar (orthoclase) with
quartz and mica forms granite gneiss. Soda and lime
rocks such as basalt,diabase,diorite,
form many
feldspars
and
lavas. The
most
feldspars are
decomposed with
comparative ease
by weathering agencies,and are the
chief sources
of clay and potash in the soil. Orthoclase
contains nearly 17 per cent of potash, while leucite from
lava contains
62.

over

Hornblende

are

21

and

per

cent.

pyroxene

are

of nearly the

same

composition,being silicates of lime, magnesia, alumina,


and iron. They appear
in realityof
to be black, but are
color. They are easilydecomposed because
a dark
green
of two
(1) their cleavage,and (2) the fact
:
properties
These
that their iron is readily oxidized.
minerals are
clase
usuallydeficient in potash and hence go well with orthofeldspar.
is similar in composition to hornblende
and
63. Mica
its plantbut its relative insolubility
makes
pyroxene,

Principlesof Agronomy

The

72

elements

with

quartz in mica

however,

Chlorite

is

associated minerals.
It

iron.

and

alumina

part of chlorite schist which

forms

granitesand gneisses,
mica, are usually excellent

silicate of

soil of

usually forms

from

of their feldsparand

account
64.

rich in

when

even

abundantly

most

occurs

schist which

quality. The soilsderived

poor

on

It

unavailable.

food

is similar,but inferior,

serpentine are hydrous


silicatesof magnesia. They form an important part of the
soils of some
regions, but are very insoluble and are
usuallypoor in plant food.
65. Zeolites
hydro-silicatescontaining as bases
are
chieflylime and alumina, usually with small quantities
of potash and soda, and sometimes
magnesia and baryta.
in the basic form and not merely as
is combined
Water

to

schist.

hornblende

and

Talc

The
zeolites proper
not
are
crystallization.
in the course
of
but are formed
originalrock ingredients,
rock decomposition by the atmosphere, heated
water,
and
other
a
agents. Although zeolites rarely form
large proportion of the rock-forming minerals, they are

of

water

of interest because
of

of the

of the processes

some

continuation

that bring about

within

the

soil

their formation

common
cementing materials for
They are
holding together sand grains.
eral,
66. Calcite, or lime, is an important soil-formingminwhich is but slightlysoluble in pure water, although

in

rocks.

much

in the presence
readily by acids.

more

so

dissolved
from

the shells and


and

water;

hence

times.

many

is

much

of marine

exceptions.

rich

old

on

that

fresh water

directlyfrom

dissolved

saying

country," has,

and

It is

partly

comes

of lime

of it has been
The

dioxide.

Limestone

partly by concretions

animals

country

framework

of carbon

''

and
A

itated
precip-

limestone

the whole, but

few

Principlesof Agronomy

The

74

form

leached

blue-grassregion

is

an

soils

Sandstone

this way.

richest soils.

of the very

some

tucky
Ken-

The

example

of soil formed

often

but

are

poor,

in

this depends

grains together.
Claystone soils are usually rich in plant-foodmaterial,
Hardtoo
but are
heavy for the best growth of crops.
of alkali accompanies
where
formed
excess
an
are
pans
cementing the

material

the

on

the clay.

chemical

various
known

formation.

formed

are

decay

rock

important of these
cold, (2) water, (3) ice, (4)
most

and

(1) heat

agenciesare:

Soils

physical agencies of

and

weathering. The

as

"

rocks, already discussed, by the

and

the minerals

from

soil

of

Methods

71.

Their action
(5) plants and animals.
mechanical
and chemical, the mechanical

the atmosphere, and


is both

breaking up of the rock into finer fragments,


chemical causing a change in the actual composition

causing

the

and

of the materials.

agents

source

organisms

and

are

of the

rain,
source

this general work, heat and

to

expand unevenly when

the

about

as

the heat

cold
rock

is very apparent in the granites,


gneisses,
of minerals
mica-schists,each composed of a number

weather

and

to

This

which
in

back

weathering

strong factors working directlyin breaking down

masses.

and

All of the

of energy
for the earth.
Wind,
all directlydependent on this
are

In addition

of heat.

"

be ultimately traced

may

the

sun,

cold.

and

of heat

Action

72.

rock.

This

the water

comes

9 per

allows

cent

to

rock-masses

of

water

of its volume.

powder

Thus,
which

assist in the
into soil.

to

When

enter.

break
cold

freezes,and, in freezing,
expands

shatters the rock.

charges

heated, causing

This
nature
are

constant

widens
uses

the crevice

heat

and

cold

charged
constantly being diseffort to

crumble

the

Formation

Origin and
73.

and

Action

chemical

Fig.

16.

"

of

water.

action

Streams

wear

is

perhaps

gorges,

the weathering agents.


are

Water

"

of Soils

through
the

grinding

rocks

In mountain

rolled along, knocking and

most

into

75

its

physical
important of

fine

particles.

torrents, bowlders

raspingin

their ceaseless

Principlesof Agronomy

The

76

and

effort to loosen the banks


the

time

scattered

are

as

over

Columbia

of the

gorges

places, are

thousands

of abrasive

action.

of

rolling bowlder

is

in the

which
particles,

into countless

ground

the

meantime,

the

In

stream.

bottom

The

rivers,which,

Colorado

of feet deep,

of

course

land.

of

acres

many

and

the

out

gouge

in

good examples

are

All this earthy material

is carried

Mississippi River
annually carries
into the Gulf of Mexico
a 640
acre
enough earth to cover
mense
field 286 feet deep. In addition to this, it deposits imquantitiesof silt along the lowlands above its
mouth.
Effects of water
action are
shown
in Figs. 16
The

downstream.

and

17.

abilityof

The

the sixth power

as
a

water

exert

and

considerable

action

the grade of

as

varies,there

water

also

pounding,

constant

in loosening
rocks, especially
shiftingsmall fragments.

Water

dioxide which

the

sea-shore

up

and

74.

and

great

Ice.

"

sand

move

down,

out

universal

by

soil.
and

their

Waves

of

in

and

Its power
of carbon

tides

other materials
continuous

while

along

"

in and

pounding

out,
often

caverns.

In

mountainous

countries,where

considerable' snowfall, snowslides


One

solvent.

greatlyincreased by the presence


it takes from decaying organic matter

percolating through the

wash

on

is called nature's

to dissolve is

tons

varies

reloading of transported

their

Rains, by

materials.

and

unloading

constant

of its velocity; hence,

changes and the quantity of

stream

is

suspended material

to carry

of these

slidingand

slides often

rollingsnow

are

of

common

contains
and

moves

there

is

rence.
occur-

thousands

of

everything

its way.
Trees, rocks, and all kinds of debris are
below to be taken out by swollen
jammed into the canons
streams.

Origin and
Ice in the form

Formation

of Soils

77

is in certain regionsa powerglaciers


ful
integrat
agent in the making of soils. Glaciers are both disand transporters; lateral,
nal
medial, and termimoraines
formed from the transported material,
are

Fig.

17.

"

Soils

are

of

often deposited and


used

and
a

the rock

very

over

which

moved

many

times

before being

production.

is ground into

the glaciermoves

is often carried away


by the
the melting ice. The river from

fine powder, which

resultingfrom
the Aar glaciercarries
suspension daily. The
streams

for crop

away

280

tons

of solid matter

Justedal, which

covers

an

in
area

78

of 820

square

miles, discharges on
besides the

of sediment

tons

Principlesof Agronomy

The

'

Vatnajokullglacierin

summer's

material

Iceland

day

in solution.

1968

The

dischargesannually about

of earth.

14,763,000 tons

babies when

of to-day are mere


glaciers
those that existed during

These

compared

the ice sheet covered

the great ice age, when


2,500,000 square miles. The effects

of this ice sheet

apparent

with

are

Asia.

of America, Europe, and


are

and
of glacial
origin,

all

The

different in structure

very

from

regions
potentialplant-

tilth.

food, but often lack in oxidation and


are

Glacial soils

those formed

slower process
of disintegration.
They are
In the northern
to considerable depth.

by the
form
usually unipart of the

large part of Canada, there is


layer of this well-mixed soil resultingfrom the North

United
'a

part

soils of these

fertilein

very

are

the northern

over

States and

American

over

ice sheet.

atmosphere exerts both


physical and chemical action. Its physical work is done
mainly through winds, which are most effective in regions
of littlevegetation. In parts of China, the wind-formed
soils,or loess,are from 1500 to 2000 feet deep. The
chemical action of the atmosphere is due almost entirely
75.

to

atmosphere.

The

oxygen

and

carbon

"

The

dioxide.

The

action of the latter

in

the solvent power


of water
has alreadybeen
increasing
explained. Oxygen, working as an oxidizing
agent, affects
of the minerals composing the soil. The minerals
most
containingiron are oxidized when brought in contact with

air,with the result that their rocks

softened.

are

Feldspar,

in the presence

of air,oxidizes to kaolin ; and certain rocks


containinglargequantitiesof feldsparoften crumble to a

depth of fortyor fiftyfeet by


76.

Plants

breaking up

and

rocks

animals
and

the action of the

join with

mellowing

other

atmosphere.
agencies in

soils. Some

of

the

Origin and Formation


lower forms

of

plants are

of Soils

79

able to

begin their growth on


almost smooth
rock surfaceg,and by the dissolvingaction
of their juices,soon
make
sufficient impressionto
enable other plants to start and to permit the entrance
of
water.
This, by its dissolvingand freezingaction,hastens
decay. Roots of higher plants readily penetrate
small crevice and by their giganticstrength are able
any
to break even
The smaller roots of plants
largebowlders.
penetrate every particleof earthy material and by their
physical and chemical activities promote the formation
of a good agricultural
soil.
Burrowing animals and earthworms
are
constantly at
work mixing the various soils,incorporating
ter,
organic matand assistingin the free movement
of air. Plants
and animals are
constantly dying, and their bodies contribute,
to the organic matter
of the soil,which ceases
to
be justa mass
of dead matter.
The decay of these organic
bodies assists,not only in mellowing the soil and placing
it in a better physicalcondition, but also in the making
available various plant-foods.
77.

Classification

of

soils.

"

Soils may

be

classified

accordingto their originas either sedentary or transported.


Sedentary soils are of two kinds : those which over-lie
the rock from which they were
formed, and those formed
of organic matter,
in place largelyby the accumulation
in swamps.
as
Transported soils vary with the agent
used in carryingthe materials of which they are composed.
Those transportedby running water
called alluvial;
are
by the ocean,
by ice, glacial
; by wind, seolian ; and
marine.
Each of these kinds of soils has its own
peculiar
properties,
although the compositionis dependent largely
on

the kind of rock from


In

are

addition
sometimes

to

which

it was

formed.

classification according to

classified by their chemical

origin,soils
composition.

The

80

they

which

and

them,

of

method
of

the

all

number

the

suited,

are

Agronomy

soils,

which

Lyon,

Pippin,

Soils,

E.

Hilgard,

Any

W.

textbook

of

Agricultural
The

Soil,

The

Soil.'A.

Cyclopedia
Physics

P.

H.

King,

D.

Hall,

of
of

American

Agriculture,

particles

their

value.

READING

and

Buckman,

1-82.

pp.

1-62.

pp.

H.

or

W.

Wiley,

geology.
pp.

1-60.

1-69.

pp.

6-31.

pp.

Agriculture,
F.

H.

King,

Vol.
pp.

I,
49-68.

pp.

324-342.

crops

composing

Any

should

however,

affect

physiography

Analysis,

of

properties.

SUPPLEMENTARY

Soils,

ithe

them,

on

size

other

of

classifying
factors

of

growing

vegetation

native

the

Principles

take

adequate
account

to

The

82

Principlesof Agronomy

water-holdingcapacity,the circulation of air, and


ing
of plant-food. These all help in determinthe availability
For example,
the kind of crop that should be grown.
peaches and cherries do best on soils having a coarse
soil. Soils
heavier
texture ; the small grains prefera
having an intermediate texture, such as the loams, are
fairlywell adapted to the raisingof any ordinary crop.
what
Hence, in selectingland, the farmer who knows
should give considerable attention
he wishes to grow
crops

the

"

"

to

soil texture.

The soil may,


by
Groups according to texture.
mechanical
separatedin such
analysis,have its particles
size are
that all grainsof approximately the same
a way
gathered together. Where this is done, arbitrarygroups
are
arranged for convenience in expressingthe sizes. A
of grouping have been emnumber
of different methods
ployed,
but probably the one
finding widest use in this
79.

"

of Soils of the United

States

Department of Agriculture. In this grouping the


sizes are given the followingnames
:

various

country is that of the Bureau

It

is

impossibleto get a soil composed entirelyof


of any one
size; hence, the name
particles
given to a

PhysicalPropertiesof
soil type must

depend

various sizes.

The

mixtures

(1) coarse

83

the relative mixture

on

terms

the Soil

most

commonly

used

of these
for these

sand, (2) medium

sand, (3) fine


sand, (4) sandy loam, (5) loam, (6) silt loam, (7) clay
loam, and (8) clay. Farmers, speakmg in a general,
way,
usuallycall their soil sand, loam, or clay.
80.

are

Relation

of texture

to

water-holding capacity.
Of the propertiesof soils affected by texture, probably
is of greater practicalimportance than the waternone
"

holding capacity. Moisture is held in thin films around


the soil particles
and the quanity that can
be retained
depends largelyon the surface,which in turn is dependent
the size of particles. King gives the surface of soils
on
of different sizes

With

why
coarse

such

follows

great variation in surface,it is easy to

clay soil
sand

as

will

hold

may

45

per

scarcelyhold

cent

15 per

of water
The

cent.

of this fact is

when

Soil structxire.

"

Structure

of soil particles. Just

as

refers to

sticks may

standing
under-

important in such branches


as
agriculture
dry-farming,where success
depends on
of water.
storage in the soil of largequantities
81.

see

of
the

the arrangements
be

be
box in various ways, so the soil grainsmay
different arrangements.
Sticks may
numerous

piled in a
grouped in
be piled

Principlesof Agronomy

The

84

togetherin such a manner


be arranged
between; they may
that there is littleair space
with one
layer crosswise, the next lengthwise,
in other designs,each arrangement having a different
or
evenly all one

in

particlesmay,

groupings. The

the sticks.

between

of air space

volume

fitted

and

way

The

same

soil

different
have many
similar manner,
sizes of particles
numerous
present in
a

complex arrangement
possible. The grains may be wedged tightlytogetherso
be flocculated
that air is almost
excluded, or they may
soil make

every

into

even

more

loose-fitting
groups

with

an

considerable

air

space

between.

by farmers to be of such great


by its structure, or
practicalimportance, is determined
the grouping of its particles. Soil grainspacked tightly
together form a soil of poor tilth. When
plowed, such a
tilth of

The

soil,known

soilbreaks up into clods instead of falling


apart in granules
floccules. A loose structure
or
gives lines of weakness

extending
such
but

in

it cannot
condition exists,

where

structure

How

through the soil. Where


be made to hold together;

oppositecondition exists,the soil crumbles


considerable force is applied. A
hardpan
arid soil is shown
in Fig. 18.

the

only when
82.

direction

every

in

to

modify

structure.

coarse-grainedsoil cannot
always fairlygood; but

The

"

structure

of

be greatlyaffected,since it is
with

is
clay, constant
care
to
prevent its becoming puddled. Many
a
necessary
farmer has learned through sad experience that he can,
a
by cultivating
clay soil when too wet, so injurethe tilth
that several years are required to get the soil back into
good condition.
The

that
most

structure
causes
common

of

soil is affected

of soil

movement

factors

are

the

by almost everything
particles. Among the

following: (1) tillage,


(2)

Physical Propertiesof

Fig.

18.

"

Hardpan

in arid

soil three

the Soil

feet

below

85

surface.

The

86

Principlesof Agronomy

nate
growth of roots, (3) freezingand thawing, (4) alterwetting and drying, (5) organicmatter, (6) soluble
The tilth is the
salts,(7) animal life,and (8) storms.
of these factors,
action of a number
result of the combined

the

all of which

improve it except certain kinds of

certain soluble salts like sodium

hail,and

Specificgravity

83.

soils.

of

"

carbonate.

weight of

The

like

storms

soil

expressedas the real or the apparent specific


referringto the weight
gravity,
gravity. The real specific
in comparison with water, is
of the individual particles
The
affected by the pore-space.
not
apparent specific
gravity,on the other hand, refers to the relative weight
of soil and the weight of the same
of a given volume
This is greatly affected by porevolume
of water.
be

may

spaces.

Clay is often spoken of

"

as

heavy

"

soil ; sand is said

"

light." This does not refer to weight, but means


and sand easy, to till. An average
that clay is difficult,
sand weighs about 110 pounds to the cubic foot,but clay
weighs only about 80 pounds.
to

be

air is necessary
to the
growth of all plants,it is impossibleto have a fertile soil
84.

Air

in

the

soil.

"

Since

through which
and plant roots
in germinating,
without

spaces

air
in

can

circulate.

Seeds

growing,requireoxygen
which
while carbon
dioxide is given off.
is absorbed
The decay of organic matter
and forms
requiresoxygen
carbon dioxide,which
acctunulates in the soil-air with
If the condition of the soil
the depletionof oxygen.
does not favor the free movement
of air,the oxygen supply
becomes
reduced to the point where plant growth is
soon
retarded.
The
aeration of the soil is dependent on its
number
of other
a
texture, structure, drainage, and
sand air moves
factors. In a coarse
readily,but in a clay,
is slow.
especiallyif compact, the movement
Puddling

PhysicalPropertiesof the Soil


a

soil greatly reduces

87

its aeration, while

its
flocculating
particlesinto groups
of
promotes the ready movement
air. The size of particlescannot
be changed, but their
is affected by plowing and harrowing,which
arrangement
thereby indirectly
influence aeration.
A water-loggedsoil usually has its producing
power
reduced by lack of oxygen;
and the free circulation of
air,resultingfrom placingtile drains under such a soil,
is in part responsiblefor the increased yields following
drainage. The beneficial nitrifyingand nitrogen-fixing
bacteria of the soil requirean abundant
supply of oxygen
for their best growth, and. their action is practically
discontinued
when
the air supply is reduced
below
a
certain point. In sotae
soils the aeration may
be so
great as to result in the loss of excessive quantitiesof
water.
This condition,however, is rarelymet, and may
be remedied
in most
cases
by packing.
85.

is

Heat

of the

soil.

important because

of seeds and
effect

soil. When

the

action

temperature

of its influence

on

the

of the

changes

and

is reduced.

The

bacterial action

the later it is

earlier

kept warm

soil

germination

soil is cold, its life is dormant

in the spring and


the

The

the growth of plants; also because

chemical

on

chemical

on

"

of its
in the

and

all

soil is warmed
in the fall,

have considerable
longer is its growing-season. This may
importance in regionswhere earlycrops
practical
is so short
bring the best pricesand where the season
that crops do not fullymature.
Soil heat comes
largelyfrom the sun, the rays of which
effective when
most
are
strikingperpendicularly.A
south slope,therefore,is considerablywarmer
than one
than
warmer
facingthe north, and a sandy soil is much
it slow to
heat of water
makes
clay. The high specific
soil is usually late in
and as a consequence,
a wet
warm,

Principlesof Agronomy

The

88

sive
startingthe growth of plants in the spring. The excesture.
evaporation from a wet soil also reduces its temperaand a
heat, tillage,
Such factors as color,specific
of others play a very important r61e in regulating
number

the temperature
86.

The

of

soil.
soil is without

of the

organic matter

doubt

one

important parts since it influences so greatly


the physical,chemical, and biological
changes that take
place. The tilth of a soil,its water-holdingcapacity,its
of its most

of other

physicalproperties
of organic matter, which,
are
improved by the presence
of mineral matter
on
decaying,increases the availability
in the
soil and
hastens
desirable chemical
changes.
Bacteria, which are so important to the soil,could not do
their work without organic matter, since they secure
their
of a soil,
by its decomposition. The fertility
energy
the presence
of organic
therefore,depends as much
on
matter
other factor; and the maintenance
of
as
on
any
include the keeping up of this important
must
fertility
and

temperature,

number

constituent.
87.
matter

Maintaining

organic

matter.

"

The

organic

of soils is derived largelyfrom

leaves, and
remains

the

although

stems,

of animals.

going on until

For

the decay of roots,


from the
part of it comes

ages,

soilshave

accimiulation

has

been

largepercentage of organic
material.
In arid soils, however, where
the growth
of vegetation has been
is
light, the organic content
of the chief problems in the managelow; hence, one
ment
of arid soils is to increase the proportion of organic
some

matter.

Organic

in the soil is maintained

by the addition
of farm manure
and other organic refuse, and
by the
The wise
raisingof crops to be plowed under.
farmer
will,if possible,apply largequantitiesof manure
in order
matter

IX

CHAPTER

WATER

THE

Plants

supply of mineral

they

crops

reflection

of

during
the

often

half

earth's

is

chief

the

while
the

fertile soil.
with

On

at

Origin

of

time

some

That

contained

come

in

it has

by

at

in

on

cannot
save

the

water

amount

crop-yields.

Over

concerned

in

regions, the

excess

cultivation

therefore,

whole,

be

to

more

understood
soil

in

time

than

water.

The

"

precipitated
the

soil of

percolation,
been

the

precipitation

influenced

after

it falls.

of soil water

large

by

area,

of

man,

of moisture

growth;

of

the

connected

of

water

of

water

from

the

atmosphere.
have

may

surface;

dry regions

by

irrigation, or

can

he

he

be

The

region.

but

of moisture

quantity

he

soil.

soil has

therefore, will

but

and

the

the

given field

that

in

water

of otherwise

factor

In

90

than

carefully studied

The

vapor.

of

any

any

available

crop

areas

no

growing-

more

by flooding the

or

soil

be

of vast

The

usually

of

surface, the shortage

humid

needs

been

some

the

reduces

the

thoroughly
88.

lack

the

agriculture

more

regions, the

of the

soil prevents

is

year

during the

conditions

tillable

is withheld,

function.

to

particular

limiting factor

in parts

if water

food, but
cease

growth.
receiving

without

humid

in

moisture

for life and

water

time

and

any

moisture

Even

of the

wilt

soon

very

yield of

season.

require

considerable

for

live

may

outside

any

animals

plants and

All

SOIL

THE

OF

do
may
may

pendent
defall
rain-

much

to

increase
reduce

The
it by

drainagewhen

Water

of the

Soil

there is too much

91

for the best growth

of the crops.
He may
also increase the efficiency
of the
moisture in the soil by certain tillage
operations.
89.

Variations

moisture

moistvire.
so

day.

to

period.

It seldom

More

The

"

stable

silica;but it varies from

day

short

soil

in the soil is not

lime, or
from

in

as

the
to

season

remains

quantity of
phosphorus,

the

season

same

even

and
for

is

being added from tune to time,


and losses occur
of channels.
Even
through a number
if for a short period no water
is added or lost,there is a
constant
from place to place with a tendency
movement
to establish an
eqailibriumwhich is seldom, or never,
reached.
Many forces are at work making it difficult
all the laws by which soil moisture is into determine
fluence
a

90.

The

condition

of the

soil moisture

depends largely

the

quantity present and the nature of the soil. If


if only a
the soil is saturated,the action is not the same
as
small quantityof water is present. The soilis able to hold
of moisture and when
more
only about a certain amount
is added it percolates
rapidly. As the quantitydecreases,
the tenacity with which
it is held increases. A sandy
soil reaches the point of saturation with much
less water
condition of the moisture,
than does a clay soil. The
with a given pertherefore,will not always be the same
centage,
of the soil.
but will vary accordingto the nature
The
of the soil is usually divided into three
water
classes,determined
by the percentage present. These
iilm, and
or
:
(2) capillary,
are
(1) free,or gravitational,
(3) hygroscopicwater.
on

91.

Free

with water,

gravity.

water.
a

"

When

the

soil becomes

part of it drains away,

This

drainage

water.

The

water

due

is known

to the
as

saturated
action of

free,or

itational,
grav-

attraction of the soil for it is not

The

92

Principlesof Agronomy

gravity. This water is found between


the grainsof soil,taking the place of air. Gravitational
of time,
water, held in surface soil for any great length
Normally, after a
by roots.
excludes the air needed
great

so

that of

as

below, in which

practicedto

is

rapidly sinks

this

but

water,

it

case

drier soil

Drainage

be free water.

drain

that cannot

the free water

remove

the

moisten

to

to

ceases

filled with

its air spaces

has

heavy rain, the top soil

unaided.

away

Capillary water.

92.

drained

out

of the

is held in
of the

soil particle. Most

thin film around


in

water

field conditions

soils under

has

free water

soil,there is still remaining

that

deal of moisture

all the

After

"

great
each

ordinary cultivated

is of this nature,

and

it is

plants. The quantity


be held by a soil depends on
that can
of capillarywater
fine particles
of its particles. Since many
the surface area
have more
surface than a large one
occupying the same
volume, a fine-grainedsoil,such as clay, will hold much
than a coarse-grained
soil like sand.
film water
more
Capillarywater moves
by going from the wetter to the
films on
different soil
drier particlesin the soil. The
ing
thickness,thus exertgrains tend to become of the same
the thicker films.
a pull on
that

this form

93.

supplies water

Hygroscopic

water.

retained by the soil even

dust,
may

which

be

when

being heated,

on

condensed

on

part of the
it seems

to

moisture

be dry.

is

Road-

which
give off water
vapor
cold body. This last moisture
called hygroscopic water.
If a

will
a

soil retains is

soil is dried

"

to

completely with

heat

and

then

allowed

to

This

in the open, it will absorb moisture from the air.


water
is held in a thin film around the particlein a

way

similar to that in which

stand

much

more

firmly.

It does

capillarywater
not

move

from

is held, only

particleto

The

particleas

does

Water

of the

Soil

93

the

capillarywater.
Hygroscopic water
is of no direct use to plants,since the soil has a greater
attraction for it than have the plants.
94. Other
critical points.
in late
It has been shown
that there are
number
of critical points in the
a
years
tioned.
percentage of soil moisture besides those already menFor example, there is a point at which
plants
wilt. This occurs
there is a small
when
quantity of
in addition
the hygroscopic water.
to
capillarywater
There is another point in the capillary
below which
water
this point the
the movements
slow.
Above
are
very
is much
more
capillarymovement
rapid.
The quantity
95. Quantity of water
in field soils.
of
of moisture found in field soils depends on a number
and
Of these, the amount
conditions.
frequency of
rainfall is perhaps most
irnportant. In arid regions,
the point of saturation, while
the soil is seldom
near
in regions of great rainfall,it is kept constantly wet.
The
is found.
these extremes
Every gradation between
of moisture that a soil will hold depends almost
amount
of organic
and the amount
entirelyon the size of particles
"

"

which

matter

capacity.

its water
contains

more

the

ment

The

it contains.

clay that

than

water

fairlydry really

seems

moist

soil the greater

In

sand.

as

follows

8 per cent

Sand
Silt loam

25

per

cent

Clay

40 per

cent

The

clay

was

able to

sand.

Organic

power

of soils to

much

experiT

one

water-holding capacity of different

maximum

classes of soils was

finer the

humus

matter,

retain five times


or

humus,

retain water.

is desirable.

as

much

as

greatlyincreases

This

is

one

reason

the
the

why

The

94

expressing the quantity of water.


is usually expressed in percentage of the

Methods

96.

of Agronomy
Principles

of

Soil moisture

"

This

soil by weight.

either

based

be

may

the total

on

weight of the soil and water, or on the dry soil alone. For
a
example, if on heating 100 pounds of soil there was
loss of ten pounds, there would be 10 per cent of water
the wet
basis,there being ninety pounds of soil and
on
On the other hand, since ten pounds
ten pounds of water.
is 11.1 per cent of ninety pounds, there would be 11.1 per
in the soil on the dry basis. The quantity
cent of water

expressedin percentage of the soil


The
the surface of a
over
by volume.
depth of water
method
of expressing
of land is a common
given area
quantity in an irrigateddistrict.
of water

97.

also be

may

of soil moisture.

Loss

The

"

that

water

falls

on

be lost in three ways : (1) run-off from the


surface,(2) percolationthrough the soil,and (3) evaporation
the soil

can

from
In

the surface.

arid regions,it is desirable

to

reduce

be necessary
it may
to
sections of excessive rainfall. Too
much

but

minimum,

any

condition

is undesirable, as

erosion.
the

soil open

the rain

as

This

fast

as

increase

it in

run-off under

it is likelyto

loss is diminished

receptivein

and

run-off to

cause

structiv
de-

by keeping

order

that it may
absorb
it falls. Percolation can
be reduced

the water-holding capacityof the soil.


only by increasing
This is done by keeping the soil loose and increasingits
organic matter.
The
loss by evaporation is,in part, under the control
of

When

man.

held there

by

some

98.

moisture

until needed

protectingcover
Need

for

gets its moisture

is

be

by plants. This is accomplished


such

preventing
from

in the soil,it should

once

as

mulch.

evaporation.

The

plant
that stored in the soil; hence, if
"

The

Water

of the Soil

95

the

supply runs short,the plant suffers. Even in humid


climates,rain is so uncertain that it is not safe to let the
soil become
dry by evaporation. In arid regions,it is
to store
all the water
absolutelynecessary
that falls,or
there will not be sufficient to produce
crops (see Fig. 19).
Almost
the whole
practice of dry-farming is founded
the prevention of this loss. Evaporation from the
on
soil is affected by the same
factors as
evaporation from
surface.
a water
Heat, wind, sunshine,air humidity,and

Fig.

altitude

19.

all

Reservoir

"

play

consideration
surface
99.

their

free water

With

of the

where

water

depth

of the water-table

is found

In

is known
below

few inches in swamps


to many
It is undesirable
arid sections.
a

soil, an

cannot

changing water-table

near

important

surface.

is the level in the

is encountered.

roots

irrigationwater.

Drying

the

of preventing loss'

method

water-table

the surface, as

of

storage

part.

is the wetness

quicklyis one
The

for the

digging
as

soil at

well, the place

the water-table.

the surface varies


hundreds
to

have

which

"

of feet in
water

penetrate below

too

water

The
from
some
near

level.

the surface is especially


bad,

Principlesof Agronomy

The

96

since roots
kills them,
chief

reason

get established than

sooner

no

thereby weakening
for draining soils is

level of the water-table

heightsduring wet
The

100.

seasons.

of soil-moisture

movements

moisture

the permanent

lower

to

plant. The

to injurious
prevent its rising

to

this has been

removed, however, gravity does

much

The

effect.

surface tension

particlesof equal
from

is moved

capillarywater

which

to

is free water.

there

wherever

down

due

are

Gravity is constantly pulling

of distinct forces.

number
the

or

entire

the

rises and

water

works

When

thickness.

water

part of the soil,the film thickness

have

not

by force of

the films

make

to

After

on

soil

is removed

is reduced

and

in that direction.
If there
gradual movement
moisture
is evaporation at the surface or if roots remove
from
surface tension,
below, this force of capillarity,
or

there is

draws

water

film water

from

other

present, the

When

parts.

there

is much

is

comparatively rapid ;
but as the soil approaches dryness, it greatly diminishes,
and finallyceases.
A little water
is moved
from place
to place in the soil by what
is known
thermal action.
as
There is an evaporation of water
from one
place in the
soil and a condensing of it in another.
Movements
by
this method
slow and of little importance.
are
101.
Uses
The
of soil water.
of the
principal use
is to supply the needs of plants
soil water
crops cannot
be produced without it. Soil water
also acts as a carrier
of plant food.
The plant can
take up only food that is
movement

"

"

in solution;
water

no

consequently, without

other

food

can

be

obtained.

the chemical

action that goes on


soluble the substances used by crops.
102.
may

use

Quantity
two

or

of

water

three times

used
as

by
much

amount

proper

Water

of

also increases

in the soil,
making

plants.
"

water

each

plant
day as

CHAPTER

agriculture it is

In
of

CONTROL

THE

"

the

remove

if the

while

by

land

is

is

water

for

of

the

arid

of crops.

use

is

by

to

drainage,

be

may

increased

where

irrigation
adopt

to

necessary

in

precipitation

is accomplished

amount

necessary

done

becomes

scant

This

is

conditions,

it

conserving

it

content

water

the

change

to

this

water,

dry, its

WATER

Where

soil.

available,

not

methods

the

Under

irrigation.

desirable

often

of

excess

SOIL

OF

in

present

water

the

soil

by the methods

of dry-farming.

'

IRRIGATION

103.
in

even

is not

Where

this

condition

irrigation.
figures
This

20

to

method

if he

even

but

with

add

when

great

water

to

this

water

and

arid,
the
of

growth

any

conducting

advantages

many

would

person

it to

cause

He
can

best

during

all

times

are

the

to

In

"

soil

crops.

of

part
the

the

soil

by

shown

are

24.

irrigation

more.

he

of

there

for

advisable

has

could

moisture.

exists

Methods

yet

sufBcient

it is often

time,

soil

regions

humid,

some

moisture

in

the

Increasing

apply

can

water
not

it to

think

begin

at

his

only
one

and

well

as

himself

crop

water

and

at

very

farmer
when
the

advantage
dis-

some

raining

cease

disposal,
have

as

nate
fortuat
can

will,
do

needed,
same

time

The

Fig.

Fig.

20.

21.

"

"

Control

Water

Cement

of Soil Water

being taken

to

lining prevents

the

99

land.

seepage.

Principlesof Agronomy

The

100

time

injuredat the
supposing it to be under
be

might

if it

the entire farm

on

such

another

it from

withhold

by
at

the system and the


installing

22.

and
in

"

Water

Sources

diverted

from

of

the cost of
are
irrigation
of applying water.
expense

reservoir

supply.

water

least expensive source

running

bed of
it to

fall

all.

streams.

stream

the land

to turn

that

be

with

wisdom.

most

common

for

suitable dam

is to

in rook.

justified
by

are

The

"

of water

water

tunnel

through

In arid regions,however, these expenses


increased profitswhen
the water
is used
104.

rain, even

control, would

the farmer's

came

The

water.

the disadvantages of

Among

Fig.

newly-cut hay that

as

is found
irrigation
is placed across
the

into the canal, which


served.

The

head

carries
of such

The

canals

is sometimes

other times

Control

of

Water

miles from

many

the land to be

Soil

101

the farm, and

is along the
irrigated

banks

at

of

the stream.
Where

irrigationwater
river,only part of the water

Fig. 23.

"

good

type

of weir

is secured
can

directlyfrom

be used, since the

for measuring

irrigation

season

water.

out of the year,


is but three or four months
irrigation
while the stream
usually flows continuously,often having
In
is not being used.
its greatest flow while the water

of

order
are

to

make

built.

more

These

water

available, storage reservoirs

receive the water

at

times

when

it is

Principlesof Agronomy

The

102

As
cropping season.
less plentiful,
becomes
land is taken up and water
more
for accomplishing
storage usually increases and methods
pumping of
it become
complex and thorough. The
is rapidly
from wells for irrigation
underground water

being used

not

increasingin
as

land

Fig.

and

24.

"

trouble.

"

are

the

two

Artesian

water.

"

Irrigationwater,

should

be measured.

to guess

instead of

is often

water

led

has

to

used

use

measurements

of water
and

principaldevices

weir and

the current

to

as

In the past

taking accurate

for

irrigation.

endless

In the future it will be necessary

with the

making

crops,

This

measurements.

The

of

the custom

it has been

of

sections.

many

Measurement

105.

well

hold it for the

and

disputes and
for those

cerned
con-

be familiar with methods

expressingquantities.
for

"

measuring flowingwater

meter.

With

the former

measuring gate of a known size is placed in the stream


and
the height of water
it determined.
From
flowing over
standard tables the discharge is found.
When
the current
is used, the velocityof the stream
meter
flow is ob-

The

Control of Soil Water

tained, together with


the amount
Of
the

of water

the

many

in most

ones

acre-foot.

103

its cross-section,
and

from

these

is calculated.
of

ways

expressingquantitiesof water,

common

use

second-foot

are

the second-foot

represents

cubic

one

and

the

foot

of

flowingeach second ; an acre-foot is the amount


of
water
of land one
required to cover
an
foot deep,
acre
that is, 43,560 cubic feet. A
second-foot
flowing for
water

"

twelve

hours

106.

Methods

methods

Fig.

will flow almost

of

25.

"

of

applying water.

applying water

Irrigation

exactly an

water

to

The

"

land

acre-foot.

are

being distributed

four

principal

(1) furrow, (2)

by furrow

method.

flooding,(3) overhead, and (4) sub-irrigation. The


first two are by far the most
important, but the last two
furrow method
The
are
extremely valuable sometimes.
of distribution is shown
in Fig. 25.
In the first method,
to

soak

used

of not

on

the
crops

water

ground between
that

are

is

run

the

in furrows

intertilled and

wetting the entire surface.

It

rows.

This

has

and allowed
can

well be

the advantage

reduces

evapora-

Principlesof Agronomy

The

104

compared with flooding. A small stream


of land by this than by
a greater area
irrigate

tion greatly as
of water

can

other methods, but


The

and

labor

more

is

required.

floodingmethod is used most on pastures, meadows,


leaves a soil that
the small grains. This method

only on
is used
land with an
even
slope. Overhead-irrigation
for lawns and gardens, but is never
practiced on a large
the high cost of installing
scale.
Its disadvantages are
the large evaporation. It has the advantage of
and
the surface in a condition
supplying water
evenly over
similar to rain that leaves the air as well as the soil damp.
is practicedby filling
Sub-irrigation
deep ditches on
and allowingit to soak
the sides of the field with water
through the soil and saturate the sub-soil without wetting
the surface.
It may
also be distributed through underground
is probably the most
pipes. The latter method
economical
of using water, since it reduces evaporaway
tion
bakes

in

to

minimum.

The

107.

can

be

used

of

amount

considerable

condition, and

crusted

extent,

water

to

use

the amount

on

will

available.

general rule,however, ifthere is an abundant


farmers

will apply

depend,

to

As

supply,most

than

is good for either the crop


the soil. They try to make
and
up for lack of tillage

or

more

by the applicationof

manure

Crops
same

vary

crop

in their water

does

in all climates
taken

requirements,and
requirethe same
quantity

not

and

into account

all soils. These

on

in

determining how

It is probable that two


year

is enough for most

twelve
more

the

inches.
than

extra

water.

The

this amount
water

feet of water
crops

yield

be

is used, but

is probably

much

more

the

of water

factors must
to

be

use.

applied during the

if the rainfall is

may

even

as

niuch

as

slightlyincreased if
the cost of applying
than

the

increased

The

106

Principlesof Agronomy
If

should be kept fairlymoist all the time.

soil is deep

are
retentive,a few heavy irrigations
usuallybetter
than many
but, on a shallow, sandy soil,
light ones;

and

it is necessary
to apply water
much
water
can
go without
their roots

Deep-rooted crops
longer than those keeping

the surface.

it is a good thing for


irrigation,

Under
a

near

often.

farmer

to have

of crops in order that the water


may
when the other does not need it. When

be used

number

on

one

crop

one

for
it may
require the irrigationstream
small part of the season, leavingthe water
to waste

is grown,

only a

other times; hence,

at

but

Over-irrigation.

109.

"

time he gets

chance

The

whether

be served

can
on

number

farmer

who

by

of crops..

irrigates
every

his land needs it or

not

is as

night and
sleptduring the performance. On being asked why he
interested to stay
not
attended, if he was
sufficiently
awake, he repliedthat he had to go because he had a
bad

the boy who

largerarea

if it is used

of water

given stream

as

every

ticket.

season

To

to the theater

went

when
irrigate

water, both

not

of which

necessary

is

waste

of time

and

water
precious. Too much
reduces actual yieldsand, in addition,ruins the land by
washing out fertility.It would not be so bad if the
offender alone had to suffer,but his follycauses
injury
to his neighbor located on
lower land by water-logging
the soil and causingalkali to rise. There should be laws
to prevent the excessive use
of irrigation
water.

110.

Need

are

for economy.

land in arid regionsthan

"

can

There

is very much
more
be served by the available

hence, the factor limitingcrop production is not


It is important, therefore,from
land, but water.
the
standpoint of the community, that all water
be used to

water;

the best

advantage. Six acre-feet of

water

will

produce

The

times

many
as

Control of Soil Water


if applied to five

much

as

it will if applied to
less

methods
plentiful,

introduced.

farmer, as
in water

As

one.

These
well

will be
to

as

the

distribution

the

107

six

or

of land

acres

available

water

comes
be-

of greater economy
will be
of benefit to the individual

general community.

Economy

(note Fig. 26) becomes

prime

requisite.
DRAINAGE

111.

Removing

million

acres

Fig.

excessive

of land

27.

"

"

water.

in the United

Machine

for

There

"

many

containing so

States

digging drainage

are

ditches.

raised there.
be successfully
that crops cannot
of it
while some
Part of this land is in permanent
swamps,

much

water

is

dry during a portion


only at certain seasons.
a

so

fairlydry surface
near

that

roots

of the year, being


There is also much

appearance,

cannot

but

penetrate

with
to

any

water-logged
land having

ground

water

great depth.

The

108

Principlesof Agronomy

agriculture
The only way to
all such fields is the surplus water.
on
make them suitable for crops is to drain them.
Drainage
practicesare shown in Figs. 27 to 29.
of
arid regions,
In most
much
112.
Removing alkali.
the land contains a high percentage of soluble salts. This
that the growth
in such largequantities
often accumulates
of
of plants is prevented. Drainage is the only method
permanently removing the alkali,which is gradually
The

in the way
chief difficulty

of successful

"

Fig.

28.

"

Draining

an

orchard.

carried away
Much
of the land
by percolatingwaters.
that is at present valueless,on account
of its high alkali

content, would
were

be of excellent

quality if its

excess

salts

removed.
113.

Benefits

of

drainage.

The

drainageof wet land


improves it, in many
indirect,as well as direct,ways.
Lowering the water-table givesplants a largerzone
from
which
their roots
draw
can
plant-food and moisture.
This lessens the need of fertilizersand the susceptibility
to drouth.
The increased aeration of the soil resulting
"

The

from

Control of Soil Water

109

dramage promotes

the growth of desirable organisms,


increases favorable chemical action,and makes
the soil a
much

more

desirable

soil earlier in the


season

home

for plants. It

warms

the

spring,thereby increasingthe growing-

of crops.

Drainage improves the sanitaryconditions of a region


by drying the breeding places of disease germs
and
insects. It lessens the winter-killing
disease-carrying
of

Fig.

crops

29.

"

Drainage

outlet

that

is likely to

clog.

by reducing heaving of the soil; and

it very decidedly
tilth. All of these

and
improves structure
benefits working together result in a good net profitin
almost every case
It is
where drainage is properlydone.
a
common
experiencethat when twelve or fifteen dollars
an
acre
are
spent in drainage, the value of the land is
increased from twenty-fiveto fiftydollars.
of drainage.
114. Kinds
Any one method of drainage
is not suited to all conditions,nor is it always practicable
that might seem
best. The entire
to employ the method
"

"

set

Principlesof Agronomy

The

110

of conditions

into consideration before

be taken

must

deciding just how to drain a piece of land.


of
probably the cheapest method
Open ditches are
the water.
They are used to advantage
carrying away
The
in draining ponds and other surface accumulations.
chief advantages of the open drain are, (1) the cheapness
be
it can
with which
constructed, and
(2) the ease
Some
be cleaned.
with which it can
disadvantages are
that

it renders

land

area

The

into small
ditches

open

weeds

and

Some

are

form

the

waste

fields that

of constant

of covered

difficult to

are

the

cuts

get at.

fallingearth and
danger to farm animals.
is usually preferablefor

filled with

become

source

occupied, and

land

drain

With
the covered
drain, a trench
ordinary purposes.
material placed in the bottom
that will
is dug and some
This is later covered with
allow water
to pass through.
earth.

Some

of the materials

used

rock, brush, liunber, clay tile,and


last two are, by far, the most
common.
be had, it is recommended
under
115.
land

Installingthe drains.

is to lay out

the

Some

system.

for getting levels must


and

The

"

be used

deciding where

to

for such

drains
tile.

cement

Where
almost

are

The

tile

can

all circumstances.

first step in draining


kind

of instrument

in

tours
determining the conplace the drain lines. A
the proper
depth for the

level is also necessary


to find
trenches.
After the system is laid out, the ditches are
dug either by hand or by machinery. In earlydays, they
ery,
practically
always dug by hand, but modern machinwhere it can
be had, now
does the work much
more
cheaply. Tile should probably not be placed nearer
the
surface than two
feet, or farther than five or six feet
were

except

in unusual

good depth.

cases.

Usually about

four

feet is

The

The

bottom

Control of Soil Water

of the ditch

should

111

have

an

grade,

even

otherwise the flow of drainagewater will be uneven


and
silt will be depositedin low places. In certain sections,
where

there

they

must

is

be

for roots

should

be taken

work

of

would

otherwise

have

to

the tile fit well together to avoid

clog the drains,

to

placed deeper than

Care

necessary.

tendency

be

the joints of

with
filling

dirt.

The

coveringcan

The
usuallybe done with a team.
outlet should be screened to keep out small water-loving
animals, and should be so constructed that it will not be

easilyclogged.
DRY-FARMING

116.

Scope

of dry-fanning.

More

"

than

land surface of the earth receives less than


of

half of the

twenty inches

annual

precipitation.Consequently, this vast area


is handicapped in its crop production by a shortage of
moisture.
A relatively
small pai^t of this total area
can
but the
be reclaimed
by the use of irrigationwater;
have appliedto it
greater part of it,if tilled at all,must
method
of water conservation.
The raising
every possible
where there is less than about
of crops without irrigation
twenty

inches

dry-farming.

of annual
It

does

rainfall,has
not

to

come

be

difPer essentiallyfrom

farming, except that every


toward
utilizingeconomically all
other

process

of

the

called
any

is directed
available

moisture.
117.

The

question of rainfall.

"

The

total amount

of

Its distribution
only consideration.
time,
throughout the year, the quantity fallingat one
and
the evaporation all modify its effectiveness. In
tion,
some
regionswith a comparatively high total precipitarainfall is not

most
are

the

of the water

harvested.

after the crops


of this is lost before

falls in the autumn

large percentage

The

112

Principlesof Agronomy

placesthe
at a few times during the
in great torrents
rain comes
In such cases
comparatively littleof the moisture
year.
of it runs
off. The intensity
of
sinks into the soil; most
evaporationis also important, since it so greatlymodifies
the next

when

summer

In other

it is needed.

the soil moisture.

Hot

regions, with
many
lenge
clear,windy days, chalman's

best effort.

It is difficult to
in the

water

which

store

soil from
times

several

the total rainfall would


ever,
If, how-

evaporate.

there is but little


wind

and,

time,

of

the

at

the

same

high humidity
air, the

loss

tively
by evaporationis relalow.
Twelve

in

inches of cipitatio
prewell distributed
a

region of

low

Fig.

30.

"

deep, uniform

adapted

to

soil,well

dry-farming.

would
evaporation,
doubtless
make
dryfarming more
ful
successthan

twenty inches

fallingin such a way that most of it is lost.


The dry-farmingareas
of the United States are sometimes
divided into the followingfive areas
accordingto
the seasonal

distribution of rainfall :

(1) Pacific type, which


Nevada

and

from October

Cascade
to

March

extends

west

of

the

Sierra

receivingmost of its rainfall


with but littleduring the
summer;

ranges

The

114

hence, it
farm

cannot

Principlesof Agronomy

be used in

soil is at least

Fig. 32,

"

eightor

Plowing

dry-farming. The ideal dryIt


ten feet deep and loamy.

stubble

on

dry-farm.

should be easilytilledand readilymulched.


of soil for

Fig.

33.

dry-farming is shown

"

large mulching

in

implement

good type

Fig. 30.

used

in

dry-farming

The

119.

Dry-farm

Control of Soil Water

crops.

"

No

the best crops to be grown


on
be worked
must
for each
out

given for
the dry-farm. The problem
set

rule

115

can

climatic and

be

soil condition.

Up to the present, however, the cereals have


widely as well as most
successfully
grown.
EFFECT

OF

JRRICATION

I-

ON

PERCENTACE

OF

PLANT

DIFFERENT

been most
Of

these.

PARTS

SI

i
40

JO.

it

" S(..ll,i
SLeo-ve

!Wo.t".
Fig.

34.

The

amount

of moisture

proportion

wheat

is king.

comes
precipitation

best;
where

but

where

which

of different

the

plant has

affects

the

parts.

the major part of the


during the winter, fallwheat has done
or
the rain falls during the summer

In regions where

is severe,
winter-killing

the spring-plantedvarieties

have
rye

Principlesof Agronomy

The

116

been

hot

In

conditions.

important

become

successful

varying

raised with

been

have

successful. Barley, oats,

most

dry-farm

wide

over

climates, the

that

crops

Fig.

difficult,
up

been

It has

35.

well

grow

Experiments
crops.

field peas,
some

extent.

done

well.

120.

methods

Trees

not

drouth.

extreme

the

Experiment

to

of water

amount

Alfalfa,

used

by

Station.)

brome-grass have been used to


and a number
of vegetables have

for shade

usually it

the

the present, to find forage

determine

(Utah

Potatoes

Tillage
are

under

smooth

and

sections,but

to

to

has

permits it

which

rows,

been

has

Corn

crops.

being planted in
be cultivated during growth.
of

advantage

depending on
grain-sorghums have
success

of conditions, and

range

and

emmer,

and

fruit

is difficult to

methods.

successful

"

are

grown

get them

the
Though
in all dry-farm

in

some

started.

tillage

same

areas,

most

of

the fundamental

hold for all conditions.


The
principles
the land receptive to rain
objects of tillageare to make
and

to

Deep

prevent loss after the moisture

plowing, usually

in

the

is

once

fall,and

in the soil.

considerable

The

Control of Soil Water

117

subsequent tillagehave been found best to accomplish


this end.
Thin
seeding is almost always practicedon
such farms.
Every precaution must be taken to prevent
the growth of weeds, as they consume
the moisture needed
by crops, in addition to being in the way at harvest and
Over the greater part
reducing the value of the crops.
of the dry-farm region,summer
fallowingis a successful
practice. It makes possiblethe use of two years' precipitatio
aids
and
in the production of a single crop
of
The
greatlyin the control of weeds.
great amount
the
tillagerequired in dry-farming has made
necessary
utilize a
can
development of specialmachinery which
of power.
Clearing and village
relativelylarge amount
in Figs. 31 to 3.3.
operationson dry-farms are shown
in Figs.
The effects of irrigationare
graphicallyshown
34 and

35.
READING

SUPPLEMENTARY

of Irrigation
Practice, J. A. Widtsoe.
Principles
and Drainage, F. H. King.
Irrigation
F. H. Newell.
Irrigation,
Mead.
Elwood
Institutions,
Irrigation
E. A. Moritz.
Engiiieers,
Working Data for Irrigation
Fortier.
Samuel
Use of Water in Irrigation,
and Pumping, B. P. Fleming.
Practical Irrigation

Drainage, C. G. Elliott.

Practical Farm

Dry-Farming,
Dry-Farming,

J. A. Widtsoe.
Thomas

Shaw.

Campbell.
Vol. I, pp.
Agriculture,
Cyclopediaof American
F. H. King, pp. 286-328.
Physicsof Agriculture,

Soil Culture

Manual, H. W.

U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.

Bulletins

Garden.

138.

Irrigationin Field and

263.

Practical Information

266.
371.

Management of Soils to Conserve


Lands.
Drainage of Irrigated

399.

of
Irrigation

524.

Tile

for

Beginners in Irrigation.

Grain.

Drainage

on

412-440.

the Farm.

Moisture.

XI

CHAPTER

soil
ago.

From

down

to

thought

be

to

fed

plant-food
known

not

that

theory

organic

carbon

gas

in

was

that

the

control

their

After

is derived
ash

only

real

the

from

function

One
or

growing

known

that

carbon
from

of the

was

humus,

which

the

comes

it

air.

that

became

it

all

period

the

from

that

dioxide

soil, it

the

soil and

how

to

its plant-food.
What

121.

plants

required
obtained

potassium,
and

material

the

other

soil

the

was

held

this

was

it

many

from

comes

long time

that

and

find

part

gators
investisoil that

generally

from

years

times

During

come

food.

plants

air
to

easy

for

furnished

of

the

to

greater

held

rather

the

Romans

in the

oil, and

nitre,

was

and

different

substance.

supposed

matter,

the

idea

single

was

At

few

century,

substance

one

from

Greeks

nineteenth

plants.

was

secured

plants

of

the
a

on

some

fire, water,

and

materials;

plants

food

real

the

find

to

food

their

secure

ancient

the

of

beginning

the

SOIL

comparatively

the

of

time

the

sought
was

until

discovered

not

was

plants

by which

method

The

THE

OF

PLANT-FOOD

from

by

plants

water,

phosphorus,

nitrogen.

from

use

number

chlorine,

by

plants.

Elements

most

from

calcium,

sodium,

in

seven,

come

including

soil.

the

of
and'
are

118

the

Of

"

the

addition

to

soil.

magnesium,

not

used

those

These

are

iron, sulfur,

non-essential

silicon, are

ments
ele-

ten

elements,
also

by

taken

plants

up

in

Plant-foodof the Soil


their

elementary condition,but they


soil minerals, each of which is made
elements.

119

from

the

number

of

taken

are

of

up

All crops

elements for their


require the same
growth, although they do not all use them in the same
proportion. Potatoes and
sugar-beets use
relatively
large quantities of potassium, the grain crops require
considerable phosphorus, while alfalfa and clover use more
calcium

than

of the

one,

Water,

do most

reasons

which

other crops.
This is one,
for practicingrotation.

furnishes

hydrogen, is also- taken


would
quantity of water
to

were

from
be

the

and

oxygen

soil. Only

required if its

small

sole function
a

as

carrier

is also transpiredin largequantities

hence, the quantity used

elements

furnish these elements, but it is used

of foods in the plant and

than

the

but only

by

is much

crops

that of all the other foods combined.

of

The

supplying and conserving the soil moisture


discussed in Chapter X.
Composition of soils.

Soils

greater
method
has

been

largely
of insoluble material of no
food value for plants. The
of actual plant-food in the soil is comparatively
amount
of this
small, but since plants do not use large quantities
food, the supply is sufficient for crop production. Hilgard has compiled in the followingtable a great number
of analysesof typicalsoils.
These analyses show that less than 5 per cent of humid
is
soils is composed of plant-foodand that the remainder
in strong
insoluble even
largelymade
up of material
acid.
In arid soils,the.proportionof plant-foodis somewhat
there, it comprises less than 10
higher,but even
122.

per

"

are

made

up

cent. of the total soil.

The
than
matter

organicmatter
that

in humid

in soils of arid

of the arid soils is

soilsis usuallymuch

higher

regions; but the low organic


relatively
high in nitrogen.

Table

"

Chemical

Composition

op

Humid

and

Abid

Soils.

123.

Principlesof Agronomy

The

120

The

Strong

analysis of soils.

the plant-food in

Acid

Hydrochloeic

"

In

Analysis

order

to

determine

sample to a
laboratory,where he analyzes it. He does the sampling
since the accuracy
of the analysisdepends
very carefully,
the accuracy
of the samples. If, for example, he
on
should analyze just the surface inch, his results would not
apply to the lower depths of the soil where roots often
in composition at
feed; frequentlythe soil varies much
these different depths. Again, if the sample should be
taken from a low place containingconsiderable organic
matter,

it would

not

soil,the chemist

takes

represent the entire field. In

pling,
sam-

of
therefore,the chemist takes soil from a number
places in the field and at various depths and mixes all
together in order to get an average
sample for analysis.
After the sample has been
of
prepared, the method
analysisdepends on the information desired. If the total

The

122

Principlesof Agronomy

isexpressedby Warington in the

crops

in the entire harvested

includes the material found

Table

2.

Mineral
Soil

table,which
following

Foods
by

ee'moved

crop.

the

prom

Crops

Total

Phosphoric
Crop

Acid

21.1

Wheat

Barley
Oats

lb.

19.4

lb.

18.0

lb.

12.3

lb.

hay

clover

Potatoes

The

24.9

lb.

21.5

1b.

33.1

lb.

Turnips

of

20.7

Meadow
Red

Maize

lb.

table shows

the variation in the relative

nitrogen,potash, lime, and

quantities
phosphoric acid used by

different crops.
127.

Plant-foods

that

are

scarce.

"

Of

the

ten

ments
ele-

be considered
required by plants,only three may
These
are
as
scarce.
nitrogen,phosphorus, and potassium.
be deficient,
In a few soils calcium and sulfur may
but they are
usually present in sufficient quantities to

supply the needs of

crops

for centuries.

Nitrogen is,without doubt, the element most likelyto


be lackingin soils,
and it is the most
expensive element
when
purchased; but the fact that it can be added to
the soil by the growth of leguminous plants makes
its
maintenance
possible in every soil. Phosphorus, which
is used in largequantitiesby the grain crops, is present
in exceedingly small quantitiesin many
soils. On this
to use
phosphorus fertilizers
account, it becomes necessary

Plant-foodof
in order

maintain

to

the Soil

123

the

of these soils. Potassium


fertility
is usually present in fairlylarge quantities,
but
since it is,in the main, not available to
plants,soils usually
respond to potassium fertilizers. It is probable,however,
that proper
methods
of increasingthe availability
of
reserve
potassium will do much toward making unnecessary
the heavy use of this fertilizer.
128.

Exhaustion

of

the

the

soil has

soil.

been

contended
up

that
and

that

been

tion
possibleexhausfor

many

held.

years;

Some

have

plant-food supply is rapidly being

that it will not

impoverished
maintained

the

The

"

discussed

different opinions have

numerous

used

of

be

long before

will not

crops

grow.

the soil is
Others

so

have

that the soil is

being constantly renewed and


result will never
be exhausted.
as
a
Experience has
demonstrated, however, that, if the productivity of the
soil is to be maintained
at a high standard, part of the
be returned either as
plant-foodremoved
by crops must
farm manure
commercial
fertilizers. Since plantor
as
food is rendered available but slowly,it is probable that
never
can
entirelyexhaust the soil. A lessened
crops
supply of available food, however, greatly reduces yields
of all crops.

plant-food result primarily from the


removal
of crops from the land, but in regionsof heavy
rainfall largequantitiesare also removed
by leachingand
129.

by

Losses

surface

the eastern
have

been

in

washing.

In

part of the
leached

material
original

so

of the limestone

some

United

much

areas

States, the rock and

of
soil

that the greater part of the

has been removed,

leavingonly the more


insoluble minerals.
Naturally, during this process the
In
available compounds have been carried away.
more
sections, surface erosion is responsible for the
many
valuable land.
The soil is,in some
destruction of much

The

124

Principlesof Agronomy
main

entirelyaway, while in others, the


part is retained,but the soluble material is leached
cases,

washed

from

the surface.
130.

Plant-food

organic

in

matter.

The

"

organic

composed almost entirelyof dead


plants in various stages of decomposition. These dead
that has
matter
tissues contain a quantity of mineral
been once
in solution, and is,therefore,more
likelyto
gen
be available to growing plants than the minerals. Nitrois particularlyimportant in this connection, since
all of the nitrogen of the soil is found in the
practically
Besides furnishing
organic matter.
directlya part of the
ing
assists,by its decay,in renderplant-food,organic matter
soil is

of the

matter

available

the mineral

matter

of the soil.
,

131.

Relation

order that

of plant-food to

soil may

value

of

be valuable, it must

soil.

have

"

In

ample
the only
supply of plant-food; but this is by no means
Farmers
sometimes
submit
consideration.
a small sample
of soil to a chemist with the request that he analyze it
and

tell what

the land is worth.

with soil study understand

knowing

Those

who

are

an

familiar

that it is impossibleby

the total quantity of

merely

plant-foodto tellthe exact


value of any land.
Such questions as drainage,aeration,
mositure
other things help
supply, texture, and many
what
to determine
soil can
a
produce. All these factors
must
be taken into consideration in estimating the value
of land and in outliningmethods
of management.
SUPPLEMENTARY

READING

Soils,Lyon, Pippin,and Buckman, pp. 327-374.


Fertilizers and Crops, L. L. Van Slyke, pp. 105-116.
The Soil,P. H. King, pp. 107-134.
Soils,E. W. Hilgard, pp. 313-421.
P. H. King, pp. 69-106.
Physicsof Agriculture,
Pirst Principles
A. Vivian, pp.
of Soil Pertility,

3-46.

CHAPTER
MANURES

Plants

AND

mineral

the soil in

foods.

balanced

find the most


decreased

are

FERTILIZERS

require for their growth

of various

may

XII

if any

These

condition

an

available

should

be

one

present

in order that

congenial environment.
of these

supply
in

the plants

Crop yields
elements

necessary

is

in

if all
exceptionallysmall quantities. Even
other conditions
of
favorable, the producing power
are
soils could be materially increased by simply changmost
ing
the available supply of one
elements.
The
two
or
addition of a fertilizer may
effect this readjustment.
Where
land and
raised continuously on
moved
recrops are
each year, a certain amount
of plant-foodis carried
An unreplenisheddeposit of money
in the bank,
away.
how
ually
matter
no
large,will in time be exhausted if contindrawn
be
The
out.
plant-foods in the soil may
considered in much
the same
way, and while this analogy
is not entirelytrue, yet the same
principleholds.
Some
soils contain a very great store of plant-food,
but

present

such

even

will not

continue

to

endure

yields. If
protesting by giving reduced
system of agriculture is to be maintained
no

matter

that
farm

rich, at least

how

is removed
manure

must
or

be

on

any

soil,

matter

either in the form

fertilizers.
125

permanent

part of the mineral

returned

commercial

without

abuse

of

Principlesof Agronomy

The

126

appliedto the soil for their indirect


they add.
action as well as for the plant-food which
Farm
manure
improves the physicalcondition of the soil;
of fine
lime corrects acidityand flocculates the particles
clay; other fertilizershelp to render available the reserve
in the soil.
store of plant-food
Materials

fertilizers.

of

Types

132.

often

are

the soil either

direct

as

By far the

added

materials

The

"

indirect fertilizersare

or

important of these is farm

most

to

ous.
numer-

manure,

composed largelyof animal excreta mixed with


litter. Of the fertilizerspurchased from the outside,the
those applied for the nitrogen,phosmost
phorus,
common
are
These are usually,
and potassium they contain.
but not
always, in the form of mineral salts. Other
which

is

materials
action

called amendments
the

on

In

be hauled

grow
are
as

fertilizer,
they

United

How

are

similar purpose.
In order for them to be

serve

fertilizer
one

hundred

for commercial

year

the billions of dollars worth

used.

It is

applying it.
with

the

the soil and


and
This

One
use

account

of the most

These
of

use

of farm

are

addition
that

manure

is

of this commercial

of lack

of judgment

important problems

supply these

the

In

"

million dollars

of fertilizersis to know

to be able to

economical
is

on

needs.

fertilizers in

probable that nearly half

fertilizer is wasted

direct

plowed under.

than

States, more
each

spent

to

determine

to

plant-food
these substances, which
is a common
practiceto

the soil,it

to

certain crops which


usuallythe legumes.

133.

to

addition

for their indirect

used

for the

soil rather than

they furnish.
must

are

needs

nected
con-

the needs
in

an

in

of

gent
intelli-

manner.

It is impossibleby any
simple matter.
is the best treatment
to say just what
for a
singlemeans
soil,but by combining the knowledge of science and the
no

Manures
wisdom

and

Fertilizers

127

of the practicalfarmer,a

partialsolution of this
problem can be reached.
A chemical analysisof the soil
is very useful in determiningthe needs of soil,but it is
not
sufficient. Such analysis must
be compared with
field tests of fertilizers,
and with practicaltests of crops
in

order

determine

to

soil needs.

Where

all this informati

is

brought together and carefullystudied a


fairlyaccurate judgment of the soil requirements can be
made.
The
practice of simply applying any kind of
fertilizerthe dealer may
have for sale, without making
a
be too strongly concannot
thorough investigation,
demned.
134.

Nitrogen fertilizers.

Nitrogen is the most


pensive
exof all the fertilizer elements, and
the world's
supply of this compound is limited. Formerly, it was
obtained from guano, which is manure
and decayed bodies
of birds, but this source
of supply is now
practically
exhausted.

At

present the

sodiimi nitrate,or

chief

source

Chile saltpeter,
found

is the
in Chile.

beds

of

It lies

surface of the

ground in great beds, but is so


mixed with rock and earth that leaching out of the salt
before it is ready for market.
is necessary
Nitrogen in
available to plants.
the form of sodium nitrate is directly
of
sulfate is another
Ammonium
important source
nitrogen. In the making of coal-gasby the distillation of
is given off. The
coal, a quantity of ammonia
gas is
is removed
passed through sulfuric acid,where the ammonia
near

the

"

and ammonium

sulfate formed.

This salt is about

nitrogen.
of electricity
and in other ways,
It is possible,
by means
that
the nitrogenof the air in such a manner
to combine
it can
be used as a fertilizer. The chief productsof these
calcium
nitrate and
calcium
cyanamid.
are
processes
in the way
of using these fertilizers
The main difficulty
20 per

cent

The

128

Principlesof Agronomy

widely is the lack of cheap

more

in the manufacture

power

which

is

required

of them.

their nitrogen. Dried

products are used, chieflyfor


blood, dried flesh, ground fish,

tankage, hoof

meal, leather meal, and

animal

great many
and

horn

wool

and

of the nitrogen
availability
in these compounds diminishes about in the order given.
In dried blood the nitrogen is available at once, while in
be used but slowly.
leather and hair it can
hair waste

are

all used.

The

Nitrogen-fixation.

135.

"

While

the

use

of

some

mercial
com-

nitrogenmay always be necessary, it is probable


that the best husbandry will direct the farmer to add the
quantity of nitrogento his soil by the growth
necessary
of legume crops which are
capable,through the noduleforming bacteria on their roots, of fixingthe nitrogenof
the air. Thus, when
these crops are plowed under they
enrich the soil on which they were
The details
grown.
of this operationare described at greater length in Chapter
XIII.
136.

Phosphorus

fertilizers

are

obtained

from

both

Bones in various forms are


organic and mineral sources.
used
extensively used.
Formerly, they were
chiefly
in the raw
condition,both ground and unground; but
most

now

of the bone

is firststeamed

or

burned

to

remove

fat and

nitrogenousmaterials which are used for other


Fine grinding of bone makes
its phosphorus
purposes.
more
easily available. Tankage that is relatively
high
in bone is used largelyfor its phosphorus, and if high
in flesh scraps, it is valuable for its nitrogen. Bone
is
sometimes
treated with sulfuric acid to render its phosphorus
more

available.

Mineral
which
with

phosphorus is found in several kinds of rock


usually have the phosphoric acid in combination

lime, iron, and

aluminum.

The

presence

of the

The

130

aciditybefore

tralize this
will thrive.

This

but it is

such

lime

has

by the

been

graduallygivingway

is much

limestone

easier

depends

alfalfa and

clover

of

form

use.

used

some

extensively,

very

finely-groundlimestone

to

handle.

to

to

as

crops

is best done

Burned

of lime.

which

Principlesof Agronomy

The

great extent

effectiveness
the

on

of

fineness of

grinding.
"

139.

Indirect

fertilizers.

the soil because

to

the most

Among

to

use

of their indirect

common

sulfate,soot, and

are

salts.

is not

real plant-food and

While

it may

be advisable

for specialcases,
since they add

recommended,

their temporary

salt,iron

common

of these materials

some

added

are

stimulatingaction.

or

gypsum,

manganese

their general use

substances

Many

"

benefit may

no

have

reaction.
140.

Home-mixing

would

rather

mixed

than

pay

to

largelybecause
have

to

pay

of

fertilizers.

for fertilizers that

more

they

do

realize how

not

brands

elements

materials
simple fertilizing
and potassium
acid-phosphate,
that cannot

manufacturers
be learned

by

year

what

such

when

any

is

they
purchased in
more

if obtained
sodium

as

as

nitrate,

farmer

poor

special

no

who

will

policyto

for fertilizersabout
is told

This

chloride.

possess

subjecta littlestudy. It is a
of dollars every
is known
save

much

of fertilizersthan

the

Fertilizer

already

are

take the trouble of mixing them.

for the various

the commercial

farmers

Many

"

pay

which

secrets

give the

hundreds

nothing

Better
by the salesman.
would
lead the farmer to spend a few dollars
economy
buying books on the subject,as the information obtained
from one
make
book may
possiblethe saving of from 25
to 50 per cent
the fertilizerbill. Any farmer can
on
at
littleexpense
a
lizers
place in which to mix fertivery
prepare
; then, by purchasing the materials best suited to

Manures
his conditions,
he
much

and

Fertilizers

mix them

can

himself and

effective fertilizer at

more

Self-reliance in this and

other

the

131

therebyobtain
same

expense.

respects is often

great

advantage.
141.

Value

is the surest

EFFECT

OF

of farm

manure.

of

means

MANURE

ON

The

"

PERCENTAGtOr

DIFFERENT

m
Effect of

manure

animal

^Hu.k. 9^"-""

on

produces a
husbandry; and

farm

every

of permanent

ft

B^-*'

proportion of different

quantity of
a

wise

use

parts of

this

corn

plant.

by-product

of

of it is at the foundation

agriculture.Since

the very dawn


of
been used as fertilizer.

history,the excreta of animals have


known
of the
For a long time, littlewas

improved

PARTS

^^
lUCr^.nICb

"

PLANT

1ST

Per

M.

36.

manure

preservingsoil fertility.
Practically

ST

Fig.

of farm

use

the soil,but the increase which

way

in which

it made

it

in the

Principlesof Agronomy

The

132

yieldof

evident.

very

was

crops

is

Manure

now

known

by adding directlya quantity of plantfood, by increasingthe organicmatter, and by aidingthe


not in all cases
work
of desirable soil organisms. It may
fertilizerfor every
soil,
be a complete and well-balanced
with safety.
but its use
can
always be recommended
to benefit the soil

Manures

Fig.

37.

"

the

effect on

have

an

Fields

used

in famous

porportionof

different parts

fertilizer experiments.

ment
(Penn. Experi-

Station.)

of the

plant (Fig.36).

field is laid out


142.

kind

Kinds

to

test

of farm

of farm

Fig. 37 shows. the

animal

the

manure.

value
"

material.

by
eat

kind

of food

factors.

Old

the

other

The

much

rich food,

in which

of different fertilizers.

The

is different.

manure

That

and
poultry and sheep is concentrated
produced by cattle and horses contains
coarse

way

from

each

produced by
dry, while that

more

water

and

of any animal is influenced


it eats, its age, work, and several
manure

animals, that do but littlework

produce

the best

manure.

and

and

Manures

Liquid

be kept together if sufficient

in

Losses

ments

38.

proper
ment.

over.

its

material

that, when

in

occur

its plant food

for six months,

is used

to

will be

manure

leached.

left carelesslyexposed to
loses about half its
manure

by
large measure
without
of storage even
expensive eqitipmethods
in manure
readily
are
The plant-foodscontained
This loss

but

them

away.

yard, it is wet
of

ficial
bene-

by
(Figs. 38, 39). Experi-

Losses

"

piled where

shown

have

soluble and
carry

manure.

Manure

"

the weather
value.

bedding

by fermentation

leaching and

Fig.

so

liquid.

the

143.

is

husbandry requiresthe saving


the solid manure,
which can
easily

the liquidand

absorb

which

soils. Good

most

of both

than

is richer in plant-food elements

manure

the solid,but it lacks the organic matter


to

133

Fertilizers

be

can

little rain
If

If

manure

has

is

every

washed
to

required

to

dissolve

is left scattered in

manure

through by

plant-foodis

in

overcome

be

an

and
open

the greater part


is
before the season

rain and
out

stored

for

any

length of

The

134

Principlesof Agronomy

piled that it
be done by puttingit under
This may
the pileof proper
shape.
time

it should

be

so

bacteria

is filled with

Manure

be

cannot
cover

or

leached.

by making

fungi which

and

are

the
of these tend to make
Some
constantly at work.
heat, causing a loss of considerable nitrogen.
manure
best in manure
Since these destructive organisms work
that is loose and fairlydry, their action can most
easilybe

Fig.

39.

"

Manure

pile in

unsightly and

an

prevented by compacting the


by keeping it moist.
144.

Handling farm
that the

haul it out

prevents any

and

manure.

best way
spread it

to
on

serious loss from

to

manure

"

exclude

place.

air and

strated
Experience has demon-

handle
the

inconvenient

farm

land when

either

manure

fresh.

is to
This

tation.
leachingor fermen-

Many farmers haul manure


to the field and
on
leave it standing for months
in small piles. This is not
since its loose condition allows destructive
a good practice,
fermentation to go on readily. Moreover, the leaching

Manures

of the

pilescauses

an

and

135

distribution of plant-food
irregular

the field. Fig. 40 shows

over

Fertilizers

common

manure

carrier.

During parts of the year there is no vacant land on


which manure
be spread,and hence it must
can
be stored.
This can
be done in specialmanure
pits,under sheds, or
in the open
yard. Expensive pits probably do not pay,
but simple devices to assist in handlingmanure
withare

FiG.

40.

Manure

"

carriers

are

becoming

almost

farm

necessity.

good thing. It has already been stated that


tion
the loss due to leaching and fermentaby proper piling,
Where
yard
be practically
overcome.
an
can
open
sanitarykind of pile,as well
is used the neatest and most
cal
the one
allowing least loss,is a square pilewith vertias
sides and with edges slightlyhigher than the middle.
that is produced each day should be put on
The manure
the pileand should be kept compact and moist.
out

doubt

The

136

spreader is

manure

possiblea
by

limited
farmers

are

soils will

without

and

use

great time-saver, and

distribution than

even

of

amount

makes

be made

by
that is appliedis usually

manure

can

be obtained.
Few
quantity that can
Most
in danger of over-manuring their land.
forty or fiftytons to the acre every few years
the

suffering
any injury.

145.
crop

more

The

hand.

Principlesof Agronomy

How

fertilize different

to

crops.

"

While

each

tive
exactly the same
plant-foodelements, the relaPotatoes
quantitiesused by different crops vary.
sugar-beetsuse relativelylarge quantitiesof potassium
uses

grain crops requireconsiderable phosphorus ;


while the legumes use relatively
lime and nitrogen.
more
Each crop also has different rooting habits.
These facts
all be taken into consideration when
lizers.
must
applying fertiIn pastures an earlygrowth of succulent forageis
form
desired. This calls for the applicationof some
of
available nitrogen. The
needs
of each
and
the
crop
quality of product desired should be carefully studied
before deciding just how
of course,
to fertilize. It is,"
;

the

to

necessary

have

the

fertilizerconform

to

the

needs

of

the soil.

plowing under of growing


of the soil has
plantsto increase the organic content
been practiced for centuries.
The decay of these plants
146.

Green

helps to make
and helps to

manures.

"

available
correct

The

the

defects

mineral
that

foods

of the

exist in its

soil,

physical

nature.

Legumes make the best green-manure


crops, since they
increase the nitrogensupply of the soil by taking this element
from the air and combining it in such a way
that it
be used by other plants. The clovers,vetches, cowcan
peas, soybeans,field peas, and alfalfa are all plowed under
The small-grainsare also much
as
used
manures.
green

XIII

CHAPTER

ORGANISMS

The

soil is not

which

and

compounds
organisms

work

and

the

make

plants.

All

on

the

If it

life

in
A

of

147.

life

the

mixing
soil

matter

soil

the

in

soil.

and

by

increasing

soils, where

matter

soil; certain

work

increase

by
of

the

sending
the

higher

improve

circulation

their

roots

fungi
138

of

particularly

they

forms,

each

productive.
diversity

of

of

organic
of the

many

important
aeration.

air

into

every

assist

in

and

in

The
add

part
the

in

making

and

availability

is

with

important

are

mineral

mixing

tunately,
For-

teems

continually

are

the

mineral

squirrels and

as

and

soil.

available

the

but

great

such

ground

the

valueless.

soil

"

its continuance

dead

many

the

making

by

heavy,

plants

be

of

growing

to

plant growth

of

condition,

Earth-worms

Their

higher

this

Animals,

plant-foods.
wet

would

animals

in

and

merely

organisms.

mellow

more

for

swarm

consumed

toward

the

useful

action,

organisms

soil.

burrow

gophers,

the

in

exists

in

microscopic

of

them

which

life

These

and

plants

dependent

composed

soil is not

Kinds

is

be

support

contributing its share

of

renewing

time

soil

to

the

myriads

their

for

unable

matter

earth

organisms

unseen

cease.

bodies

its

transforming

productiveness.

composing

the

on

would

plant-food
would

materials

is filled with

but

matter,

its

dead

the

SOIL

constantly

are

renewing
on

not

were

of dead

mass

living organisms

THE

OF

of

decay

ganic
or-

the
of

Organisms of the Soil


organicmatter
which

; and

the

are

last,but

the bacteria,

least,
come

not

important

most

139

soil organisms

of all the

in the influence they exert.


148.

Bacteria.

"

The

existence

by Leeuwenhoek
of their real nature

of

bacteria

in 1695, but

until

few

covered
dis-

was

known

little was

They belong
to the plant kingdom, and
are
composed of singlecells
about
^^ ^^ iiich in diameter, although they vary
25000
considerably in size as well as shape. Increase is rapid,
since under
a

half

favorable

hour.

At

conditions

years

one

this rate, the

ago.

may

in about

divide
that

number

might

be

produced from a singleindividual in a week is almost


of the common
beyond computation. Bacteria cause
many
diseases of animals and plants. The
discovery of
of
in the treatment
this fact made
era
possiblea new
harmful ; some
disease. All bacteria are
by no means
to be neutral in their action; others are
decidedly
seem
or
beneficial. Most soil organisms are helpfulin one
way
another.

probably
tions.
be supported under existingcondiabout as large as can
Desert
soils low in organic matter, water-logged
soils,and sandy soils have comparatively few bacteria;
have
while loamy soils,especiallyif manured,
many.
Cultivated soils of the ordinary type usually have from
149.

1,000,000
Where

of bacteria

number

The

to

10,000,000

conditions

are

bacteria

in the

soil is

in each

gram

exceptionallyfavorable

of soil.
the

ber
num-

ever,
high as 100,000,000 to the gram ; howof
this varies greatly during the different seasons
ture,
the year, and is affected by soil moisture, crops, temperaorganicmatter, and a number of other factors.
teria
The size and shape of bacof bacteria.
150. Kinds
classified as
spherical,
greatly. They are
vary
often compared in form
and spiraland are
cylindrical,

often

runs

as

"

The

140

Principlesof Agronomj/

with

billiard balls, lead pencils,and

may

occur

multiply

in

cubical

chains, flat layers, or


and

main

types

in

others

masses.

separate into

two

to

make

may

The

rod-shaped
direction;

one

The

parts.

three

forms

always distinct,and some


Hair-like flagellaborne by some

intermediate.

able

they

not

are

The

more.

being

in but

increase

spiral-shapedforms

they elongate and

or

of planes; hence

number

the

differ from

sphericalforms

of two

in aggregates

singlyor

They

corkscrews.

are

bacteria

aid in locomotion.
151.

How

bacteria

colorless makes

are

grow.

The

"

unable

them

for

animal

obtain

organic matter
Oxygen is
can

foods

their

by

Bacteria
way

of the
without

respond
as

few

from

most

forms

mineral

matter.

bacteria

for their

presence

or

in the

growth;
absence

only in the absence of free


higher plants or animals have the
the

temperature

changes

in much

livingthings.

At very

low temperatures

while

at

high tures
temperaof best growth

very

temperature

varies greatlywith the species. Some

live without

can

grow

their activities cease,


they are killed. The

70" F., while

from

free oxygen.

to

do other

plant and

dead

get their food

entirelyon

either in the

stillothers

abilityto live

subsist

needed

None

oxygen.

animals.

but

grow

of oxygen;

same

of energy.
Organic
needed
for food.
phytic
Sapro-

bodies, while parasiticforms

livingplants and

others

use

source

material, therefore,is commonly


forms

bacteria

that

of sunthe energy
light
position
depend on the decom-

to

but they, like animals, must


of organic foods

fact

grpw

prefer 95" F., and

best at about
few

quire
species rehigh as 140" F. for their most rapid growth. At
as
bacteria are quickly killed,
temperature of 160" F. most

although
heated

for

many

spores
a

of

bacteria

will

short time at 212" F.

often

live after

being

Organisms of the Soil


The

and

amount

proper

balance

141

of food

is

one

of the

important considerations. Soluble carbohydrates


used
are
for food.
by many
Their own
products are
and
usually detrimental
must
be removed
or
growth

most

and

ceases

152.

the

death

result.

may

Relation

to humus

formation.

Tillageventilates
excretions.
Practically

soil, thus

"

removing these
all plant residues eventually find their way
into the soil,
where
kind.
they undergo changes of some
They may
decay entirelyand, with the exception of a small quantity
of

mineral

air;

they

matter,

undergo

may

the formation

become

of humus

which

soil ;

they

or

may

remain

The

greater

goes
gets into the soil under-

of humification, and

process

the

resulting in

original form.
that

into

passes

transformations

in the

preserved in almost their


part of the organic matter
some

gas

of great benefit.

as

result,it is

*"

The

of the
changes occurring in the organic matter
soil are largelythe result of bacterial action.
Some
fungi
begin the decay of woody matter, but the decomposition
The
carbon
of the organic
is completed by bacteria.
in the formation
matter, by its decay and union with oxygen
of carbon

dioxide, furnishes food


In

addition

to

carbon

energy

organisms.
to the micro-

dioxide,

many

other

of them
being rather complex.
compounds are formed, some
of the compounds
Many
resultingfrom organic
more
decay act as solvents in making mineral matter
humus
available to growing plants. The
remaining in
the soil as a result of decay is usually lower in carbon and
higher in nitrogen than the plant residues from which it
in arid climates
This is particularly
the case
formed.
was

where

decay

has

gone

on

with

but

small

quantitiesof

Of

all the

moisture.
153.

Relation

to

nitrogen.

"

plant-food

of the soil,
nitrogen is probably the

elements

changed from

one

needing

one

constantly be worked

It must

attention.

most

form

another.

to

and

over

part is lost from

nitrogen and ammonia, which escape into


soluble nitrogen salts which are leached out.

the soil as

free

the air,or

as

To

Principlesof Agronomy

Tlw

142

in the soil a

prevent these losses and maintain


is

of crops,

sufficient for the needs

problems of agriculture.
The
atmosphere contains

of the

one

supply
greatest

nitrogen,but
form and is,therefore,not in a
this is in an uncombined
condition to be used by plants. The supply of combined
nitrogen in the soil,on the other hand, is limited. It was
of losses which
time that, on account
thought for some
exhausted
occurred, this supply would in time be entirely
and that it would eventuallybe impossibleto raise crops.
This
We

action

before the

was

know

now

that, under

other elements

in such

store

of bacteria
proper

the

able to combine

are

vast

of

understood.

was

conditions, these

nitrogenof

that it can

ganisms
or-

the air with

be used

by plants.
The
as
discovery of this process known
nitrogen-fixation
is responsiblefor a change of ideas regarding soil fertility.
a

way

kinds of bacteria

Other

are

able to

change the nitrogen

plant bodies into a form


that can
be used by livingplants. This general process
which takes place in a number
of distinct stages is known
in dead

contained

animal

nitrification. When

as

like the
ammonia

nitrates,
or

and

available

forms

transformed

are

into

of

nitrogen,

non-available

free nitrogen the process

is known

fixation

first found

as

denitri-

fication.
The

154.

in connection
roots

It

was

of

with

of

little nodules

legumes such

observed

nitrogen

was

which

are

found

to

occur
on

the

and clover.
beans, alfalfa,
that where these plants grew, the nitrogen
as

peas,

Organisms of the
of the soil

content

that

the

nodules

the roots.

The

was

143

showed
Investigation
by bacteria working on

increased.
caused

were

Soil

bacteria livingin these nodules

are

able

free

nitrogen of the air and combine it into the


organiccompounds of their bodies from which it may later
become
available to the higher plants. The fixation of
nitrogenin connection with the growth of legumes makes
these plants desirable in all crop rotations.
They make
it possible to maintain
the soil nitrogen. It was
later
found that certain bacteria and fungi working independently
of plants are also able to fix nitrogenfrom the supply
in the air. The quantity of nitrogen they fix in the soil
is largein some
of legumes
cases, though fixation by means
rapidly.
proceeds more
to

use

155.

Nitrification

and

denitrification.

"

Most

of the

been held in plants where it was


nitrogen has once
of protoplasm. When
of the important constituents
one
plants die, their nitrogen returns to the soil as complex
again be used
protein compounds and, as such, it cannot
bacteria
broken
down.
Some
until the compounds
are
and fungi attack dead plants and cause
decay, during
into
which
at least a part of the nitrogen is converted
Ammonia
is then attacked
ammonia
by a
compounds.
of nitrous bacteria which change the nitrogen into
group
nitrites,which are in turn converted into nitrates by the
In the form of nitrates,the nitrogen is
nitric bacteria.
the nitrogen cycle is
Thus
again available to crops.
of different forms of organisms.
carried on by a number
In this cycle,nitrogen is taken
up as nitrates by the
higher plants. In their bodies it becomes a part of the
complex proteincompounds. When the plant dies,these
into ammonia,
which
down
by
compounds are broken
soil

of

nitrification,is converted

the

process

and

finallyinto nitrates, when

it is

into

nitrites

again ready

to

be

The

144

Principlesof Agronomy

used.

Nitrification requires a

proper

amount

and

of soil moisture,

In

soil there

the

for the

action.

are

largequantitiesof

on

to

and

Bacteria

by

By

by

carbon

the

the

wet

farmer.

is able
under

tillagemethods,
of these

of
the

stroyin
de-

where

Only

importance.
will go

Soil bacteria

"

increase

of

keep

to

of

the

up

mineral

which

barnyard

furnishes

he

ing
assists in mak-

ing
plant-foods. By drainsoils that

to

manure,

is able

invisible,but

into

crops

nitrogen supply,

organic matter,

of humus

farmer

does ;
their usefulness

leguminous

lands, by adding limestone


use

nitrate

applied to poorly

great economic

methods,

the various

by the liberal
out

these

little effect.

introduction

plowing

favoring their

spite of anything the farmer

for the formation

available

good

in

proper

his rotations, he
and

the

their work

he may,
him.

conditions

fertilizers are

nitrate

soils do they have

doing

but

but

have

organisms

156.

the

among

ordinary well-tilled soils

In

aerated

ammonia.

able
just the opposite to those favorPoor
drainage and a
nitrifyingbacteria.

of soil air

lack

nitrites and

into

back

in conditions

work

These

temperature,

denitrifyingorganisms which

are

nitrates

the

change

favorable

oxygen,

conditions.

of other

number

good supply of

to

and

acid,

are

by

get the

powerful, workers

proper

greatest
in his

behalf.

SUPPLEMENTARY

READING

Any textbook of bacteriology.


AgriculturalBacteriology,H. W. Conn.
Bacteria in Relation
to Country Life,J. G. Lipman.
Soils,Lyon, Pippin, and Buckman, pp. 421-474.
Cyclopedia of American
Agriculture,Vol. I, pp. 441-453.
H. W. Wiley, pp. 519-572.
Analysis,Vol. I (Soils),
Agricultural

The

146

Principlesof Agronomy

tilth,attention

must

present. When

be

given to
wet

very

the amount'

of moisture

soil is stirred,its particles

wedged together and the result is puddling, which is


much
unfavorable to plants than is the merely compact
more
condition of virginland.
than the mere
Plowing should mean
more
turning over
of the soil. If well done, every
clod will be shattered
and every particle
have its relation to every other particle
are

Fig.

41.

"

Field

in good

condition

for crops.

changed through the shearingactioq which should take


place when the plowed slice is turned over.
As the soil
fallsinto the furrow, it should be a granular,mellow mass
of loose particles. The kind of implement that will best
produce this condition varies with each soil. Sand or
loam
but

may

be made

mellow

with almost

any

kind

plow,
be given a

heavy clay without organic matter


can
good tilth only when
everything is favorable.
good condition is shown in Figs. 41 to 43.
a

of

Soil in

Tillageand
158.

Controlling
farm.

every

crops,

with

They
and
them

Crop

weeds.

thrive under

market

are

147

without

the

all conditions

desirable

42.

"

farmer's aid.
available

they shade

good

plants; and

to

menace

that produce

it is impossiblefor ordinary crops

Fig.

more

Weeds

"

injurious,since they consume


moisture
needed
by crops

the

Rotations

to

Weeds

pete
comare

plant-foodand
and

crowd

out

seed-bed.

they often reduce

the

In arid regionswhere
of crops.
duction
crop profarmis limited by lack of moisture, successful ing

value

practicedunless weeds are kept in check;


indeed, the qualityof farming in any regionmay be judged
by the thoroughnesswith which weeds are controlled.
has said that weeds are
Some
a
good thing for the
one
cannot

be

Principlesof Agronomy

148

The

farm

since they keep the

as

probable that a
performed in order

it is

it may,

operationsare

allowed

to

cultivator is used.

big weeds,

weeds

or

Much

which

are

production before the

great deal of work


been

to

scattered

kill
new

be

may

well established in the soil. A

become

mere

is all that is necessary, but


of
to get well established,a number

of the soil at this time


are

the

expected. The best time to kill


is just after they have germinated and before they,

weeds
have

It takes

seed

but

time.

same

control

if their seeds have

and

of trouble

crop

begin

and

grow

kill weeds

to

the

at

in trying to

is wasted

energy

benefits

other

soil receives

cultivating.Be this
large part of the tillage

farmer

allowed

cultivations
The

the

grown,

kind

fallow land,
be used to
tooth

used

kill weeds

to

of land, and

the crop
of weeds.
On

depends
kind

the

on

implement covering considerable area can


advantage. The spike-tooth,disk, and springan

harrows, and

beneath
crops

often required.

are

implement

stirring
if they
hoeings

implements

the surface of the

such

as

and

corn

soil

with

running just

effective.

are

potatoes,

blades

some

sort

tilled

For

of cultivator

is used to advantage ; while in crops like alfalfa,


the springTh e
tooth harrow is a good implement to eradicate weeds
.

great

the work
159.
matter

of weed

secret
at

the

Covering

control with

any

tool lies in doing

righttime.
and

manure

plant residues.

"

Organic

of any
soil that is
In the orchard, leaves fall to the ground ; in

accumulates

on

the

surface

cropped.
the grain field,stubble is left after harvest ; and in meadows
that are to be followed by another crop, a sod must
be disposed of. These
plant residues cannot
decompose
readily if left at the surface. They need to be turned
under and mixed with the soil in order to decay and give
up their plant-foodsas well as to assist in making available

Tillageand
the mineral matter

149

Crop Rotations

of the soil. Farm

being applied to the land, and

must

with the soil if it is to do the most

is constantly

manure

and mixed

be covered

all
Practically
kind of plow,

good.

of this

be done with some


covering must
although the disk harrow finds occasional use where the
land has recently
been plowed.
160. Conserving moisture.
portant
imOne
of the most
for cultivating
the soil is the conservareasons
tion
of moisture.
Even
in regionsof abundant
rainfall,
"

there

times

are

when

FiG.

ture;

and

depends

on

43.

it is

"

necessarv

Orchard

soil in good

in arid regions, the

conservingthe

to

scant

soil mois-

save

tilth,

life of agriculture

very

supply of

water

(see Fig.

44).
If the soil is compact
the surface rather than
used
order

by plants. The
that

it may

and

hard, rain

water

will

penetrate the soil where


soil must,

absorb

it

nm
can

off
be

therefore,be loosened in

moisture.

The

water

that is

from particle
to particle,
by capillarity
and if the surface particles
are
pressed tightlytogether,
the water will rise to the surface where it is lost by evaporation.
be prevented by stirring
the surface
This loss can
of earth which does not
and forming a loose,dry mulch
in the soil moves

The

150

allow moisture

to

preservedby

many

Prirwiplesof Agronomy
readily. This mulch may be
implements, such, as harrows and

escape

kinds.

cultivators of various

Rollingthe land is often practicedto make the surface


break clods. Compacting the surface
and
smooth
to
toward
soil by the roller increases capillarymovement
The fact
the surface and thereby the loss of moisture.

!FiG. 44.

"

Cultivation

while

the

crop

the yield.

that the soil seems

moist

more

greatly

is young

influences

Delaware.

after

roller is used often

actuallysavingwater.
The
161.
implements of
Tillage of various crops.
be divided
into three main
classes
(1)
tillagemay
plows, (2) cultivators,and (3) crushers and packers.
of the plow is to loosen and pulverThe primary purpose
ize

misleads farmers who

think they

are

"

"

the soil and

make

it

more

fit for the

growth of plants.

designs; no one kind is suitable


for all conditions.
The disk plow has given good results
in many
plow is doubtless
places, but the moldboard
Plows

are

of

nimierous

Tillageand
suited to

much

wider

The

range.

151

Rotations

Crop

walking plow
ridingplow.
old

is

rapidlygivingway to some
form of
Many different kinds of cultivators are used in preparing
the seed-bed,in eradicatingweeds, and in tilling
during growth. Every farm should be equipped
crops
with several kinds of cultivatingimplements. A
very
useful and simple device used to smooth
the land and to
break

clods without

taching
compacting the soil is made by atnumber
of planks together with their edges
a
useful
overlapping. This planker, or float,is especially
to precede the grain drill,
since it scrapes off little elevations
and fillsdepressions,
thus insuring a more
uniform
depth of planting.

162.

for

Reasons

rotation

of

crops.

Some

"

of

sort

centuries.
practiced for many
The reasons
for this practice were
probably not at first
understood, even
to-day all the effects of alternate cropping
crop

that there
kind

known

not

are

has

rotation

seems

requirethe

;
no

of rotation

been

on

but

good
almost

so

many

excuse

every

reasons

are

for not
farm.

various foods in exactlythe

now

known

practicingsome
All crops

same

do not

proportions;

tively
potash or nitrogen,while others need relais grown
more
phosphorus or lime. If one
crop
land, the available supply of
continuouslyon the same
and
is reduced
the yield will finally
certain elements
decrease; but if crops with different requirements are
alternated, the food supply of the soil is kept in a more
Each
kind of plant has a different
condition.
balanced
of growth. If shallow-rooted
rooting system and manner
continuously,only part of the soil is used,
grown
crops are
shallow-rooted
while an alternation of deep- and
crops
this difficulty.
overcomes
some

One

use

more

for crop
of the soil. This is made

of the

chief

reasons

rotations

provemen
is the im-

possibleby the

use

Principlesof Agronomy

The

152

of legume crops, which fix nitrogen from the air (Fig.45).


be used by others
The nitrogen fixed by these crops can
which follow in the rotation,but it would be practically
lost ifthe

raised continuously. The

legumes were

control

possible
of plant diseases,insect pests, and weeds is made
indeed, such considerations
by the rotation of crops;
often

the farmer

cause

otherwise

not

do

to

Economy

so.

horse-labor, machinery,

Fig.

from

45.

Every

"

the

of
raising

163.

be sufficient reason
Methods

of crop

requiredin making
is to decide

on

include

results

nitrogen-gathering

farm.
other

crop.

These

benefits,

for

practicingrotations.
Careful planning is
rotation.
"

good rotation.

what

crops can
this is done

conditions.

When

to raise and

the placing of it

The

of man-labor,

Use

number

he would

irrigationwater

and

should

in the

of crops on
alone, without any of the

considerations
would

rotation

crops when

change his

can

The

first essential

best be grown
the

under

quantity of each

the
crop

be determined.

followingprinciplesshould

be

kept

in mind

in

XV

CHAPTER

SPECIAL

region has

Every
in

apply

to

conditions
found

found

are

not

that

farms

of the

make

it presents.

It is not

all the

On

for

solve

to

possible

with

These

stand,
under-

to

even

or

to

which

problems

discuss,

to

farmer

each

the

soil

those

neighborhood.

same

order

others

farm,

each

identical

it necessary

soil in

own

found

not

local;

merely

are

area.

other

his

these

large

special conditions
study

of

comparatively
are

on

special soil problems

certain

Some

places.

other

PROBLEMS

SOIL

special soil problems.

ALKALI

arid

In

regions, there

excessively
are

spoken

usually

valueless
that

by these

prohibit

high
of

strong

by

the

soluble

salts

causing

injury

the

of

farmer
of salts

soils, it is

crops.

should

in the

the

know

how

to

strata

of the
154

in

quantities

management
prevent
soil that

until
surface

the
of

In

water.

the
to

taining
con-

crops

near

know

relation

to

which

is rendered

good

quantities

their

salts

soil

brought

are

taining
con-

soils, however,
raise

necessary

In

soluble

present

are

will

of land

acres

The

Many

large

and

present
to

they

of salt

evaporation
arid

if

alkali

concentrations

judging

alkalies.

as

growth.

considerable

of

quantities

salts

crop

of

millions

are

of

amount

the
of

the
is used

quantity
such

soils,

tion
accumula;

and

in

SpecialSoil Problems
regions where

large quantitiesof alkali

he should
alkali
164.

the

know

Kinds

how

soil in

alkali.

in

shown

alkali.

of

are

already

to reclaim the land.

vegetation are

on

155

soluble

Any

"

Figs. 46 and

injurious quantitiesmay
often

salt

be

ent,
pres-

Effects of
47.

present

considered

in
an

injuryare : sodium
salt ; sodium sulfate,
salt ;
or common
chloride,
or Glauber's
sodium carbonate, or sal-soda ; and magnesium sulfate,or
The

salts that most

Fig.

salt.

epsom

46.

In

"

spot with

Alkali

addition

to

cause

vegetation

these, sodium

killed.

nitrate and

districts.
damage in some
chloride is injuriousto vegetationwhen
present

number

of

Sodium
in lower
;

soil when

other

salts do

concentrations
sodium

than

carbonate,

any
or

of the other salts


black

present in low concentrations


and

tioned
men-

alkali,injures the

by dissolvingthe

Plants
causing a hard crust to form.
of
in the presence
of relativelylarge quantities

organicmatter
will grow
the sulfates.

The

156

Effect

165.

of

Principlesof Agronomy
alkali

on

plant growth.

The

"

injury

vegetationby alkali salts results largelyfrom the


of the soil
shutting off of water from the plant on account
than the plant
solution having a greater concentration
cells. By the law of osmosis water
passes from the dilute
done

to

to

the

root

has

with
cell-sap

soil solution; hence, water

Fig.

47.

plant. When
on

the other
the

soil and
166.

"

An

hand,

water

normal

higher concentration
passes

from

soil,the
than

the

the soil into the

being killed by the rise of alkali.

the soil solution is made


passes

too

concentrated,

of the roots

out

into the

plant dies.

Reclamation

reclamation

orchard

In

solution.

concentrated

more

of

alkali

of alkali lands rests

lands.
on

"

The

removal

permanent
of excessive

salts by

drainage. Other means


give temporary
may
In draining,
but drainage is the only certain cure.
relief,
the principlesdiscussed in Chapter X are to be followed.
Where

the

accumulation

of

alkali results

higher lands, the remedy


irrigating
which
vention of percolatingwater

is

from

over-

obviously the prie-

carries soluble salts

from

above

and

SpecialSoil

Problems

concentrates

them

157

in the

lower

Any practicewhich reduces evaporation,such


tends to
cropping,or the use of manure,
accumulation

as

lands.
tion,
cultiva-

reduce the

of these salts.

ACIDITY

Most

requirefor their best growth an alkaline,


better if the soil
or
basic,reaction, although some
grow
is slightly
acid.
Such important crops as the legumes can
hardly be made to grow on an acid soil,since the bacteria
which fix nitrogen in connection
with growth on the roots
of these crops
require a basic reaction. Acid soils are
often found in humid
most
ments
regions where the basic eleof the soil-minerals have been leached out, leaving
lands where the decay
the acid part behind, and in swamp
results in the acof largequantitiesof vegetable matter
cumulation
of organic acids.
The
continuous
tion
applicacrops

sulfate

of ammoniun

also finallyresults in

by
are

acid condition.

an

An

"

the growth of

of plants,among

number

acid soil is indicated

dock, horsetail,and

sorrel,sour

common

fertilizerto cultivated soils

of soil acidity.

Indicators

167.

as

also by the failure of alfalfa and

corn

which
spurry

legumes to do well.
of laboratory tests may
and a number
Blue litmus paper
of
be resorted to in determining acidity and the amount
lime necessary
168.

to

corrected

by

the condition.

correct

of

Correction

other

soil

acidity.
"

Acidity is best

of lime ; and acid soils


handsomely for the expense of applyinglime.
the

use

of

form

some

usually pay
Swamp lands high in organicmatter
acid that it does

not

pay

to

correct

often contain
the

sour

so

much

condition,

since these soils usually contain an abundance


especially
of nitrogen. The kind of lime to use depends on condi-

The

158

Principlesof Agronomy

lime

tions; burned

and

plish
accom-

limestone, however, is usually

Ground

the result.

both

limestone

ground

if fine enough, it is very effective. Ground


also has an additional advantage of destroying

and

cheaper
limestone

the burned,

than

less organic matter

caustic lime.

or

EROSION

One

sections have
which

to

however,

formed.

been

It

land that is under

the

Among these
slope of the
matter

at

times

the entire soil

erosion goes on normally in all parts


indeed, it is by erosion that caiions and

on

influence

and

out

Some

have

ravines

of certain

is the erosion of the soil,during

contend

is washed
fertility

carried away.
of the world

of

is much

cultivation.

erosion

intense,

more

factors

Many

will take

that

place.
of rainfall,
the quantity and season
the
are
of the soil,the organic
land, the texture
amount

in the soil,and

the crops raised.


is light,erosion does
the precipitation

Where

place to any great extent


and then
few heavy storms
is

Erosion

slope

farmers

of the chief difficultieswith which

and

more

streams

water

the land

falls in

is done.

has considerable

formed.

are

take

loose,

danger of erosion than a


that is compact.
in the soil
fine one
Organic matter
reduces erosion by increasingits water-holding capacity
and its absorptivepower.
169.

soil is in

the

only local damage

serious where

damaging

coarse-textured

unless

not

Methods

more

of preventing erosion.

"

Erosion

cannot

be avoided

methods under all conditions. One


by the same
of preventing it in hillyregions where
the precipitation
way
is excessive is to keep the land continually
in crops.
As soon
as
one
crop is harvested something else is planted.
This may

later be

plowed under

as

green

manure

before

SpecialSoil

Problems

159

the regular
Parts of the land most
crop is seeded.
to wash
are
kept constantlyplanted to grass.
Erosion

furrows
time

usually begins by

avoided

the field. These

across

they

become

in the

of

formation

rapidlyincrease

great washes.

This

condition

small

until in
may

beginningby making regularchannels

less slope to take


of terraces

the

likely

of all the run-off.

care

The

be
with

construction

and

plowing at rightanglesto the slope are


useful devices for counteractingthis tendency to wash.
also beneficial in
Large quantitiesof stable manure
are
of the
soils one
two
reducing erosion. On some
or
methods
given will successfullyprevent washing, but in
sections every
has to
some
practicein soil management
be directed toward
reducing erosion.

BLOWING

is experienced
sections,considerable difficulty
being blown away, leaving fields bare to the
of the plowed zone.
After the land is plowed
bottom
the plowed
and a crop planted a wind-storm
may
carry
In many
with soils

soil and

seed

to

having

an

to

arid

lesser

a
or

This

condition,

in certain parts of the Great

serious
particularly
is also found

neighboring field.

degree

semi-arid

in

regions
places where

other

many

climate.

Plains,

In

the soil drifts readily,farms

large areas.

have

Houses, barns, and

completelycovered with soil and


land transformed by dust storms.
In regionswhere the soil blows
has to
The

be directed toward

greatest care

must

be taken

been
trees

abandoned
have

fine, dry mulch

such

been

almost

the entire surface of the

in this way,
holding the

in

as

every

is most

tion
opera-

soil in

plowing and

If the soil is left loose and fine,it is sure


away.

over

place.

ing.
harrow-

to be carried

effectual in

The

160

Principlesof Agronomy

preventing evaporation of moisture


all,but it is necessary
which

leave

to

be

cannot

used

surface of small

at

clods

readily moved
by wind.
Plowing is
rightangles to the direction of wind. In

be

cannot

usually done

at

the ridges break the force of the wind next to


this way
the ground, and the soil does not easilyget into motion.
Prevention

170.

blowing.

of

is

It

"

the

on

long

stretches of barren

soil that the greatest injury is done.

Where

is left summer

largetract
districts,blowing
a

fallowed in

begin and

may

the

dry-farming

whole

district be

it

rapidlycuts
it passes.
The
which
the ground over
great problem,
therefore,is to prevent the first blowing. One effective
is the alternate cropping and fallowingof long
means
stripsof land. A crop, say corn, is planted in a long strip
few rods wide at right angles to the wind.
Next to
a
this comes
a
strip of fallow land, and then another of
In this way
there is no large area
of fallow land in
crop.
one
body and the soil does not start to blow.
Seeding
When

affected.

to

grass

necessary
to

to

or

the soil

move,

other permanent

some

in placeswhere

be used vary

begins to

with

driftingis worst.

conditions

be used

is sometimes
The

sometimes

will be sufficient,
while at other times
must

crop

every

methods
measure

one

known

means

prevent the soil'sbeing carried away

to

by

the wind.
METHODS

Since there

are

OF

so

JUDGING

factors

many

of land, it is very difficult to


involved
The amount
of money

great that considerable


as

nearly

transaction
man's

as

there

expenses

SOILS

care

enteringinto the value


tell just what
it is worth.
in land

should

possibleits

true

an

entire

is

so

be exercised to determine

value.

is sufficient money

through

transactions

Often

wasted
course

at

to
an

in
pay

one
a

agricul-

The

162

probably less on
is flat. Under

Principlesof Agronomy

land of this kind than where


conditions

some

rollingsurface

may

be

be ferred.
prepracticallyall conditions, however, the

desirable,while under
Under

the surface

land may

others smoother

topography of the land


judging of its value.

be

must

given consideration

in

depth of
ments
the soil and its generalmake-up are
important elevery
A
soil may
be nearly
entering into its value.
perfectat the surface,but if it is only a few inches deep,
classes of farming. A shallow
it is of little value for some
is
soil has a low water-holdingcapacity and its root-zone
sufficient to give the best results for certain crops.
not
of a hardpan or of a streak of coarse
The presence
gravel
the surface greatly reduces the value of any
near
piece
often land is purchased on
surface exof land.
Too
a
amination
merely. This is a dangerous practice,since
it is impossibleby lookingat the surface to tell what lies
173.

Depth

below.

The

and

structure

condition

of the

soil.

of the sub-soil

can

"

The

best be studied

by examining washes, railroad cuts, and wells, or by


It is impossible to make
sound
using a soil auger.
a
judgment regarding land without knowing its nature to
ten feet.
a depth of at least eight or
analysis of the soil tells the amount
of plant-foodcontained, and gives some
index to the best
174.

methods
are

chemical

of handling the land.

It shows

to be deficient and which


likely

also tell the reaction of the soil as


excessive

are

which

elements

abundant.

well

as

It may
of
the presence

quantities of soluble salts. Special skill and


considerable time are required to make
chemical analysis;
a
hence, this item is often overlooked by practical
farmers in judging land.
If the chemical
composition
of a soil is not known, however, any judgment made
of
it must
be somewhat
superficial.

SpecialSoil
1*75. The

Problems

analysis of

mechanical

163

soil shows

the size of particlescomposing it.

or

experience the
without

texture

After

little

fair accuracy
feelingit. There is no

be judged with

can

analysis simply by

an

its texture,

for
difficulty,

a
example, in distinguishing between
sand and a fine clay ; but in determining the texcoarse
ture
of an
intermediate soil, a mechanical
analysis is
useful. Since the texture
of a soil helps to determine

what

to

crops

176.

grow,

it should

be? known.

mined
Productivity. The real value of land is deterby what it will produce. Its chemical composition
"

and

texture

littleif crops

may

do not

judge hastilythe
crops are tried,even

to

indicators

thrive.

For

this

value of land in

though

available.

are

favorable, but they

seem

chemical

it is not

reason

wise

projectbefore
analyses and other
new

factors enter

So many

for

count

overlook
it is easy
to
be right if yields are
to

production that

some

into crop

of them,

be

satisfactory.
Natural
vegetation, topography, depth of soil, and
tors
chemical and mechanical
composition are all good indicaof the value of land ; but the real
proof of the

but

all must

"

pudding

is

of land

value

eating,"and the
its productivity.

is in the

READING

SUPPLEMENTARY

How

to

Choose

Soils,E. W.

Farm,

best indicator of the

T. F. Hunt.

Hilgard,pp. 313-370,

422-526.

Soils,Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman, pp. 375-403, 718-740.


The Soil,A. D. Hall, pp. 233-370, 289-297.
Agriculture,Vol. I, pp. 480-483,
Cyclopedia of American

513-531.

F. H. King, pp. 92-107.


Physics of Agricultiu-e,
Fertilityof the Land, I. P. Roberts, pp. 303-341.
of Soils and of State
Reports of Soil Siu-veysof U. S. D. A. Bureau

Experiment

Stations.

PART

III

CROPS
FIELD

CHAPTER

WHEAT

The
from

the

from
call

"

word

old
it

these

"

words

white

darker

in color.

Wheat
back

beyond

this

plant

the

time

about

China.

It has

also

the

prehistoric Stone

(Genesis

this

plant has

served

been
in

Christ,

dwellings of

Lake

wheat

out
With-

14).

xx.

down

men

into

back

speaks of

Bible

times

early

very

The

Age.

have

its history

throws

Far

written,

were

to

the

was

grains being

before

in

white.

plants.

first histories

centuries

both

wheat

other

seems

Germans

mean

perhaps

It

discovery

intermission

to

the

day.

present

its

Geographically,

the

supposition that

rate,

any

Perhaps

the

Euphrates

de

when

widely

cultivated

Candolle,
recorded

over

for

search

origin is equally

the
a

earth

center

Dondlinger,
history
from

Booh

of Wheat,
167

p.

1.

and

began,
China

of spread

region.
^

The

uncertain.

valley is its

Tigris-Euphrates

by

is favored

At

the

came

seem,

cultivated

found

been

Swiss, which

in

when

thirty

the

harvest

oldest

says,

turn

the

may

which

and

rye

nurtured.

was

cultivated

the

it

that

of

in

this day

others

suggests

of

one

which

though

to

account

on

is

To

Dondlinger

us,

whete,"

related

further

called

"

Strange

are

Dondlinger

to

comes

hwaete."

weizen."

sativum)

"

EngHsh

English

"

{Triticum

wheat

Middle

XVI

to

place
birthHunt.

it

was

Egypt.

suggested

the

The

168

"

177.

Principlesof Agronomy

Relationships.

"

The

Graminese

is the botanical

family to which wheat belongs. Many species of this


family have become valuable for the production of seed
and animal.
These
which
supplies food to both man
plants are designated as cereals, or grains. Into this
the
category fall wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, corn,
include not
sorghums, and the millets. The Graminese
and wild
tame
only all of the cereals but also the common
The
generalfield conditions for good wheat are
grasses.
well indicated in Figs. 48-53.
kernels germinate, they
When
wheat
178.
Roots.
send out three roots which gather food from the soil to
these two
supplement that stored in the kernel. From
sufficient nourishment
to keep the young
comes
sources,
establish itself.
plant growing until it can
Once
the green
leaflets push into the sunlight,food
manufacture
roots
out
begins. In the meantime
grow
in all directions from a node, or joint,about an inch beneath
the surface,leaving the first ones
to die because
These new
roots
ward
outthey are of no further use.
grow
from eight to twenty inches and then turn downward,
rapidlyreaching into deeper soil which is both a
and a storehouse
reservoir for water
for plant-food. The
depth to which they penetrate and the number of branches
they send out depend on the looseness,the dampness,
and the warmth
of the soil; on
the time of the year;
"

and

on

the kind

wide, yet under

of wheat.
the most

limits of variation

The

unfavorable

conditions,the

are
tent
ex-

of the root-system far exceeds what


the ordinary
thinks it to be.
person
feet two
One
inches long
plant,showing roots seven

profuselybranched, was dug up


Farm
The Minnesota
at Nephi.
branch
root
a
eighth of
every

the Utah

Experiment
Station reports finding
inch for eighteen or
an
at

The

170

if all of
to

Principlesof Agronomy

thread-like branches

these

placed end

were

end.
179.

The

plant above

ground.

Like allother members

"

of the grass family,the wheat stem, known


four or five distinct joints,
two
or nodes, from

apart in the mature


the straw

plant. These

between, in

most

cases,

nodes

as

culm, has

to ten

are

is hollow and

inches

solid,while
sometimes

partlyfilledwith pith. In the young plant,nodes are close


ing
together. Growth consists in a lengtheningand thickenIf
of the internodes at a point just above the nodes.
the plants are so few that they do not fillthe ground in
which
they are planted, underground nodes send out
more
culms, that is,the plant stools.
Leaves
upward from the nodes along the stem,
grow
half or two thirds of the way to the next
claspingit closely
joint. This part of the leaf is called the sheath; that
which springs away
from the stem
is called the blade.
The
leaves have parallel
in the
veins, a prominent one
middle forming a midrib.
Leaf blades may
be large or
have edges so sharp as
sniall,smooth
or
rough ; some
the skin when
to cut
brought in .contact by a sliding
movement.

The

head,

spike, consists of smaller sections borne

or

the rachis,a zig-zagstem, which may


be
alternately
upon
studied in a picture or by carefully
pullingoff the spike-

lets, as

sections

the

spikeletis a
five flowers

pollen seldom
self-fertilized.

called.

On

each

side of the

chaff,or

glume. Between are two to


completely inclosed by other chaff, that

coarse
so

are

escapes.

This

causes

the

flowers

to

be

Generallytwo of these flowers,but sometimes


only one or even
three,bear a kernel,or berry.
180. The
kernel, dry and fairlysmooth, has a deep
of fine hairs at one
a number
groove running lengthwise,
end, and a crumpled irregularityat the other. This

171

Wheat

wrinklingbetrays the
which

is not

berry.

location of the

than

more

one

embryo,

fourteenth

or

of the

germ,

entire

easily be removed
embryo is oily and can
with a pin or the point of a knife blade.
The remainder
of the berry is endosperna. Cut in two across
the groove,
the grain shows plainly.
under a hand lens three distinct
and the starchy part inside,
layers; the bran outermost
with a layer of dark aleurone cells between.
The

When

wheat

interior,the

Fig.

is milled, flour
outer

49.

"

layers making

two

yield of wheat,

good

the

from

comes

bran.

white
In

big

Pennsylvania.

is separatedfrom the endosperm and made


mills the germ
the flour and also lessens
into flour,though this weakens
its

slightextent.
Like all living things,wheat

to
keeping qualities

Varieties.

181.

diiferent

under

"

climatic

and

soil conditions.

but natural, for included within the vast


are
man

distinct environments,

many

attempt

if they

are

winters

are

wheats

are

to

fit

grown.

which

This

is

of the crop
and
nature

plasticplant organisms,particularly

useful.
mild

to

range

varies

and

of the

East
the

where
Mississippi,

rainfall abundant,

Between

this river and

the

soft winter
the Rockies,

Principlesof Agronomy

The

172

north

of Nebraska, where

the

summers

dry and hot,

are

alternate
having Uttle snow,
grain; hence,
freezing and thawing injure fall-planted
hard
the
the farmers
spring varieties. Because
grow
winters are less rigorous and because snow
protects the
winter wheats do best on the
plants from freezing,
young
The
Great Plains squth of Dakota.
hot, dry ripening
and

the

winters

period favors
wheat

tends

severe,

grain. On

hard

soften and

to

amber

the

Pacific

wheat

coast

to whiten

hard
in

sponse
re-

springs. Both the winter


and the springvarieties are soft and starchy. The types
of wheat in these districts neither begin nor
end sharply,
to

but blend

mild winters and

into

another.

one

All told there

wet

upwards of 1000 so-called varieties.


In 1895, the United
States Department
of Agriculture
selected about 200 as being best fitted to various regions.
As already indicated,no
singlechoice could be made for
the

Great

are

Plains

alone.

Clearly,then,

is best for all localities. There


distinct types.
have

Certain

one

now

variety
existingeight
one

Once

their characteristics
merely variations,
of continuous
fairlyfixed on account

become

selection for

are

no

part of the earth.

definite qualitiesare,

however,

desired

with

improved. Chief
these are : (1) high yield to the acre, (2) high weight
among
for a bushel, (3) hardness accompanied by high nitrogen
content, and (4) resistance to drouth, insects, or plant
diseases. Better
varieties may
be secured
by three
methods
desirable plants
of the most
: (1) by selection
from ones
now
; and (3) by
; (2) by cross-breeding
grown
the bringing of superiorspeciesfrom some
other part of
the world that has climate and soil reasonably like the
in
will also
one
question. Better cultural methods
improve the health and consequentlythe yieldof the crop.
reference

to

which

varieties may

be

Wheat

182.

Distribution

and

adaptation.

primarilyadapted to growth
coniined there.
by no means
into every
cultivated by

been

Chinese

and

civilized

other

It has followed
and

races,

other Asiatics.

Although wheat

"

in the temperate

continent

race

173

It

zone,

it is

the Caucasian

clime, and
for

is

has

also

example, by

the

is the

bread-stuff

of

having accompanied the spread of


learningand implements. It was first cultivated,as we
have seen, by the Egyptians; all peoples have grown
it
in the Far East, where a similar grain, rice,
except some
supplants it.
man,

Wheat

has

hundred

matured

the

to

equator

of the Arctic circle at Dawson

miles

Mackenzie

from

River, both.fully
a thousand

within
and

miles north

on

two

the

of the

United

States.

Egypt,

India, Australia, United


States, Russia, and
Being best adapted to low plateau regions,it

Canada.
has

It

spread round

is

common

the world

from

east

in Brazil, Peru,

to

west, wherever

opportunities have
presented
themselves.
Nor is production closelylimited by elevation.
dred
hunIn Russia and Palestine,regionsfiftyto one
sea-level
feet below
produce abundantly, while
show
and Peru
Ecuador
profitablecrops at 10,000 feet,
mountains
wheat
is produced at an
and in the Himalaya
suitable

elevation
crop,

conditions

crop

of

and

11,000 feet.

however, grows

About

between

500

three-fourths
and

1500

of the

feet above

sea-level.
At
but

the equator
little growing

the
near

areas

of production

sea-level.

Near

are

high,with

the extremes

of

from the crop,


height and latitude, no profitis made
productionbeing entirelyexperimental. The elevation
and latitude of the best regions indicate the desirability
and
climates as regards both temperature
of moderate
the perfectionof dry-farming methods,
rainfall. With

The

174

Principlesof Agronomy

spread rapidly into drier districts until it is


the dry-farm. It is only of late
the principalcrop on
have driven it
of higher acre
returns
years that crops
farms.
from irrigated
few dollars to
Whether
a
crop yieldingat best only a
be profitably
on
high-pricedland is
the acre
can
grown
wheat

Fig.

has

50.

Wheat

"

questionable. The

farms

should

be

large

opinion of the

to

be

most

best

economical.

informed'

men

gradually pass to the


for the
less valuable
areas
everywhere, making room
higher producing crops on land that bears high rent.
About
all it requiresas to soil is fair fertility
and tilth.
It grows
sands, loams, clays,and silts,
on
avoiding the
muck
which are too rich in organic matter.
soils,
Deep,
uniform
loams, however, generally give the best yields
where there is about twenty-fiveinches of rainfall. Good
fields of wheat
shown
in Figs. 48, 49, and 50.
are
Hard
and soft spring,hard and soft winter, and white
seems

to

be

that

wheat

should

175

Wheat
wheats
These
the

have

adapted

themselves

illustrateonly

variations

to
a

conditions.

dimatic

few

of the attempts

of

rigorous climates. Strains are


tricts,
continuallybecoming adapted to drier or to colder disIt
before.
where they were
not successfully
grown
is because of this widely increasing
variation coupled with
its manifold
such a general
has become
uses, that wheat
suit

to

crop

more

crop.

preparation of
land for planting differs with the region. The
chief
difference is in amount
of seed and time of sowing; the
of cultivation are primarily the same.
methods
include plowing in the autumn
In general,the methods
183.

Preparation of seed-bed.

"

The

after the crop is taken


winter so as
; leavingthe land rough over

late

or

summer

as

off

soon

to

as

sible
pos-

prevent

and to permit frost to break


meltingsnow
clods or sod into finer particles;and harrowing in the
early spring to prevent loss of moisture by evaporation
weeds.
and to keep down
Fall-plowingought to be as
at
deep as the machinery and the horses or other power
will permit. Increased
command
the farmer's
depth
for the plant and stores
of plowing makes
a better home
In regions where
spring
a
greater quantity of moisture.
is still valuable,
planting is practiced,deep fall-plowing
until it becomes
the grain is not sown
but in most
cases
the next spring.
warm

run-off of rain

seed that
stubble

is adapted to

ought

winter

harrow

without

after

every
a

plantingtime

had

Farmers

"

their system
under

turned

Sometimes

weeds, they have


when

be

to

after harvest.
the

seeding.

and

Seed

184.

or

the

land

loose, moist
comes.

crusts

use

of

farming. The
early as possible

as

should

harrowing. If farmers
rain that

better

the

seed-bed

lie

through

disk

it, and

land

or

free from

starts

weeds

176

The

Principlesof Agronomy
The

grain ought

screened

to

to be

weed

remove

rubbish,

seed,
shrunken

kernels.

kernels

plump

and

ter
give bet-

yields than
shrunken

Large,

small

because

ones,

of the better start

give the
But

they

plants.
than screening
young

more

is necessary.
the
grain

For

one

smut,

should

with

treated

or

be

hyde,
formalde-

pint

fifty

to

gallonsof water, or with


blue vitriol (copper sulfate),
one
pound to five
A good
gallonsof water.
is to dip a bag of
way
wheat

into

contained
About

in a half barrel.

ten

minutes

to

grain. In
another

solution

all

wet

the

is

quired
re-

the

meantime,

sackful

might be

and

filled to

screened
economize

time.

From

three

to

six

pecks of seed have given


the

best crops where no


irrigationis practiced,
while
four
used.

under
to

irrigation

eight pecks
For

are

spring-plant-

The

178

Principlesof Agronomy

ing, earliness is essential. Fall-plowingmakes possible


earlier seeding,since disking is then all that is necessary
be
before planting. During growth about all that can
done

is to harrow.

185.

Harvesting.

that

is not

The

season

"

harvest

There

is

no

season

in

some

in

varies

United

the

in

month

the

year

part of the earth.


from

States

May

in

FallSeptember in parts of the Northwest.


planted grain ripens early and spring-plantedgrain late

Texas,
where

to

is cool

the weather

Methods

differ

as

moist.

or

widely

of the world, peasants stilluse

Fig.

cradle, but modern

53.

and

hauled

off and

header

has

grainin

are

or

parts

many

old-fashioned

work.

rapidlywinning
United

the header, which

to

way

in all

States
removes

into tightwagon-beds to be

until ready for

supplanted
one

at

In parts of western

stacked

combined-harvester,
sacks the

Thresher

elevates them

been

the sickle

harvesters

progressivecountries.
the binder has given
the heads

"

In

seasons.

as

on

machine

some

that

operation.

threshing. The
large farms by the
cuts, threshes,and

Wheat

Binder-cut grainis shocked

179

the straw

in the field where

dries sufficiently
to permit easy
separationof the grain
from chaff. In some
locaHties the wheat
cut
is
green

ripened by
for which

the

of starch

translocation

from

the

straw,

long time in the shock is necessary.


threshingtime approaches the farmer hauls and
the bundles,or he hauls directlyto the thresher.
grainis stacked, the bundles are usuallyplaced with
in,

so

When

shed

to

as

rain and

resist the

attack

stacks
When
heads

of fowls

or

rodents.
186.

wheat
and

Diseases.

is attacked

Closed

is spread
and

is

smut

black, thread-like fungus which

by tiny,black
themselves

attach

about

serious.

most

are

187.

the

smut

time

same

the

to

heads

form,

Infected

the

wheat

like sound

when

during threshing and


which cling to
spores

a
can

not

in appearance

be

10 to

preventedby

should

be

taken

or

planting.

spread

hollow.
handled

the
out

to

per

the

cent

It

grows

the

inside.
are

dull

They break easily


later, they scatter

kernels.

though

treatment

that

After
in bags

40

At the time
and

of

in the lower

except they

ones

the sound

notice this smut,

loss of from

hardens.
the kernel

enters

are

Sprouting
inside.

plant and grows


growing plant,dying

in color,lightin weight, and

the resemblance

kernel.

young

smut

kernels

fly through the air

wheat, the long, slender tube

as

the

enters

that

spores

follows up the green,


part of the stem, as the straw

may

by glume spot,

scab, rust, leaf blight,powdery mildew, and loose


closed smut.
Of all these, however, rust and closed

smut

the

Wheat

"

On

account

of

clean grain,the farmer


he finds when

threshing

of the crop.

This

described
formalin

loss

(Par. 184). Care

is 40

per

cent

maldehyd
for-

grain is treated, it is hung up


the barn floor to dry before
on

The

180

188.

Loose

Principlesof Agronomy
plant at floweringtime, and
The
disease is less prevalent
kernel.
Treatment, however,
by closed smut.

smut

lives inside of the


than is that caused
is

the

enters

since the
difficult,

more

inside the kernels

are

spores

is
only method
known
the hot-water
as
one
treatment, which is extremely
hard to use successfully
since,if the water be a few degrees
the germination qualityof the wheat is injured
too warm,
or
destroyed. The grain is soaked for four hours in cold
more
readily penetrates wet
grain.
water, since heat
and

To

kill the

in

water

by poisons. The

be reached

cannot

the wheat

smut,

maintained

is immersed

133" F.

at

The

for ten
addition

minutes
of the

Because
heating necessary.
of the difficulties,
be
only small quantitiesof seed can
This
is then
soAved on
seed plat which
will
treated.
a
yield clean seed for next season.
is a fungous disease which attacks the stem
189.
Rust
cold wheat

and

makes

leaf; that

spores

live
other

some

constant

on

the

winter

over

plant.

In

is the

stem

more

serious.

The

in the

in
standing straw or even
the spring,after germination,the

The injuryconsists
fungi attack the wheat at any time.
in a failure of the grain to fill. Although considerable loss

results,about
to

all that

can

to rotate
varieties,
avoid over-irrigation.

crops,

to

Insects.

"

flies and

is to
drain

choose

sistant
rust-re-

the land, and

chinch-bugs are the


of wheat.
of the insect enemies
The
worst
chinch-bug
attacks other crops, while the Hessian flyconfines its work
The latter is a fly which lays its eggs
mostly to wheat.
in the young
the maggots hatch they rasp
plant. When
tissue and drink the sap.
The
the young
chinch-bug is
beetle that eats the tender plants. They pass through
a
true larval stage, but hatch
no
continuouslythroughout
the early summer.
loss
Altogether these insects cause
a
190.

Hessian

be done

Wheat

181

of 10 per cent of the wheat crop.


Spraying and catching
in plow furrows are advocated, but perhaps clean farming
and

rotation

In

the better methods

are

wheat
districts,

some

the wheat

straw

suffers considerable

which

worm,

of the plant. The

stem

191.

Weeds.

to

loss from

lays its eggs in the head and

wheat

joints causing the grain


therefore to b^ missed by

of control.

jointworm

works

in bent

grow

in the

positions,and

the header.

There

few

plants that have


become
that they have gained
such nuisances to wheat
reputationsas pests. They steal plant-foodand moisture,
shade

and

crowd

the value
most

of the

June

The

the crop,

hinder

harvest, and

Russian

of the

parts of the East and

some

mustards

accumulates

the

seed

lies for

strength under

intertilled crops

lower

weeds
states

clover, and
cheat

or

middle

considerable

cause

The

Mountain

thistle,sweet

(Bromus tectormn). Chess

Since

with

grain by adding impurities.

mustards,

grass

in

out

are

in wheat-fields

common

the

are

"

is

mon
com-

West.

trouble

in

some

tricts.
dis-

in the

ground, it
single-cropping. Rotation
years

is,therefore,an

effective method

of

combating it.
Russian
almost

thistle,a

master

and, for

tumbleweed,

of the Nebraska

wheat

long time,
farms, is now
spread
a

widely throughout the country. It scatters great numbers


of seeds by rollingthem
before the wind.
Railroads
introduce

it into

water
localities;irrigation

new

carries it to the fields ; sheep carry it in their wool ; and


It is especiallytroublethe whole region is sown.
some
soon
the

on
a

pest

with

to

dry-farm,but

be reckoned

with.

no

where

matter

it exists it is

For protection,it is covered

sharp, spiny leaves.

Sweet

clover

and

June

but they
thorough tillage,

grass

bother

are

in

easilycontrolled by
haphazard farming,

The

182

Principlesof Agronomy

increasingthe labor and unpleasantness of harvest.


jury
Careful seed selection and proper
tillagewill lessen in-

often

from
192.

chess.

Quality in wheat

has to absorb

consists of the

largequantitiesof
This

largerleaves.
substance

is because

water

of the

abilityits flour
thereby producing
of a nitrogenous
presence

called

gluten which, when wet, becomes


sticky. Generally, the more
gluten present and the
more
nearly it consists of 65 per cent gliadinand 35 per
from a flour.
cent glutenin,the lighteris the bread made
of itself cause
Manifestly, however, stickiness cannot
bread to rise. Hard wheats produce angular flour particles
does
soft wheat.
rather than
spherical or flat ones
as
The
edges permit the sticky gluten to take hold of the
flour grains and
hold them
to
more
firmly together.
When
the yeast added to the dough
works," it produces
carbon dioxide.
Any substance in changing from a solid
dioxide is liberated
a
or
a liquidto
gas expands. As carbon
it needs more
hence, it pushes the dough
room;
Thus
bread
aside,making it porous.
rises,"that is,the
loaf increases in size but not in weight. The size and the
lightnessof the loaf depend largelyon the qualityof the
wheat furnishingthe flour.
Considerable skill is requiredto pick out the best wheat
number
of samples. A
from
a
clear, semi-transparent
color and a horny, brittle interior indicate high
amber
percentage of protein. High nitrogen content
gives any.
cereal a greater food value, and it gives wheat
flour more
desirable bread-making qualities. Shrunken
kernels contain
much
protein,but the gluten is poor.
Maturity,
then, is also an essential characteristic of best quality
in wheat.
in
High nitrogen and low moisture content
soil tends to produce wheat that is rich in nitrogen.
a
"

"

Millers and

bakers

know

that

some

varieties of wheat

Wheat

much

are

Hard

valuable

more

183

than

others

for flour-making.

varieties often

bring increased priceson the market.


The
most
important factor in determining quality in
wheat
is climate.
Regions having cold winters followed
wheat
which cause
by hot, dry summers
to ripen rapidly
hard grain. Excessive rainfall as well as mildness
grow
wheat to soften,thereby lowering its gluten concauses
tent.
hard-wheat
district
to
Starchy grain taken
a
hardens in a few years, just as hard ones
moved
to soft
districts gradually lose their horny texture.
panying
Accomchanges in chemical composition likewise result.
193. Uses
and
value.
The principaluse
of wheat is
for human
Flour,
consumption in the form of bread.
sale
carefullygraded in the large mills, is handled by whole"

dealers who

distribute

it to homes

or

bakeries.

Bread

is the chief diet of all highly civilized nations.


Besides
into

being

used

bread-making, flour is made


pies,cakes, crackers, doughnuts, pancakes, and

number

of other
foods

are

flour

saved

at

was

bran, shorts, and


turned

foods.

common

breakfast

made

Now

these

Even

cereal

carried the
that

into the stream

comprise
are

Formerly, only

waste-spout

and shorts

Bran

of stock-feeds.

wheat.

by-products

the water-wheel.

valuable

In addition,many

from

the mill.

other

part of the output.


wheat

for

valuable
the most

among

the dust brushed

kernels before grinding is collected and

from

mixed

the
with

the bran.

Cracked,
swine, than

or

broken

whole

wheat

wheat, which

is better, especiallyfor
in

some

cases

escapes

digest. The price of wheat,


of cheaper grains,
however, generally compels the use
and
such as
barley. The dependence on wheat
corn
for such a variety of food products gives it a value
Nearly twice as much
higher than dollars and cents.
mastication

and

does

not

The

184

for dietetic purposes,

is ground

wheat

Principlesof Agronomy
as

of all other

grainscombined.
In cash value
rice which

alone feeds

is second

half of the inhabitants

over

to

of the

is the largestcrop, with

corn

oats, and

billion bushels, while

four

produce about

each

wheat

yield,it

in total

the world, however, corn,

For

second.

as

States

In the United

earth.
wheat

well

as

rice totals five billion.


Potatoes,

other

root

and

crops,

for a given
of persons
standard
them
at a lower

number

fruits all feed

area

than

greater

tain
wheat, but main-

the
living. Wherever
it is in Germany,
of living is increasing,as
standard
Russia, and parts of India, the use of wheat is spreading.
The
Dondlinger says :
great intrinsic food value of
of cultivation and preparation for use;
wheat; its ease
its wide
adaptation to different climates and soils; its
quick and bountiful return; and the fact of its being
and variety
paniferousand yieldingsuch a vast number
of products are all factors that enhance
the value of the
wheat grain. Its combined
qualitativeand quantitative
importance gives to wheat a great superiorityover
any
other cereal,and causes
it to be dealt in more
extensively
the speculativemarkets than any other agricultural
upon
product. As an essential part of the food of civilized
it assumes
nating."
man
an
importance so vital as to be domi"

easiest way
to
store
wheat,
other grain for that matter, is to put it in sacks

194.
any

it

Storage.
from

comes

The

ground.
until he
it

of

or

from

The

the

thresher, and

owner

uses

to

it

permanently in
the weather.
1

Book

pile them

this method

do something else with

can

store

"

as

on

or
as

the

makeshift

the grain : either sell

place where

Sometimes
of Wheat, p. 8.

it will be tected
prothe sacks are
left

Principlesof Agronomy

The

186

blocks long by

feet

hundred

several

stops in the neighboring towns

Elevators.

Lakes,

Great

elevators

used, and

entirelyby machinery. It
thresher
into dump
wagons.

are

its way

not

.into

platforms. Trap-doors

distribute it to bins from


chutes

into cars,

by hand.

boats,

Terminal

sometimes

wide

over

grain
directly from
loose

The
it to

carriers elevate

the

which

it

mills.

runs

Not

it pours

grainand

like water
once

grain

elevator

the

which

down

is it moved

occasionally
affairs,
million bushels of grain. Scattered

elevators

holdingthree
far and

or

the loose

pours

carry

common.

chutes, down

open

cellars. Endless

vast

men

which

cars

more

handle

almost

into

really

are

region of the

becoming

are

sacks

finds

which

Particularly in the

"

Here

the

thousand

one

elevators.

miniature
195.

local export

our

be ground into flour.

to

bushels, storehouses

fiftythousand

to

of which

some

large bins holding from

have

mills

These

part of

Stillanother

acres.

ment,
ship-

it waits

high, where

else being stored in warehouses,

or
cover

the

tributary

to

are

country
the

immense

are

large

smaller
concerns

structures

and

times
some-

independent. One of the great elevators used in


in Fig. 55.
the handling of the grain crop is shown
Any grain containing excessive moisture molds and
merly,
Forof its value.
ferments in storage thus losing much
considerable amount
of grainwas
lost in this way
a
in the close holds of shipsthat carried it from the United
Grain must
be well-dried before being
States to Europe.
stored anywhere. In arid regions,it is so dry at harvest
time that it can be stored at once
without danger. Indeed,
it gains in weight by the absorption of moisture, eliminating
shrinkage. Wheat
shipped from California gains
the
to pay
enough in weight before it reaches London
cost of hauling.

Wheat

Wheat

is often

bought and
storage charges

price. Small

in elevators,about

days

and

the

Fig.

greatest

55.

grain,however,
planted.
farmer

know

to

bushel

for each

elevators

is contracted

Marketing.

196.

made

are

for rented

expenses,

at

but

space

for the first thirty

additional thirty days.

"

It

whether

is
to

help

to handle

in the

the world's

springbefore

difficult for
sell at harvest

the
or

following winter. Often he needs the money


dispose of part or all of the grain at once.
entire crop

rise in

store

Large terminal

"

await

stored to

ally
grain independently; occasionelevator.
an
By far
cooperate and run
number
sell at
threshing time. Much

farmers

number

cents

half cent

Sometimes

two

187

"

the

same

time

he loses any

saves

him

grain

crop.

it is even

ordinary
during the
and

To

labor and

must

sell the

storage

advantage from subsequent rise

The

188

in

price.

This

indeed, there

rise sometimes

"

be

may

does not

drop instead of

studies

farmer
store

Principlesof Agronomy

the

is the question he must

a
"

markets.
answer

the expense ;
rise. The intelligent

pay

Will

it pay
to
in consideration

of the time to sell.

buy from growers and sell


to shippers. Large companies also keep agents in the
for grain with the individual farmers.
field who contract
of the grain is handled
In well-developeddistricts most
A few cooperativefarmers' companies ship
in this way.
their own
successful,these net large
products. When
risk
returns, but the undertaking is attended with much
Local

as

mills

and

merchants

business venture.

great

avenue

for advance

in marketing is

In the

of

systematicgrading.
is graded as follows :
Winter

White

Long Red
Red
Hard

Wheat, Nos.

more

Chicago wheat

Wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and

Winter

Winter

graintrade

1 and

4.

2.

Wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Winter

Wheat,

Nos.

1, 2, 3, and 4.

Colorado

Wheat, Nos. 1, 2, and 3.

Northern

Spring Wheat,

Nos.

1 and

2.

Spring Wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4.


White Spring Wheat, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and

4.

The

grades are based on soundness, cleanliness,weight,


color,and uniformity,No. 1 being best. Poor wheat is
called
no
grade." These grades have become so nearly
spector
standard that a buyer accepts a certificate from the inwithout looking at the grain or seeing a sample
"

of it.

according to grade. In
The grain
sections,little reliable grading is done.
some
buyer, making a shrewd estimate of the grade, knows
197.

Prices

vary

few

cents

Wheat
what

he

189

get for it,while the farmer

sellingsimply
take the priceof grade No. 3, though his
wheat," must
No. 1.
grain may be No. 2 or even
Generally,the agent
will pay
less than he should.
tion
Therefore, a standardizaof wheat
and other grain would
for
save
money
can

"

growers.

To

assist in handling the


maintained

are

cities. The
and

grain, enormous

exchanges

in other
Chicago and smaller ones
in which
buyers
Exchange is a large room
at

sellers meet

to

business.

transact

Much

of

the

time, confusion prevents ordinary conversation, hence a


finger sign-languageis used. Only large quantitiesof
wheat (about 5000 bushels) are considered.
Speculators,
who have entered these exchanges, buy simply to sell for
gain not to assist in the legitimategrain handling. They
"

buy
go

certificates and

up

hold

them, expectingpricesto

up.

buys a million bushels and holds it for a time,


he is making a
bull
speculation.On the other hand,
owning no grainat all,he may sellwheat at a givenprice,
agreeing to deliver at a future date. He expects the price
at
he can
to fall when
purchase wheat to fillhis contract
Such
lower pricethan he receives from his customer.
a
When
futures."
sales are known
a
man
plunges in
as
bear
this way
he is a
speculator.
If

man

"

"

"

"

"

READING

SUPPLEMENTARY
The

Wheat, P. T. Dondlinger.
Growing in Canada, the United States,and Argentina,W.
of

Book

Wheat

Rutter.

Story of

Grain

of

Wheat, W.

C.

Edgar.

Cereals in America, T. F. Hunt, pp. 26-136.


Field Crops, Wilson and Warburton, pp. 135-174.
Field

Crop Production, G. Livingston,pp.

99-144.

P.

The

190

Fields

Wheat
of

Story

and

Loaf

and

Wheat
No.

of

S.
No.

World,

the

RoUin

E.

Smith.

Wood.

B.

Harry

Investigations,

Bui.

Minnesota

Snyder,

of

J.

Crops,

Farmers'

132.

Insect

219.

Lessons

250.

The

J.

Practice,

Irrigation

A.

Vol.

Agriculture,

II,

660-670.

pp.

Eyck.

Ten

Field
D.

T.

Bread,

American

W.

Principles

U.

of

of

Agronomy

of

85.

M.

Southern

Markets

Flour

Cyclopedia
Wheat,

Principles

F.

Duggar,

Bulletins

Widtsoe,
pp.

pp.

240-253.

32-67.

Enemies

of

from

A.

the

Grain
of

Prevention

Wheat.

Growing

Wheat

of

Epidemic

Rust

Smut

and

1904.

Loose

Smut

of

Oats.
267.

Buckwheat.

507.

The

534.

Durum

596.

The

Smuts

Wheat,

Oats,

and

Barley,

Com.

Wheat.
Culture
the

616.

of

Winter

United
Wheat

of

Winter

Wheat

in

the

Eastern

Half

of

States.
Varieties

for

the

Eastern

United

States.
.

CHAPTER

CORN

"

the

Smith

of

from
to

pioneers

them.

culture

corn

family, but
to

close

the

other

relatives

199.

plant

to

like that

below

inch

generally

all the

occupy

inches

and
at

plant

grown

then

once,

is young

the
in

soil,

Maize

So

turn

thus
the

these

to

tance
impor-

vast

57.

the

as

of

the

to
common

grasses

it has

know,

we

grass

no

to-day.

of wheat,
surface

of

hills, the

sent

but

leaving little

191

for

Other

corn

young

larger part

of

from

about

node

ground.

fibrous

outward

grow

the

the

by

out

develops

downward.

roots

and

to

far

Powhatan

field conditions

belongs

remain,

grow

such

American

first roots

growth

start

strange

of

John
settlers

the

seemed

closely related

The

saved

plant

the

grow

Captain

have

in Figs. 56
"

to

Chief

the

cereals.

"

fish.

natives
Indians

Indian

in existence

Roots.

root-system,
an

of

shown

is not

how

field

to

the

the

America

Relationships.

198.

Mexico.

settlement

Some
are

New

with

forcing

in

find

found

Plymouth

at

It must

corn.

to

to

or

by

applied

name

for

Europe

visitors

and

hill

each

Jamestown

starvation

sell him

European

settlers

English

the

the

was

Mexico,

in

term

common

"

Peru,

fertilizing

crop,

corn

Early

it in

growing
taught

was

Indian

maize.

or

corn,

{Zea Mays)

"

corn

all grains,

MAIZE

OR

"

Because

XVII

roots,

As

in

eighteen
roots

unused

rapidly,

soil.
never,

the

is

corn

order

to

twenty

or

reach
While

ward
downthe

however,

Principlesof Agronomy

The

192

Fig.

Fig.

57.

"

56.

Corn

Good

"

on

an

corn

culture.

irrigated farm, Utah.

The

194

Principlesof Agronomy

are
transpiredto maintain growth.
quantitiesof water
Wilting often takes place, but the rollingof the leaves
cally.
and turgidityis restored automatireduces loss of water

Kernels

Each

"

develops

ear

in the

axil of

in the groove,
part way
up the plant.
develop from the ovary part of the flower on the

leaf from

cob.

flower.

The

202.

Each

bud

is fertilized by

pollen borne

the

on

the exposed end of the silk which

This alightson

with the ovary.


The wind blows

tassels.
connects

pollenabout so freelythat much


is lost. To insure itself againstthis loss each plant produces
from 9000 to 45,000 pollen grains for each silk,
lion
about
2000
ovules and from eighteen to seventy milor
grains of pollen. Many of the silks are fertilized
by pollen from another plant. In fact, the plant seems
to invite cross-fertilization by ripening and
lettingits
pollen go before the silk of the same
plant is ready to
the

receive it.
203.

The

ear.

lets,each of which
of

rows

is even.

Since the cob is several united

"

bears two
An

ear

spike-

of kernels,the number

rows

having an odd number

is a great

at the butt than


rows
curiosity.Often an ear has more
but these rows
at the tip,
drop out two at a time. Because
the tipof the ear fillslast,this part of the cob is frequently
bare and the kernels are nearly always smaller and more
At the
nearly round here than in the middle of the ear.
butt they are
larger but irregularlyshaped. Fig. 58
shows good and uniform ears of corn.

All kernels
loosens when

are

covered

with

the grain is soaked

membranous
in

warm

hull that
water.

The

embryo is near the cob on the side toward the tip of the
The
remaining part, about seven-eighths of the
ear.
if hard, starchyif white.
corneous
whole, is endosperm
"

Corn

The
white

and

is more

valuable

at

between

nitrogen than the

more

for feed.

of structure

grain on
the tip of another, and

as

195

selves
occasionallymanifest themthe tassel,as divided cobs, as one
ear

Abnormahties
borne

Maize

contains

endosperm

corneous

or

tassels borne

as

on

or

cobs.

204.

Types.

Indians

The

"

used.

now

that Europeans firstfound

in America

growing

better kinds

corn

Fig.

58.

much

was

inferior to

Although there is but

"

Good

ears

of dent

one

the
the

species.

corn.

is experiencedin
widely that littledifficulty
changing a variety or in improving it. It is only about
sixtyyears since corn improvement was begun ; yet within
made
of the advance
most
this short period has come
Widely different
since white people first grew the crop.
and varying conditions of growth have given
of corn
uses

this varies

so

rise to six very distinct groups of varieties better known


as
types. These are : (1) dent, (2) flint,(3) sweet, (4)
pop,

(5) soft, and


Dent

205.

over

because

the

com

(6) pod.
is by far the most

four-fifthsof the total


corneous

the soft,starchy

corn

cluded
important, as it incrop.

endosperm, which

endosperm

at the

crown

It isso called

incloses
partially
without

cover-

The

196

Principlesof Agronomy

ing it, allows the kernel


The

be very

dent may

to

shallow

roughness to the
hard for animals

shrink
or

so

or

deep

in
to

as

kernels

The

ear.

dent

ripening.
siderable
give connot

are

too

chew.

to

eightinches in circimiference
and eightto ten inches in length,with deep,wedge-shaped
kernels extending well over
both tip and butt.
cal
Cylindriwith small butts and no bare cob at the tip are
ears
most
desirable,because the shellingpercentage is high.
of the hard,
account
is so called on
206. Flint com
of which are round and smooth.
glossykernels,the crowns
The dent fails to develop because hard endosperm covers
inclosing
the crown
as well as the sides of the kernel,entirely
the starchypart. The kernels are more
nearly round,
shallow than dent kernels. Less corn
wider, and more
in proportionto cob grows
the flint ear.
Flint corn
on
differsfrom dent in having a longer,slimmer ear, a larger
shank- which
increases the difficultyof husking, and
Desirable

fewer

six to

of kernels.

rows

Dent

are

ears

varieties usually requirea

longertime to mature
than flint,but this is not always the case.
Although
next to dent in importance, flint corn
produces somewhat
less than
207.

one-twelfth

Sweet

com

of the total crop.


has sugar
instead of starch

in the

shrinks evenly while


endosperm. The
glucose sugar
ripening,
givingthe kernels a distinctlywrinkled appearance.
In shape, the ears
resemble
dent.
Its ripening
Sweet corn
does not represent more
period is medium.
than 2 or 3 per cent of the total crop, most
of this being
used in the canning industry,and for table use.
like flint or sharp on
208. Pop com
is either smooth
the top of the kernels,which
cannot

chew

them

are

so

very

hard that animals

easily. This, the dwarfishness

plant,and the small size of

the ears,

which

are

of the

generally

Corn

inch

an

thick

being used

four to

and

Maize

or

197

six inches

stock-feed.

long, prevent its


yieldsless than 1

Pop corn
of the corn
cent
per
produced in this country. It is
largelyconsumed
as
popped corn." Popping consists
of a rapid heatingwhich causes
the kernel to explodeand
inside out.
turn
bears several
The
plant suckers freely,
early.
ears, and matures
as

"

209.

Soft

both
at all.

to

as

Pod

readilyground, it was

it is

received this

com
a

husk.

The

feeding,but neither this

ears

are

to

short and
extent

some

soft maize

nor

are

the

kernel

plants

for cattle
grown

on

scale.

Varieties.

211.

by the

each

because

name

flint. It is used

than

commercial

grown

for food.

is inclosed in
smaller

white flintin ance


appearplant,but has no hard endosperm
resembles

com

and

ear

Because

Incas of Peru
210.

flour

or

varieties of corn,
be changed and

nearly three hundred


but as already mentioned, these may
improved so easilythat, in many
cases,
"

There

are

variety has several sub-varieties called strains.


in different
Many varieties are known by different names
localities,
causing a hopeless tangle out of which little
cleared.
be
Leaming, Reid's Yellow
Improved
can
County White, Silver King, Silver Mine,
Dent, Boone
Gold
Mine, King Philip, Longfellow, Legal Tender,

the

same

No.

Wisconsin
standard
212.

No.

7, and Minnesota

13

are

wide-spread,

varieties.
Distribution.

total

The

"

production of

corn

3,585,418,600 bushels yearly.


Austria-Hungary, Argentina, Russia, Egypt, Australia,
from

and

1905

Mexico

to

1909

in the order

the LTnited States grew

about
of the

was

named

76 per cent

two-thirds of its crop,

world, in eight

or

states:

produced corn, though


of the whole, producing

one-half the total output

namely, (1) Illinois,


(2)

TJw

198

Principlesof Agronomy

sas,
Iowa, (3) Missouri, (4) Nebraska, (5) Indiana, (6) Kan-

(7) Ohio, and

(8) Texas.

These

eightstates

have

an

in square miles equal to 22 per cent of the area


of
the United States,and to one-third of 1 per cent of the
One-half of all the corn
of the world.
total land area
on
area

would

three-hundredth
produced on one
if this particular
section were
not
part of the earth's area
especially
adapted to corn production.
in
four
213. Factors
production. The
important
factors that determine
the successful production of corn
:
(1) market conditions,(2) lengthof growing-season,
are
and (4) soil.
(3) rainfall,
If the crop, its manufactured
products, or the meat
produced by feedingit,did not sell to advantage, the crop
could not be grown
though the climate and soil were
favorable to its production. The
belt of
ever
so
corn
the United States has shipping facilitiesthrough a network
of railroads and waterways ; Chicago and St. Louis,
markets
the great meat
of the world, are at hand ; vast
factories in which starch,glucose,
oil,and sirupare made
have grown
of
to conceive
up in the region. It is hard
favorable marketing conditions than here exist.
more
214.
is extremely sensitive to
Adaptation. Corn
frost
much
that the length of its growing-season
so
so
is measured
by the last spring frost and the first one of
frost in the fall injuresthe plant to
autumn.
One slight
of warm
such an extent that, although a month
weather
follows the freeze,this first drop of the thermometer,
even
though of only a few hours' duration,ends its growing-season
An even
temperature free from cold nights is
is
desirable,but absence of frost for nearly five months
absolutelyessential. In the corn belt there are no late
springfrosts and no early fallfrosts.
The water
requirement in proportion to dry matter
earth

not

be

"

"

"

Corn

Maize

or

199

than for other grains. This


produced is less for corn
does not indicate,however, that corn
needs less water
than the small-grains.It grows very rapidlyafter tasseling begins. In one case it was found that 1300 pounds
of dry matter
to the acre
was
produced in a singleweek.
Thus great quantitiesof moisture are needed in the growing-season.
that the yield of
Experience has shown
is almost directly
corn
proportionalto the moisture supply
during a few criticalweeks.
Corn responds very readilyto the presence
of organic
in the soil. Soils that

matter

in

organic matter

are

loose,black, and

in the

common

is grown
the heavier
on
loessial soils,which
are

are

soils,but

belt.

corn

is at

The

its best

on

rich
crop

the

easilykept loose and friable.


The physicalcondition of the soil is important,since good
tilth allows soil moisture to move
freelyto the roots.
The average
acre-yieldfor the United States from 1900
1910

bushels ; for Connecticut, 39.9 bushels ;


Massachusetts, 38.3 bushels ; Maine, 37.3 bushels ; Ohio,
to

was

36.9

bushels

crop

and

24

Pennsylvania, 36.8 bushels. In the


of culture
South, the yieldswere
less,but the methods
also infinitely
were
Systematic handling of the
poorer.
crop, it is estimated,should in the North give a 100-bushel
226

and

in the South

bushels

grown

by

even

bumper crop of
boy is worthy of

The

more.

Tennessee

attention.
215.

Preparation
rather

seems

winter

moisture

of the

seed-bed.

advantageous to
to

sink into the

corn

"

Deep
because

soil,and

ing
fall-plowit enables

allows

frost

organic
abundant
matter
cations
applicause
growth in corn, moderate
of farm manure
Corn is a good crop
usuallypay.
other sod-producers. Whether
or
to follow clover,alfalfa,
plowing is done in spring or fall,the plow should cover
to mellow

the seed-bed.

of
Since largequantities

The

200

Principlesof Agronomy

vegetablematerial to insure decay. In the spring


should fine the seed-bed
the disk or spike-toothharrow
until a loose,friable surface is ready to receive the seed.
all the

216.

Seed

and

planting.
"

After the farmer

has decided

variety he wishes to grow, he should choose


Seed should be selected
seed adapted to the climate.

upon

the

grain is cut in ordter to identify


early-maturingplants.
high-producing,
Because
both frost and moisture injurethe germinating
of corn, seed requiresa warm,
dry, well-ventilated
power
in
is to hang the ears
place for storage. A good way
Kernels
strings,in such a way that they do not touch.
though
from butt, tip, and middle of ear have equal value, alinterfere with
irregularbutt and tip kernels may
distribution
ment
treatno
even
by planters. In most
cases,
before planting is needed.
On
do the planting, but
some
large farms, machines
small farms, seedingis done with hand planters.
most
on
be no
to
advantage in planting
Although there seems
deeper than one or two inches in humid sections,farmers
of the West
consider three to six inches none
too deep
because
the dry
to plant below
they find it necessary
surface soil. In heavy soils,planting should not be so
deep as in light,
sandy ones.
Thickness of planting varies from more
than a kernel for
in the field before

the

each square foot to one for each fifteen or twenty square


Mediimi
thick planting,a kernel for each three or

feet.
four

feet,usually gives the most grain. Seed is nearly


and generallyin hills. A common
always planted in rows
practiceis to plant three or four kernels in hills two to
square

five feet apart, with three


About a peck of shelled corn

but, for fodder

or

to
sows

five feet between


an

acre

rows.

for grainproduction,

able.
silage,thicker planting is desir-

as

as

soon

the land will permit.

be needed
better
than

to

than

Some

hand-hoeing may

Shallow is
keep down weeds in the rows.
deep cultivation,and frequent better
very

occasional.

It is
a

Principlesof Agronomy

The

202

usually unnecessary

good start,

in

but

case

the seed, it is advisable to

INCREASE
INCHES

IN

OF

GRAIN

OF

y|"LO

irrigatecorn
the soil is too dry
to

apply the
AND

STOVER
APPLIEDTO

WATER

IRRIGATION

until it has
to

germinate

before

water

BY

PRODUCED
DIFFERENT

40

planting
ACRE

AREAS.

I
\

Fig.

60.

Results

of irrigation

on

corn.

cated
will be indiirrigation
by a dark color and by the wiltingof the leaves.
The
and
will
distribution of irrigation
water
amount
greatly with conditions,but it is rarely necessary
vary
than thirty inches during a season.
It is
to use
more
to apply water
convenient
usually more
by the furrow
method.
The charts (Figs.59 and 60) show the results
to be secured from judiciousirrigation.

rather

than

after.

"

The

time

for

Corn

218.

from

the
the

Maize

203

good time to begin to harvest


grain is just hard enough to resist pressure

Harvesting.

is when

corn

or

"

thumb

nail.

About

this time

the

husk

whitish, but the fodder remains green if frost has


not
nipped the leaves. Nothing is gained by allowing
maize to go unharvested
after it is ready, and since,in
sections,frosts are likelyto do considerable injury
many
turns

to the

accompanies late harvesting.


turn
hogs and occasionallycattle into
growers
it on foot. Rape or cowpeas
to harvest
sowed

fodder, much

Some
the

corn

between

the

risk

add

rows

much

to

its pasture value.

The

"

"

the
practiceof
hogging-off is increasing. Sometimes
ears
are
pulled by hand or machinery and the stover
be strippedoff and
pastured. Again the leaves may

saved,

the

or

top of the

stalks and

leaves

of cutting
perhaps, is the method
satisfactory,
stalks at the ground and stacking them in shocks
field or in the yard to be husked later.
There
bind

and

knives
done

are

several kinds

shock

and

and

corn.

short-handled

by hand,

buskers

the

in

spiteof

shredders.

of corn-cutters,

Much

maize

hoes.

Husking

the fact that


The

great

Most

cut.

off the
in the

of which

some

is cut

with

long
is commonly

there
expense

are

machine
and

the

mechanisms
have
retarded
complicated, easily-injured
the universal adoption of corn-harvestingmachinery.
into silageis allowed
Corn to be made
219. Silage.
to stand in the field until the grain is in the roasting-ear
stage, when it is cut, usually with a binder, and hauled on
low wagon
to the silo. Here it is cut into piecesa half
a
into the silo. It
inch long, or thereabouts, and blown
and
itself for
settles into an
air-tightmass
preserves
feed in winter when
dairy stock have no pasture,
green
when
in the hot, dry summer
succulent feed is
or
"

scarce.

The

204

220.

in

Enemies.

Principlesof Agronomy
Weeds

"

corn-growing,but as
largelycontrolled by

be

the

cause

trouble.

corn-grower

of the Great

Besides

be

enemies

picked off

the

smut

troublesome

most

are

the

corn

ear-worm

are

The
the crop.
smut
masses
before they burst and
burned

to

lives

smut

it is useless to treat

rotation

This

and

smut

As

spores.

manure,

and

and

weed,
perennial bind-

Plains.

weeds, maize

the worst

pigweeds

common

The

milkweed, and ground cherry


west

difficulty

most

already pointed out, they may


weed,
tillage. Cocklebur, bindproper

thistle,milkweed, and

Russian
all

the

cause

of crops

are

is likewise true

the seed.

in

spread
soil

cultivation

the effective methods

of control.

corn

billbugs,the

ear-worm,

chinch-bugs,which do
is grown
damage, especiallywhere corn

after

year

the

on

otherwise

are

the

are

best

and

land,

same

methods

of control.

used

advantageously. A
bug is given in Chapter XVI.
are

221.
crop

Uses

enters

shelled.

and

and

well with

while

corn

horsemen

human

furnishes energy
balanced food.

breakfast
foods.

husks, and

also

alfalfa,which

Green, dried, and


cereal

About

"

canned

foods,
Corn

beef

fat.

corn,

remedies

without

of it

Corn

of

the

no

as

equal.

feed.

It

bone

builder,

alone

is not,

hominy,
and

chinch-

first being

it has

is a flesh and

and

year

farming

nine-tenths

much

use

clean

for the

treatment

fattening hogs and

mixes

however,

value.

siderable
con-

culture methods

Sometimes

the food ration of animals

For

Dairymen

where

or

Fall-plowing and

poor.

or

Clean

of the

root-louse, rootworms,

winter

over

should

corn

meal,

sirup are
oil, starch, distiller's grain, cobs,
popcorn,

corn

pith find various uses, while the stalks and


used for roughage.
leaves are
The
value in dollars of corn
produced in the United

Corn

States exceeds that of any


or

other

any

wheat

Maize

or

205

in this country

other

singlecrop
country, although the

one

world

and

in value

rice surpass
the world crop of corn
because littlemaize is grown
in the Old World.
The

great number

givesit a

to

it grew

Fig.

the stumps.
and

needed

61.

its selling
price. It

almost

"

can

corn

be

put

particularly
pioneers of the MississippiValley

the
on

which

to

uses

value aside from

useful
because

of

of

crop

good

It furnished

unbroken

type

both

It and

littlecare.

of farm

land,

even

among

grain bin.

animal
meat

was

and

human

food

the chief foods

were

early colonists in Jamesto-vVn and Plymouth; it


accompanied the pioneersuntil they reached the dry plains
wheat
east of the Rockies, where
displacedit.
of the

222.

Storage

percentage
molds
of the

and

marketing.

of moisture

in

"

kernels

Because
and

of the

cob, the

high
grain

easilyin poorly ventilated places; hence the value


slatted cribs. After being shelled the germination

The

206

is

power

injuredby freezing,though
On

hurt.

not

are

is to shock

fodder

is marketed

animals

that

to

The

struction
con-

markets

greater precautions
For

big markets

taken

there

classes

of three

"

much

are

as

It does

cereals,but

is wheat

except that

grades Nos.

1, 2, 3, and

white, mixed, and yellow.

READING

and

The

Com

Crossley.
Crops,Montgomery.

The

Book

of

Corn, Myrick et al.


Maize, Joseph Burtt-Davy.
Cereals in America, T. F. Hunt, pp. 138-279.
Southern
Field Crops, J. F. Duggar, pp. 78-216.
Manual

of Corn

Judging,A.

D.

Shamel.

Field

Crops, Wilson and Warburton, pp. 47-135.


Field Crop Production, G. Livingston,
pp. 29-98.
of Irrigation
Practice,J. A. Widtsoe,
Principles
Vol. II, pp.
Cyclopedia of American
Agriculture,
U. S. D.

A. Yearbook

U. S. D.

A. Farmers'

pp.

255-264.

398-427.

for 1906, pp. 279-294.


Bulletins :

Com

the South.

199.

Growing in
Corn-growing.

229.

The

Production

253.

The

Germination

292.

The

Cost of FillingSilos.

303.
400.

Corn-harvestingMachinery.
A More
Profitable Com
PlantingMethod.

414.

Com

415.

Seed

81.

Cultivation.
Corn.

not

in drying.

SUPPLEMENTARY

Corn, Bowman

to

other

largelyas

so

are

foot," that is, fed

on

fitted for market.

it does, it is handled

where

No.

handle

good type of store-house

"

mostly

being

are

into world

each

feedingqualities

farm.

Corn

enter

the

the other hand, the best way


it on
well-drained ground.

in Fig. 61 is

shown
for the

Principlesof Agronomy

of Good
of Seed

Seed

Com.

Corn.

4 in

CHAPTER

XVIII

CEREALS

OTHER

Besides
in

America

is confined

rice

and

though
for

not

grain, and,

few

are

districts

is less

in the
grown

account,

grown

important

South.

wheat,
Buck-

to

extent

some

for

important

more

that

on

commonly

Rye

cereal, is

true

Sorghums

grain.

for

to

cereals

barley.

and

oats

are

the

wheat,

and

corn

the

with

grouped

are

than

forage

millets.

(Avena

OATS

that

oats

husk

barley,

thinner

than

one

and

oats,

not

since

the

It

is not

region

of

from

the

where

spread

cattle

sections.

colonists,

the

surprising
the

When
oats

of

horses

that

had

later,

long

especially

introduced
did

best

into

in the

damp

208
.

them,
This

from

came

plains

cared
in

America
North.

the

by

is

for animal

ably
prob-

"

west-central

been

of

nothing

probably

in

Tartary

no

much

them.

Eurasian

after

has

cultivate

knew

oats

central

great

region
and

knew

not

they

long

has

grain is primarily adapted

Europe

over

did

wonder

wheat

barley

the

Romans

or

that

Egyptians

least, although

at

strange,

and

little

until

food

consider

The

oats.

is

It

"

human

we

kernels

Greeks

extensively

feed.

when

the

covering

for

used

not

were

and

wheat

relationships.

and

Origin

223.

sativa)

Asia

"

for.

They

cool,

moist

the

early

210

The

Principlesof Agronomy

holding them

far

apart.

twelve

long and

with

inches

intermediate

be nine to
panicle may
two
to eight inches wide,

The

from

measurements

most

common.

The

of which there are from forty to seventyspikelets,


five in a panicle,generallycontain two kernels, a smaller
one
being tucked snugly into the groove of a largerone.
Occasionally,a third grain develops, but this is rare.
Since

singlekernels

Each

husk,

kernel

rolled.

when

free from

of the husk

that

longerand

instead

with

of at

awn

the

end

occurs

with

as

that

of the wheat

hair.
Oats

those parts of the temperate


climate

crooked

grain is proportionatelymuch

oat

"

hull-less shell

as

identical with

the

Distribution.

225.

away

In other respects, the structure

rye.

covered

comparatively thick
from the interior grain

threshing. A

of the grain is almost


save

grain

varieties known
on

wheat, barley,and
kernel

with

breaks

Some

the husk

the back

on

is covered

hull,which

or

the

uncommon,

variant in siz6 of kernel.

somewhat

appears

rather

are

naturally adapted to
that have a cool,moist

are
zone

is
growing-season. The
crop
the moisture
not sensitive to kind of soil except as it regulates
favor
supply. Heavy soils rich in organic matter
distribution of moisture in the soil,and, therefore,
even
best. Sandy soil demands
are
frequent applicationsof
moisture for high yields.
countries

The

are

and

the

throughout

the

the favorable

that have

best

producers. A
of

temperature

Canada,

central Russia, Germany,


Great

Britain reveals the

Parts

of Scotland

and

northern

the Scandinavian

enable

them

as

United

for their vast

reasons

ideal conditions, but


count

study of the rainfall


States,

Austria-Hungary,France,

almost

to

climatic conditions

these

world

areas

and

oat

crop.

countries

have

are

producers.

too

For

small to
the five

Other

follows

as

United

211

the nations

ending with 1910,

years

Cereals

produced annually

States

932,000,000 bushels

European Russia

865,000,000 bushels

Germany

583,000,000 bushels

France

299,000,000 bushels

Canada

295,000,000 bushels

There

vast

are

fields of oarts in Manchuria

and

gentina
Ar-

total crops are unreported. The total for


is over
four billions of bushels, nearly the same

whose

the world

for wheat

as

exceed

oats

The

and

areas

States, but the northern


and

Oregon

leadingstates
(8) New
the

in the West

which

have favorable

are

ington
Wash-

to

favorably. The

most

have

district is not

York

New

United

the

over

consin,
(3) Wis(1) Iowa, (2) Illinois,
diana,
(5) Nebraska, (6) Ohio, (7) In-

are

York, and

Washington

from

situated

are

in order

spread

are

states

(4) Minnesota,

but

grains, however,

in total weight.

oat-producing

and

other

These

corn.

(9) Michigan.

perhaps the
large. Many

small

and

most

Western

gon
Ore-

ideal climates,

mountain

valleys

generallyisolated

also

conditions.

acre-yieldin the United States has been


slightlyless than thirty bushels, while in Germany and
Great Britain it is much
higher,being in the neighborhood
The

average

of forty to

forty-fivebushels.

(1902-1911) are
acre-yields

as

By

states, the

leading

follows:

Washington

47.6 bushels

Montana

43.0 bushels
.

Idaho

41.7 bushels

Utah

41.5 bushels

The

212

The

than

226.

good

farmer

Varieties.

Oats

"

may

bushels.

hundred

one

thirtyexpect from sixty to


less than

all average

great producing states

four bushels.
more

Principlesof Agronomy

classified into

are

groups

cording
ac-

planting,color,
and size and
are
spring and winter
winter
varieties principallyin
The
South
oats.
grows
order to throw
the growing-seasonin the cool part of the
short pedicels and
If the spikeletsare
borne on
year.
side oats, or
all on
side of the culm, they are
are
one
horsemane
oats ; if the head spreads,they are
ing.
spreadto

of

shape of panicle,season
shape of grain. There

"

"

These

are

the

Further

types.

oat

classifications

according to color are described as white, yellow, black,


Some
varieties are early,others
red, whitish-yellow,etc.
and
late ; some
plump, others long-hulled. Seedsmen
growers

get

introduce
new

ties
varieties every year, and old varieA hopeless confusion
results rendering

new

names.

clear grouping and

leadingvarieties for
Clydesdale, Swedish
227.

Seeding

the seed-bed

naming

the country

and

for oats

Select,and

oats

may

be

American

cultivation.

The

"

Banner.

preparation of

is similar to that for wheat.

depth of planting varies from


soil. As
under the dry mulched
worked

are

impossible. A few
Big Four, Silvermine,

sown

to

one
soon

as

four

The

inches, just

the land

can

be

quantitiesof from five to


the yieldexpected and moisture
in

eightpecks depending on
In some
districts as little as three or
supply available.
four pecks are used ; in others as much
twelve or fourteen
as
the grain
pecks. Harrowing may
as
begin as soon
is up and continue until it would injurethe plant. From
five to thirty inches of irrigation
be applied
water
may
in parts of the West, in one
to six applications.
228. Harvesting and
Oats
are
usually
marketing.
cut with the binder, though the header finds occasional
"

Cereals

Other

213

in the

regionsof small rainfall. Only on very short


or
badly-lodged
grain should the farmer use the mower.
Shocking in the field follows in most regions. Although
use

should

oats

be cut

not

hard-dough stage,

the

stage that the bundles

through
time

is often

straw

so

reached
at

green

the
this

be piledto permit air to pass


Settingthe bundles in ricks two at
must

the shocks.

with

until after they have

the second

pair just touching the first until


ten
twelve bundles are in a rick, permits ventilation
or
and drying. Careful drying in the shock prevents mold,
which is detrimental to the quality of the grain. After
the straw
is dry, most
farmers stack the oats instead of
Well-built stacks insure the grain
threshing at once.
until the thresher can
be obtained.
It
against storms
is asserted by some
that stackingseems
to improve the
sweat."
qualityby causing it to
Tight bins to prevent insect injuryand to prevent odors
from stables being absorbed by the grainare essential (Fig.
farmers selldirectlyfrom the thresher
61) Although some
of the crop is stored for feedingpurafter sacking,most
poses.
a

"

The
system

to

part sold makes


and

be handled

its way
into the elevator
graded like wheat, except that

the groups
classed as white, mixed, and red.
are
Four grades in each group are made.
is standard.
229.

Uses.

The

"

important

most

feeding farm animals, such


fond
horses being especially
formation

of

pasty

The

of them.
in the

mass

of oats

use

cattle,hogs, and

as

White

is for

horses,

hull prevents

stomach

the grain is

nutritious,and easilymasticated.
palatable,
Rolled

oats,

oatmeal, is used

or

Scotch

formerly used it much.

of wit

between

who

said he

Scotchman

noticed

that

horses, but in Scotland

men

in

This
and

human

as

England
ate

rise to

gave

Dr.

them.

food.

Samuel
oats

The

were

The
clash

Johnson,
feed for
Scotchman

The

214

Principlesof Agronomy
that

sagely remarked
the best

and

best horses

the

in

grew

England

in Scotland.

men

impurities by-products
used for feed, as is the
factories
of oatmeal
are
frequentuse as bedding for animals,
straw, which has more
although,as roughage, the straw supplemented by some
hay or grain may carry stock over winter nearly as well
hulls,lightgrain,dust, and

Oat

"

"

Oats

wild hay.

as

alone, or mixed

with

make

peas,

fair

hay if cut before the graingets hard and while the leaves
and culms are
stillgreen.
Peas, of course, increase the
nitrogen in the ration.
230.

Enemies.

Wild

mustard

clean

seed, and

"

The

is bad ;

in

troublesome

ahead

mature

clean

some

Wild

fields

of the

crop

and

sulfate

iron

long sown

to

helpful

are

oats, because

shell out

oats.

rotation,

(Avena fatua) are

oats

and

all trouble

cultivation

spraying with

of eradication.

means

weeds

common

very

they

before harvest.

Crop rotation and clean seed are preventives. Since


than the cultivated grain,the fanning
wild oats are lighter
Smut
mill will partly clean the seed.
injures oats to
considerable extent
the

enter

the

same

oat

way

unless the seed is treated.

The

blooming time. Oats are


wheat, the formalin treatment

at
as

spores

treated

in

being perhaps

the best.
Rust

causes

much

loss but cannot

be remedied

directly.

be partly controlled by selection of


Indirectly it may
early or rust-resistant varieties,by using only welldrained land, and by using culture methods
to prevent

lodging.
and the army- worm
The chinch-bug,springgrain-aphis,
for the chinch-bug
Remedies
injurethe growing crop.
Clean cultivation and
have been given in Chapter XVI.
help to control the others. It is not usually
fall-plowing
profitableto spray or otherwise treat growing oats for

Cereals

Other

insects.

Grain

weevils

and

215

the Angoumois

grain moth

best controlled by storage in tightbins. If the bins


become
infested,fumigation with carbon bisulfide will
are

kill the insects.

Hydrocyanic-acidgas is also effective,


but extremely dangerous,one
full inhalation of it being

fatal to

man.

(Hordeum sativum)

BARLEY

From

the earliest dawn

of civilization,
man

has

vated
culti-

barley continuously. It has been an important


have record.
Barley
crop in all the empires of which we
tribe as wheat.
It has for its nearest
belongs to the same
relative barley-grass(Hordeum
juhatum) variously
called foxtail and squirrel-tail.
231. Description.
wheat
Barley resembles
very
closely,having a fibrous root-system of less extent and
having stools,culms, leaves,and spikes that are very
"

much

like those of wheat.


that

are

kernels

chief apparent

The

it stools less,has

shorter

straw, and

differences
that

the

husk,
usuallycovered with a lightly-adhering
the grain is crushed.
which breaks when
Barley heads
of
commonly have beards, although there are a number
lack hulls,and others
varieties that lack them;
some
lack both beards and hulls. These, however, are
not
as
yet in generaluse.
The
and, therefore,bear
spikeletsare single-flowered,
kernel.
Three
however, lie side by
spikelets,
only one
side. In one
type all three spikeletsbear grain,while
is fertile,
in another
one
giving
type only the middle
each
to one
rise to three rows
or
on
respectively,
row,
sides making six and two
side of the spike, the two
are

"

rows

hence

the

name

of these

types

two-rowed

and

six-rowed barley.
Two-rowed

barley is spring grain,while six-rowed

is

216

The

either spring

or

barley

winter.

standard

are

(3) California.

and
are

Principlesof Agronomy

and

Hanna

are

States, Tennessee
Beardless

do

varieties of

Cahfornia

Feed

and

Bay

Of the two-rowed

rdost

popular. In

The

Southern

Brewing

type Chevathe

Winter, Chevalier, Utah

well.

six-rowed

(1) Oderbrucker, (2) Manchuria,

in California.

common

her

These

Mountain

Winter,

States

and

winter

grow

varieties in the main.


Distribution

232.

and

adaptation.

"

No

other

grain

successfullysuch wide differences of


climate, elevation,land soil as barley. It is cultivated
from the equator up to the Artie circle,being grown
as
crop

withstands

crop

above

at

65"

north

latitude.

sea-level it yieldswell.

It is

hot, dry plainsof Spain and North


best

on

well-drained

Peru,

In

loam_soils

at

11,000 feet

leadingcrop on the
Africa,though it does

with

moderate

moisture.

almost
It grows
considerable
on
any soil and withstands
drouth
Since
being, therefore, a good dry-farm crop.
it is the most
well in arid
alkali-resistant cereal,it grows

regionsthat have slightlyalkaline soils. It is often grown


be made
to grow
on
virgin land until other crops can
profitably.
Russia, United
States, Germany,
Austria-Hungary,
Japan, Spain, the British Isles,and Canada in the order
named
the leading producers. California,
Minnesota,
are
80 per cent
Wisconsin, the Dakotas, and Iowa yield over
of the crop
In

of the United

States.

Idaho is first,
with an average
acre-yields,
of about 40 bushels ; Utah second,with 38.5 bushels ; and
yields are
Washington third, with 37 bushels. Good
from 50 to 100 bushels, though 125 bushels have been
harvested in some
districts undfer irrigation.
For barley as for other
233. Sowing and cultivation.
small-grains,a fine, deep seed-bed is desired. This is
average

"

The

218

Principlesof Agronomy

forty-eighthours

within
removal

of dirt and

for both

feed and

for careful

thirds of all

shocking

"

"

and

uses.

"

same

reason

into the market


There

are

rejected." In
The

"

that

as

stacking. Since
carefullyhandled.

its way
of wheat.

and

grades
barley
grades 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Enemies

careful

and

be

must

that

"

235.

The

improves the grain

seed much

barley finds

similar to

of

other.

malt.

barley is all sold,it


course

each

storage is essential for the

Careful
stated

weed

of

two

malt
Two-

by

groups

each there

are

insects that attack barley

and
chinch-bug,grain-aphis,

Hessian

dies,
fly. Remewhere pests are present, are fall-plowing,
rotation,
clean farming. Insects in the bin are controlled by

are

and

of
fumigation. Loose and closed smuts
ments,
barley are prevented by the formalin or hot water treattion
respectively.Where the rusts are present, selecof stiff
and plant-strawed,early-maturingvarieties,
ing
carbon-bisulfide

'

well-drained

on

land

not

so

rich

in organic matter

lodging,are the methods of control.


For hogs, barley is a splendidconcentrate, producing
a
good qualityof pork. For sheep,cattle,and poultry,
it is usuallycrushed and mixed with oats or bran to lighten

as

to

it.

cause

It is much

the Latin
but not

so

much

The

on

the

Pacific Coast

for horses.

In

Europe, barley is used for bread,


as
formerly. In the United States,the
removed
is used as pearl barleyin soup.

countries

kernel with husk


It forms

used

of

part of the manufactured

cereal foods.

(1) the
by-products are used in various ways:
for bedding and feed,although the beards, or awns,
straw
lower the feedingvalue; (2) hulls and broken grain for
feed products; and (3) malt sprouts and brewers' grain
(remnants from malt industry),
which are high in protein,
for feed, particularlyfor dairy cows.
In the West
and

Other

South, some
mixed
and

barleyis cut

Cereals

219

for hay.

green

Hull-less

barley
fairly
good hay,

with peas, cowpeas, or vetch makes


good pasture for hogs.

The

of barley like that of oats

value

related to

the livestock

and

corn

industry. Barley

and

is

closely

bran

are

high in proteinand mix well with corn, which is high in


carbohydrates. There may be a growing use for barley
of a number
of grainsin a mixed grain ration. An
as
one
increased number
of choppers on the farm should widen
its use.
As

biHion

world

and one-half
crop, barley yieldsonly one
bushels and ranks far below the other grains. In

the United

States

second, and

corn

barley ranks ninth,


firstin importance.

(Secalecereale)

EYE

236.

Description

and

Europe later than


the northern

over

Spain

to

wheat

than

in

times

Roman

"

and

Rye

came

into

spread rapidly

central parts of the continent from


It is more
Asia.
closely related to

any

other

crop.

Another

species occurs

Austria-Hungary and Russia.


The

as

distribution.

and

Central
to

sixth,wheat

oats

root-system

is fibrous,but

its rooting habit is not

It stools considerably,growdeep as that of wheat.


ing
longer, finer,tougher culms than other small-grain.

long spikes,the glumes of which


always bear beards. The kernels are naked, long,slim,
of sending up
and dark-colored.
Rye has the power
culms after being cut, a power
possessedonly to a
new
ties
slightextent by other cereals. There are but few varieof rye, because cross-fertilizationtakes placeso readily
It has

few

leaves and

in the field that all strains


Russia

producesmore

are

mixed.

than half and

Germany

more

than

The

220

Principlesof Agronomy

fourth

of the crop
in this order :

of the world.

Other

countries

low
fol-

Austria-Hungary, France, and the


In the United
United States.
States, (1) Pennsylvania,
(2) Wisconsin, (3) Michigan, (4) Minnesota, and
(5)
New
York produce most
of the crop.
a
as
Rye, grown
winter crop in Alaska, is more
frost-resistant than even
wheat
barley. It can grow on poorer soils than nearly
or
other crop ; it is also drouth-resistant.
Fertile soil and
237. Handling the
crop.

any

"

seed-bed

increase

drillsin fall or
farms

the

yield.

spring at the

rate

It

is usually

of five

sometimes

sown

good
with

six

pecks ; drythree pecks and

or

require only two or


as
eight pecks. It grows best with the
pasture as much
shallowest planting that will enable it to sprout. Harrowing
stooling,but irrigationdoes not pay
encourages
ordinarily,because yields are too small.
Harvesting
the same
and threshing methods
for wheat, oats,
are
as
or
barley.
Ergot, a fungous disease, is the only serious enemy.
It is poisonous to cattle in addition to injuringthe yield.
Cleaning the seed and rotating each year help to overcome
it. Insects trouble but little;there are no special
weeds.

of the
Rye bread feeds a vast number
people in Russia, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and other
Europe. It is yielding
parts of Slavonic and Teutonic
food.
As animal food, the grain
place to wheat as human
is used mostly in mixed
It is better for hogs
rations.
238.

and

Uses.

horses

"

grain also
forms part of the mixtures for malt, and the by-products
used as animal food.
When
are
green, the plant furnishes
second-class
hay, or, if plowed under, a poor
green
The
is poor
feed on
of being
straw
manure.
account
tough. Fall-plantedrye is sometimes pastured by cattle
than

for

other

animals.

The

Other

Cereals

221

valuable
sheep. In parts of Europe the straw is more
than the grain,being woven
into mats, carpets, plates,
dishes,baskets, boxes, trunks, and various trinkets and
articles of apparel. Rye cannot, at present, be an important
In Europe, it
grain crop in the United States.
ranks high ; in the United States, it is only eleventh ; as
or

world

crop,

it is smaller than wheat, corn,

rice.

oats, and

(Oryza sativa)

RICE

Rice
has
distribution.
fed
Description and
nearly half of the population of the earth for about 4000
In 1694, a trading vessel carried the first rice
years.
Carolina.
It spread slowly until the last thirty
to South
during which time it has become a valuable crop
years,
239.

"

in Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and

The

nations producing it rank

China

50 billion
.18

12 billion

high price
"

about

three

greater cash value than

any

cents

other

plant slightlyresembles oats, save


closed. The grain is covered with a

that must

be removed

before

it is used

pounds

pound

"

gives

crop.

that the

panicles
husk called paddy
for food.
Upland

types, lowland

requiringto be
while upland
flooded a large part of the growing season,
is not irrigated.
The
most
240. Uses.
important use of rice is as
the hull ; rollers
food for man.
Machinery removes
covered with sheepskin,one
going faster than the other.
and

lowland

are

"

the two

pounds

pounds
billion pounds

The
are

70 billion

The
a

follows

America.

India

Japan
All Europe

it

as

Central

The

222

Principlesof Agronomy

polishthe grain. The


Asiatics qmit the

feed.
food

polish is valuable stockpolishing,thereby saving much


has some
feeding and' weaving

flour

value.

Rice

straw

or

value.

(Triticum satimim dicoccum)

EMMER

241.
wheat

Description and
and

differs from

spikeletsretain the

of
sub-species
chieflyin that in threshingthe

use.

it

kernels

"

Emmer

During

sections of the

United

profitablygrow oats
quantities.
Rustits

winter

ing
for feed produce constantly increas-

West
emmer

It is planted,as

are

are

recommending
qualities

spring varieties are grown


and
spring in the East and South.
is the most
commonly grown variety.

winter

in the

winter

last thirty years, dry-farm


States and sections that cannot
the

drouth-resistance

Both

use.

Black

and

It is grown
Europe, and east

in the glumes.

rather extensivelyin Russia, southern


central Africa.

is a

and

"

four to twelve

oats, at the rate of from

yieldsfrom twenty to seventy bushels.


The
husk covering the grain prevents the formation
of
in the stomachs
of animals,thereby
heavy, pasty masses
aiding digestion. In this respect it is like oats.
pecks

an

acre.

BUCKWHEAT

It

{Fagopyrum esculentum)

Buckwheat
Description,distribution,and uses.
is not a true cereal,since it belongs to the dock, instead
of to the grass family. It came
from Manchuria
to New
York, and Pennsylvania, where it is still
England, New
largelyused as a catch-crop when other crops fail and it
is too late to replant them.
The plant has a tap-root ; a branched stem two or three
feet in height,each branch ending in a flat-topped
cluster
242.

"

Other

of white
of the

flowers;

The

and

but

it pays

crop

has

and

better
failed

shocked

than

and

crop

in order

land

the

as

value

for

hogs

used

for

feed

and

and

binder

wheat
Buck-

flour.
straw

It

is

it is rather

has

times
somecoarse

unpalatable.

READING

SUPPLEMENTARY

Cereals

in

America,

Field

Crops,

Field

Crop

Southern

T.

Wilson

F.

of

Hunt,

and

Crops,

pp.

280-410.

Warburton,
G.

Production,

Field

Cyclopedia

Livingston,

J. F.

American

175-268.

pp.

Duggar,

pp.

pp.

Agriculture,

145-193.

1-31, 68-77,

Vol.

II,

pp.

217-230.

202-206,

559-564.

U.

other

stems.

the

but

bedding,

planted

some

with

of pancake

poultry

and

where

succulent

source

be

hull.

yield is small

It is cut

the

dry

to

Its

on

loose

field may

mature.

those

brown,

or

gray

strong,

begin growth.

to

is famous
some

no

is dark

that

yet

like

something

rather

short

so

1, and

July

as

seed

with
is

223

leaves

The

covered

growing-season
late

as

broad

and

morning-glory.

angular,

Cereals

S. D.
No.

A.
139.

Farmers'

Bulletins

Emmer

and

Sixty-day

420.

Oats

Distribution

424.

Oats

Growing

427.

Barley

436.

Winter

443.

Barley

466.

Winter

Emmer.

518.

Winter

Barley.

Culture
Oats

for

the

Kherson

395.

Grain

Uses.

Crop.

in the
for the

Growing

Regions.

Oats.

and
the

Semi-arid

the

Southern

South.

Crop.

States.

485^94,

CHAPTER

PO

the

Of

which

labor

that

these

farmed.
machines

that

of

methods
have

is

promise

culture.
much

done

shown
243.

Field

Figs.

in

Origin.

62

valleys of Peru

and

these

about

countries

found

in

plant

made

to

In

neighborhood

they

used

it had
to

its

growth

by

that

and

it
the

the

it generally.

spread

into

gained

kind

in

of potato

time

to

the

became

soon

Indians

first

of

the

the

By
parts

larger and
224

and

gradually

was

This

useful

be

carried
in

the

1586.

pal
princi-

whites

increased

Europe

of

in
their

eighteenth

middle

of

the

first visited

Raleigh's expedition

Virginia

it until, by

on

hausting
ex-

in

wild

Colorado.

Virginia

well

of

and

potato-growing

Spaniards

Another

Meantime,

crop.

dependence

into

so

the

southern

Ireland

it did

slow

growing

was

when

1542.

and

and

Ireland

potato

Chile

its way

England

food
the

Mexico

in

modify
diggers

and

of

conditions

will

65.

to

The

"

that

farmer

of

single day,

cultivators,

the

tensivel
in-

areas

absence

in

acres

implements

relieve

hand-labor.
are

of

Planters,

to

noticeable

forty

to

attention,

small

on

hand-

on

constant

handled

is

ten

cover

there

although

There

and

methods

much

depending

be

crops

The

important.

most

and

crops," potatoes

root

fertihzers

requiring

and

"

as

produced,

are

tuberosum)

{Solanum

by far the

are

they

demand

TOES

designated

crops

sugar-beets
by

TA

XIX

the

tury,
cen-

tury,
cen-

favorable

larger footholds

on

Principlesof Agronomy

The

226

depth
various placeson this stem, new
branches,
bearing tubers
horizontally outward

length of this underground


of

planting. At
stolons,

or

end.

at the

the

grow

Meanwhile, from

upright stem

just at

depends

stem

two

to

the base

four roots

Fig.

eightinches

or

63.

"

Constant

and

have

cultivation

into the soil if it is loose and


one

six

extended

is necessary

grow

from

of tuber-bearing stolons.

By the time of maturity, the fibrous


for six

the

on

roots

have
or

five feet

potato

yields.

four

for good

well-drained.

spread

Tubers

from

thirtyin number, varying from the size of a pea to


pounds, have developed in a singlehill. About six
to

preferred.
The angular stem, from one
to five feet in length,usually
about two or two and a half feet high, stands upright or
the open
droops across
depending on the variety
space,
with
and
The
leaves are
soil conditions.
compound
small leaflets growing in the axil and scattered irregularly
or

seven

potatoes

as

largeas

the double-fist

are

Potatoes

between

the

from

to three inches

227

which
thick, pointed, oval leaf-parts,

are

long.
Buds
borne sparselyat the stem
end and
or
eyes are
close together at the bud end.
A stringpassed round
the tuber and held in position with a pin in each eye
the
shows
of eyes.
spiralarrangement
Cross-section^
of a tuber show three nearly concentric,and one
irregular
one

part.

The

starch and

outermost,
so

peeling. Then
called

the

thin
comes

internal

as

the

external

cortical,is

poor

in

be almost

in
entirelyremoved
thicker
a
layer, rich in starch,
cortical, surrounding the external
to

medullary, also rich in starch. The dark colored core,


the internal medullary, is watery and low in starch. A
that
contains
proportionately large external
potato
medullary and internal cortical is desirable on account
of high starch content, which gives the potato the quality
cooked.
Potatoes
that
of mashing readily when
are
yellow and soggy after cookingare undesirable in America,
where
they are baked or boiled, but are highlyprized by
the French, who serve
them fried.
Potatoes are usually classed as early
246. Varieties.
and late, although color, depth or arrangement
of eyes,
and roughness of skin might each give rise to a grouping.
The
in about
one
early varieties yield less,but mature
hundred
of reaching
days bringinghigher priceson account
market
early. Late potatoes comprise the biilk of
the crop wherever
large acreages are grown, except near
city markets.
Requiring about one hundred and thirty
reach the early market, but
days to ripen,they cannot
allowed to grow late in order to give the greatest posare
sible
yield.
Varieties originateeither by variation in hills planted
by sets, or from mixtures arisingfrom the seed-planted
"

which always contain several distinct kinds of tubers.


hills,

The

228

Principlesof Agronomy

Pearl, for example,

The

from

comes

Blue Victors, while the Burbank


old varieties

hill. Often
sell them.

to

be

confusion

Some

avoided, but

possible.
Bliss Triumph,
Early Rose
are

given

should

variation

bud

found

was

are

new

in

seed-sown
in order

names

in different sections

be

not
can-

nearly eliminated

as

of

as

Peachblow, Eureka, Early Ohio, and

early varieties. Rural New


No. 3, Green Mountain,
Yorker, Sir Walter Raleigh, Carman
and Burbank
States.
are
popular in the Northern
In the Mountain
States,Pearl, Idaho Rural, Rural' New
Yorker, Mortgage Lifter,Netted Gem, Carmen, Peerless,
Majestic, and Freeman, are
profitableyieldersunder
irrigation.
247.

common

Distribution

without

containingmedium

and
severe

adaptation.

frost, and

moisture

A cool,even

"

ing-season
grow-

soil

loose, warm

throughout

the

season,

are

potato-growing. Ideal
conditions in Scotland, Germany,
and Russia
produce
almost
unbelievable
bushels
yields. Eighteen hundred
the seed-farm of Lord Rosebery
to the acre
was
on
grown
also has a good climate
near
Edinburgh. Scandinavia
for potato production.
The large countries that lie in this section of Europe
all heavy producers, ranking as follows in total proare
duction
:
(1) Germany, (2) Russia, (3) Austria-Hungary,
the conditions

and

most

favorable

to

(4) France, with the United

States fifth,and

Great

Britain sixth.
Out
about

of the five billion bushels produced, Germany


one

and

seven-tenths

billions,while

the

grows

United

States

produces only one-third of a billion bushels.


The acre-yieldis 197 bushels in Germany;
186 in the
British Isles; 140 in Austria-Hungary; 134 in France;
100 in Russia

and 90 in the United

States.

Maine

leads

Potatoes

229

Principlesof Agronomy

The

230

all states,with 225 bushels.

170;
except Maine

the states

only Maine

district.
irrigated

rank

(1) New

averaging

more

In the East, four hundred

65.

while

"

total producers,

York, (2) Michigan, (3)


(6) Illinois,with

ninety-two bushels.
bushels is a good acre-yield,
than

potato-producing section,

Aroostook

County,

Maine.

to
hundred
eight
irrigateddistrict seven
bushels are
produced occasionally,and one
favorable conditions.
bushels under especially

thousand

farmers

may

bushels

hundred
248.

As

All

145.

in the

hundred

Good

Great

Idaho,

ington,
bushels; Wash-

in the
:

are

Wyoming,

(4) Wisconsin, (5) Ohio, and

Maine,

Fig.

and

Colorado, 160;
are

other leaders

Utah, 180

and

bushels; Montana

200

Some

an

Preparation

expect from

three

hundred

to

five

acre.

of land.

"

Farmers

can

well afford

preparinga good seed-bed


of farm manure
for potatoes. Heavy applications
pay,
though it is well to apply it to the previouscrop or in the
compose
be well defall precedingpotatoes in order that it may
This helps to form a fine, moist seed-bed.
the soil permitting excessive
Coarse
manure
up
opens
to

spend

extra

time

and

labor

Potatoes

231

The
drying,which is detrimental.
high water-holding
ally.
capacityof soils due to manuring increases yieldsmateribe
To serve
the organic matter
must
efficiently
thoroughlymixed with the soil. Old decomposed manure
does this very
does
sometimes
well, but fresh manure
harm
than
coarse
more
good. Moreover, too much
in limy soils aggravates
organic matter
potato scab.
fertilizers are used, potatoes respond
Where
commercial
readilyto potash.
bed
is essential in looseningthe seedDeep fall-plowing
A rough
and in holding water
for the next season.
surface left over
winter prevents any run-off and gives
clods and liberate
frost an
opportunity to disintegrate
plant-food. A disk completes the fining process long
This hastens the warming
before a plow could be used.
of the soil and reduces the enormous
evaporationof early
Another
disking,
spring by the formation of a mulch.
two
or
one
or
harrowings to keep the mulch loose, will
leave a deep, mellow, moist seed-bed ready for planting.
varieties have much
249.
Seed.
Some
higher yielding
than do others; therefore, the variety
possibilities
chosen is important. One disturbingfactor in choosing
districts cannot
use
home-grown
potato seed is that some
all the
seed.
The North
ships to the South practically
In
seed used there.
Arizona also imports seed potatoes.
leys
valthe West, some
have small farms in mountain
growers
which furnish seed for their large farms in the lower
valley. In most cases selected home-grown seed is best.
After a good varietyis chosen, the next most
important
thing to consider is disease,which may reduce the yield
"

from

5 to

be detected
from

50,

or

even

100

per

cent.

Most

diseases

Absolute

by examining the tubers.

can

freedom

is desired.
disease,if possible,

Sometimes

varieties deteriorate,
or

"

run

out."

This

The

232

need
is

Principlesof Agronomy

happen if proper
tendency to use or
leaving the small ones

thus

practiced. There

selection is

not

sell the

marketable

for seed.

potatoes,

It has been

found

that potato hills vary a great deal not only in the ntunber
of potatoes they produce, but also in the kind.
Some
hillshave

from

four to

eighttubers of very much the same


size and shape containingno very largeones
and not many
small ones
of
large potato and a number
; others one
while stillothers consist almost entirelyof
small ones;
small
small tubers.
Since both
large and very
very
potatoes
number
A

undesirable

are

of medium-sized
from

set

tubers

most

are

fair

desirable.

potato in the hill tends

any

hill like the parent

produce

to

big potato from a poor hill


so
good seed as a smaller one from a good hill. It
that any potato in a hill is as good for seed as any

is not
seems

other and
the

the market, hills with

on

if such

small

Seed

is true, there is
from

potatoes

small tubers from


be from

hill. A

bin

or

selection is

patch

fork he

desirable

pit are

objectionto using
hills. If, however,

used, most

so

simple that
farmer

every

low
fol-

can

which

part

the healthiest potatoes. With


a
ging
digtake out a few hundred
hills,
pilingthem

can

may

When

the type he desires.


desire to

such is the case,


hills that promise well.
Selected

will

has

hills that contain


some

farmer

will know

separately. By examining the piles,he


work,

of them

hills.

poor

it successfully.The
of the

no

seed

peg

can

For

easilyselect
more

cal
techni-

study the plants all summer.


may

be driven

close to the

requires careful storage, and protection


from frost and heat.
Boxes or crates holding from forty
to
convenient, since this method
seventy pounds are
of tubers, and perprevents decay of any great number
mits
quickershipment.

The

234

to

notched, revolving,horizontal disk which

by

Principlesof Agronomy

who

man,

fillsempty

notches

or

removes

is watched
set if two

place. When the notch passes over the delivery


quires
respout, the set drops through. The picker machine
only the driver,but misses from 5 to 20 per cent ;
and can
be made
the other requirestwo men
to miss less
The horse-powerplanterfurrows,drops,
than 1 per cent.
and covers
five or six acres
a
day. It is estimated that
farmer can
afford a machine
a
planter if he grows six
in

are

acres

one

or

more.

There

is

fixed depth for

no

planting. From

two

six inches is usual, while three to four is most

Light,

to

common.

soils permit and

warm

be

Growing tubers should

require greater depths.


surrounded
by loose soil and

the surface

sunlight,
which will injurethem by causing chlorophyll
to develop.
and late
Early potatoes are planted as soon as possible,
ones
districts,
early June
usuallyin May, though in some
In the South, January to April is the
is the best time.
districts in July
time; a second crop is planted in some
varies
or
August. The distance between hills and rows
yet not be

so

from

twelve

will

plant an

251.

liear

to

Treatment

The

or

inches.

twenty

the

potatoes

two

weeks

two

to

fifteen bushels

to

"

are

If the
up

ground crusts,
help them
may

four inches tall,another

the

vines

are

harrowing is advisable.
in another

week

of the space
be applied. This

or

two,

the middle

between

is to

prepares

furrow.

From
may

any

later when

cultivator inay begin work

Ten

during growth.

mulching deeper toward


if irrigation
water
rows
for

to expose

acre.

harrowing before
through. About
three

as

five to

twenty-fiveinches

appliedin one
weeks, or so soon
be

to
as

of

irrigationwater
five or six applications. Every
or
possibleafter each irrigation

Potatoes

235

rainstorm, the cultivator should be used

graduallyleaving a wider

untouched

space

stir the soil,

to

the vines

as

increase in size.

This may
be continued until the
be injuredby the horse or cultivator. Then

would

hand-hoeing to control weeds


252.

Harvesting and

harvested

as

the market

soon

Early potatoes
largeenough to be put

are

the late crop


approaching winter

cient
suffi-

is necessary.

marketing.

they

as

plants

are
on

long as is consistent
with
maturity, in order to gain
or
all possibleadvantage from the cool, autumn
growingSmall patches are
season.
frequentlydug with forks
turned out with the plow; but diggers are gainingin
or
for largefields. A shovel blade
importance,particularly
;

under

passes

upward

also sort

some

time

same

elevators carry the tubers


shaking off the dirt. Some

have rotatingarms

machines

the tubers.

that throw
The

potatoes

by hand behind the fork, plow,


boxed, or loaded loose into wagons
sold

or

The

stored in

pitsor

potatoes

that

directly,or

as

the potatoes and


the

at

is left

"

or

to

out
are

the vines;

picked up

digger, and
be hauled

sacked,

away

cellars.
are

sold

go

either to

consumers

jobbers who ship or distribute them


retailers. Potato pricesvary so much
that it is hard
tell whether

to

to

and

sell at harvest

or

to

store

to

to

for the winter

and

Because
of its perishability,
the
spring markets.
in spring if it cannot
be disposed of. Some
crop is waste
sellhalf and store half ; others belong to cooperagrowers
tive
associations that assist in marketing. Wherever
ping
shipis practiced,carload lots of singlevarieties sell to
the best advantage. Careful sorting and grading also
help sales and prices. Both boxes and sacks are used
for shipping.
253.
goes

Storage.

into

"

The

pits loose

or

part of the

crop

that

is stored

into cellars loose,in sacks, or

in

The

236

Pits cost

boxes.

consist of
rick
and

Principlesof Agronomy

less than

trench

few

heaped-up with
earth.
straw

more

to

do

They ordinarily

cellars.

inches

deep in which

and

potatoes

covered

is set

with

straw

approaches, they are covered with


A stove-pipethrough the coverand earth.
ing
As winter

aid in ventilation

closed

be

may

with

cloth

in

Pits should
be emptied when
once
freezing weather.
to a cellar.
opened, the potatoes being sold or removed
The
important points in storage are : (1) to keep the

temperature

freezing,but

above

not

over

F. ; (2)
for disease and
40"

provide ventilation; (3) to examine


condition of keeping; and (4) to be able to remove
a part without
disturbingthe others.

to

respects cellars excel pits; boxes


and

Weeds

and

insects.

potatoes, though there


alone.
f/otatoes

potato

should

In these

better than

are

sacks;

bins of loose tubers.

sacks better than

254.

veniently
con-

are

All

"

that

none

weeds

common

control

demanded

Of

weed.

any

troublesome

are

intensive culture

The

trouble

by the

insects, the

the

flea-beetle (Epitrix cucumeris) bores holes in the

allowing the blights to enter.


in lessening the injury. More
beetle
about

or

Colorado

the time

potato

Arsenate

to

of

leaves

lead

aids

injuriousis the potato

beetle, which

the

eats

leaves

of bloom.

Paris-greenspray, at the rate


of one
pound in one hundred twenty gallons of water;
hundred
of lead,six or eightpounds in one
arsenate
or
lessens this injury. Potato
gallons of water
worms,
beetles
June
potato stalk weevils, grasshoppers,and
do lesser injuries. They
are
generally controlled by
clean cultivation and
255.

Diseases.

"

rotation.
Potatoes

organisms, which
from

often

are

cause

attacked
a

readilyby

loss in

asitic
par-

district of

one-fourth to one-half the crop, sometimes


completely
wilt
destroying it. Late and early blight, Fusarium

Potatoes

237

(Fig.66), Rhizoctonia, blackleg,and


various

scab

are

found

in

parts of the country.

Late

blight(Phytophthora
infestans)
,alihough.iiot
prevalent in the West, is the most
serious disease in the East.
It caused the Irish famine of the
forties,"during one
of which
300,000 people perished and thousands
year
The
disease attacks
the vines
emigrated to America.
and tubers causing the tubers to rot.
weather
Damp
"

Fig.

66.

"

Potatoes

killed

by Fusarium

wilt.

Injury is lessened by spraying


with Bordeaux
is made
by dissolving
mixture, which
five pounds of quicklime in twenty-fivegallons of water,
and five pounds of blue vitriol in twenty-five gallonsof
seems

to

water

and

encourage

it.

mixing the

two

solutions.

There

should

be

burning.
Early blight {Alternariasolani) does its damage earlier
than late blight. It attacks the vines, turnin the season
sufficient lime to prevent

The

238

reducing

and

yellow

ing them
mixture

Principlesof Agronomy
yield. Bordeaux

the

aids in its control.

spray

tacks
(Fusarium oxysporum) is widespread. It atthe stems, causes
wiltingby cloggingthe tracheal
into the tuber,forming a dark
tubes, and grows downward

Dry

rot

ring which

in

shows

end.

thin cross-section of the stem


should

infection

showing

All seed

discarded.

be

ground, rotation

this disease lives in the

Since

is essential to its

control.

Rosette,
and

attacks the

by black

noted

be

may

rosettes

of leaves and

tubers in
1000

infected

mercuric
are

bichloride

the remedies

in the
lives several years
farming and rotations are

and

soil

or

on

is soakingtwo

gallonsof

are

beneficial.

hours in formalin

water.

Fresh

on

the

1 part to

the disease

plants, clean

necessary.

{Oospora scabies)attacks the


rough appearance
resembling a scab.
soil, rotations

soak

to

other

causes

form

to

Because

Scab

the

This

(HgCla) solution
used.

It

through the

eats

seed

common

potatoes.

tubers

small worthless

discard

To

of water

the

on

holding the food in the vine.

thus

vines.

spots

the outside and

from

stems

phloem,
the

{Corticiumvagum), is

Rhizoctonia

or

manure

tuber
As

The

solution

it survives
seed

in

treatment

pint to thirty

one

and lime

causing

to

seem

age
encour-

the disease.

Blackleg {Bacillus phytophthorus)attacks the vine,


causing wilting,and the tuber, causing rot. Rotations,
clean ground, and littlewater
after an attack are recommended
as

Seed

means

of control.

selection for resistant strains,discardinginfected

seed, long rotations, and

hopeful
to

cause

Second

seed

treatment

are

the

most

of keeping up yields. Neglect is likely


the ruin of the potato industry in some
localities.

means

growth

is the production of

new

tubers when

Potatoes

239

is

The potatoes cannot


applied after drouth.
get
large and they are poor in quality. Internal brown
spots are found in the interior of some
potatoes, especially
in the Early Ohio.
It is probably not a disease,but a
condition which injuresthe odor and flavor
physiological
of the potato but not its seed value.
It is caused by
water

drouth

in

some

cases.

are
during tuber formation
very
sensitive to sudden
changes of temperature. Heavy
and irrigation,
abnormal
conditions
at times, cause
storms
that are not easilyexplained.
value.
The
of
256. Use
and
most
important use
food.
Large parts of Ireland,
potatoes is for human
Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, and Russia are
dependent on the potato as the principalfood product.
A generalcrop failure would probably cause
famine in
a
districts. The
some
per capita consumption is twenty
bushels in Germany, as against five and one-half in the

Growing potatoes

"

United

States.

in tropical and
toasted
used

to

some

make

Desiccated

potatoes

frigidzones.
potato chips.

for stock-feed

starch, sirup,alcohol, and

and

valuable

are

Potatoes

are

foods

sliced and

In addition, potatoes

for the

dextrin.

manufacture

They

are

are

of

sometimes

silage. Since potatoes are about three-fourths


of the crop is less than that
water, the total dry matter
of the leadingcereals,although in gross weight the yield
used

for

exceeds

any

one

of them.

SUPPLEMENTARY

The

Potato, Samuel
The Potato, Grubb

READING

Fraser.
and

Guilford.

Crops, Wilson and Warbiu-ton, pp. 422-443.


Field Crop Production, G. Livingston,
pp. 358-369.
Field

The

240

The

Industry

Potato
and

of

No.

D.

Agronomy

Colo.

Colorado,

American

Bui.

No.

A.

Farmers'

91.

Potato

W.

Farming,
Bulletins

175,

Fitch,

and

Potatoes

and

320.

Potato

Spraying.

365.

Potato

Growing

386.

Potato

Culture

407.

The

410.

Potato

533.

Good

Potato
Culls
Seed

Potato-tuber

H.

the

Olin,

pp.

519-529.
170"188.

pp.

Treatment.

Crops

Root

in

Irrigated
Truck

as

Diseases.

Food.

Farms

of

the

West.

Crop.

Source

Potatoes

as

Sections.

Northern

on

as

II,

Diseases

295.

544.

Vol.

Agriculture,

Irrigation

American
S.

of

of

Johnson.

Cyclopedia

U.

Principles

and

of

Industrial

How

to

Produce

Alcohol.
Them.

Bennett,

TJw

242

from

Principlesof Agronomy

the sugar-beet. In 1805

of his pupils,Achard,

one

began the sugar industry by startinga factory in the


German
province of Silesia. Six years later the French
of beets at the order of Napoleon,
planted 90,000 acres
for instruction
of money
who appropriated a large sum
in schools and to assist in buildingfactories. By 1825,
established industry in France; by
it had become
an

Fig.

67.

"

Thinning

sugar-beets, Germany.

how
1835, the Germans, realizing

gained both

from

the

industry and

methods, began beet-growingon


1836, France
1400
ever

the German

tons.

Soon

since.

Beet-culture

of Europe
about

produced 40,000

and

1830, but

the French

much

tons

improved

of sugar

output

and

led, as

culture

scale.

commercial

had

In

Germany

it has done

spread rapidly into other parts

finallyextended
it did not

become

to

the

United

States

important here until

built at Alvarado, California.


factory was
Since that time, growth has been rapid and regular. In a

1879, when

Root

Crops

243

century, the culture of sugar-beetshas


that half the sugar

extent

to such

grown

produced in the world

an

is beet

Europe

than nine-tenths of the


producing more
total.
Sugar-beetconditions are shown in Figs. 67-69.
258. Description.
In general appearance,
the beet
is whitish and shaped like a long cone,
broadest
just
sugar,

"

below

the

from

crown

which

about

in thick

clusters.

These

inches to two

feet,and

in width

out

dozen

in

vary

from

leaves grow
length from six

two

to

six inches.

On

ples,
oppositesides of the root are two depressionsor dimthe dimples
usually slightlyspiralin shape. From
and from the central tap-root of the beet, fibrous feeding
branch
roots
off, gathering food and moisture from a
rather largearea, sometimes
to a depth of five or six feet.
Cross-sections

of

beet

show

series of concentric

alternatingrings,mostly of soft and firm tissue. The


compact rings are thought to be richer in dry-matter and
shows
A longitudinal-section
which
(1) the crown,
sugar.
is rough,slightly
greenishin color,and watery, and (2) the
root, which

contains

the

sugar.

The

root

should

taper

slowly,keep broad to considerable depth, and be single


;
branching roots are objectionable.The concentric rings
The
show
in straight lines converging at the bottom.
removed
in topping, is a part of the stem, as shown
crown,
larged
by the leaves growing from it; the lower part is an enroot

that

should

weigh

from

one

one-half pounds in order to meet

the demands

operators. During the

year,

second

to

one

and

of factory

seed-stalks,from
four feet tall and considerablybranched, bear
two
to
from one-fifth to two
pounds of seed for each mother
beet.
259.

Adaptation

and

distribution.

do best in cool,moist
seasons.

They

are

not

"

Beets, like potatoes,

climates that have


sensitive to

long growing
frost,being grown

244

The

Fig.

68.

"

Principlesof Agronomy

Sugar-beets

require

vigorous

leaf growth.

Root

Crops

245

Well-drained
extensivelyin climates too cool for corn.
soils,varying through sands and loams to clay loams,
used ; soils containingsmall quantitiesof alkali also
are
Salt, however, causes
yield satisfactorycrops.
some
of sugar.
Abundant
difficultyin the extraction
shine
sunis necessary
which is entirely
to build up the sugar
carbohydrate and, therefore,the result of photosynthesis.
be drained, where moisWhere
the soils are deep and can
ture
is suppliedby rainfall or irrigation,
and where sunshine
is abundant, sugar-beet
portant
growing can become an imindustry.
Northern
United
States from Virginia to Canada
is
though but small
adapted to the culture of sugar-beets,
The
produce them.
following
parts of the section now
in the order
of their sugar
named
states
production
excel the others in this industry: Colorado, California,
These
Michigan, Utah, Idaho, and Wisconsin.
states, in
1913 contained four-fifths of the factories. The industry
is capable of almost indefinite expansion.
In Europe, the beet-growing nations are the same
that
lead in potato production, namely, (1) Germany, (2)
Russia, (3) Austria-Hungary, and (4) France, and their
rank is the order named.
Nearly every nation grows
some.

Preparation of the land, seed, and seeding.


Very lightand very heavy soils are to be avoided because
of poor water-holdingcapacity and firmness,respectively.
With other soils,
is essena good supply of organicmatter
tial
maintain
to
good physical condition, which aids
materiallyin holding moisture, in maintaining fertility,
and in promoting easy
penetrationof roots.
Plowing
be from ten to sixteen inches deep accordingto power
may
is practiced
and implements. In some
cases
sub-soiling
sub-soils. Deep
to break hardpans or to loosen compact
260.

"

The

246

mellows
fall-plowing

Principlesof Agronomy
the seed-bed

and

permitswinter

and

spring rainfall to penetrate deeply. Two or three doublediskingsin the spring will firm the seed-bed and conserve

Fig.

69.

"

Sugar-beets

require

large

amount

of hand

labor.

Factories furnish the seed and, in many


cases,
The seed has been bred and selected
plantit by contract.
moisture.

for six

or

seven

years

to insure

high

sugar

content.

If

Root

Crops

247

keeps in mind that percentage of

person

is a variable

sugar

character and that it has been raised from 6 to 16 per cent


and as high as 25, he will appreciatethat without constant
selection low percentages would
Seed

about

costs

is sown

at the rate

result in

fifteen cents

of ten to twenty

Aprilor May, though earlier in


in others.
Planting is commonly

in

seed drill and


usual

From

team.

261.

usually

with

four-row

three inches is the

slightlyless than for smallfrom sixteen to thirtyinches apart.


As soon
the rows
as
during growth.

in

rows

Treatment

"

plainly,the beets are


which follows the
cultivator,

cultivated

show

between

the

beets

boll.

rows

The

blocks

place. Four
This

and

or

the

and

six to ten

every
are

thinned

five sprouts
thick

with

four-row

of the planter. Weeds

rows

removed

are

blocked

are

hoes.

beet in
or

done
to

acre,

localitiesand later

some

one

an

"

"

short

pounds

and

depth of planting

grains

The

few years.
pound in America
a

the soil is mulched.


inches by

by
come

means

hand

from

to
one

planting to insure

of
one

seed

good

stands make

For a time, government


thinning necessary.
but
experts expected to develop seed with single-germs,
the experiment was
not entirelysuccessful.
Whenever
the soil needs it,further cultivation is given
the crop.
three hand-hoeings remove
weeds and
Two
or
the plants. Toward
loosen soil in the row
around
the
end of June or in early July in most
irrigateddistricts,
and five to thirty inches of water
furrows are made
are
four
to
applications. Rather
one
applied in from
the cultivation
to be beneficial,
as
thorough soakings seem
that

follows

lessens

evaporation,and

the

greater

allows the water


to distribute
length of time between
ever,
itself evenly in the soil. Water-loggingmust
not, howsince this causes
short or branched beets,
be permitted,
as

does

compact

soil. Not

many

cultivations

can

be

The

248

Principlesof Agronomy

the
as
given after irrigation,

injured. Some
times early in

be

as

to

or

seven

262.

Diseases.

should be
The

in

farmers
the

to

as

some

on

so

large

harrowing six

season.

for

necessary

well under

keep weeds

selection of beets

causing widespread
a

become

soon

count

Cultivation

intensive

constant

from
and

so

"

leaves

beets
control.

prevented diseases
Heart-rot, leaf-spot,

has

losses.

bacterial disease,however, injurethe crop materially


sections. Both disease and insect injury increase

with

the age of the sugar industry and with the presence


of other plants in the Chenopodium group, includingwhite

pigweed, Russian
Heart-rot
disease

thistle,and white tumbleweed.

and

blight (Phoma

of beets, is the

betce),a

hindrance

worst

to

distinctive

sugar-beet

production in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and France.


this
It has
recently entered
Generally in
country.
blacken;
August, the inner leaves and then outer ones
both die leaving the bare beet crown.
The disease passes
down
into the concentric rings and produces rot, sometimes
almost
The
destruction of all
ruining the crop.
from
infested areas
plant remnants
prevents spread,
and

of seed

treatment

with

Bordeaux

mixture

prevents

propagation of the disease in new


crops.
the leaves as
Leaf-spot (Cercosporabeticola)
on
appears
brown
spots with reddish-purple borders which
spread
until the entire leaves become

dry.

The

crown

sends

out

leaves at the expense


of the root.
The best precaution,
think, is to spray young
some
plants with Bordeaux

new

mixture.
Beet
about

leaves
which

also attacked

littleis known.

into the

roots

Rotation

and

advocated.

are

The

by

bacterial

disease makes

reducing yield and percentage


in irrigation
the methods
care
are

disease

its way
of sugar.
of control

The

250

beets

of

sort

loosened

are

diggeror

The

Principlesof Agronomy

positionby
puller,and then topped by hand.
and

raised from

of the beet

crown

far

their

some

it is green, that is,at


either left on
Leaves
are

as

as

leaf scar, is removed.


the ground or hauled off to feed cattle,while
lowest

the beets

usually hauled

directlyto the factory,or they are


loaded on
cars
by arrangements which dump the load
from platforms. In rush seasons,
beets
however, many
are
piledin fields or yards and covered with tops to prevent
to
frequentfreezingand thawing. Freezing seems
do no
injury unless thawing follows. At the factory,
the beets are stored in long bins left open to the weather.
The
for sugar
beets grown
are
weighed and the sugar
are

company
ton

or

"

is,on

the farmer

pays

according to
slidingscale.

Use

265.

and

sugar-beetsis
have

either

sugar

value.

"

feed

The

so

"

much

purity,
"

that

of
important use
of sugar, though they

most

The

value.

tops

are

valuable

tain
ground because they conof the mineral
elements
of fertility.
The
most
pulp,a by-product from the sugar industry,is a valuable
stock-feed,being highly succulent.
facturing
Beet-sugar manufarm operationbecause it
become
can
never
a
requires much
expensive machinery and many
cated
complioperations.

and

are

often pastured

and

content

in the manufacture

considerable

flat rate

has

Beet-culture
the cash
and

and

returns.

the

decided value

The

on

the farm

aside from

ture,
deep plowing, the intensive cul-

fertilization necessary
in successful production
of beets improve farming methods
materially

the

increase

controlled

yields of other

and
The

are

on

mutually

business

crops.

methods

introduced

farmer, the soil,and


benefited in most

Weeds

cases.

the

sugar

are

also

into agriculture
company

Root

266.

Manufacture

removed.

The

Crops

251

When

the

stream

of water

factory is
ready to use the beets in a bin, the end is opened and a
section of the floor in the bottom
of the V-shaped bin
carries them
washed

are

of

sugar.

beets tumble

to

and

"

into

rotatingpaddles or brushes, where


scrubbed.

An

elevator carries them

steamed

The

juice,or

gar, is mixed

whereas

the

under

pressure

to

dissolve out

with lime

they
to

sliced into cossettes

weighing hopper,after which they are


and

which

to

the sugar.

ties,
impuriprecipitate

pulp is run outside into vats or silos for


into
dioxide,which is now
run
stock-feeding.Carbon
the juice,unites with the lime renderingit insoluble and
causing it to settle and carry to the bottom much of the
Filters remove
the small lime
dark, impure substances.
particles. Lime and carbon dioxide are again added.
After filtering,
sulfur-dioxid gas is passed through the juice
dissolved lime.
to remove
Surpluswater is boiled off,and
the juicegoes to crystallizing
tion.
pans for further concentraBefore going to the centrifugals,
which are steel cylinders
with perforatedlinings,
the sirupis mixed.
In the
the liquidis forced through
rapidly-whirling
centrifugals,
the small holes of the liningand the crystalsare scraped
off and dried by a current
of warm
air. The liquidwhich
has not
is saved
and again
undergone crystallization
for two more
concentrated
yieldsof sugar, small ones, of
course.
Sacking is the last process before marketing.

MANGEL-WURZELS

267.

Mangel-wurzels,or mangolds, as
Description.
in that
variouslycalled,differ from sugar-beets,
"

they are
they are usuallymuch larger,weighing from four to six
pounds. Generally they grow partlyout of the ground,
and are
in shape, being largestsome
disirregular
very

The

252

below

tance

Principlesof Agronomy

the crown;

they

reddish

are

in color,with

pinkish flesh; and they contain approximately


12 per cent
dry matter, about half of which is
about 20 per cent solid,
whereas
beets are
sugar,
sugar
Beef cattle and hogs do
is sugar.
four-fifths of which
them
well on this crop.
use
as
a
can
Dairy cows
part
solids,especially
more
ration,but they demand
protein,
than the succulent mangel can
supply.
268.
The
Use.
mangel is the chief root crop used
for feeding in the United
States, although in England
turnipsand rutabagas rank first. The value of the mangel
Corn silageis displacingit to some
is in its succulence.
Canada
United
States and
extent, though in northern
deserve
consideration.
One disadvantage of
roots
more
is that for one
of dry matter
from eight to ten
roots
ton
yellowish or

"

of water

tons

dry
and
on

must

be handled.

The

food

value

of the

high,however, because it is both palatable


be consumed
digestible. Great quantities cannot

matter

account

is

of the

excess

prepared as it is
for sugar-beets. Seeding is done
with
one-row
drills,
with four-row drills,
or
by hand on small areas.
They
are
planted at the rate of six to fifteen pounds to the acre
and at a depth of one
inches.
to two
Plantingis usually
The
done in April or May.
small plants grow
slowly
and
it requirescare
in the first cultivation to prevent
tion
attencoveringup the rows.
Mangels require the same
in regardto thinning,
as
sugar-beets
except that they
left farther apart. As to cultivation and irrigation,
are
the same
methods
apply.
When
frost kills the outer
leaves,thereby stopping
growth, mangels are ready to harvest. They are sometimes
pulled by hand or by plowing a furrow close to the
Beet diggers are
also used to loosen the roots.
row.
269.

Culture.

"

The

of water.
land

should

be

Root

in baked

Mangels

from

vary

About

ten

to

under

removed, the

well-ventilated cellar where

dig.

to

favorable

be expected under

may
are

253

hard
especially

forty tons

thirty tons

After the tops


in

soils are

Crops

conditions.

irrigation.

should

roots

Yields

temperature

be stored

just above

be maintained.

freezingcan

High temperatures are


be avoided, particularly,
to
prevent heating, which
dangerous because of the high moisture content.

TURNIPS

AND

to

is

RUTABAGAS

tabagas
Turnips (Brassica rapa) and ru(Brassica campestris) belong to the mustard
include
family (Cruciferse),which
cabbage, kohlrabi,
and rape in addition to several garden vegetablessuch as
radish and cauliflower.
smaller than
Turnips are much
much
a
more
rutabagas. They have
regular shape ;
and white rather than yellowishor orange
flesh. They
have a much
shorter growing season,
and since they are
more
watery they are a less valuable feed. They have
while rurough foliageattached to a short, flat crown,
tabaga

270.

Description.

"

leaves
take

on

bluish

Both

free from

borne

are

color.

have

the flesh.

on

neck, become

smooth, and

The

regula
rutabaga is long and irdistinct outer
layer that peels

The

of both

root-systems

are

paratively
com-

small.
271.

Culture.

"

fine seed-bed

is required on

account

of the root-system.
best, and a moist,
Sandy soils seem
cool climate is essential to best development. The seeds

single-germedand, on this account, requiremuch


thinning than do the mangels or sugar-beets. The

less

are

should
thinned
may

be

be
to

about
six

or

as

far apart

beets

as

eight inches apart

planted for

winter

use

as

and

in the

late

as

rows

should

row.

July, as

be

Turnips
a

catch-

The

254

Principlesof Agronomy

crop after another crop is removed,


Two or three pounds of seed to the

should

be

twice

sown

or
acre

thick and

as

between

of

rows

corn.

used ; rutabagas
usually planted in

are

Planting ought to be justdeep enough


May or earlyJune.
moist earth.
to place the seed in warm,
Cultivation,
for
as
irrigation,
harvesting,and storage are the same
be used in early winter.
mangels save that turnips must
In England turnips and rutabagas form
272. Value.
part of the regular farm rotation, and take the same
They
place for stock-feed that mangels do in Germany.
"

are

in Canada

grown

in the United

States, their culture

food.
Turnips are used also for human
As feed, rutabagas rank high, enabling the farmer to
greatly reduce grain rations. Five to fifteen tons of
turnips and ten to twenty tons of rutabagas are good
for beef cattle,
valuable
acre-yields.Rutabagas are
hogs, and sheep. Because they keep well into spring,
well for this purpose,
particularlywhere silos
they serve
used.
not
are
They are easy to feed, since only slicing
is not

extensive.

is necessary,

and

this

able
saving of time givesthem consideradditional value.
Turnips are used for sheep and
hog pasture. They pull up easilyand the use of leaves
well as roots is possible.
as

(Daucus carota)

CARROTS

273.

Description.

"

The

root

short and
cylindrical,
or
reddish
yellow, orange,
or
breaks away
and

more

outward

from

an

of carrots

thick; they
in

color.

may

be tapering,

may

be white,

An

outer

interior that is more


irregular

layer
watery

palatable. A medium-sized
root-system spreads
finely divided ; white flowers
; the leaves are

are

borne

are

cup-shaped.

the second

year

in dense flat umbels

the seeds

Root

274.

Culture

well-rotted
mellow

and

farm

use.

seed-bed.

to the acre, is sown

255

Loose, sandy soils,in which

"

is

manure

Crops

incorporated,make

warm,

Seed, at the rate of four to six pounds


the ground is in good condition.
as
soon
as

Since it is small,the seed


Rows

should

be about

of cultivators; the
four

inches

apart.

requiresshallow planting.
thirtyinches apart to permit use
should

carrots

stand

from

If thicker,they should

be

two

to

thinned.

cultivation,harvesting,arid storage are the


Irrigation,
for mangels or rutabagas.
same
as
The garden crop is used principally
for household purposes.
For forage,largerareas
should be grown.
When
used for forage,carrots
furnish succulence
and are
pecially
es"

desirable for horses.

SUPPLEMENTARY

READING

The

Sugar Beet, Ware.


and Warburton, pp. 412-422, 451-463.
Field Crops, Wilson
Field Crop Production, G. Livingston,pp. 323-336.
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, T. F. Hunt, pp. 275-303.
Forage Crops, E. B. Voorhees, pp. 275-291.
Southern
Field Crops, J. F. Duggar, pp. 425^56.
Vol. II, pp. 539-550,588-595,
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture,
613-623.

U. S. D. A. Yearbook

for 1904, pp. 341-352.


of Irrigation
Practice,J. A. Widtsoe, pp. 286-298.
Principles
The
in Utah,
Production
of Sugar Beet Seed
Commercial

Harris, Utah
American

Bui. No.

Irrigation
Farming, W.

U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.

136.

52.

392.
548.
567.
568.
615.

Bulletins

H.

Olin, pp. 205-228.

Sugar-beet.
of Sugar Beets.
Irrigation
Storingand Marketing Sweet Potatoes.
Sugar-Beet Growing under Irrigation.
Conditions.
Sugar-Beet Growing under Humid
Leaf Spot, a Disease of the Sugar-beet.

F.

S.

XXI

CHAPTER

(Medicago

ALFALFA

agriculture

Permanent
there

must

raising

be

must

accompany

valuable

are

In

have

this

the

successful

alfalfa

is

unexcelled.

and

hay

the

could

lands

fact, it made

An

be

used

alfalfa

has

its

adaptability

spread.

States

Methods

of

which
the

on

in winter
been

of

stock.
livethat

been

cent

of

is

produced

in

arid

duced
pro-

value.
West.

the

soils

effect
alfalfa

of

alfalfa

the

they

forage, long life,

the

west

when

inestimable

of

the

farm.

West

when

or

and

and

the

settlement

has

per

and

alfalfa

largely

is

the

of

all these
of

crop

the

Mississippi.
in

shown

are

crop

promoted

72.

Name

Alfalfa

hogs

regions

ranch

of

pastures

climates

95

handling

to

"

world

arid

to

that

United

275.

In

yields of delicious

marked

So

influences

Figs. 70

are

hay

production

both

on

possible pioneer

early start, heavy

and

"

native

not

little feed,
In

essential

are

supplementing

range

Horses

shipping facilities,cattle-raising is important.

poor

Pasturage
In

in

factor

important

an

livestock-

Good

meat-producers.

or

only

cattle, sheep, and

burden;

milk-

as

production.

crop

of

beasts

as

necessary

Not

in rotation, but

of crops

variety

diversified.

be

must

sativa)

is,

origin.

alfalfa

"

seems

account

has

or
"

to

and
be

of the

Of

"

been,
"

thirty
known

lucern

gaining
adoption
256

forty

or

in

"

are

various

rapidly
of that

name

parts

widely

most

in

by

names

of

used.

popularity,
in treatises

The

258

fifteen years
to

extent.

some

into

ago.

from

it
Practicallyevery state now
grows
Although alfalfa had been introduced

California

southern

York

Principlesof Agronomy

the favorable
start

were

was

and

New

the

Chile

no

widespread cultivation.

haps
Per-

Mexico,

and
before

century

conditions

that gave the crop a good


value to the tion
to bring its true
atten-

necessary

of farmer

into

nearly

Europe

introduction, there

from

ranchman.

belongs to the Legumiwhich


thousands
of species,among
are
nosse, in which
beans, clover, vetches, locust trees, lupines,
are
peas,
and
the little astragalus common
sweet
on
brush
sagepeas,
276.

Relationships.

"

Alfalfa

lands of the mountain

In the genus

states.

Medi-

fiftyspeciesare found.
The
legume family is easily distinguished by peashaped flowers, by pods that break open
along both
ment
sutures, by the compound leaves,and by the tiny enlargecago,

about

on

the roots

live bacteria which

called nodules,
feed upon

tubercles.

or

In these

gen
plant taking free nitrofrom the air,and assisting
greatlyin the maintenance
In the valleys and
the hills of the
of soil fertility.
on
West, there are fiftyor more
speciesof native legumes
the great
which
have probably had much
to do with
of virgin lands.
fertility
277. Roots.
Young alfalfa plants send down
portionat
prolong tap-roots bearing fine branching roots.
The first stem
is single,
and lacks the crown
that develops
with age.
The plant is decidedly perennial livingfrom
four to fiftyor sixtyyears depending on the favorableness
the

"

of the field. The


soils as

long as

root-systems.
common
cave

continue

the plant lives.


Roots

to

grow

This

fifteen to twenty

in well-drained

results in immense
feet in length

thirty to forty feet is occasionallyreached


the gravel delta at Logan, Utah, exposed a
;

in

roots

are

root

Alfalfa
feet long,while Coburn
fifty-six
the roof of
feet below

tunnel

reports that roots

hundred

one

the surface of

259

and

trated
pene-

twenty-nine

alfalfa field. Water-tables

an

limit

than
depth because roots will not penetrate more
six or eight inches into a soil devoid of air.
Though they are nearly always singletap-roots, three
four large roots
sometimes
or
displace the singleone.
About
The

half

inch is the usual diameter

an

thickness gradually diminishes


hair-like.

network

they
the

there

are

most
al-

that do the

feedingform

form

sod because

not

Hence, if all roots

are

broken,

buds except on the crown.


bear, scattered in various places, small

fine roots

nodules

crown.

until the roots

they do

stoloniferous.

plantdies,since

The

fine roots

in the soil,but
not

are

These

the

below

which

are

no

either

are

of the roots, and

separate

which

vary

masses

ments
enlarge-

or

in size from

small

These
be found
pin-head to that of a pea.
by
may
carefullydigging into the root-system of almost any
alfalfa plant. Some
plants, however, bear only a few.
Stems

278.

for
near

crown

are

crops

six inches

and

hay,

the

or
crown

When

"

shoots

new

come

out

the surface of the ground.

cut, the

Some

the

stems

from

As

are

make

into

vested
har-

the thickened
and

more

increase in size until

crowns

becoming divided

across,

distinct parts.
four

leaves.

two

some
or

more
are

three

the land

rough by standing
five inches above the surface.
If a harrow
splits
without cuttingthe roots, separate plants may

form.
the ground
develop as soon
as
These
is warm.
steadily until blossoms appear,
grow
when
they stop increasingin size in order to develop
from six to sixty
seed. At this time, the stem
may
vary
In

inches

spring,young

in

stems

length
1

and

The

from
Book

one-sixteenth

of Alfalfa,p. 6.

to

one-fourth

The

260

of

in

in diameter; twenty-four to thirty inches

inch

an

Principlesof Agronomy

one-eighth of an inch in thickness are usual.


The
stems
are
usually green, but they are sometimes
white pith in
marked
with red ; they are
hollow with
the center; they branch frequently in the axils of leaves
which
are
arranged alternately. In general, first-crop
height

and

stems,

containingmore

than

much

coarser

A
succeeding crops.
longer period of
than by
used by the first crop, in most
cases,
of

those

growth

fibrous material, are

is

later crops.
leaves

Pinnately-compound
from

the main

with

bracts

Three

middle

The

usually arise
larger than the

the

of

presence

central

vein

of the

time, develop into branched

any

form

to

leaves

much

one

indicate

leaves.

and

stem

the other.

on

of three leaflets grow


branch
first on one
side and

and

at
slightlysaw-toothed
sends out parallelside veins

the upper

of which

is

the
which

much

then

axis,

one

side ones;

two

still other

rudimentary

compound

leaf may,

stems,

of the leaflets,
which

the midrib

from

out

simply divide
oval-shaped,

are

end.

outer

show

darker

or

on

green

at

The

both
and

midrib

surfaces,
the lower

slightlyhairy.
279.

branch

Flowers
and

and

seed.

the main

bear

stem

blossoming time, each


at

least

cluster of

one

alfalfa,
purple in common
varieties bear yellow and others greenish
flowers.
The calyx is five-parted,
compound at the base
and sharply pointed at the singletips. Separate petals,

pea-shaped
though some

nine

stamens

flowers

in

that

At

"

are

bundle,

one

alone, and

compound

develops into a pod, form the other parts of


the flower.
Growing pods are distinctlycurled, making
from one
and bearing from one
to four distinct curves
to
dozen
seed.
As maturity approaches, the pods take
a
color and
the seeds become
dark brown
a
on
yellowish,
ovary

that

Alfalfa

261

urally
greenish-yellow,or brown.
Though alfalfa seed is natkidney-shaped, a large percentage of it is angular

in various
other
due

they

as

to lack

the

on

Peas

grow.

of

room

usually slow

touching each
flattened on
are
opposite sides
curlingin the pod exerts pressure
than

with

tough

the

on

properly leaves

brown

are

but

of the seeds

rather

corners,

Failure to mature
others

account

on

ways,

sides

ends.

or

shrunken

some

seed-coats.

seeds;

These

are

lack the power


to
germinate or may even
do so.
The
seeds are
usually about one-sixteenth of an
inch in length and half that in width and thickness.
In adjacent parts of Asia, Africa,
280. Varieties.
of varieties of alfalfa grow
wild.
and Europe a number
In cultivation,however, only two distinct kinds find use.
One is erect, blue- or purple-flowered,and familiar ; the
other yellow-flowered,
not
well-known, rather creeping of
to

"

stoloniferous,a qualityabsent in the common


alfalfa. The
second, Siberian, has its chief value
stem

and

in

crossingwith the ordinary plant to give resistant strains.


A

number

of strains have

which

they have
become
adapted
section.

These

Turkestan,
and

to

grown

to the

for

regionsin
long enough to

from

taken
time

climate, soil,culture, and

strains

are

(3) Arabian,

(6) Grimm.

given rise

been

been

Half

so-called

(1)

"

use

of that

common,"

(4) Peruvian,

(2)

(5) variegated,

dry-farm has
dry-land alfalfa,which probably
century

on

the

strain. None
of
slightlyfrom the common
these are of specialimportance save
Grimm, which resists
winter-killingto a remarkable
degree. Variegated, a
with Siberian,has variouslycolored flowers.
cross
differs but

Since, in general,adaptation to a localitydetermines


the value of a lot of seed, these cultivated varieties have
little value.
to

Perhaps

we

may

learn enough about

establish certain strains for particularconditions.

them
As

The

262

yet, 95 per cent

Principlesof Agronomy

of

our

crop

continues

be

to

"

"

common

alfalfa.
Distribution

United
adaptation. Western
States, Argentina, Chile, Peru, southern Europe, North
central Asia
Africa, South Africa, Australia, and western
281.

"

and

"

produce alfalfa extensively. All these sections


and winters either
arid,with hot, dry summers

are

semi-

rigorous
else snow-covered.
The greatest production by
or
states in the United States is as follows : (1) Kansas, (2)
Nebraska, (3) Colorado, (4) California, (5) Idaho, (6)
and
Utah, (7) Montana,
(8) Oklahoma,
(9) Wyoming,
Mexico.
(10) New
A deep, fertile,
well-drained soil permits the greatest
development of the crop, especiallywhen lime is present
in liberal quantities,
it is likelyto be where no leaching
as
has occurred.
The
then supply
deep-feeding roots can
food and moisture abundantly. The rightkind of bacteria
must

also be

plants grow
soil from

present, since in their absence

only
an

seed-bed.

few

inches high and

old field scattered

it if the
new

necessary

Porous

over

bacteria

sub-soils

are

then

not

the
die.

Some

patch

the

new

are

lacking

desirable

young

oculate
in-

in the

for root

expansion ; the plants tolerate some


gravel.
Water-logging seriously hinders development of the
plant by preventing aeration and by causing alkali
accumulation
at the surface.
Young plants suffer quickly
from salt concentrations ; but when
older,a corky crown
enables the plant to resist girdling.Adaptability of the
to either extensive or
intensive culture strengthens
crop
its position as one
in the West.
of the principalcrops
Alfalfa

and
responds readily to manuring, irrigation,
cultivation by increased returns; it also produces much
forage on
dry-farms. Then, too, it yields best when
only five or six years on one piece of ground, but
grown

Alfalfa
will continue

to

263

produce hay for ten, fifteen,or

when

conditions

favorable.

even

That

such

twenty

years

is widespread is natural, particularlysince it is

crop

are

palatable and nutritious.

most

Preparation

282.

of

the

land

plowing fines the seed-bed and


the soil freely
; both of these are
Small

seed

cannot

at hand.

are
manure

warm

get

hold

and

seeding.

allows

rainfall to

Fallenter

important for planting.

unless food

and

Liberal applicationsof well-rotted


the soil and

"

increase the

moisture

farmyard

available

water

and

plant-food. After such preparation,spring-planting


If deep cultivation is practiced
should give good stands.
the roots
on
easily. Lime is necessary
penetrate more
acid soils.
Since

gives as good results as springfall-planting


time in the
planting,farmers often plant then to save
In this
spring and to get a largerharvest next season.
off the land generally
must
come
case, the previouscrop
by August in order to make possiblethe ready preparation
of a fine,moist, porous,
August
yet firm seed-bed.
selves
July seeding permits the plantsto establish themor
even
in.
before
winter
When
sets
spring planted,
alfalfa should begin growth as soon
the land is warm.
as
One to five pounds of seed to an acre
have given full
stands, though from ten to twenty are more
satisfactory.
From
twenty to thirtypounds are required for successful
stands in humid
regions or on soils in poor condition.
Drills are
almost
of
universallyused. Nurse
crops
barley, oats, or wheat may,
or
not, be desirable.
may
They are necessary only on very hard or very loose soils.
In Algeriarow
cultivation pays, but in American
hayfields
it is not used, except in small platsplanted for seed.
283.

Treatment

with

during growth.

"

Some

or
spike-tooth,spring-tooth,

farmers

disk

harrows

row
harin

Principlesof Agronomy

The

264

fall.

springor

Insects,disease,or weeds

Light applications of
all soils in
on
irrigation

special attention.
on

pay

and

some,

Irrigationwater

From

returns.

leading
coveringlargeareas

in

or

small

"

made

aid in

Over-irrigationmenaces
than one
since floodingfor more
day

with

"

difficult patches

over

arid sections.

which

either by floodingor in shallow furrows


the water

manure

are
applications

ten

to

one

farm

creased
forty inches brings in-

about

to

up

necessitate

may

streams.

tricts,
dis-

some

at

time may
considerable
a

plants and permit frost to do


injury. Fall, early spring, and winter irrigationare all
and mild winters.
water
important in regions of scarce
drown

the

Conservation

of rainfall is

fundamental

in

economy

all dry regions.


284.

time

Harvesting.

Under

"

may

conditions, the best

for hay is in early bloom.

the crop
follow the mower
to

normal

cut

almost

immediately

Rakes

directlyon

"

dry-farms and well-drained land.


Irrigatedalfalfa cures
of cutbest if piled in small cocks within a few hours
ting
the same
farmers
day if possible. In this way
"

can

save

the

leaves

than

valuable

more

swath-cured

hay suffers
piles.

moreover,

When
and

bull-rakes

the stems, which

on

are

used, hay

kinds

unload

of forks

and

the wagons,

which

entirely,though loaders
dry-farms, a ton to the
and

for the

six to

one-half
season

eight are

conditions.

tons

is

nets

are
acre
are

good

harvested

used

from

one

under
an

by

wagons.

acre

hand

almost

sections.

some

frequent.
return

on

several types of derricks

in

pays;

pact
com-

in heavy windrows

loaded

are

in

than

being loaded
and

the hay

rainy weather,

swath

cures

is pushed to the stack without

Various

two

in the

more

In

hay.

makes

and
Four

one-half
or

On
to

five tons

irrigation,
though
under

favorable

skill. Sheds

requiresmuch
not

of Agronomy
Principles

The

266

necessary

to stack

preferable,since it is

are

carefullyunder

cover.

loose in the
hay is fed on the farm or marketed
pressed
shipments are made, the hay is comvicinity.When
into bales weighing from 50 to 150 pounds. Baled
for market,
and loose hay are usually weighed on wagons
often measured.
Inaccuracy in
although stacks are
Most

Fig.

72.

"

Hay

should

be

fed

on

the

farm.

measuring due to variation in shape, regularity,and


in many
instances.
this to be unsatisfactory
densitycause
In palatability,
value.
286. Use
and
digestibility,
nutrition,and healthfulness,alfalfa hay leads. Some
horsemen
prefer timothy because alfalfa is laxative for
drivinghorses. A part of the preferencefor timothy is,
Work
animals need only moderate
however, due to custom.
grain ration when alfalfa is fed because of the high
It excels as roughage for dairy cows.
protein content.
"

Alfalfa

267

beef cattle,and
because
Ground

of

sheep. As silageit has


in compacting.
difficulty

hay is used

It wastes

in mixed

not

feeds

as

been

ful
success-

alfalfa meal.

less and

compounds in rations more


readily,
but otherwise it has no advantage over
hay.
Alfalfa pasturing is widely practiced in spite of the
leaves
danger of bloat to cattle and sheep. Dew-covered

by hungry stock may


injurious.Horses
prove
and
feed on
alfalfa pastures any
time.
If
hogs may
cattle are
left continuouslyon
the feed night and day,
is
danger diminishes but it never
disappears. Wisdom
in pasturing cattle and sheep on the growing
necessary
After haying, nearly all fields are
grazed over
crop.
Withered
stands need cause
alarm.
no
indiscriminately.
the alfalfa,
for it is
Extremely close pasturingweakens

eaten

stoloniferous and

not

287.

Mixtures

forms

no

true

sod.

generally detrimental

are

lessen the yield. On

in that

they

of

maturing at a different
qualityof the hay by introducing

account

time, they also hurt the


Orchardundesirable
beards.
or
woody stems
coarse,
timothy, Kentucky blue-grass, and Bermudagrass,

urally,
purposely or creep in natconsidered
but they are
and are
unsatisfactory
foxtail {Hordeum
weeds.
as
locallyknown
Squirrel-tail,
jubatum), dodder, sweet clover, yellow trefoil,
June-grass
trouble.' Thorough
quack-grass,and crab-grassall cause
harrowing and occasional plowing are the remedies for
are

grass

almost
288.

mixed

all weeds
Enemies.

leaf-spot,and
to

the

with

crop.

alfalfa

in alfalfa.
"

Besides

several minor
Rotation

and

Stem-blight, which
of the first crop only, can

them.

soon

as

the disease appears.

weeds, root-rot, stem-blight,


diseases do
cultivation

varying damage

largelycontrol

seriouslyattacks the stems


be controlled by cutting as

The

268

No

widespread
may

farming

are

Principlesof Agronomy
insect

does

Various
The

damage.

hoppers
Grass-

disregarded if fall-plowingand clean


practiced. Hibernations are thus destroyed.
be

Dodder

Swarms

constant

from

waste

lands

on

plants.

occasionally cause

traps for catching them


chalcis

alfalfa

have

fly has recentlydone

been

much

trouble.

devised.

seed

injuryin

Alfalfa
the West.

seed, and

It enters

269

the ovary
at bloom, lives inside the
by a small clear-cut hole in the pod

bores out

just before maturity.

Thrips also injurethe seed-crop

blooming time.

at

In

alfalfa leaf-weevil (Phytonomus

1905, the

appeared

in

the

over

Utah

and
and

state

has

into

posticus)

since spread rather


southern

and

Idaho

widely
western
south-

Small
larvae feed on
the
Wyoming.
green
growing buds, usually of the first crop, thus delaying
the second
and causing the third cutting to be
crop
small or lacking. If the first crop
is cut as soon
as
the

larvae appear
in numbers
sufRcient to do marked
injury,and if the land is thoroughly spring-toothed
followed

has

weighted brush-drag after the surface


dried, the weevil nearly disappearson that patch

for

the

by

of

rest

cultivation does
moisture

the
in

289.

Seed

destroyingweeds

by forming

opinion, the seed

Besides

season.

cannot

the

and

good

insects,it

mulch.

Contrary

the

insect into

carry

production is confined

which

almost

to
new

serves
con-

public
tricts.
dis-

entirely to

the
moisture
dry regions because constant
encourages
lessen seed bearing. Half
shoots which
growth of new
the seed produced is on irrigated
lands where
water
can
be
withheld.
of the rest.
Dry-farms produce most
in
of the seed.
Even
Second-crop alfalfa bears most
arid regions,
seed-producing sections are isolated valleys
Row
cultivation has given the best yields of
or
areas.
seed

on

Seed

arid farms.

some

alfalfa

generally ought to be thinly


Bumble
bees aid in cross
pollinationbut much
fertilization takes place.
Mowers
are

or

binders

cut

the

used to separate the straw

seed
from

stand

and

the seed.

sown.

self-

threshers
The

straw

The

270

chaff

and

from

for

used

are

from

weighing

Principles

of

From

feed.

sixty

Agronomy

READING

SUPPLEMENTARY

Book

of

Forage

Plants,

Forage

and

Alfalfa

in

Fiber
the

D.

Piper,

Livingston,

G.

Farmers'

194.

AUalfa

339.

Alfalfa.

373.

Irrigation

495.

Alfalfa

637.

The

F.

Hunt,

W.

Vol.

Bulletins

H.

pp.

Ariz.

Freeman,

Agriculture,
Farming,

A.

F.

278-293.

pp.

T.

America,

in

American

305-360.

pp.

G.

Crops

Irrigation

American

Coburn.

Wing.

Southwest,

of

Cyclopedia

No.

V.

Production,

Crop

S.

C.

D.

E.

J.

America,

in

U.

P.

Alfalfa,

Alfalfa

Field

harvested

are

acre.

an

The

bushels

twenty

pounds

seventy

to

to

one

II,

Olin,

pp.

Bui.

pp.

170-199.
No.

192-197.

141-169.

Seed.

of
Seed

Alfalfa.
Production.

Grasshopper

Problem

and

Alfalfa

Culture.

73.
'

CHAPTER

THE

CLOVERS

AND

is

important

Alfalfa

Ohio

and

The
fix

the

other

as

result

of

clover

in the

for
of red

old

on

first

clover

due

1909

is the

United

farms.

abnormal

an

remedied

It

it to
crop

important
As

place

leaving

have

forage.
able

are

to

high-feeding

leguminous

forage, it and

alfalfa

about

40

crop

timothy

third.

The

Some

attribute

this

little

"

to

clover

understood

pete
com-

acreage

from

cent

per

grown

1899

increasing difficulty of getting good

Greeks

century
the

end

cultivated

it

Massachusetts,
in

most

States.

and

near

Europe

all

cow-

{TrijoUum, pratense)

condition

thirteenth
was

also

North,

legume

hay, and

They

What

to

stands

sickness,"
but

partly

by long rotations.

Romans
the

important
or

it has

forage.
the

to

of

high protein.

diminished
the

to

the

clover

the

north

that

save

furnishing

red

CLOVER

RED

Red

Mississippi,

nitrogen.

atmospheric

value

the

yield seed

legumes

of

west

crop

is similarly important

and

South

LEGUMES

forage

in

West,

the

to

of

OTHER

teammate

is to
are

peas

clover

east

for

timothy
alfalfa

the

Red

Mississippi.
the

XXII

never

saw

red

clover.

is there

record

of

eighteenth

the

extensively.
where

mention

1750.
271

of its

Early
was

use

as

century
colonists
made

until

Not

of

forage.
before

carried
it

as

The

272

290.

Principlesof Agronomy

Description.

The

"

itself

confines

root-system

plowed soil sending a few roots down


four to six feet and occasionallyeight. A small crown
stems
sends up hairy, much-branched
bearing many
palmately compound leaves which are generally patterned
surface.
with white on the upper
Dense, globularflowerthe end of all branches.
heads rise from
Fifty to one
hundred
and fiftysmall blossoms varying from pale pink
The
whole plant presents
to red comprise these heads.
a
bushy appearance
part of which is covered with
every

largelywithin

the

fine hair.
to seed production.
seems
Cross-pollination
necessary
Bees aid greatlyin carrying pollen from plant to plant.

When

to

twenty
hollow

in

clover

solid stems.

time

as

earlier.

weeks

clover.

named

from

the strains
291.

in most

are

as

largersecond

alfalfa,red

clover

the

sections that

grow

and

in the United

clover blooms

with timothy

the states

as

the

at

In

use

blooms

crop

is sent

has

many

them.

"

States.

with

clover is

mammoth

Red
New

In

by

up

general
home.
is

clover
Zealand

all northeastern

leadingforage.

two

strains

alike,with each best in its own

Distribution

it ranks

height

clover,which

red

Like

much

From

is better,therefore,to

and

than

much

as

adaptation.
widely cultivated in Europe, Chile, and
well

heart-

cases

in

foot

Mammoth

timothy

timothy mixture

is about

variety known

has

same

red

red

stems;

large and

are

yellow to deep purple in color.


hundred
develop in one head.

one

Ordinary

seeds, which

from

shaped, vary

the

the

mature,

as

states,

In acreage,

followingorder : (1) New York,


(2) Iowa, (3) Missouri, (4) Michigan, (5) Wisconsin, (6)
Pennsylvania, (7) Illinois,
(8) Ohio, (9) Indiana, and (10)
Minnesota,
large state north of the Ohio and
every
stand

in the

-r-

Missouri

rivers and

east

of the

arid section.

This

area

The

274

Principlesof Agronomy

it will bloat sheep and

cattle.

In rotations it fixes atmospheric

nitrogen in the soil,which benefits the next crop


materially. Because of lastingonly two years, it enters
naturally into practicallyevery rotation where it can be
Disease-resistant
strains
and
better-planned
grown.
rotations seem
clover
to be much
needed, at least where
sickness
prevails.
"

"

OTHER

294.

much

Alsike

(Trifolium hybridum).

clover

like red clover

CLOVERS

that

save

it is smooth,

resistant,has lightpink flowers and


endure

water-loggingwith
"

where
295.

clover sickness
White

is common

habit

clover

in lawns

Alsike

"

"

much
and

brown

less

kill red

clover.

White

clover

"

pastures.

can

injury. It succeeds

{Trifolium repens).

and

cold-

more

seed, and

lands

wet

is

Because

of its creeping

of

growth, haying machinery cannot


gather it
readily. Acre-yieldsare small when harvested for hay,
since only the leaves and flower stalks can be gathered. A
clover is grown
Ladina
for hay in
variety known
as
northern Italy.
Since it has

creepinghabit, its stems hug the ground


rather closely. Roots
from
these branches
out
grow
A nearly fibrous root-system
givingthe plant a new start.
aids in forming sod,which helps to withstand tramping in
Wherever
cool weather
pastures and lawns.
prevails
and plenty of moisture is present, white clover thrives.
It
from

grows

exist,and
296.

Canada

Sweet

coarse

Cumarin

Mexico

where

these conditions

does well in shady places.


clover

biennial, having
and

to

stems

an

(Melilotus alba) is
abundance

which

become

givesthe plant a bitter

of

small

woody
taste

and

rank-growing
white

after
a

flowers

blooming.

characteristic

The

Clovers and

Other Legumes

275

odor that repelstock.

gen.
Being a legume, it is rich in nitroplant is deep-rooted,resists drouth, but can

The

also tolerate wet


and

cold

soils. It likewise withstands

both

heat

marked

soil,
on
degree. It grows
any
land
thrivingon roadsides,ditch banks, and on irrigated
cultivated.
In some
the
not
sections,it covers
carefully
mountain

to

sides.

Stock feed

places. Coarse woody stems


and bitter taste lessen its palatability.
If cut, however,
before blooming,the stems cure
in such a way
that they
soft and

are

on

it in waste

the bitterness is less intense.

Stock

like the

hay. Its wonderful

and good yieldsrecommend


adaptability
its cultivation in sections,where, for some
reason
neither alfalfa nor red clover is profitable.
297. Crimson
clover
(Trifolium incarnatum), much
grown
a

green

whence
South

in the

middle

cover-crop,

its

name.

Atlantic

bears
This

Southern

and

States

for

flaming crimson flower,'from

clover is

winter

annual

in the

sionally
springannual in the North, where it is occafound.
of the valuable
As a hay crop, it lacks some
hairs
propertiesof other clovers. It bears many
which, in the intestines of horses, occasionallyform balls
Dagger of bloat also
causing death to the animal.
accompanies its use
as
desirable
a
pasture. Despite these unit is widely used as feed; for green
qualities,
manure

or

and

and

rotation it is valuable.

clover, berseem, shaftal


Hungarian clover, Mexican
Persian clover,yellow trefoil,
nish
and the bur clovers fursome
foragein small districts.

FIELD-PEAS

298.

known

{Pisum arvense)

often
Descriptionand adaptation. The field-pea,
the Canada field-pea,
resembles the garden pea
as
"

276

The

that it is

Principlesof Agronomy

thriftyand has longer stems, larger


leaves,violet instead of white flowers,and smoother and
save

more

In depth, the root-system


smaller seed.
seldom
slightly
from one
exceeds three feet,while the stems
to ten
vary
feet in length. The stems, which are
hollow, stand upright
in the earlypart of the season
flatten down
but soon
of the length of the vines.
On
the whole,
account
on
the plant is smooth
and rather succulent, covering the
ground almost completely in good growth, or climbing
nal
of tendrils at the termiplant stalks and frames by means
division of pinnately-branchedleaves. Being an annual,
and matures
it grows
rapidlyin 75 to 110 days. Earliness, color of flower,shape of pods, variation in seed, and
about a hundred
length of vine factor in differentiating
of which are favorites in one placeand some
varieties,
some

All of them, however, do best in cool, moist

in another.

climates

and

adapted to
the

sam,e

them.

heavy loam

on

the

soils. On

conditions

same

sections,often in the

Southern

Canada

oats,

as

of

the

being

field-peas
grow
fields mixed

same

and

account

Northern

in

with
States

produce most of the crop, though many


high valleysin
the West
yield fairly well. Ontario, Michigan, and
Excessive heat,
Wisconsin, in order, lead in acreages.
which peas cannot
withstand, prevents their cultivation
south of Maryland.
of food in the large
The
abundance
299. Sowing.
seed permitsfairlydeep sowing
from one
to four inches,
seed-bed.
even
on
a
coarse
Fall-plowingin the North
renders possibleearly sowing, since the pea has considerable
frost resistance and may
be seeded as soon
as
heavy
"

"

frosts

are

over

and

as

soon

as

the condition

of the land

permits.
Farmers
three and

commonly

plant from

one-half bushels

an

acre

one

and

one-half

when

peas

are

to

planted

Clovers and

The

alone.

If

usually from
half to

with

sown

and

one

to

one

of oats
some

and

Culture

and

contact

not
come

one-

On

sown.

bushel

one

time, but
ing.
broadcast-

even

the

peas

are

in rows,
Three to

grown
up.

irrigation
water, where

intervals of from

at

are

Since

"

littlecultivation is given after they


six inches of

from

of peas and
drilled at the same

harvesting.

for hay,

are

bushels
are

mechanical

sensitive to

277

and

favor separate planting or

persons

300.

of peas
of oats

bushels

two

Both

they often

as

bushels

one-half

used.

are

oats,
two

land, about
irrigated

Other Legumes

used, may be applied


several weeks, depending on

to

one

physicalcompositionand condition of the soil and on


the needs of the crop.
The shading and heavy lodging
undesirable on
of the crop render over-irrigation
more
clays or clay loams not underlaid with subsoil than in
vested
harPeas grown
alone are
sandy or gravelly areas.
before they begin
for hay by cuttingwith a mower
cured like alfalfa. For hay, oatto ripen,and they are
and-pea mixtures are cut when the oats are in soft doUgh,
with
and they are handled as other hay ; for seed,mowers
lifts
attachments
for pilingthe vines are used, or a man
the

the swath

aside

shell out

the peas.

from

the

concaves

pods

and

301.

that the horses and

so

Grain

nutritious.

Dairy

the peas.

When

cows,

cattle, sheep, and

beef

rapid growth

protein which

it because

on

it contains.

it is mixed

all classes of livestock do

Then,

threshers,with teeth removed

Pea hay, if properlycured, is palatableand

"

relish it and make

annual

will not

prevent breakingthe seed, separate

to

vines from

Use.

machine

with
well

sowing prevents its


too, the green

vines

more
are

Horses
oats
on

or

use

hogs

dant
of the abunit advantageously.

beardless barley,

necessity of
for hay.
general use
good for soiling,while
it.

The

The

278

hogs and
a

animals

pasture

it to

advantage.

The

it valuable
the green vines makes
Refuse vines and pods from factories

palatabihtyof

extreme

in

other

Principlesof Agronomy

mixed

ration.

garden peas are valuable feed if preserved in


stacks or silos. Fruit-growers
and others who want
green
find peas good in spite of the fact that shallow
manure
rootinglessens their sub-soilingvalue.
that

can

{Phaseolusspecies)(Fig.74)

BEANS

302.
as

peas,

Beans

Description.

"

and

though there

are

belong to

the

several genera

same

most

family
of them

The plants have a shallow


belong to the genus Phaseolus.
semi-tap root-system, rather erect
stems, broad,
hairy leaves,and long tendrils. The flowers vary through
whites, yellows,and blues; the pods are generallylong;
the seeds may
be practically
color or shape. In size
any
and one-half inches
they vary from one-eighth to one
in length. Nearly all varieties are smooth.
Unlike
beans
cannot
withstand
frost. They
peas,
resemble
in that a slightfrost not only retards but
corn
stops growth. On this account, they are limited to sections
that have four months
free from frost,that is,from
about the middle
of May
to the middle
of September.
Michigan and New York produce 60 per cent of the beans
in the United States.
consin
California,
Florida,and Wisgrown
also heavy growers.
are
Cool, moist climates
and rich, loamy soils promote
the greatest development,
but
under
resist fairly hot, dry
irrigationthey may
weather.
may

be

Loose,

warm,

displacedby

well-drained

poorer

ones,

soils rich in lime

though

at

cost

of

high

yield.
303.

Culture.

seed-bed

"

that

Fall-plowingprepares
is best for beans.

the warm,
Fine manure

low
melalso

The

Clovers and

Other

Legumes

279

planting permits spring-plowing, which


helps. Late
ought not, however, to be delayed until just before planting
as

and

is often the case, since too much moisture evaporates


the soil does not become
firm for good
sufficiently

Fig.

74.

"

good

crop

of field beans.

germination. From a peck to a bushel an acre is planted


by hand, by planter, or by grain drill with the width
of the holes. Planters can
regulatedby stopping some
drop the beans in hills or in drill-rows.
show well, cultivation should begin
the rows
As soon
as

The

280

Principlesof Agronomy
soil and

weeds, and

kill

in order

to

loosen the

continue

at

intervals until the vines become

it should

large that

so

they would catch on the cultivator. Cultivation should


of irrigation
be given after every application
water, which
be

may

used

quantitiesfrom

in moderate

to

one

five

six times.

or

As

soon

the

as

beans

are

enough

mature

to

prevent

shrinkage,they may be cut and stacked to avoid loss from


shelling,which they do at complete maturity. Twoers
bean cutters make harvestingeasy, while bean threshrow
simplify threshing. An
ordinary grain thresher,
slowed down
tory
to avoid
splittingthe beans, does satisfacwork.
Beans
fairlywell but are not widely
pay
have
to
They seem
gained gradually in the
grown.
last few years, having been introduced
into many
tricts
disin which
not
formerly grown.
they were
Nearly
all experiment stations in the West give favorable reports
for some
because there
variety,but this is not surprising,
varieties that they are adaptable to widely
are
so
many
different conditions.
304.

Use.

canned.

"

They

grain when

as
seem

have

to

the

green

Beans

sell well

have

considerable

ground
a

and

laxative

mixed

the

use
some

cured

market, dried

feedingvalue
with

effect when

plants are

pastured. To whatever
they always fix

on

or

for stock

other

feeds ; they
times
Somefed alone.

for hay

or

they

may

be

the

vest,
plants are put after harnitrogen in the soil during

growth.

COWPEAS

(Vigna Sinensis

V. Cat.

jarg)(Fig.75.)

Cowpeas are not peas at all,but


from the garden bean in that they have
beans, differing
long, wrinkled pods, generallylong, trailingvines, and
305.

Description.

and

"

'

The

282

Principlesof Agronomy

the crop has grown


is to the West, and
to the

are

peas

much

in

what

South

importance.

alfalfa

What

red clover is to the North,


of

leguminous forage crop

cow-

high

rotation
value.
Cotton
lands
feeding, pasture, and
need
rotation badly and such a one
will support
a
as
livestock.
In this,cowpeas
excel, for they furnish large
yields,good pasture, and abundant organicmatter whether
fed

or

used

numbers

as

of livestock, so

depend largelyon
306.
not

Culture.

alone, or mixed
and

of greater

for the

necessary

Well-worked

"

essential.

an

acre

with

South, will

or

and
to three

drilled ; planted

or

Johnson-grass,millet,
is for forage it is cut

corn,

its chief value

in the field

cured

seed-beds, warm
From
two pecks

broadcasted

are

sorghum,

soybeans. Since

green

maintenance

this crop.

water-logged,are

bushels of seed

or

The

manure.

green

racks

on

permits. Ripened seed is hand-picked

the weather

as

or

threshed

from

the vines.

Cowpea hay seems


equal if not superiorto red clover,
and is nearly as nutritious as alfalfa for cattle, sheep,
and hogs. As pasture, it has considerable value, especially
when
to be
planted in corn fields late in the season
"

Fig. 79.

hogged-off." Note
"

(Soja max)

SOYBEANS

307.

in

Description.

but they
general,

hairy. The
tap-root

flat,and
In
"

side

branches.

few

white

to

height, the

seed

most

tawny;
two

purple;

plant
to

the
is

feet

fields present

of

beans

and

more

well-developed

Blossoms

vary

in

usually short,
flat,smooth, and oily.
pods

varies from

three

other

woody,

erect, more

more

consists

height, the

feet, but

are

resemble

root-system

with

color from

Soybeans

"

are

six inches

is most

compact

common.

appearance

to

several
At
on

this
ac-

The

Clovers and

Other

of

count

entire

prolific
branching.
plant dies, since it is an

Both

the

climatic

and

Legumes

When

the

283

ripens,the

seed

annual.

soil

requirementsfor soybeans
rather closely,except that
approximate those for corn
frosts are
not
nearly so injurious.Warm,
moderately
moist growing-seasonsand warm,
loose, soils rich in lime
best. Like all other legumes, the right kind of bacteria
are
be in the soil to secure
luxuriant growth.
must
308. Culture.
ally
Well-prepared seed-beds aid materiin early germination. Seed is commonly
planted
during May at the rate of twenty to thirty pounds an
"

in drilled

acre

favorable

most
as

soon

depth.

the

as

From

rows.

Shallow

show

rows

two

to

four inches

cultivation

plainly,and

seems

may

continue

the

begin
until

the size of the

vator.
plants prevents the use of horse and cultiWeeds
fore,
injurethe crop seriouslyand must, therebe kept out.
The
plan of irrigationfor cowpeas
the same
that for field beans.
is practically
as
When
used for hay the time to cut is just as pods form.
The rake ought to follow the mower
closelyin order to
drying too quickly. Curing
prevent the leaves from
is best done

get too

in the

hard

and

hogs,for

the

stems

as

cock, because

the

nor

the

stems

leaves over-brittle.

do

not

then

Cattle, sheep,

which

the crop is best adapted, do not relish


of corn,
they do softer food. Mixtures

sorghum, millet, and

increase

the

yield,
but not
is naturally high. Hogs,
the quality,which
do well on
soybean pastures. For seed,
particularly,
cowpeas,

the crop

is handled

as

are

MISCELLANEOUS

309.

field beans.

LEGUMES

Of the many
kinds of vetches,
(Vicia)
vetch and hairy, or winter,vetch are
fremost

Vetch

"

common

grass

284

The

quently grown

for forage. These

winter

Principlesof Agronomy
plants are

annuals

and

annuals,

respectively. The
are
root-systems
branching and only moderately deep ; the stems are long
leaves are
vines; the numerous
finely divided ending
in tendrils.
on

are

flowers

Purple

in compact

borne

are

masses

pedicel; flat,bro"d pods bear small dark seeds which


fairlyhard.
Hairy vetch is covered with abundant

velvet-like hairs.
vetch

Common
do not

does

cold.

in cool, moist

well

climates

that

Pacific Coast

regionsare favorable.
Hairy vetch does well in temperate regions that favor
soft winter
wheats.
It seems
adapted to these regions
of being fairlydrouth-resistant.
account
on
From
forty to sixty pounds of seed will sow
an
acre
get very

drilled

whether

which

grass,

help

recommended

broadcasted.

or

support the

to

for

pasture

and

Mixing with oats or


tangled vines,is usually
method
of
hay. The

curing vetch hay differs but littlefrom that of alfalfa.


The hay is fine and palatable,especiallyfor cows
and
sheep. Horses like it less than clover, alfalfa,or peas
of its extreme

account

on

it is good.

the

than

Farmers

cut.

of

expense

310.

Other

South

may

For

soilingand silage
planting and mediocre yields make
for only one
full crop can
be
alfalfa,

Annual

it less valuable

softness.

their

grow

own

seed, thus

reducing

planting.
legumes.

"

Peanuts

are

grown

in

the

for

hog pasture and for nuts.


Tangier peas,
ochrus, fenu-greek,lupines,serradella,
lespedeza or Japan
clover, velvet beans, Florida beggar weed, jackbeans,
mung

beans, moth

kudju,
grasspeas

and

the

legumes

bird's-foot
are

Old
and

used

beans, hyacinth beans,

guar,

sanfoin,

trefoil, astragalus, chickpeas, and


in various

World
valuable

for hay
as

parts of the United

States

They are all


nitrogen gatherers and for feed,
or

pasture.

The

but

they

clovers,

be

for

urged

of

are

and
in

growing

the

and

Other

secondary

beans,

peas,

to

seem

Clovers

importance

Plants,

Field

Crops,

Field

Crop

Forage

and

285

importance

and

alfalfa, the

to

Vetch

cowpeas.

and

soybeans
much

are

cowpeas

South.

SUPPLEMENTARY

Forage

Legumes

C.

V.

Piper,

Wilson

and

361-570.

pp.

Warburton,
G.

Production,
Fiber

READING

Crops

Livingston,

in

294-322.

253-277,

pp.

T.

America,

390-412.

355-374,

pp.

F.

Hunt,

pp.

140-173,

201-

374.

Forage

Crops,

Cyclopedia
260-267,
U.

S. D.
No.

A.

E.

B.

Voorhees,

of American

Agriculture,

467-469,

510-514,

Farmers'

Bulletins

224.

Canadian

Field

237.

Lime

260.

Seed

289.

Beans.

318.

Cowpeas.

323.

Clover

441.

Lespedeza

455.

Red

485.

Sweet

515.

Vetches.

529.

Vetch

550.

Crimson

561.

Bean

of

Farming

235-349,

on

5-7.

pp.

and

the

its

Impurities.

Jack

Sandy

Lands

of the

North.

Clover.

Clover.

Clover.

Growing
Clover

Growing

Northern
579.

206-212,

pp.

658-660.

Japan

or

II,

Peas.

Clover

Red

Vol.

582-586,

Clover,

and

231-274.

167-208,

pp.

Crimson

in the
:

in

Idaho.

Clover.

South

Growing
Eastern

Atlantic
the

States.

Crop.

Washington,

Oregon

and

XXIII

CHAPTER

GRASSES

To

the

grass

in

structure

as

to

76.

great
to

The

"

size

this

useful

valuable

in

as

wide

family.

light

Among
In

fact, the

plants, since

and

with

them

are

of

them
286

are

the

reach

hay

crop.

species belong
of

probably
classed

larger

which

handling

many
are

grasses

with

filled

Thousands

gigantic,

and

corn,

in

machinery

usefulness

and

grass

partly

sorghums,

of

use

size

in

similar

plants

of

host

lawn

gap

climates.

some

plants.

widely

so

timothy,

effective

Between

is

bamboo
such

grasses

varying

unrelated.

seem

tree-like

Fig.

yet

belongs

family

our

our

all the

most
most

cereal

Grasses

of the

most

crops,

few

legumes, and
In addition, some
plants, as
furniture and

forage and

287

pasture plants except

of the range

most

prairieplants.

and

lawns, as ornaspecies serve


man
as
mental
weaving material, and as packing for

other breakable

commodities.

Some

writers class with the grasses all hay and


plants, clover and alfalfa as well as members
"

Fig.

77.

"

covered

haystack

in the

humid

Graminese,

or

be

treated

here.

the
are

grain,the hay, and the pasture crops.


weeds.
useful,since some
worst
are
our

are

fundamental

fibrous

stems

hollow
leaves

of the

section.

family. Only the true grasses will


useful of these are
Among the most
Not

The

all grasses

hay crops

prosperity. Methods of
shown in Figs. 76 to 78.

to the nation's

crops

well

are

root-system

composed of
or

pasture

grass

handling these
A

nodes

filled with

claspingthe culm

with

or

without

and

internodes

porous

pith

for

save

distance

which
at

above

rootstocks;
are

the

either

nodes;

the node

The

288

from

which

veined

Principlesof Agronomy

they spring and

blades;

branched

in narrow,
parallelbearing seed with a

terminate

head

closely-bornecovering : these are the important structural


characteristics of the grass family. The foragegrasses are
timothy, redtop, orchard-grass,brome-grass,blue-grass,
fescues, wheatJohnson-grass, oat-grasses, rye-grasses,

FiG.

grasses,

78.

"

good

meadow-foxtail, and

mentioned

are

much

more

of forage well

supply

few

stacked.

others.

important

than

The
the

first five
others.

(Phleum pratense)

TIMOTHY

Timothy originatedin the Old World where a number


from
of wild speciesare found.
The name
probably came
land
Timothy Hansen, who introduced the crop into Maryfrom New
England.
311.
like
Timothy bears a slender, spikeDescription.
inches in length on
to twelve
a
panicle from one
slender culm
three to
to six feet in height. From
one
As the
eight leaves branch off from the upright stem.
the plant does not
not
roots are
strongly stoloniferous,
"

The

290

having

crop

Principlesof Agronomy

increases

matter

seed.

small

very

both

Well-decayed organic
Fallfertility.

and

moisture

the surface; winter


plowing permits frost to mellow
storms
dampen and firm the seed-beds for springplanting.
half the crop of the
the fall with winter wheat for

United

About

is

States

nurse

sown

In this

crop.

in
case

drops the seed just in front of,


or
just behind, the shoes of the drill. A lightharrowing
the seed, though Piper ^ thinks deeper planting
covers
a

seed attacliment

grass

would

be

better.

The

order to germinate, and

seeds

touch

must

should

be

moist

planted

from

soil in
a

half

and
depth depending on the season
soil. Seed may
also be planted in the fallwithout a nurse
and
in spring with, or
without, a ntirse crop.
crop,
of the wheelbarrow
Broadcastingboth by hand and by means
seeder is much
practiced. Irrespectiveof the
used in planting,the farmer should sow
method
about
fifteen pounds of seed to the acre.
In some
sections,corn
or
potato land is prepared by a
thorough harrowing without previous plowing. In most
sections, however, fall-plowing,
spring-harrowing, and
inch

to

inch

one

in

quent
Fredrill-sowinggive the most
satisfactorystands.
lands that have good drainage.
on
irrigations
pay
ble
to the stubHeavy applicationsof farmyard manure

Where

pay.

make

manures

mixtures

but it does

deteriorate

not

the soft
later

The
same

dough stage.
harvestingseason

hay

day

Clover

profitablereturns.

most

this purpose.
ought to be cut

used, nitrogenous

serve

Timothy

fertilizers are

commercial

cures

This

as

'

as

the blossoms

rapidly-until the

than

for any

cases

many

In humid

Piper, Forage Plants,

other

fall,

seed reaches

enables the farmer

readily,being in

that it is cut.

soon

to

utilize

foragecrop.

hauled

on

the

sections,tedders,sidep.

130.

Grasses

291

deliveryrakes,and loaders are widely used ; in the West,


it is handled
largelyas alfalfa. Derricks are used to
build stacks and

The

tracks to fillbarns.

most

seed.

Grain

crop,

which

is threshed

firstcrop bears

commonly harvest the seed


in an
ordinary separator with

binders

specialsieves.
of
important use
timothy is for hay, since the pastures yieldbut littlefeed
under tramping. As a silageor a
and the sod weakens
soilingcrop it is littleused. Though the standard hay
crop of America, its intrinsic feed value is less than that
of its lackingthe high
of the clovers or alfalfa on account
314.

Use

and

3.

Acreage

Table

value.

"

The

Yields

and

States.

United

most

of

Foeage

(From

Crops

in

the

Piper.)

Per

Crop

Cent

Timothy (alone)

....

clover

Red

(alone)

Timothy

clover

and

(mixed) '
Timothy (total)
Red clover (total)
.

31.2

....

15.9
.

12.2

Alfalfa

Cereals for hay


Other

tame

5.5
....

grasses

4.3
.

Sorghums

3.2

Millet

1.6

Cowpeas

1.1

Canada

.3

peas

Kentucky blue-grass
Brome-grass
All other tame

Wild

.8
.

.1

.6

grasses

18.9

grasses

Taken

as

half clover and

half timothy

when

grown

in mixture.

The

292

Principlesof Agronomy

of legimies. Common

protein content

little

vary

grasses

of curease
ing,
digestibility.
Palatability,
seed production,healthfulness,and
ing
yieldprolific
determine what grass is most
to grow.
profitable
power
Timothy excels other grasses in these qualities.Market
demands
influence price; the prejudice of farmers and
stockmen
also plays a part, often not
an
insignificant
one.
Timothy has an advantage also in that it is the
standard
market
stockmen
hay, and that many
prefer
in food

value

or

in spiteof the fact that it surpasses


it to clover and alfalfa,
them only for feedingdriving horses.
315.

insect injury;

greatest harm,
to

be

thin

so

"

however,

long without

too

sown

some
Bill-bugsand joint-worms cause
infest the plant. The
rust and
smut
a

Enemies.

as

rotation.

to reduce

Redtop

"

is more

the stand

causes

(Agrostisalba)

Description.
reddish

This

leaving meadows

yieldsmaterially.

REDTOP

316.

from

comes

of

appearance

is
a

so

called from

the distinctly

field of it in bloom.

than timothy, its stems


long-lived

are

It

slender

more

but

but
tougher, its leaves finer,its sod more
compact
more
shallow,and its paniclemuch more
spreading. The
seeds are small, light,
triangularin shape, and generally

grayish-brownin
roots

317.

wet

from

sod

compact

of decumbent

is

result of

stems

sending

the nodes.
As

redtop withstands
ging
water-logmarked
to
a
degree, it replacestimothy on very
land, sometimes
growing in sloughs or bottom-lands
Adaptation.
"

in which
much

The

rootstocks,and

numerous

out

color.

water

cold

as

stands

part of the

timothy and

parts of the United

States

heat.

more

and

year.

as

It resists as
It grows

far north

as

in all
Alaska.

Grasses

It has

293

extremely wide adaptabilityin regard to soils,


provided they are wet.
Strange to say, when once
tablished
esan

it resists considerable
318.

Culture.

"

Pastures

nearly always contain

top in mixtures, but seldom


itself. Since

fiftypounds

in

planted,from

in mixtures.

common

does it form

seed varies much


are

drouth.

Much

fields grown

red-

by

from two
to
viability,
to ten
pounds being

two

of it

on

land

wet

is started

by broadcastingthe seed, often without any cultivation,


whatever.
For hay, it is handled
gated
as
timothy. In irriplaces.
pastures, it occupies the wettest
319. Value
and use.
As feed, it is much
less palatable
than timothy or blue-grass,
but because of being
able to endure water-logging
and tramping it is valuable.
acid for blue-grass
It grows
well on soils too wet
too
or
and timothy, and grows
wild on many
of the boggy range
In lawns
lands,where it supplements the native grasses.
it forms a fairlysmooth
unless
sod, but becomes coarse
kept well cut.
"

On

the market

it is considered

the

no

price of which it
particularobjectioncan

KENTUCKY

an

adulterant

lessens.

As

be made

to

BLUE-GRASS

the

thy,
of timo-

yield is fair,

it.

{Poa pratensis)

Kentucky
blue-grass is marked
by its smooth, firm sod, fine stems, and blue-colored
leaves,which end without a distinct point. The panicle
320.

Description.

"

eral
maturity. There are sevis
but the only other common
one
blue-grasses,
be told
Canada
blue-grass(Poa compressa), which may
by its sparsity of leaves,tough stem, and compressed
being
panicle. It yields less than Kentucky blue-grass,

is loose and

turns

considered

weed

whitish

on

at

that account.

The

294

321.

Principlesof Agronomy
Apparently

Adaptation.
"

no

degree of

cold

kills this grass,


when

even

adapted

to

wherever
that

though it loses vigor in hot summers


abundant
is supplied. Naturally
water
regions,it thrives in this zone
temperate

sufficient moisture
rich in lime.

are

It

can

falls

on

endure

well-drained
neither

soils

aciditynor

water-logging.Nearly all of the seed grown in the United


States is produced on a few hundred
miles near
square
Lexington,Kentucky, which is in the heart of the Bluegrass Region.
of the low vitality of the
322. Cultixre.
Because
seed, heavy seeding is required for good stands. If
be needed.
sown
alone, forty pounds may
Usually
smaller quantitiesin mixtures.
the farmer sows
In many
due to persistentspreading by means
of
cases
blue-grass,
rootstocks,will drive out other crops, leaving nearly a
straightstand. Fine, moist soils,well mixed with humus,
"

best.

are

The

seed is 'most

Better
them

with

crops

may
on

323.

stands may

straw,
or

may

soil and
Use

and

or

often broadcasted
be had

on

lawns

and

rowed.
har-

by covering

Nurse
by shading in another way.
not
pends
help in field culture. This de-

climatic conditions.

Blue-grassyieldslittle forage
that may
be gathered for hay. As a pasture plant, it is
is most
king in America, though meadow-foxtail
popular
in England. Mixed
with white clover, Kentucky bluegrass

forms

value.

"

the

the best lawns

best pastures in this country and also


in the North
and West.
Bermuda-grass,

however, supplants it in the South.


Its popularity for pasture is not
without
reason.
Though yields are small, it is so aggressive that bare
filled. It gains rather than loses under
soon
spots are
All animals
heavy pasturing, if it gets sufficient moisture.
fond of the grass when it is green.
When
are
dry it

Grasses

is much

295

less desirable,however.

In

fresh
palatability,
blue-grassexcels all others, with the possibleexception
of smooth
of its aggressiveness,
brome-grass. On account
it is a bad weed in clover and alfalfa fields. The legumes
yield much
more
heavily, and suffer when
blue-grass
in, since it eventually crowds them out, unless
creeps
frequentharrowings or occasional rotations follow.

(DactyKs glomerata)

ORCHAKD-GRASS

324.

rather
of the
known
devoid

Orchard-grass is a deep-rooted,
The shape
rank-growing,bunchy, yet leafygrass.
it is
paniclesuggests a cock's foot,by which name
in England. Bunching is due to vigorous roots
Description.

of stolons.

"

Tufts sometimes

two

feet

across

cause

places. These
decidedly rough surface, bare in many
tufts are stronglynetted by means
of many
tough, fibrous
roots.
Undoubtedly, the plant roots three or four feet
deep in favorable soil.
Heat
325. Adaptation.
injures orchard-grass less
than it does timothy or blue-grass,
but cold hurts it much
more
seriously.The natural place for its cultivation
is just south of the timothy belt. It is to be regretted
that timothy has gained such a hold that other useful
oat-grass, and brome-grass,
grasses, such as orchard-grass,
tried in regionstoo warm
not
too
were
or
dry for the
greatest development of timothy. Porous, well-drained,
fertile soils permit orchard-grassto make
best growth.
considerable
moisture
to
The plant uses
advantage,
it can, with the help of deep
though, when necessary,
"

roots, endure

injurethe
326.

land

crop

rather
to

Cultiu"e.

for

"

sowing,

severe

drouths.

As

shade

does

not

great extent, it does well in orchards.


Similar

and

care

method

preparation of the
of scatteringthe seed,

as

to

296

The

should be observed

Principlesof Agronomy

in that
as
orchard-grass
Both springand fall plantingsucof the other grasses.
ceed.
Fall planting should take place early enough to
growth before winter; springplantinggives
permit some
but is
the ground has become
best results when
warm
stilldamp.
alone for hay, from twenty-five to forty
When
sown
commonly, from four
pounds of seed are used. More
Patches grown
to ten pounds are
planted in mixtures.
for seed requirea stand only half as thick as hayfields.
Orchard-grassmakes the best hay when cut in early
woody very rapidly,thus
bloom, as the stems become
this grass
matures
decreasing palatability.Because
other grasses,
mixtures
several days before most
are
of the variation
usually unsatisfactoryfor hay on account
in time of cutting. Harrowing and
manuring help
and to prevent the growth of excessively
to keep up yields
water
to
large bunches.
Applicationsof irrigation
up
thirty or forty inches pay in the West, though smaller
in proportionto the water
used.
quantitiesyield more
and use.
327. Value
Orchard-grass yields about as
much
second growth, which
hay as timothy and more
consists largelyof leaves,making it valuable for fall pasturage.
Since it beginsgrowth early,it also affords considerable
and continuous
springpasturage. Where severe
tramping injuresthe roots, bare spots appear at intervals.
Other grasses are needed to keep a good sod in pastures.
is coarse
and woody ;
Hay from over-ripeorchard-grass
unless very
of
carefullycured it lacks the palatability
shortness
of the
timothy or blue-grass.The
period
during which it may be cut and stillmake good hay is
drawback.
a decided
Early maturity, on the other hand,
aids in keeping down
in the crop
weeds
and permits
pasturingof the fields.
in the

"

case

of

The

298

Principlesof Agronomy

satisfactory.From
are
ten to twenty pounds an
acre
plantedfor hay and from
Because the seed clogs the drill
four to ten for pasture.
holes,farmers usuallybroadcast and cross harrow it.
When
it is once
established,
harrowing improves
severe
wheat, is,however, probably

more

preventing the fields from becoming sodtain


bound.
help to mainApplicationsof barnyard manure
yields on fields five or six years old. Moderate
beneficial. By carewater
are
ful
quantities of irrigation
localities
handling,the crop ought to succeed in some
the dry-farm.
on
For hay, the grass is cut just
and use.
331. Value
its growth by

"

after full bloom


of green

and

cured

leaves makes

is alfalfa.

as

curing

abundance

difficult than

is the

regionsin which it is
this objectionin part by offering
largelygrown overcome
where
bright haying weather.
Brome-grass will cure
alfalfa does.
The
high percentage of leaves to stems
gives the forage an invitinglook and a desirable softness.
The grass is probably more
nutritious and a higheryielder
than other common
Its great palatability
causes
grasses.
stock to relish it highly.
Pastures of brome-grass wear
well, furnish much
feed,
and grow
early as well as late. Some investigations
suggest
case

with

other grasses.

that

it be

alfalfa is used

done,
In

as

grasses

The

more

The

arid

mixed

with

alfalfa for pasture.

Where

for hay

and

thrives, this should

not

be

ered.
yieldless and the value of alfalfa is low-

spite of the

of brome-grass,it
good qualities
Not
undesirable.
about it
enough is known
may
prove
it advisable to plant great areas
to make
with impunity.
ers
However, it promises so well as to deserve a trial. Farmmany

should try the grass in small areas, or get advice from


their Experiment Station, or from growers
in their neigh-

Grasses

borhood

299

before

sowing extensive fields. Brome-grass


varies widely. Keyser of Colorado found 121 variations.
Wisdom
in selecting
the correct
variety for hay or pasture
lead to unqualified
on
irrigatedor dry-farms may
with this

success

new

crop.

OTHER

332.

Tall meadow

GRASSES

is
oat-grass {Arrhenatherum elatius)

erect-growing perennial bunch

an

under

the

that

grass

thrives

stands
orchard-grass.It withmore
heat, more
drouth, but lessfrost than timothy.
in American
It does not
for much
count
agriculture
and other parts of
at present, but ranks high in France
Europe, where it is grown for hay. When
heavily pastured,
it weakens
cupied
rapidlybecause of inabilityto fillunocsoil,due to its lack of rootstocks. Its long life
increases its value to some
extent.
Perhaps, it may find
for timothy and brome-grass,
some
regions too warm
too gravellyand
too dry for other common
grasses where
farmers need such a crop-plant.
in either fall or
Oat-grass is sown
spring without a
nurse

crop

same

conditions

because

it cannot

as

endure

shade

on
degree. Heavy seeding is necessary
low viabilityof seed.
Eighty pounds

used

when

the crop

is grown

alone.

in mixtures
twenty pounds are sown
with alsike clover,or with both.

bitter taste

lessens the

to

account
are

More
with

any

marked
of the

frequently
often about

orchard-grass,

palatabilityconsiderably.
If cutting is delayed till after bloom, the culms
get
A yieldslightly
higherthan that of the ordinary
woody.
its poor quality.
grasses partly counterbalances
in
333. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon Dactylon)is valuable
lawn
and pasture in the South.
It is an
exceedingly

The

300

strong sod-former

Principlesof Agronomy
often serving effectively
in

preventing

unprotectedsoils. Wherever moisture abounds


it resists tramping and
and regular frosts do not occur,
in early spring. Lawns
in the
continuously save
grows
almost
South
are
universallyof this grass, which keeps
but isbrown in winter and earlyspring.
green in hot summer
stands are
Little seed is produced ordinarily.New
started by planting small pieces of sod in furrows on a
erosion

on

firm, moist

seed-bed.

for fields and

apart each way

diskingopens
When

used

one

become

be

two

to

three feet

foot for lawns.

the sod causing a

up

fields have

when

should

These

Heavy

vigorousgrowth

more

sod-bound.

cutting is small, but with

for hay, each

growths
make
a
however, successful
high total yield. In many
cases,
hay crops are not produced. In feeding value,
of its aggressive
it is very similar to timothy. Because
fields.
underground stems, it is a bad weed in many
fertile soil and

warm,

eradicate it,men

To

frost.

or

growing

have

Smothering it with
crop

climate, several

the grass recommend


plowing just preceding dry, hot weather

shallow

who

moist

is sometimes

studied

cowpeas

or

some

other rank-

successful.

{Holcics halepensis)is a coarse,


ing
Producbroad-leaved
grass closelyrelated to sorghum.
both seed and largerootstocks abundantly, it spreads
of irrigationditches in warm
sections
rapidly by means
such as
the South, Arizona, and
southern California.
belt.
Johnson-grass succeeds anywhere in the cotton
In fact,it not only succeeds but usurps fields unless it is
carefullyguarded against. Difficultyof eradication has
caused farmers to regard it as a noxious weed, in spiteof
334.

Johnson-grass

the fact that it is probably the best hay grass in the South,
If
five tons
as
frequentlyyielding as much
a
year.
cut

young,

the

quality of hay is fair,but pastures

are

Grasses

only medium
when

because

the

301

succulent

it is grazed closely. Stock

rootstocks

weaken

occasionallybeen
fatallypoisoned as they are sometimes by sorghum.
Freezing of the soil below six inches in depth kills the
plant. Where
growth is vigorous, eradication is best
accomplishedby plowing before frost or drouth and then

plantingthe
such

pest, such
335.

soil to

oats

that is to be intenselycultivated,

crop

cotton,

as

as

to

or

and

that will smother

crop

the

vetch.

Miscellaneous

grasses,

small

Two

"

fescues,meadow-grass, and
cultivated in various

have

rj'c-grasses,

eral
sev-

slender wheat-grass

throughout broad
regions in scattered patches. Western
wheat-grass and
slender wheat-grassgrow in bunches throughout the mountain
region. Many sedges [Carex sp.) and rushes Juncus
In sloughs
sp.) are erroneously regarded as grasses.
and wet
bottom-lands, they furnish much
low-gradehay
and rough pasture.
On salt lands, salt-grass{Distichlis
spicata)makes a small growth of medium
quality. These
last

are

cultivated, but

not

meadows

districts

are

are

over

Grasses

Meadows

and

Textbook

of

of the United

wish

coarse

Grasses

age
rough-

READING

States,W.

Pastures, J. E.

J.

Spillman.

Wing.

Grasses,A. S. Hitchcock.

Forage Plants,C. V. Piper,pp. 307-348.


Field Crop Production, G. Livingston,
pp. 194-238.
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, T. F. Hunt, pp.
Farm

native

winter.

SUPPLEMENTARY
Farm

from

harvested

largelyby ranchmen, who

to feed cattle

or

1-99.

of

Ohio, C. G. Williams, Ohio Bui. 225.


Vol. II, pp. 365-377.
Cyclopediaof American
Agriculture,

U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.

402.

Canada

502.

Timothy

Bulletins
Blue

Grass.

Production

Its Culture
on

and

IrrigatedLand

Uses.
west.
in the North-

CHAPTER

PASTURES,

XXIV

AND

MEADOWS,

SOILING

SYSTEMS

The
the

was

flocks

and

with

their

wherever

to-day,
burden.
from

Definition.

land

from

opposed

as

plants,

green

of

makes

difference

no

whether

or

of

nature

used

the

whether

plants

grown

"

pasture

and

areas

does

may

be,

of

pastures

which

sists
con-

feeding.

It

man-made

are

long

the

feeding

it matter
so

is meant

for themselves,

it before

nor

Thus

ranges.

"

the

natural,

are

crops

beasts

from

hay-making,

to

were

what
as

the

they

are

for feed.

337.

Kinds

with
for

they

called

by drying

crop

feed

is cutting

opposed

as

the

curing

their

gather feed

which

and

cattle

term

livestock

soiling,
or

the

By

"

which

to

of

part

when

still necessary.
has

an

divided

Lot

Later,

were

public lands,

unoccupied

336.
any

get

cattle

and

purpose.

lives, he

man

These

this

tending

to. have

whose

to

tion
civiliza-

to

profitable

as

steppes

As

took

Abraham

areas.

livestock

important,

it

neighbor

for

pasture-lands

became

or

his

and

hunting
found

he

particular

on

graze

Soon

herds.

plains and

grassy

of agriculture.

left off

man

understanding

on

form

primeval

most

increased,

to

of livestock

pasturing

the

of

pasture.

pasture

grazing

permanent.

crops,

of

These

If the

"

or

if the

livestock,
permanent
302

the

area

land

is naturally

is'continuously

pastures
pastures

are

are

said
either

ered
cov-

used
to

be

range

Pastures, Meadows,
land, meadows,

and

sloughs.

or

SoilingSystems
part

of

the

303

extensive

east of the Rockies


prairies

The

meadows

is still a range pasture.


fields renewed
occasionally

and

"

irregularly

or

temporary

are

"

consist either of fields left sown


for

one

or

two

grains and
speaking,are
of

they

338.

not

as

checked

but

for

crop

number

of years or
sections the stubble

is
is, the primary use
harvests.
Nevertheless,

importance.
be

good pasture should

covered

many

pastures, that

not

They

pastures.

is pastured. These, strictly

forage crops

of economic

are

In

seasons.

for pasture

not

for

thoroughly and evenly

with
to

larly
regu-

plants that will form sod of such a


be injuredby the tramping of animals

nature
nor

be

in its

growth through close cropping. These


plantsought to be so palatableand fine as to encourage
the animals to eat sufficient quantities,
and so nutritious
that the quantitieseaten will nourish the body and supply
energy for work, whether it be drawing loads,growing wool,
or
manufacturing milk. The pasture needs to be green
feed.
considerable part of the year, and to yield much
a
339.

"

Importance.

More

"

one-third

than

of

all the

improved farm land in the United States is in pasture.


In the West, the range
land far exceeds the farm land in
Pait of the farm land
area.
perhaps a third or more
"

is in temporary

"

dry that it cannot


sheep feed on it.

Much

pasture.
be

classed

as

western

land

is

so

grazing land, although

sheep and cattle formerly grazed


The
day of the cattle kings is
throughout the West.
serves
passing rapidly where it is not now
past, but forest reImmense

droves

still furnish
The

animals, taken

turned
the

of

pasturage
from

into the meadows

for

numerous

animals.

the range lands in the fall,are


and stubble fields to pick at

ungathered plant parts.

In

some

sections they winter

The

304

meadows

on

The

Principlesof Agronomy

supplemented
of

convenience

Much

partialration

pasture in which

during haying
especially
value.

with

turn

to

harvesting,is

and

of

hay.
animals,

of considerable

labor is also saved.

together with

rushes

and

sedges,
The
sedges (often
largelycomprises these meadows.
and broad,
called broad-leaf),
with three-cornered
stems
bunched
leaves,and the rushes (wire-grassand bulrushes),
with round, hollow, stemlike leaves, grow
abundantly
and sloughs. These
in the wet
supply
valley bottoms
340.

Native

considerable

grass,

second-class

feed

on

the

lands that

wet

are

Salt-grassand related species


also grow in similar placesmaking finer hay and better feed.
other
Wheat-grasses,lupines,wild vetch, and numerous
the ranges.
on
plants occur
Sheep get considerable grazing
from sagebrush and shadscale.
341.
and
Canada
blueKentucky
Crop-plants.
timothy, redtop, smooth
brome-grass,orchardgrasses,
tall meadow
fescue, Italian and perennial ryegrass,
grasses,
impregnated with

alkali.

"

tall meadow

clovers
and

all used

are

of them

some

oat-grass, and
in permanent
for

hay.

and

red, white, and alsike


temporary

In addition

to

pastures,

these, alfalfa,

the

small-grainswith and without a mixture of peas, rape,


in different
and millets are used to varying extents
corn,
localities. In general, these yield more
palatable and
abundant
feed than the native
more
Except
grasses.
redtop, they thrive best on well-drained soils that are

fairlyrich

in lime.

I^ime

and

drainage are especially


for Kentucky blue-grass,
timothy, brome-grass,
necessary
alfalfa,and red clover.
Blue-grassand the rye-grasses
need

much

moisture.

:
help in many
ways
(1) They usually insure a continuous
to late fall.
early springthrough summer

342.

Mixtures

growth

from

The

306

lands such

For low, wet


Perennial

Principlesof Agronomy
as

sloughs:

rye-grass

Redtop
Rhode

Island bent-grass

Meadow

fescue

pounds

10

pounds

pounds
pounds

Alsike

clover

White

clover

mixture

East is as

with

used

follows

success

on

the good soils of the

Timothy
Red

pounds
pounds

clover

10

pounds

Alsike clover

pounds
pounds

White

pounds

Kentucky blue-grass

pounds

Tall meadow

pounds

pounds

clover
.......

fescue

Orchard-grass
For

land

poor

often used

in the

because

Timothy
Redtop

humid

it is cheap

sections,the followingis
:

pounds

pounds

Alsike clover

White

pounds
pounds

clover

blue-grassis the most


popular of all single
in
long dry periods encountered
pasture plants. The
dry-farm regionsprevent the formation of good pastures.
Various
that smooth
experiments on
dry-farms show
brome-grass and rye are successful. Timothy has done
best on
the* mountain
with brome-grass second.
ranges,
ant
Brome-grasshas a deep root-system and forms a sod resistsod
to tramping. This, except that it does
not
which
is sometimes
strongly,is likewise true of alfalfa,
Kentucky

Pastures,Meadows,

SoilingSystems

for dry-farm pasture,

used

first or

second

when
particularly
promises to be too small

crop

cutting. Many
gather remnants

farmers
which

Pastures

away.

343.

For

best

get

for

pay

stubble

to

for other animals.


One

"

exercise.

as

to

but need it regularly. They do not

rather

do

so

of alfalfa.

other animals,

some

bloat

large

feed

not

root-crowns

than

horses

why

reason

They

injurethe

with less water

on

to

ing
dry up and be lost by blowable
suitto be more
dry-farms seem

promote

close to the ground

either the

on

dry pastures is that they need

on

can

animals

307

would

different animals.

fields which

They

the

turn

on

for horses than

do

and

as

do cattle and

sheep.
Cattle

need

than horses

succulent

more

therefore,green

feed, and

pastures

are

water,

more

valuable,
rapidly,

more

Since cattle eat


particularlyfor milch cows.
they sometimes
bloat,especiallyon alfalfa wet with dew.
For sheep small pastures used in rotation are
mended
recomin order to keep down
parasites. Fine feed is
desirable ; resistant sod is preferable,as they eat close
and
injurethe roots of such plants as alfalfa,timothy,
and orchard-grass.They bloat easilyon alfalfa and some
If there

grasses.

be sheds

to

are

willows in the field,there should

provide shade.

like coolness

Hogs

no

and

water.

They

do

small pastures, since they require littlefood at


in the

Shade

and

area;

this, however,

be

scarce.

water

Hull-less

feed

does

lot compensate

not

barley and

well

as

one

corn

time.

for small

imply that food


peas,

on

and

should
rape,

barley and vetch, oats and vetch, oats and


good crops on which to turn hogs.
peas, and barley make
They also dig out root-crops to advantage.
to green
they have access
Poultry do better when
corn,

feed.

rape,

Grains and

alfalfa are

used most.

The

308

Condition

344.

Principlesof Agronomy
of pastures.

utilize land

to

It is

"

easily handled

not

common

in

tice
prac-

tlie regular

cropping system for grazing. This land may be too rocky


of plows and other machinery. It may
to permit the use
covered
with
water-loggedor covered with water;
cut up by sloughs and low
willows; rough and uneven;
native growth such as rushes.
ridges; or filledwith some
extensiveness
of a man's
Sometimes
the very
ownings
renders it impossible to farm the land with the equipment
be

ever
whatat will over
His livestock may
roam
A number
is unreserved.
part of the public domain

he has.

suggested. In addition, too


permit bunches to develop and weeds to

of serious faults
farmers

many

get

hold in

part,

be too dry, even

here

are

when

all of the field. Some

or

other parts

Finally, many
pastures
of a
capacity on account
345.
areas

not

are

covered

parts may
with water.

yielding to their full


stand of plants.
The rocky and very rough

not

are

poor

Improving pastures.
will,for a long time at least,be left in pastures,
"

much

else

is rather

can

be

done

with

them.

Removing

as

many

expensive.
that are too wet
Draining will much improve meadows
either in the spring or throughout the season.
Land that
is water-loggedin the spring is likelyto suffer for water
later in the summer
because the water-holdingcapacity
is lowered
by puddling, and because a shallow rootof
A combination
water.
system is produced by excess
will remedy this condition.
drainageand irrigation
Brush-lands
generally need partial or entire clearing
before they become
good pastures. Firing, grubbing,
and sheep or goat pasturinghelp to clear brushy districts.
and sedges tend to give way
Rushes
slowly to the more
valuable grasses
after lands are
drained.
Plowing and
substitute this slow method.
The farms
resowing may
rocks

Pastures, Meadows,
that

yet unimproved

are

the

development
grazing lands will

of

the

be made

and

will

SoilingSystems

309

gradually disappear

country,

and

the

with

permanent

yieldgrain and other crops.


The bunches
are
rejectedforage close to a spiny weed,
such as a thistle,but usually near
a
manure
dropping
which seems
to taint the grass or drive off the animals by
to

its odor.

three times a year


with
or
Harrowing two
brush-drags or spike-toothharrows, or disking,loosens
the soil and scatters
the manure,
making good fertilizer
in heaps was
from that which
repellent. The harrow,
the weeds
supplemented by a grubbing-hoe, removes
that

cause

Thin

cattle to leave grassy bunches.


stands may
be made
thicker by

harrowing

and

close
too
by sowing extra seed. Overstocking causes
grazing,which injuresthe pasture as well as the animals.
The remedy is manifestly one
of prevention.
increase the
Fertilizers,particularlyfarm
manure,
yield if they are well scattered. Finally, constant
use,
is bad.
ternati
Alwhen
even
unaccompanied by overstocking,
three pastures will prevent this injury.
two
on
or
The pasture, which requiresbut
346. Overstocking.
little attention, is regarded by many
clear profit,
as
this idea is thrown
though the yieldis small. The sooner
veloped
aside, the sooner
truly successful pastures will be deA number
of points deserving attention have
already been indicated.
of
Overstockingis putting on the land a greater number
"

animals
go

than

the feed

can

maintain.

short of the best feed, and

under

The
stress

animals

soon

of hunger eat

perennial plant parts. Sheep and hogs eat


and occasionallythe roots themselves.
root-crowns
Deforesting and heavy sheep pasturinghave practically
the

coarse,

ruined

some

cattlemen

In parts of the West,


of the best ranges.
have come
to realize this and they now
compel

Principlesof Agronomy

The

310

designated
ing
handle the situation by limitdistricts. Forest reserves
be pastured on the
of animals that may
the number
for
In excessive hunger during a snowstorm,
reserve.
example, a herd of range cattle ate at the oak brush,
the sheepmen

to

keep their flocks

leaving no branches
Practically the

their appearance

animals

the

greedy
347.

over-grazed

then

bare

spots

in

is to

The

the pasture.

and

"

of animals

number

the

that

Of

spots.

good condition.

animals

the

in

except

Manifestly,the remedy for


prevent the injury. Proper discretion

Management.

determine

keep

both

on

gets poor

barren

and

cannot

loses

owner

in

the surface becomes


and, finally,

tramped, rooted-up,
course

inch in diameter.

an

thing happens

same

At first the stand

meadows.
make

than

smaller

from

away

stocking
over-

must

pasture

may

field,and the time they should feed continuously. Strong


sod will bear

grazing longer than

close

will weak.

thy,
Timo-

orchard-grass,and clovers, except the white, suffer


rushes
immediately. Blue-grass, redtop, sedges, and
rather
considerable
are
persistent and will withstand
close feeding. It is not profitableto pasture too closely,
however, except in
It is doubtful

should

an

emergency.

whether

pastures of the less persistent

longer than a few years without


being plowed. The plants may weaken, the soil structure
until the old sod
break down, and parasitesaccumulate
grasses

is
a

Some

menace.

remain

part of the farm


the

of the
rotation.

pasture may

successful pastures

most

its turn, say every four


be moved
with advantage

In

to

ten

to

the plant, the soil,the animals, and

years,

Horses

cattle in

and

be

should

are

the farmer.

always be pastured in one meadow


another.
Feeding habits differ enough to
not

factor in pasture management.

it is usuallybetter to

use

only part

With

of it at

large field,

time and rotate

Pastures) Meadows,
the animals
should

not

if
be

the wallows
A

they

not

are

worried

of

and

be mingled.

to

by horses

311

Dairy

cows

be in contact

nor

with

hogs.

part of the pasture should

it needs

Soiling Systems

be allowed

to

go

unused

This

permits the plants to grow


up.
Legumes and other plants that grow at the end of the
demand
this more
stem
insistentlythan the grasses, the
leaves of which have their growing point near
the base
of the leaf-blade.
They grow without startingfrom the
other plants. Parts of the
ground each time as must
rest.

will not

grass

the

be eaten

should

mower

be

down.
run

To

fresh start,

encourage

these spots at least twice

over

hay when
In many
horses and cattle will pick up the
cut.
cases
clipped stems, although they avoid them while standing.
Sometimes, early in the spring, grass is not as palatable
later.
Waste
is often prevented
it is a few weeks
as
by waitingbefore turning the animals into the field. The
increase with age.
yieldand palatabilityof young
grass
In general, meadows
for the pro348. Meadows.
duction
attention as
about
the same
of- hay demand
land, irrigationof the
pastures. Drainage of the wet
a

Then

year.

the

make

stems

coarse

better

"

dry, the

use

of

superiorcrops,

reseedingof spots
rotation
is

that

all deserve

paid to harrowing

should

they

should

meadows

mature

are

killed, and

are

of weeds, the

removal

the

practice.
intelligent
and

at

mixtures.

crop

the

about

mature

the

For

hay, plants
in pastures

different times, except when

used for pastures

by

attention

Less

time, while

same

renewal

part of the year

as

the
many

are.

The

natural

meadows,

as

gradually replaced by cultivated grasses


these yield more
because
hay of
crops,
In

river- and

being
other hay-

already indicated, are

lake-bottoms, much

land

or

better
is

quality.
still bearing

Principlesof Agronomy

The

312

sedges, rushes, blue-grass,and redtop, all cut


salt-grass,
of these areas
for small hay yields. Many
be
cannot
reclaimed

of the expense

account

on

in labor and

and, therefore,will persist


as
pastures for

capital,

long time.

SOILING

349.

have

Use.

sections

In

"

feed

of

the

United

States

that

from

high-priced land, and where


is cheap, pastures are being partly replaced by soiling.
Animals
fed on green forage
not pastured but are
are
to

labor

hauled

cattle

them

to

after it is cut

soon

lost its moisture.

Succulence

and

before it has

is especiallyvaluable

for

and for stock being raised for beef.


dairy cows
In Germany,
soilingis practiced generally,while
the

Denmark,
of

animals

being allowed

land

to

made

produce

to

tracts
waste

about

way.

Fences

land

the

be

to

has unused

labor

much

as

as

available

not

are

are

to

both

fields instead

of these countries

is cheap.

Land

possible,because
the

must

be

extensive

farmers, consequently

edges of the fields is decreased in every


commonly omitted, permittingall the

cultivated.

Since

the

United

States

be pastured,soiling
and

that may

areas

In

pasture.

is high-priced and

in the

tethered

are

in

"

still

ing
tether-

practiced,
except locally. Some of the soiling
shown
in Figs.79 to 82.
crops are
350.
Value.
Disadvantages of soilingare :
1. Much
labor is requiredto mow
and feed the
more
each day than to pasture or cut
crop in small quantities
are

not

"

the entire field at

Haying

2.

and

each

is inconvenient

3. In
crops.

stormy

once.

day is
on

weather

that

hindrance

to

other farm

work

account.

it is very

to
disagreeable

handle

The

314

feed is

3. The

4.
green

and

more

economically used, since there is

heaps.
fed
comfortable when
be kept more
The cattle can
forage than when exposed to the hot sun or to wind

foulingfrom

no

Principlesof Agronomy

manure

in open

storms

pastures.

^u^t^i- ". tiLH


Fig.

80.

Sorghums

"

"^~

'

'"

are

adapted

hot, dry cHmates.

to

applied to the right


in rotation,thereby conservingfertility.

5. Manure
crop

6. In

consequence,

be kept

may

be preserved and

can

is greater

or

on

about

three times

given area

of land.

their milk flow is kept

more

as

Their
even

many

cattle

gain in flesh
than

under

other systems of feeding.


The
way

as

disadvantages off-set
to

cause

the

the

advantages in such
utilization of crops for soiling
to be

a
an

Fig.

81.

Sorghum

jieldsabundant

grain and forage.

Kansas.

The

316

Principlesof Agronomy

question.

economic

practicein

It may
not be
United
States, but

the

as
profitable

general

dairy

it is in many

sections.
351.

Soiling

crops.

"

Any

one

crop

is not

ready for

A series of crops
needs to be carefullyarranged in order to keep green feed

soilingfor

than

more

one

or

two

weeks.

In alfalfa districts,this one


constantly on hand.
crop
be kept ready throughout the entire season
can
except
in earlyspring,when it is watery.
An alfalfa field mowed

part
over

at

time

in the

is reached

of the

and

summer

best soilingcrop

It cannot

feed for

fall. Alfalfa is,moreover,

known,

its

yieldingpower,

be mowed

can

order, yieldingnearly mature

same

the remainder
the

until full bloom

because

of its

highits high protein content.

and
palatability,
be surpassed in districts where

it grows

successfully.
Green

cereals cut in the milk, corn

fodder, grasses,

peas,

soybeans, millets,sorghums, vetches, rape, clover, and


used separatelyand in combination.
A variation
are
cowpeas
in time of plantingchanges the time of maturity
to considerable
extent, thus lengthening out the period
of usefulness.
A series of small areas
be planted to
may
various crops
selected, planted, and arranged as to
so
the
give a constant
supply of green forage. As soon
as
early crops are used, they should be resown
others
or
planted to prevent the land's lying idle. Roots may
assist in autumn.

SUPPLEMENTARY

Meadows

and

READING

Pastures, J. E. Wing.

States,W. J. Spillman.
Field Crops, Wilson
and Warburton, pp. 379-390, 301-306.
Field Crop-Production, G. Livingston,
pp. 370-380.
Forage Crops, Voorhees, pp. 34-41, 311-327.
Farm

Grasses of the United

Pastures,

Cyclopedia

of

Reseeding
U.

S.

D.

Plants,

Forage
U.

of

S.
No.

D.

A.

American

Bulletin,
C.

V.

Farmers'

66.

Meadows

72.

Cattle

102.

Southern

147.

Winter

361.

Meadow

502.

Timothy

509.

Forage

Lands
No.

Piper,

Ranges

to

II,

pp.

Systems

317

569-574.

434-456,

Cultivated

Forage

Crops,

4.

pp.

67-113.

Bulletins
and

Soiling

Vol.

Agriculture,
Pasture

Range
A.

and

Meadows,

Pastures.
of

the

Southwest.

Plants.

Forage

Crops

Forage

for

the

South.

on

Irrigated

Fescue.
Production

Crops

for

the

Cotton

Region.

Land

in

the

west.
North-

CHAPTER

XXV

AND

SORGHUMS

distinct

rather
in

United

in

growing

here

for

rapidly

Both

the

on

forage
alfalfa's

this, there

and

in

be

spread

replacing

now

districts.

offering possibilities
nial
Peren-

irrigation.

West

largely because

for annual

need

duced
intro-

millets

crops,

the

them

and

well-adapted.

extremely

so

to

few

under

even

favored

are

seems

World

are

dry-weather

dry-farm

being

in

The

found

The

sorghums

save

nature

crops

Old

notice

to

States.

Agriculture
the

and

new

come

United

of trial.

The

surely

by

are

of

worthy

time.

recently

the

of

regions
as

slowly but

them

of

Department

similar

them

of

sections

States

comparatively

have

of crop,

kind

semi-arid

the

millets,

and

sorghums

The

MILLETS

In

spite of

drouth-resistant

crops.

(Holcus,

SORGHUM

352.

Origin.

where

the

"

group

Some

point, but

origin in India.

wild

in

Africa

the

world.

and

82.

of

will

one

plants

evidence

other

domesticated

No

facts

Many

members
"

The

more,

Andropogon,

or

know

wild
the

in

fact, than
are

318

as

an

the

inated.
origstarting

independent

closely allied

grasses,

family,
in

shown

just

sorghums

as

indicate

of

sorghums

exactly

Africa

suggests
likewise

know

ever

we

Sorghum)

found

are

any

in

other

to

the

growing
part

Figs. 80,

of

81,

Sorghums

and

Millets

319

The

320

Principlesof Agronomy

crop-plants,sorghums are as old as any known.


when
first reIn Egypt they were
corded.
history was
grown
They soon
spread into Asia as far as Manchuria.
no
Notwithstanding this, the Greeks
sorghum;
grew
until shortly after the Christian
neither did the Romans
when
an
importationfrom India took place.
era,
As far as American
experienceis concerned, the history
As

of the crop

is brief.

word

have

the

as

we

United

varieties
grown.

1853

Chinese

sorgo

(whence the

In 1857,
brought from France.
States Department of Agriculture introduced

from
The

In

it)was

part of the world

every

national

government

where

much

was

also encouraged the

constant
spread and trial of these varieties. Rather
development has since followed in the regions adapted
of the family brought here,
to the particularmembers
Its
although the crop has not as yet become a major one.
are
possibilities
potentialrather than realized,that is,its
account
promises are extensive, but its records narrow,
on
of its having had but littlechance to prove
itself.
353.
Sorghums belong to the grass
Relationships.
family,being in many
respects closelyrelated to maize.
Johnson-grass (Holcus halepensis)is a bad weed in the
"

parts of the United

States.

Vigorous rootstocks
habits of this
are
largelyresponsiblefor the pestiferous
all Johnson-grass has rootstocks, since a
plant. Not
few varieties of it are
annuals, spreading only by seed.
Then comes
which resemble
Sudan-grassand Tunis-grass,
the sorghums. All of
Johnson-grass and vary toward
these are annuals, lackingrootstocks
which cause
nial
perento
rooting habits. Sudan-grass seems
a
occupy
place of intermediate improvement between Tunis-grass
and the cultivated sorghums.
is so
Corn
354. Description.
much
like sorghum
that by the ordinary person
they would be mistaken for
warmer

"

The

322

different purposes.
or

groups,

of Agronomy
Principles
Just

as

selves
them-

types, sorghum varieties naturallygroup

into three distinct types

six

varieties fall into

corn

accordingto the

purpose

for which

they developed.
355. Varieties.
Though other classificationsare often
made, the sorghums are commonly classified as (1) sweet
(3) broom-corn.
(2) grain sorghum, and
sorghum,
Particularlyadapted for sirup,grain,or whisk production,
each type is used for forage and grain. On account
of
the comparative infancy of the industry, sorghum production
has not become
nearly so specializedas cornor
in regard to selection of varieties for different
fruit-growing
yet, there is a general adaptationof varieties
purposes;
be ignored.
that cannot
Sweet, or saccharine, sorghum is grown
primarily for
For that purpose,
sirup and sugar.
sorgo, as it is called,
was
brought to the United States. The sudden growth
of the beet-sugar industry,however, offered a more
nomical
ecoof procuring sugar.
means
Shortly afterwards
sweet
sorghum proved the most valuable type for forage.
"

The

sweet

in other

groups.

abundant

than

distinct red

or

The
in other

dark

give it

to

seems

sap

stalks

brown

varieties ; Red
Those

are,

The

borne

more

in loose panicles.

the

are

most

sively-grown
exten-

Amber, Planter's Friend, and

varieties used for grain have

type.

leaves

seed is small, with

color and
Sumac

found

also worthy of mention.

juice iii the pith, and


and

not
palatability

fine and

are

kinds.

Amber, Orange, and


Gooseneck

they

are

if any,
little,

coarser

than

the

sweet
charine
sac-

Shorter nodes, fewer leaves,largerkernels,

clear-cut

sheathingcharacterize grain sorghums.


The heads are
generally compact and white, yellow, or
dark brown.
Kafir, milo, feterita,durra, shallu, and
varieties. Milo and kowliang
kowliang are most common
more

Sorghums
earlier than

mature

days.

Not

the fodder is used


Broom-corn
small

seed

kafir

only

"

and

Millets

in about

323

ninety to

the kernels used

are

to some

extent

dred
hun-

one

for grain,but

for forage.

is distinguishedby the long brush

on

which

is borne

sparsely. Since this type is grown


for whisk, the length and evenness
of the pedicelsare
is
broom-corn, which
primarily important. Standard
bears brush from eighteen
generallyabout twelve feet tall,
shorter brush from twelve to
to thirty inches long. A
eighteeninches in length is produced on a smaller plant
is known
which
dwarf broom-corn
because of being
as
only four to six feet in height.
As
356. Distribution
and
adaptation.
might be
urally
sorghum is natexpected from a plant of tropicalorigin,
and abundant
adapted to a region of warmth
shine.
sunBy choice of varieties or from having been grown
it has come
for centuries in arid regions,
to prefera dry
obtained
atmosphere. Greatest yields are, of course,
"

where

moderate

moisture

is available,but it

can

be

cessfully
suc-

produced in comparativelydry districts. It is


rather drouth-resistant
and the Great
"

in sections similar to South

Plains section of the United

degree of summer
the sorghums, but they are
says,

No

heat

seems

injuredboth

States.
too

in

Africa

Piper ^

intense

for

spring and in

lightfrosts."
in such short growGrain-sorghum varieties mature
ing-seasons
in South Dakota
that they are able to mature
sota
Some forage varieties do well in Minneand southward.
Ontario.
and
Rapid growth coupled with drouth
economical
resistance enables this crop to produce more
the Great Plains where
on
grain and forage than corn
has
rainfall is less than twenty-five inches, though corn
fall by

not

been

replacedto
1

any

marked

Forage Plants,

extent
p. 262.

where

the annual

The

324

Principlesof Agronomy

best area
for sorghum
exceeds this. The
precipitation
in America
begins in about the same
longitudeas does
that of dry-farm wheat.
The considerable resistance to
alkali that is manifested
by sorghums as a class should
also hasten the spread of the crop in arid regions.
Nearly all arid regionsof the Old World grow sorghum,
with Egypt, South Africa, Australia,India, and northern
China leadingin total production. The order of importance
be ascertained, since statistics

cannot

partly because much of the crop which


In
forage is fed without being measured.
statistics

States, moreover,
to

details.

half

the

Colorado,

entire

and

Nebraska,

crop.

California

Utah

is used
the

unreliable when

are

able
unavail-

for

United
it

comes

is far in the lead, producing perhaps

Kansas

and

are

grow

perhaps

Oklahoma,

small

TeXas,
These

acreages.

others

have

large
land that could be made
to produce sortracts of new
ghum
cultivated sections,other
economically. In some
trials by
might be replaced profitably. Many
crops
farmers and Experiment Stations must
precede a definite
states

statement

as

to

"

where

the

some

crop

"

will succeed

or

fail.

Roughly, however, vast promise lies in the undeveloped


of sorghums in dry regionswest of the ninetypossibilities
This, of course, implies that selected
eighth meridian.
varieties be tested as was
That some
suggested for corn.
than seven
months
tropicalsorghums have requiredmore
to

the

mature

when

grown

of

in Florida

shows

how

essential

adapted varieties is to successful production.


Soils should be well-drained and porous
to permit root
penetration. Sorghums have
a
reputation for being
hard on the land
by causing the crop that follows to
yieldlightly. Some persons think this is due to the power
of the plant to dry the soil considerablybelow the wilting
Careful preparation of the
point of other crops.
"

use

"

Sorghums
seed-bed

and

Millets

325

lessens the

be due to an
injury, which may
exhaustion
of readily-available
plant-food. Poor soils,
often used to grow
the sorghum crop, not that
too, are
the plant prefers naturally the difficult soils and
dry

climates,but that it is hardy under


357.

Preparation of seed-bed
the

for

corn

best time
and

seed-bed, the

and

conditions.

seeding.

"

In

paring
pre-

precautionsare taken as
finer. The
except that soil ought to be made
for plantingis after all danger of frost has passed
same

the soil is warm.

Grain

always drilled

in

from

eighteen
often corn-planters
forty-eightinches apart. More
used with specialplatesor with holes partly stopped
the rate of seeding. Seed is dropped from six
govern
From
three to five pounds
ten inches apart in the row.

to
are

to
to

Forage

at

acre

Dwarf

this rate.

planted either in rows


of from fifteen to fortypounds

favorable

most

rows

are

crops

the rate

at

are

crops

will plant an

conditions

broom-corn

is

planted

an

bushels

two

three

broadcasted

or

feet

Under

acre.
are

planted.

between

rows

inches apart in the row, while standard varieties


three feet six inches apart with seed
better in rows

and

two

do
at

adverse

three-inch

intervals in the

row.

gives uniformity of brush, which


both

too

and

coarse

too

is

fine whisks

Uniformity of
highly desirable
are

less valuable

stand
since
than

the normal.
358.

sensitive

are

severely,and
than

tact

be

to

and

or

growth.

"

Because

moisture, weeds

seedlings
injure them

eontougher to mechanical
frequent and later cultivation may
more
is, indeed, required. Intertillagewith
are

keeps down weeds and mulches


Listingis also practicedin
appear.

cultivators

soil until flowers


cases.

soil

since they

corn,

given,

one-row

during

Treatment

the
some

The

326

Principlesof Agronomy

fullymature, the grain crop


is cut either with a corn-binder,with a sled-cutter,
or
by
ing
hand.
Thorough drying before threshing prevents heatof the grain. Curing is most
easilyaccomplished in
359.

shocks

Harvesting.

which

are

"

When

built wide

at

the bottom

to

keep the

The bundles
heavy-headed grain from fallingover.
either run
through thresher or the heads run in and

the

shocked

for

stover

withdrawn

and

or

stacked

until used

are

rough feed. Occasionallythe farmer heads the plants


particularlydwarf strains
by hand or machinery and
The
stalks are
threshes only the heads.
pastured or
"

"

harvested

separately.
"Yields as high as seventy bushels an acre
though
occur,
and forty is good. In years so
common
twenty is more
dry that corn fails,sorghum has given twelve to twentybushel yields.
Forage is cut green, silagein the soft dough, and fodder
Corn-binders cut largeareas
more
just at bloom.
cheaply
than hand-labor.
casting
sometimes
Hay is made
by broadthick stands,cutting with a mower,
and curing
In this case
the stems ought not to exceed the
as
grass.
thickness of a penciland should be cut before blooming.
Acre-yieldsvarying from ten to forty tons of green
feed have
been reported. Fifteen to twenty
tons
are
taken off the land frequently. In cured hay or dried
fodder, the returns net from two to eighttons in from one
and
six cuttingsdepending on
the season
moisture
to
available.
The

whisk

the upper
In standard
at

of dwarf
node

and

broom-corn
removed

is pulledfrom
from

the

the stem

field at

once.

the stems
cut partly through
varieties,
are
two feet or so above
bent across
ground and two rows
each other making V-shaped platforms, or
"tables," of
The
crossed stalks.
"brush," as the whisk is called,is

Sorghums

and

Millets
"

off and

327

"

tables
After
to dry.
placed on the
into bales of 300 or
being cured in sheds, it is made
400 pounds.
Sometimes
seed is allowed to ripen,but
cut

now

this lessens the value


the

value

the brush, which

then

withdrawn.

hundred

pounds

from

acre.

an

When

of cured

for

grown

field. While

than

more

of the grain. In both

the seed from


and

of the whisk

threshers

cases

is thrust

From

two

it increases
remove

der
againstthe cylinhundred

to

seven

brush represent ordinary returns

sirup,sweet

still standing the

in the
sorghiunmatures
leaves are
strippedoff;

heavy rollers press the juice from the culms. Heat and
settling clarifythe juice of impurities.Warming in
shallow pans
the sirup to the desired conconcentrates
sistency
of 30

per

moisture.

cent

About

half

or

two-

thirds of the

ing
juicepresses out in a good mill,a ton yieldfrom 700 to 1200 pounds of juicewhich concentrates
from ten to thirtygallonsof sirup. From
five to fifteen
tons

of stems

grow

on

an

acre.

Sorghum grain is used only for stockportant


feed in America, though in Asia and Africa it is an imfood.
The
human
grain is starchy and hard.
360.

Unless

Use.

"

crushed, fed wet,

or

mixed

with other feeds, a part

digestion. Eighty to ninety pounds of


hundred
pounds of sorghum in feeding
corn
equal one
effect,
value.
If fed alone, the grain has a constipating
sary
which is relieved by the accompanying proteinfeed necesseed is sharply
the ration. Colored
balance
to
Poultrymen prizethe grain highly
bitter,due to tannin.
of

it escapes

for their fowls.


The

dry

stems

and

leaves

sorghiun make fair


as
nearly equals corn;
oats, wheat, or barley.

of the

roughage. As silage,sorghum
as
hay it ranks about the same
binders.
or
It is cut for hay with mowers

Stock may

pas-

The

328

considerable

ture

suckers

and

use

quantities of feed from

favorable

since under

its

Principlesof Agronomy

After

pasture.

the leaves

few minutes.

several growths

Exactly what

excessive

poison,sometimes
will kill stock

This

stems.

or

by

stunted

being

heat and drouth, prussicacid,a virulent

develops in

fields,

serious danger, however, besets

freely. One

as

it makes

conditions

green

conditions

in

poisoning
is not clear,but it seems
that if the plant is kept growing,
there is no danger. The dried fodder does not injurestock.
Sirup manufacturing is not widely practiced. The
of brooms
for whisk suppliesfor the manufacture
demand
broom-corn
production. Illinois,Kansas,
encourages
Missouri,and New York produce 80 per cent of the whisk
a

cause

crop.

361.

Enemies.

Formalin

treated.

whole

the

has

kill the leaves.

heads.

Corn

ear-worms,

sorghum aphids
cultivation will largely control

diseases
362.

as

well

successfully

age
dam-

fall army-worms,
do
some
damage.
insects and

plant

weeds.

Storage and marketing.

is marketed

corn

as

smut

Selection of resistant

chinch-bugs, and
Wise

been

not

probably control it.


sorghum midge does considerable

can

In Texas, the
to

and

head

Blight may

varieties

attacks individual seeds.

smut

lessens the injury. Head

seed treatment
the

covers

Kernel

"

in

pound depending

number

"

The

brush from

of grades at

one

to

broomsix cents

length, uniformity,flexibility,
and color of the whisk.
Careful drying, sweating, and
baling are essential in curing for quality, since the high
moisture
content
renders
discoloration
molding and
likely. Grain, fodder, and silageare handled as is corn,
a

but

very

not

little gets to

Not

crop.
a

on

market

the

market.

It is

sirup,which is
product, gets far away.

even

the

primarily a local
farm
delicacyand

The

330

Principlesof Agronomy

Europe use them extensivelyfor forage. They grow well


sometimes
in dry, hot districts with short seasons,
ing
maturin forty to fiftydays. They do well wherever
ghum
sorfarther north, but they have
and will grow
pays,
confine them

several faults which

districts where

to

ghums
sor-

and which cause


them
sufficiently,
it is too late to start
to be used only as catch-cropswhen
than a million acres
valuable plants. More
are
more
creasin
but
cultivation is diminishing rather than ingrown,
mature

cannot

clude
Relationship and description. The millets inThe
different speciesin five or more
ten
genera.

365.

most

"

type is the foxtail millet

valuable

common

{Setaria

German, Italian,and
italica). In this group are common,
millet,
Hungarian varieties. Other types are broom-corn
Japanese barnyard millet, and pearl millet. Foxtail
millet is closely related to the common
weed, green
foxtail (Setariaviridis). It
Chinese

records

mention

plants are

annual

grasses,

times.
The

feet tall. The

four

to

one

long

inches

varieties
about

cultivated

was

are

the
from

366.

rather

heads

compact

Culture

and

value.

"

B.C.

leafy,growing from
from two to eight
are
spikes which in some
The
seed is yellowish,

in diameter, with

grain. Numerous
the spike.

2700

prehistoric

very

distinctlylobed.

millimeter

one

around

in

it about

in

the

hull boxed

ward
bristlyhairs project out-

From

two

to

four pecks of

usually with drills. Rowplanting is used occasionallyfor seed production. The


slightestfrosts kill millet; hence late planting pays.
favorable.
Any time in June seems
Quality in the hay deteriorates rapidlyafter full bloom,
when
the yieldand qualityare both greatest. For cattle,
seed

millet

are

sown

to

the

acre,

hay is about equal to

grass,

but

is inferior to clover

Sorghums
and

alfalfa.

Horses

and

Millets

331

suffer in several ways

from

uous
contin-

feeding of millet hay. Action of the kidneys and


bowels increases ; jointsswell and get lame ; bony texture
weakens.

Wisdom

suggests that cattle

well

as

horses

as

be fed mixed

roughage rather than straightmillet.


Seed
fifteen to fifty fifty-pound
yield from
crops
bushels an
Just before maturity, binders cut the
acre.
in the shock.
seed crop, which cures
Ripe heads shatter
badly. Ordinary threshers are used to separate the seed
from

the straw.

A smut

attacks the seed, but it can

formalin

that is used

treatment

on

destroyedby the

be

seed wheat.

Chinch-

bugs are fond of millet,which, for that reason, isoften used


the insects have
to be plowed under when
as
a trap crop
collected on the plants.
367. Other
Japanese barnyard millet is
t3rpeg.
"

than

coarser

used for soiling,


but does

cure

readilyfor hay.

is

It is

other parts of

in China, India, and

widely for food

grown

not

heads, and

branched

foxtail millet, has

Asia.
Broom-corn
seed than
Russia

millet

the

and

has

also to

extent

some

as

larger

produce considerable, which


mostly for forage.
and

and

cereal crop in
for forage. The Dakotas

It grows

type.

common

head

brush-like

Manitoba

is also used

is twice as
penicillaria,
largeas other millets,has a rather woody stem filledwith
head
dry pith, and bears seed in a compact cylindrical
Pearl

millet, sometimes

from

which

coarse

and

dry

for

called cat-tail millet.

hay.

In

the

It is rather

South, its immense

foragemake it and teosinte,another annual


as
fifty
similar to corn, popular for feed. As much

yieldsof
very

it has been

called

green

tons

to the

from

each

of green fodder has been cut in


of these crops.
acre

one

season

332

The

Principles

of

Agronomy

SUPPLEMENTARY

Corn

The

Field

Crops,

Cereals
Field

in

and
F.

Plants,

Forage

Crops,

Forage

and

C.
E.

V.
B.

Fiber
Field

Cyclopedia

of

Hunt,
G.

Production,

Forage

pp.

Piper,

Crops,
J.

American

336-347.

258-263,

pp.

382-399.

pp.

Livingston,

221-238.

pp.

260-304.

pp.

Voorhees,

Crops,

279-342.

Warburton,

T.

America,

Crop

Southern

Montgomery,

Wilson

Crops,

READING

pp.

T.

F.

F.

Duggar,

Hunt,

Agriculture,

37-131.

pp.
pp.

Vol.

111-120.

23I7247.
II,

pp.

384-388,

574-582.
U.

S.
No.

D.

A.

Farmers'

101.

Millets.

174.

Broom

288.

Kafir

322.

Milo.

448.

Better

458.

The

552.

Kafir

605.

Sudan

BiUletins

Com.
Corn.

Grain-sorghum
Best

as

Two

Grass.

Grain

Crops.

Sweet

Crop.

Sorghums

for

Forage.

469-474,

CHAPTER

FIBERS

AND

world

The

in

vary

is

so

for

grown

MISCELLANEOUS

wide;

so

soils

habits

varying
the

of

use

CROPS

are

so

there

respects;

many

plants with

XXVI

are

of

so

beast

kinds

many

that

growth

and

man

different; climates

the

almost

are

of

plants
without

number.
FIBERS

Both
which

used

are

cordage,

nets,

and

only

white

but

animal

and

bast
the

fibers

in the

inner

hemp,

and

important

for textiles

yield

fiber,

some

as

COTTON

368.

all

History.

people

such

wear

"

some

in

than

the

cloth

333

The

plant,

as

by

are

flax and
far

Leaves

fibers.

of

manila

more

also

hemp.

hirsutum)
is cheap

This

cotton.

curls.

such

of sisal and

case

fibers,

fibers

wood

the

of the

flesh.

deeper tissues

(Gossypium
Cotton

floral.

or

acteristic
char-

in the

cotton

as

and

usually

that

bast,

Bast

bundles.

odor

an

in the interior

wood

and

floral flbers

char

woody,

borne

are

bark,

fibro-vascular

crisp

be

may

flbers

bast

to

almost

of vegetable

burning

the

ropes,

sufficient

of hair

silk, but

and

after

burns

fiber

Vegetable
wood

of wool

have

burnt,

fibers

rugs,

consist

fibers

give off, when

remains

ash

animal

while

to

fibers

Vegetable

bags.

nitrogen in them
A

furnish

kingdoms

largely for clothing, carpets,

entirely of cellulose,

not

animal

the

plant and

the

has

and
not

practically
always

been

Principlesof Agronomy

The

334

the

case.

century ago

the

common

for centuries in China

and

wool

and

silk were

textiles.
had

Cotton
a

the New
other

parts of America.

the nineteenth
as

world

thrived

grown

for

period in India and Egypt, and being a native of


World, for an unknown
period of time in Peru

shorter

and

been

until the

beginningof

century, however, did it count

crop.

and

Not

was

into the Southern

Introduced
cultivated

on

small

for much

States,it

scale before

the

Revolution.

Washington and Jefferson grew it with the


help of slaves who separated the lint from the seed by
Eli Whitney's cotton-gin
hand.
When
proved successful,
cotton-growing spread rapidly. It has supported most
of the people in the South, supplied a livelihood for
millions in northern
factories,and helped to build an
immense
of
one
foreigntrade. On the other hand it was
the big factors in intensifying
the misunderstandingthat
led to the Civil War.
369.

Relationships.

"

Hollyhock is the

most

common

plant that is closelyrelated to cotton ; the mallows are


also in the same
five
are
family. In the same
genus
(1) Upland, (2) Sea-island, (3)
species of cotton:
Egyptian, (4) Peruvian, and (5) Bengal, or Indian. Of
these long- and short-fibered upland or long- and shortof the commercial
fields in
staple cotton comprise most
America.

Some

tidewater

regions, particularlyin Georgia. The

difference in the

Sea-island

is grown,

however,

in the
chief

speciesis length of fiber,which varies


one-half
and
from one-half inch in short-stapleto two
inches in Sea-island,long-stapleproducing a fiber of
intermediate length.
Altogether there are several hundred varieties of cotton.
These are grouped into eight types or varietygroups : (1)
Cluster, (2) Semi-cluster,(3) Rio Grande, (4) King, (5)

Fibers and

Miscellaneous

Crops

335

BigboU, (6) Long-limbed, (7)Intermediate,and (8) Longin general,indicate growth


stapleUpland. These names,
habits or growth regions. Jackson, Hawkins, Peterkin,
Layton, Toole, King, and Allen Long-staple are standard
varieties.
370.

Description.

but also sends

"

Cotton

while the flowers


a

pistilwith

three

branches

six feet long. The

to

three-lobed, and

broad,

are

in the upper
is solid,woody, considerably

stem

from

branched, and

deep-rootinghabit,

horizontal

numerous

three inches of soil. The

leaves

has

are
a

palmately-veined,
ing
yellowish contain-

usually white or
divided stigma and

compact

group

pollen.Though naturally
bearing waxy
cross-fertilized by insects,
the flowers are capable of selffertilization. Small stems
arisingfrom the main branches
sub-branches
bear the flowers and later the boll,which
or
is a heavy pod containingthe lint and embedded
seed.
Under
lint shows a definite twisting,
a
microscope, mature
perhaps due to drying of the tubular fiber. This
twist roughens the surface of the lint strengtheningthe
gripone fiber gets on another when it is made into thread.
Each
fiber,a singlecell,is a product of the flower. It
of

stamens

surrounds

the

diameter.

before
absorbent
371.

cotton

inch

the lint must

covers

before

is dyed

or

"

Cotton

will

grow

loams, moderately dry and

be

it is made

in
moved
re-

into

from

six to

States

seven

months

Because
as

these

nowhere

of the cotton
produces most
million 500-pound bales, the

in

most

soils;

well-drained, are

moisture

Moderate

the best growth.


Southern

one-fourth

cotton.

favorable.

seasons

is about

of oil that

coat

Adaptation.

clays and
most

seed, which

and

frost-free

in duration

conditions

encourage

exist in the

else, it is this section that


of the

United

world.

Of

twenty

States produces 12

The

336

million,India
million bales

the

million,Egypt

the combined

are

1.3 million.

The

other 7

of Brazil, Peru,

harvest

China.
sissippi,
Texas, Georgia, MisTurkey, and
Alabama, South Carolina, Arkansas, Oklahoma,

Mexico,
North

Principlesof Agronomy

Carolina, and

American

Louisiana
and

crop

exclusivelydoes

Texas

produce
in the

rank

order

improved land is devoted to this crop.


372.
Culture.
It is a practice,
common

cent

per

named.

that 40

cotton

grow

96

So

cent

per

of

of

her

but unwise,

"

to

cotton

grow

stalks

by turning

three

one-half to
a

one-row

When

the

from

furrows

bushel

one

an

one

Seed

"

each

other

broken
remaining un-

the rate

at

of

is drilled into these beds

acre

planter after a shallow furrow is opened.


plants are well started,dirt is thrown
away
and they are
until the plants
chopped out
or

"

feet apart in the

two

five cultivations

are

From

row.

one

to

given, generally shallow, to avoid

cuttingthe roots, which


Much

toward
often

to

"

them

left

are

two

five feet, the spaces


until the first cultivation.

every

by

"

broken

are

made

are

The
field several years in succession.
Beds
and plowed under or burned.
a

on

are

abundant

near

of the cultivation has been

done

the surface.
with

one-mule

vators,
cultiplows and poor machinery, but recently two-row
troduce
good harrows, and efficient plows have been ininto
without

many

rotation

sections.

Extensive

cultivation

barnyard fertilizer has


resulted in the ruin of many
fields in spiteof the fact that
lint and oil cause
drain on mineral fertility.Cottonseed
no
meal
extent;

and

and

without

commercial

fertilizers are

diversified farming, rotation, and

used

to

some

better culture

badly needed.

are

Boll-weevils and
cotton

crop

wilt and

bollworms

root

have

rot, both

considerably. Better

caused

much

damage

plant diseases,injurethe

farming methods

through

Principlesof Agronomy

The

338

in

necessary

organicmatter

practice,unless
insect or disease control, because they add
to the soil when
plowed under.

(Linum tisitatissimum)
(Fig. 83)

FLAX

has been

Flax

grown

from

the earliest times

it for their robes

Priests used

crop.

stalks is bad

Burning the

browsed.

and

as

for

fiber

wrapping

people made clothingfrom it in both


Palestine and Egypt long before the time of Christ.
The
375.
plant consists of a slightly
Description.
and

mummies,

the

"

branched

tap-root;

slender

feet long, either simple or

from

stem

branched

three

to

one

accordingto whether

patches; linear lanceolate leaves


that are
alternate and nearly sessile; beautiful,
.fiveparted, delicate blue flowers; or a globularpod filled
it is in thick

with

in thin

or

flat-oval,russet

ten

seeds

rich in

oil. The

bast

"

linen,is separatedfrom the stem by


retting."
Flax will grow on any kind of good
376. Adaptation.
soil in climates that permit the successful production of

fiber,or

"

wheat.

produces two-thirds of the fiber flax of


the
world ; Austria-Hungary, France, Belgium, and
of the remaining third. The crop of
Holland grow most
the United
States, grown
largely for seed, is produced
almost
North
entirelyin the three states:
Dakota,
Since many
in
Minnesota, and South Dakota.
states
wheat
have flax-growingpossibilities,
the crop will
areas
Like the United
gentina
probably spread much.
States, Arflax for seed, producing 34 per cent of the
grows
entire seed-crop. This exceeds the production of any
other
second
377.

States

Russia

Russia

country.
in

and

the

United

States

importance.

Culture.

is

is third

"

produced

Most
on

of the

flax crop

in the United

newly-broken ground before

any

Fibers and

other crop is
and

two

inches

or

Fig.

three

83.

Crops

339

After plowing,the land is smoothed

sown.

deep by

Miscellaneous

pecks

the

acre

planted one

or

two

of grain drills. .Little treatment

means

"

to

good

crop

of flax seed.

Wisconsin.

given. The seed and fiber crops are


harvested differently.
Seed flax is cut with a grainbinder and threshed by an
For fiber,the flax is pulled
ordinary threshing machine.
by hand, tied in bundles, and cured in shocks. The
next
retting,consists of spreading the stems
process,
before

harvest

is

The

340

thinlyon

the

for three

or

Principlesof Agronomy

ground and exposing them


four weeks.

This

to dew

or

water

loosens the fiber,which

is

by pounding with mallets or by bending in a


machine.
A
thorough beating with wooden
paddles
completes the separation,after which combing separates
the long fiber (fiaxline)from the short (tow).
removed

378.

and

Use

value.

Linseed

"

in the

oil,used

facture
manu-

of

paints, varnishes, medicine, oilcloth, and


linoleum,is extracted from the seed by crushing,heating,
and
pressing or by treating with naphtha. Residues,
pressed into oil-cake or ground into linseed meal, are
valuable

value, and also


into

The

for stock-feed.

Well-cured

contains

littlebrittle fiber that

bagging

coarse

straw

or

used

fibfermakes

for

ing
feed-

some

be made

can

packing in upholstery.

cloth that is valuable

because

of its
not

wool

strengthand uniform whiteness; because it does


fray in laundering as does cloth made from cotton or
;

and

because

it takes

starch well.

For

these

sons,
rea-

apparel,and for
be of spotlesswhite.

linen is used for collars,cuffs,other


household

articles that must

OTHER

FIBERS

(Cannabis saliva),which is related to the


mock," or osage orange, yieldssome
mulberry and the
fiber for ropes,
burlap bagging, and matting.
coarse
379.

Hemp

"

produced in corn-growingsections that


have a moist, fertile soil rich in lime.
Though other sections
have
favorable soil and
climate, the blue-grass
regions of Kentucky and Tennessee, and parts of New
York and Nebraska
of the crop.
as
yet produce most
The
and the pistilsare
borne on
stamens
different
hemp plants. Staminate
plants branch less than the
and on that account
yielda better fiber. Both
pistillate,
The

best crops

are

Fibers and

kinds
A

of plants vary

tap

leaves

Oval

from

root-system,

ending in
seed, about

covered

with

cluster

three

Crops

341

feet in height.

twelve

to

and

deeply-serrated
characteristic of the plant.

strong stem,

are

one-eighth of
borne

hull,are

four to

From

Miscellaneous

inch in diameter

an

and

the top.

at

six pecks of seed

the acre,
Little cultivation is

are

just before

to

sown

corn-planting season.
weeds.
When
the plants usually smother
as
necessary,
and
ready for harvesting,the crop is cut with mowers
binders,or by hand if it is too largefor machinery. The
separationof fiber from the stem is similar to that of flax.
380.

Miscellaneous

fibers.

Manila

"

in the same
{Musa textilis),
genus
in the Philippine Islands
grown

which

hawsers

rope

twine

made.

are

The

hemp,

abaca

or

the banana, is much

as

for strong fiber out of


cables, and high-grade binder

or

rainfall,

plant requiresabundant

warmth, and well-drained soils. The leafthe natives


sheaths of the plant furnish the fiber,which
get by scrapingoff the pulp.
in the same
the century
Sisal {Agave rigida),
as
genus
furnishes a fiber used for twine and for mixing with
plj,nt,
crushed
leaves
fiber in cordage. The
manila
are
by
considerable

machinery
useful

loosen

to

in marine

the

strands.

hard

salt

because

service

It is not

very

markedly

water

decomposes it.
A number

of other plantsproducing fibers are

various

parts of the world

Mexico

and

Central

America

Mexico,

and

Texas;

and

jute

New

in India ;

istle in

Zealand

grown

maguey

Mexico,
hemp in

in
in
New
New

Zealand.
CROPS

MISCELLANEOUS

Many

other

purpose

man

plants are

grown

desires them.

wherever
He

cares

and
not

for whatever

what

family

make

some

plant,he

this makes
it as

grows

The

of them.

use

be harmful, but

plantsthey are, provided he

kind of

what

in,nor

they are
can

Principlesof Agronomy

The

342

no

use

may

in

some

difference ; if he wants

cases

the

crop.

{Brassicaoleracea),and kohlrabi {Brasextent for


sica oleracea var.
caulo-rapa)are used to some
feeding in isolated districts. Kohlrabi, not widely grown
381.

Cabbage

Fig.

84.

are

Cabbage

as

field crop.

Delaware.

enlargement of the stem, while cabbage


Kohlrabi
is sown,
massed
leaves.
thinned,

in America, is
heads

"

an

as
cultivated,harvested, stored, and fed in the same
way
rutabagas; in yield and feeding value it is also very
similar to the rutabaga. Cabbages are
commonly sown
in hot houses and transplanted in May or June two
or
three feet apart in hills with rows
equally far apart.

For

feeding,the

crops

may

be seeded

thick in fields after

Fibers and
the last frost and

Miscellanemis

thinned

later.

Crops

343

chief

Their

is for

use

human

food, though in some


sections, they are
for stock-feed,yielding occasionallyas
high as
tons

of

forageto the

cows,

but

serves

both

is shown

Cabbage is valuable

acre.

is rather

difficult to

cattle and

sheep very

well.

forty

for milch

pasturage

as

cure;

grown

cabbage

it

field

in

Fig. 84.
382. Rape
from two
to four
(Brassica Napus) grows
feet tall sending out many
broad, succulent leaves in
early growth. Sown broadcast at the rate of three to
five pounds an acre, it will keep down
weeds; it yields
in

most

two

rows

in late spring or

it is

has ceased.

It may
be
either alone or

during earlysummer

grain. Sometimes
grain, leafingout
Sometimes

three feet apart.

to

it is

planted two
abundantly when
between

sown

corn

for hog

variety.

with

three weeks

or

the

rows

It is valuable

sown

after

grain is

cut.

after cultivation

is not

cured

sheep pasture, but


rather heavy.
for dry forage. Yields are

Dwarf

Essex

is the usual

or

{Brassica oleracea),a headless cabbage,


furnishes considerable winter soilingin the coast region
of Washington and
Oregon, being cut for green feed
during the mild winter. The yields vary from ten to
thirtytons of green forage an acre, with fifteen to twenty
This slightly
under favorable conditions.
tons
common
383.

exceeds

Kale

the

heavilyon

yield of
mineral

in considerable
and

384.

are

Since

all the

feed

mustards

food of the soil,fertilizeris beneficial

quantities.Farm

in the

manure

fertilizers in the

commercial

World

rape.

East

and

West

in the

Old

used to supply these demands.

Enemies.

easily control

"

the

Although
weeds,

some

to

easily eradicated.

The

culture

insects and

the

should
disease

family,are by no means
club-root {Plasmodiorpha hrassi-

the whole

club-root, common

intensive

The

344

Principlesof Agronomy

cos)fungus develops inside the


causing the plants to die. The

root, distortingit and


spores

live in the

soil

awaiting a chance to attack other roots. Long rotation


is the only method
of control known
for soil once
infested.
The
cabbage-root maggot
{Pegomyia hrassicos)lays
its eggs

near

the root, and

the

riddles the

maggot

root

causing the plants to look sickly and then to die. One


is to place a
method
of control
spoonful of carbon
bisulfide in the soil four to six inches from the plant,and
hole.
to compress
the soil tightly over
The
comes
liquidbegas

and

penetrates

Paris green or arsenate


that is,sprayed on young

to

the maggots.

of lead, used

as

for potato

bugs,

ling
plants,aids greatly in controlthe green cabbage worm
{Pieris rapes). Plowing as
also helps considerably.
the crop is removed
soon
as
The cabbage aphis {Aphis brassicce)
feeds on the leaves
and but for parasiticenemies
would
be decidedly injurious
all crucifers. It is best handled
to
"by thorough
spraying with tobacco solution (" black-leaf 40 ") one

part in four hundred

of water.

Flea-beetles, cabbage

loopers, cabbage

webworms,

diamond-back
cabbage worms,
cross-striped
moths, and
The
cabbage curculios do damage in various ways.
method
of control is largelyone
of prevention by means
of culture and rotation.
cide
Any good manual gives insectitreatments.

TOBACCO

Some

(NicotianaTabacum)

plants have

with drugs
always supplied man
which he has chosen to use
for remedies, stimulants, or
narcotics.
used for a long time
Opium and cocaine were
to

the

soothe, stimulate, or

deaden

nervous

discovery of America, tobacco

response.

became

the

After
chief

The

346

Principlesof Agronomy

ing
by cuttingthe whole plant. Curing requiressteady drythat keeps the leaves pliable. Large barns are filled
laths. Slow fires are
often
with the leaves hung over
curing in

used to hasten

On

brittle.

largerbundles
are

qualityand
is made

are

"

later made

are

into

sweat."

If warehouses

sold, but

if shipping is

is packed

leaves bring
carefully-graded

in

large hogsheads.

the

best

siderable
price,con-

is exercised to separate leaves of different

care

388.

to

bundles

tobacco

are

These

allowed

loose

the

necessary,

Since

and

the

near,

damp

tied in bundles.

and

stem

uniformly brown and


day, they are strippedoff the

well cured, the leaves

When
not

weather.

wet

to

place only one

Sugar-cane.
from

About

"

grade in

package.

half the sugar

of the world

which is
{Saccharum officinarum)
countries.
produced only in tropical and semi-tropical

Fig.

sugar-cane

8S.

"

Planting

sugar-cane.

Louisiana.

Fibers and

British India, Cuba,


Louisiana
the

United

347

the chief ducers.


proproduce all that is grown i^
Hawaii

Java, and

and Texas

States.

Crops

Miscellaneous

Alluvial

are

soils along the

sissippi
Mis-

lower

moisture
and, therefore, prosupply abundant
duce
good yields.
has plume-liketassels,
Sugar-cane,which is a perennial,
bears

has buds

ears,

no

of stem,

in size, nature
buds

when

grow

at

the

the nodes, and

leaves, and

stalks

resembles

The

root-system.

covered

are

corn

moist

with

is started (Fig 85).


earth, as they are when a new
crop
After planting,sufficient cultivation is given to control
weeds.
Chemical

analyses indicate

the

showing when the sugar content


strippedof its leaves, topped in
to the ground with largeknives.
lowers

after cutting,the

soon

factory,usuallyon
squeezing out
the

Sweet

is

which
juice,

for harvest

highest.

The

the field,and

close

cut

the stalks,

rolls crush

is made

into sugar

by

much

of

Most

"

the

sweet

potato

States is grown
in.
Loose, friable soils favor best growth of the

the South.

enlargedroots

of the United

crop

which

tion
Cultiva-

the edible plant parts.

are

"

"

Irish
similar to that given
is very
Shoots from the roots are transplantedfor a

harvested

is

cane

beet juice.

as

potatoes.

{Ipomaea Batatas)

(Fig.86).

by

Since the sugar content


is taken at once
to the

Heavy

cars.

methods

same

389.

the

cane

time

potatoes.
new

crop

the plant is
Since frost injuresthe crop readily,
before cold weather sets in.

entirelyfor human
important
consmnption, forming in the South a more
article of diet than the common
potato (Fig.87). They
Sweet

are

for

potatoes

fed to hogs to

are

used

some

pasturinghogs, which

potatoes.

almost

extent
are

and

turned

the fields are

in to

"

root

"

out

used
the

The

348

Fig.

Fig.

87.

86.

"

"

In

Principlesof Agronomy

Sweet

the

potato

South

sweet

plants started

potatoes

are

in

an

plant-bed.

important

crop.

Fibers and

390.

Fruits.

Miscellaneous

Crops

349

Apples, peaches,pears, cherries,citrusand small-fruits are all grown


fruits,
extensivelyin various
that they might
parts of the country on such large areas
rank as field crops, though, of course,
they are classed
horticultural products. Formerly, they were
as
grown
in small plots,but with more
extensive culture their
problems are akin in some
respects to grain and forage,
however, in pruning,spraying,thinning,packdiffering,
ing,
and marketing.
of orchard
soils
cultivation,and fertility
Irrigation,
that influence farm crops.
depend on the same
principles
be kept down
Weeds must
by plowing between the trees
or
by using cultivators (Fig.89) ; the soil must be kept
in good tilth by the addition of farm manure
the plowor
ing
under
of cover
Clovers are probably best for
crops.
this purpose.
In some
it seems
advisable
cases, at least,
have

to

391.

the

"

in sod instead of bare.

rows

Truck

crops.

cultivated

much

the tomatoes

neighborhood of canneries,

are

under

grown

usually transplanted from

is

crop

In the

of tomatoes

large acreages
This

"

are

as

potatoes until harvest

picked by hand

and

contract.

hot-beds
season,

hauled

and
when

tory.
to the fac-

Peas, beans, cucumbers, cauliflowers,and other garden

near

factories for canning purposes,


or
Cantaloupes
large cities that afford ready markets.

and

melons

crops

are

grown

are

near

also grown

under

peculiarlyfavorable

shipped or hauled to market.


farms
on
many
Squash and pumpkins are grown
in the house, or for cattle- and hog-feed. They
use
conditions

and

for
are

vated
usuallyplanted in hills five or six feet apart and cultithe vines die
as
long as the vines permit. When
from frost or from maturity, the squash and pumpkins
are
gatheredand stored under cover.

The

350

88.

Fig.

"Fig.

89.

"

"

Principlesof Agronomy

Greenhouse

good

crops

implement

with

are

in demand

which

to

near

cultivate

large cities.

on

large scale.

Fibers and
392.

Timber

crop.

Miscellaneous
With

"

forest lands, the price of lumber


that

the

Crops

depletion of

has risen to such

351

many
an

tent
ex-

it is

localities
profitablefor farmers in many
small patches of timber.
to grow
Hardwood
for repair
of various machines
and tools ought to be at hand at all
In some
times.
be grown
sections,a few trees may
for
this purpose
and kept free from low branches by pinching
off branch buds and by pruning wisely.
393. Other
Tea, coffee,nuts, tropicalfruits,
crops.
rubber trees,sugar maples, poppiesfor opium, hops, cacti,
and dye and medicinal plants are grown
to some
extent
in parts of the world.
Besides these,countless plants are
in small gardens for home
use.
Finally, the
grown
industryhas assumed importance(Fig.88).
flower-growing
and home-, roof-,and house-gardensabound
Greenhouses
with innumerable
plantsbearingbeautiful flowers,leaves,
"

or

stems.

SUPPLEMENTARY

Cotton, C. W.

READING

Burkett.

Hemp, Boyce.
Field Crops, Wilson
and Warburton, pp. 241-255, 363-386.
Field Crop Production, G. Livingston,
pp. 337-357.
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, T. F. Hunt, pp. 304-402.
Forage Crops, E. B. Voorhees, pp. 292-310.
Forage Plants, C. V. Piper,pp. 589-595.
Southern
Field Crops, J. F. Duggar, pp. 248-424, 484-547.
Vol. H, pp. 221-224, 226-229,
Agriculture,
Cyclopediaof American
247-258, 281-303, 377-380, 380-384, 388-391, 494r^l0, 530534, 554-559, 631-636, 639-656.
U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.

Bulletins

27.

Flax for Seed

36.

Cotton

47.

Insects

48.
164.

Seed

and
and

Fiber.
its Products.

Affectingthe Cotton
The Manuring of Cotton.
Rape as a Forage Crop.

Plant.

The

352

209.

Principles

Boll

the

Controlling

of

Agronomy

Weevil

in

Cotton

and

Seed

at

Ginneries.
211.

The

Use
Boll

Paris

of

Green

Controlling

in

Cotton

the

Weevil.

217.

Essential

223.

Miscellaneous

226.

Building

274.

Flax

276.

The

Advantage

290.

The

Cotton

302.

Sea-Island

314.

in

Steps

Securing

Cotton

Insects

Run-down

up

Early

an

in

Crop

of

Cotton.

Texas.

Cotton

Plantation.

Culture.
of

Planting

Seed.

Cotton

Heavy

BoUworm.
Cotton.

Method

of

Cotton

Early

Breeding

to

Escape

Boll

Weevils.
333.

Cotton

Wilt.

344.

The

364.

433.

Cabbage.

500.

The

501.

Cotton

512.

The

519.

An

577.

Growing

601.

625.

Cotton

Boll

Problem.

WeevU

Profitable

Cotton

Control

of

Farm.

the

Boll

Under

Improvement
Boll

Weevil

Example

New

Conditions.

Weevil

Problem.
of

Intensive
Cotton

Egyptian

Method
Wilt

Weevil.

of
and

Cotton

Root-Knot.

Farming
in

Culture

Salt

in

the

River

and

Cotton

Valley,

its

Belt.
zona.
Ari-

Application.

The

354

whatever
yielders,
after

year.

Principlesof Agronomy
increase

this

would

Nor

might

came

bar

the

expectedyear
opportunityfor

be

by superiorcultural methods; indeed, it


readily
often happens that the better the plant the more
it responds to additional care.
^
Hunt
estimates that if grainplantscould be obtained
additional kernel in each head or
that would .produceone
each ear, the total yield of the United States would
on

improvement

Fig.

90.

"

Breeding

nursery

for

(Pennsylvania

timothy.

Station.

Experiment

of corn, 15,000,000 bushels


1,500,000 bushels of barley. One additional

increase by 5,000,000 bushels


of oats, and

potato in each

hill would

total 21,000,000 extra

bushels

of potatoes.

portant
Perhaps the most imimprovement ?
thing in crop improvement is increase in yield.
Better quality also deserves attention in that it increases
the usefulness and market
price of the product. Clean,
394.

uniform

What

is

"

potatoes free from

for
particularly

seed.
'

Cereals

disease

Growers
in

are

would

America,

pp.

much
pay
14^15.

sought after,
extra

for them.

Improvement of Crops

355

Plump wheat of uniform texture ; soft,leafy hay ; or


apples alike in color, flavor,and size bring extra prices.
Both yieldand qualityare resultants of several complex
factors. They are ends
which improvegoals toward
ment
be pushed. Not
must
this be done
always can
for it may
be that one factor alone,such as disease
directly,
in potatoes, is hindering. Improvement in yieldor quality
"

Fig.

91.

"

Hand

thresher

for work

in

plant-breeding.

of
by looking back to find the cause
One
the defect.
muddy tributary will discolor all the
if this is cleared,the whole
river below
its entrance;
lacks resistance to drouth,
is clear. If a crop
stream
to
or
to heat, to frost,to insects,to disease,to alkali,
be injured seriouslyany time by a single
water, it may
is most

often made

weakness, though
"

A chain is no

it has

strength in

stronger than its weakest

all other respects.

link."

The

356

Principlesof Agronomy

variety of corn
growing-season be brought
Should

it could

one,

mature

not

soil and

to

and

whatever

its

long

shorter

possibilities

will

of

selection

first step toward

better

continually testing

essential.

loose, fertile soils and

on

cultivation.

is also

methods

cultural
best

succeed

Potatoes

are

with

district with

into

much

not

respects,

Though

the

section

from it.
actually come
ability
climatic adaptation is paramount,
general suit-

in other

clean

from

adapted varieties is
Experiment stations

crops.

find

to

crops

under

the

strains

best

suited to their localities.


Ideal

395.

sought.

advancement

of

he

how.

factors that

We

have

has in mind,
desires.

week
will

Nor
a

out

toward

so

nearly

to

grow

much

so

wrong

in

tools

effectively.
to

strike and

plant-breeding,but
be made

unless
Just

as

he

the plant-breeder know

just what

he

works

to

change. Imagine the kind


have if he changed his mind each

building it.
;

if he has

must

not

If his ideal is wrong,

he

good plan,he will come


change. So it is with the
a

be right,then

But

this ideal may


that it is not feasible. We

grass

are

the house

would

was

it.

about

given

build

plant ; the first ideal


bend

where

great gains could

right,provided he does

out

them

the ideal

must

he

knows

learn

always

must

person

while
come

and

so

best growth

ideal plant clearlyin mind.

an

sees

quality in

wield

can

he

to

all,no

had

architect

of house

much

knew

we

the breeder
an

determine

do only when

can

if

even

desired

some

plant-breeder who

the

This

toward

The

crop.

consists largely of

Improvement

"

that is all leaves, but

reducing the percentage

we

of

all effort must

impossible or
can
hardly hope
can
accomplish

be

stem.

The

ideal

and constantly
sought should be possible,
valuable,distinct,
striven for.

357

Improvement of Crops

METHODS

OF

IMPROVEMENT

Crops may be improved by three generalmethods : (1)


better culture,(2) attention to the purity and strengthof
which
consists of selection
seeds,and (3) plant-breeding,
of crossingand selection.
or
396. Cultivation.
have
proved
imThough farm methods
in
materially since the Civil War and even
very
"

last few

the

years,

farms

many

do

get cultivation

not

knowledge of the owners, much


them
less up to the standard urged upon
by agricultural
systematic
collegesand farmers' organizations. A more
good plowing,
practiceof the care and use of farm manure,
earlyspringharrowing,wise rotation,moderate irrigation,
for insects and plant diseases,
clean farming, treatment
harvestingin the proper way and at the proper time all
A systematicpracticeof these welldeserve attention.
known
will improve both the yield and
cultural methods
In any kind of farming the
the quality of farm crops.
that

best

comes

up

to

the best

results cannot

without

come

principles.
397. Seed-testing.

attention

proper

to

these

"

his seed, it is almost


as

broken
A

seed.

sure

to

contain

kernels,seed of other
mixture

advantage where

thereby lowering yields and


weeds

to

plants

get started.

into

the

crops,

say

the
or

to the farm

field.

Weed
These

nothing of the
pests.
are

dirt,chaff,and weed

Noxious

poor

cause

may

crop

stands,

affordingopportunity for
undesirable

seeds introduce

usually

of the harvest
in the desirability

yield,to

such
impurities,

some

of varieties prevents marketing to best


while
in other ways,
it does not hinder

kernels,dirt,and chaff

broken

the farmer raises or buys

Whether

as

extra

weeds

cause

well

as

a
a

decrease

decrease

labor entailed in
new

frequentlyintroduced

to

the

in

trolling
con-

district

into fields,
causing

The

358

Principlesof Agronomy

and
perhaps making impossible the
difficulty
Russian
profitableproduction of some
thistle,
crop.
bindweed, quack-grass, perennial sow-thistle, Canada
few weeds especially
hard to
thistle,and milkweed
are
a
be thoughtlessly
introduced in impure
eradicate that may
endless

seed.
In addition

that lack the

strength to
to

to

power

send

know

contains,and

impuritiesin the seed there


up

what

be

may

some

germinate or lack the necessary


able
vigorous plants. Since it is desirkind
and how
much
impurity seed
to

its relative

to

power

it is essential

grow,

samples before sowing.


In order to do this,small quantitiesof seed from several
parts of the sack or bin should be mixed thoroughly and
divided into halves, one
of which
should be repeatedly
mixed
and divided until a representativesample small
With
the help of hand forceps,
enough to test is secured.
needles, and a hand lens a separationof the sample into
five pilesmay
be made
:
(1) good seed, (2) dirt and chaff,
to

test

(3) other

crop

seed, (4) broken

By carefullyweighing
the

percentage

the
of

kernels,and

separates, the tester

purity, and

weed

seed with samples in

what

weeds

platehalf

of white

full of moist

next

mine
deter-

can

step is

is covered

the

find out

can

of the pure

sand

seed.

by comparing

collection,he

they belong. The


or
viability,
germinable power,
this

(5) weed

to

test

the

To

do

seed.
with

to

piece

blottingpaper, and 100 or 200 seeds are


counted
it. After placing another
out
on
plate on top
to prevent drying^the platesare
set in a warm
place. In
a few days the seeds that have
germinated may be counted
and recorded.
Repetition of the counting every day for
the percentage of germination.
short period will show
a
ards,
By referringto tables of purity and of germination standfind out if the seed is worth planting.
one
may
cloth

or

Improvement of Crops
398.

359

A seed is the mature, fertilized


Reproduction.
of a plant and the connecting link between
two
ovary
generations of plants. The
and
parent plant grew
developed partly in order to produce seed that it might
leave another
generation of similar plants. Flowers in
"

plants seem

be

A perfect
primarilyfor this purpose.
flower consists of calyx,corolla,stamens, and pistil,
but
plants have only the last two parts, which are the
many
since from
them
the seed develops.
important ones,
Pollen from the stamens
alights on the stigma of the
pistiland under favorable conditions sends a long tube
down
the style to the ovule.
The union of the pollen
and

to

causes

ovary

union

of the

male

in the

gamete

pollenwith the female gamete in the ovule. This process,


known
as
fertilization,
begins the life of the seed which,
when
mature, consists of (1) a miniature plant or embryo
surrounded
by (2) a quantity of stored-up food, both
of which

are

in turn

called the
a

inclosed in (3) a membranous

hull.

Since

each

plant, the number


have depends on

plant may
produce. This varies from
some

of

crops

to

largeRussian
399.

seed

of
the

is capable of becoming

descendants

few

quarter of

million

thistles

tumbling mustard.

Variation.

^-

Mere

chance

in the

hundred
or

it
case

in the

more

would

parent

of seeds

number

or

ing
cover-

some

cause

can

of
case

of

the many
descendants
to differ from
others, but the law
of variation causes
each individual to differ from every
other.

Just

as

no

two

people are

alike, no

two

plants

flowering,
They differ in color,size,shape,rooting,
other ways.
Oats always bring forth
and in numerous
oats, but there are no two oat plants that do not differ.
are

One

alike.

among

several

surroundings.
and

thousand

It is upon

will do

best

in

particular

this principlethat both

selection depend.
artificial

natural

The

360

Principlesof Agronomy

plant out
fitted to survive in its particular
is more
of thousands
most
vigorously.
surroundings,that one plant will grow
kind of plant grew,
Now, if all the seeds from any one
fillthe whole earth.
Therefore,
this plant would
soon
Natural

400.

in the end, not

many

Because

"

individuals

more

one

some

live next

can

year

this year without


crowding out others. Since
few of all the descendants of a plant can
possibly

do

than

only

selection.

die.
remaining ones
Thus
nature
constantly improves the wild plants by
unending, relentless selection. For countless ages, only

survive, those

fit live and

most

fit of whole

the most

in turn

which

have

races
are

the

endured

culled out

by

to

ants,
descend-

rear

increasingly

ever

weakest

longer this weeding out of the


continues, the better adapted the survivors are

to

with

rigorous selection.
cope

in the

The

their enemies.
Old

World

All

our

bad

weeds

where, for thousands

nated
origi-

of years,
cultivated

struggling for existence in


fields. This long, incessant struggle to retain foothold
of survival.
has developed their means
they

401.

have

been

Artificial selection.

"

Because

man

has

put

his

crop-plantsin unnatural surroundings,they have lost the


fitness acquired before they were
domesticated.
The new
variations which afford
strugglethus set up causes
many

for selection. With an ideal in mind, man


opportunities
can
orousl
improve these plants if he continues to select rigand
unerringly from
generations of
many
environment.
This is one reason
plantsgrown in the same
why home-grown seed is better than imported. His ideal
his grip weaken
must
not
change nor must
by unwise
choosing. Only the best can be tolerated.
of procedure looks simple, conAlthough the method
siderable
in decidingjust which
is encountered
difficulty
individual plantis best. For example,the hillof potatoes

The

362

Variety

403.

Principlesof Agronomy

experimentalfarms
yieldingpower of the
the

find out

to

or

varieties of crops

numerous

best

adapted

in order

climate, soil,and

Since

out

of twenty

be best, varietytests promise

must

some

to

district.

of the

varieties

more

Much

"

one

cultural methods

is

being accomplished on
in plats the
or
by testingin rows

tests.

much.

United

The

broadened
to

men

Department of Agriculture has


of
by keeping in the field a number

this work

look

that

crops

States

for

new

or

crops

promise

United

States

with

red and

durum

wheats

in

well

do

to

similar

varieties of

new

section

some

soil and

common

climate.

of the

Turkey

exemplifysuch introductions.

At

varieties are tested for a number


experiment stations,new
of years before they are recommended
to farmers.
Many
found unsuited and are
rejected; but a
crop plants are
few have been valuable.
In general,crops from southern
Europe do well in California, from middle Europe in
the Central States, and from the arid Steppes of Russia,
in Great
404.

Plains

areas.

Steps in breeding.

"

There

are

then

three steps

in breeding :

(1) Inducing variation.


(2) Selection of most promising variations.
(3) Testing the selections

find but

to

their power

of

to progeny.
transmittingdesirable qualities
405. Crossing.
Besides changing the food, the moisture,
"

the heat,
induce

may

of

or

variation

plant in
plants, such as
one

others, such

the cultural relations of

crossing. In

person

with

the

of another.
Some
pistil
while
are
naturallycross-fertilized,
com,
oats, wheat, and barley, are
naturally

self-fertilized; but
of

crop,

by artificially
bringingthe pollen

contact

as

this makes

either

case

no
a

difference in the effect

widely-variantprogeny

Improvement of Crops
will result in

pointsfor

few generations. This offers new

starting

selection.

Mendel's

406.

363

If

pollenfrom flint corn fertilizes


dent, or if dent pollenfertilizesflint,
the resultingkernels
all look flinty. Let this corn
be so planted next
season
to be protected from
further crossing,and about oneas
will be dent and three-fourths flinty.
fourth of the corn
The dent will always breed true but the fhnt will continue
dent and some
flint. A third part of
to produce some
law.

the flint will breed

"

true, but it is hard

since all three-fourths

appear

part is pure

corn

the
to

flint. The

is made

cross

has

be

to

flint,but

that is harvested

both

F represent the

gives

FD.

are

Next

and

pure

two

characters
is known
to go

seem

appears

the

and

the

gives

2 FD

1 DD.

is called combination

The

acter,
char-

FD

one-fourth,

is FD,

will

characters), and

"

break
union

or

brid
hy"

up

of the

the later tion


separacharacters
of plants

and

segregation.Most
pairs behaving as F and
as

in

Half

true.

FF

and

FF,

corn,

will breed

the dent

cross-pollination.FxD

FDxFD

of

into I FF

year

of the

year

(contains two
next

the fallafter

is dominant

flint character, D

nature

One-fourth

1 DD.

DD,

the

one

recessive.

dent character

and

part,

only

in it but

characters

be flint,
that is,the flint character

Let

tell which

to

in the example

unit characters.
This
as
They are then known
two
be stated thus : When
law of breeding may
plants
of a pairof unit characters are crossed,
each having one
cited.

characters

the

two

are

present but

the recessive
the
out

in

the

form

in which

and

combination

in which

both

dominant

character

hides

the

that in the next

hybrid, and

the

proportionsof

called Mendel's

generationthe

recessive used
1:2:

nant,
domi-

will segregate

1, respectively. It is

law, after its discoverer,Gregor Mendel.

The

364

Principlesof Agronomy

By the help of Mendel's

law, breeders

tell something

can

rally,
likelyto be. Natuthis has helped much
in breeding work, but many
things not yet understood stand in the way of rapid progress.
to what

as

the

results of

of

these

One

these

are

is that

obstacles

by

potatoes do not propagate


In

cross

of

means

only straightselection can be used, since


ordinary farm
practice,
impossible under

cases,

crossing is
though the
produce new

true

seed

is sometimes

of potatoes

not

Importance of large numbers.


of them
cost much, thousands
may

few

animals

can

be

discarded

value, but with plants,all


may

be set aside.

plant than

made

to

crossing.

variation by

407.

in

plants like
se"d but by buds.
some

Because

Since
be

one

or

plants do
bred.
Only a
of their great

account

on

save

"

two

out

of thousands

of this,greater rapidity

in

be expected. Why
animal-breedingmay
then
the poor
development of plant-breeding? First,
until recently; secondly,
sexualityin plantswas unknown
of history and
animal-breedingbegan with the dawn
plant-breedingonly two hundred years ago ; thirdly,the
male

animal

be

controlled, while

pollen of plants,
which blows everywhere, can
be controlled only with the
has been done, however, by
utmost
difficulty.Much
selection and variety-adaptationtests.
408.

Better

send

out

can

seed.

Plant-breeding farms

desirable

resistant fruits have


where

"

strains

of

some

crop.

ally
occasionFrost-

introduced

in districts
fruit-growing
it was
hitherto impossible; rust-resistant carnations,
cantaloupes, and small-grainsdecrease losses in

sections ; seedless oranges


and grapes
the fruit industry; corn
that ripensin short
many

are
seasons

boons

to

allows

this crop to be grown


frost-resistant alfalfa
northward;
is now
in the northern
Great Plains where
widely grown
this crop

previouslybecame

winter-killed.

Improvement
By

the

farmers
and

methods

Careful

better

get

may

from

outHned

the

seed.

of

Assistance

each

from

should

seed-testing,seed

to

365

treatise

government

will hasten

treatment

in the

national

attention

of Crops

the

day

but

none-the-less

crop,

the

state

them.

help

selection, and

of better

seed

seed

better

and

crops.
"

It is

seed

good
how

well

much

time-worn
is essential
the

farmer

be

or

to

his
he

money

fails to

obliged

agriculture.

prepares

time, labor, and

all of his seed

good

to

he

grow

reseed, thus

Plant

Breeding,

Domesticated
Cereals

in

America,

Forage Plants,
Corn

C.

Wheat
U.

S. D.
No.

V.

and

of Seed

Hunt,

pp.

Coburn,

Piper,

A.

E.

G.

Farmers'
The

428.

Testing

Davenport.

pp.

Shaw.

Bui.

California
Nebraska

Bui.

The

No.

No.

181.

125.

of
Seeds

Farm

85-93.

447-479.

pp.

Montgomery,

Bulletins

141-144.

53-69,

pp.

Forage-Plant
in

the

Seeds.
and

Home

School.

'Coburn,

46-65.

W.

G.

Adulteration

382.

labor."

27-43.

pp.

pp.

Crossley,

Wheat,

Breeding,

crop

14-24.

Crops, E. G. Montgomery,

Corn, Bowman
Selection

E.

Agriculture, Vol. H,

of American

and

poor

READING

Animals,

F.

Alfalfa, F. D.

of

The

T.

or

Vries.

and

Plants

Cyclopedia
Book

De

how

it, if much

have

losing time

matter

matter

no
on

will either

No

Gilbert.

and

Hugo

land,

spends

SUPPLEMENTARY

Plant-breeding, Bailey

saying that

true

Book

of Alfalfa,

p.

27.

in

the

Rural

XXVIII

CHAPTER

WEEDS

selection has

Natukal

plants

able

are

against

in

them
in

new

spite

of man's

surround
has
still

been

unfitted

in

This

few

and

more

indeed,

them,

overcome

weak

of

only

methods

face.

The

where

of

and

their

is his hope.

to

how

they
any

are

send

the

best

not

"

to

the

into

wanted,

"

crop
366

can

or

of

weed

to

weed

cannot

plants
the

piece of land.

new

sprays

prepared

of the
and

find

to

enemy

an

its weakest

nuisances

To

tools,

New

is not

simply

are

ways

nature

it

strike

Weeds

particular

weed

what

control;

ous,
Vari-

adopted.

application

against

know

must

Definition.

handling

learn

attack

farmer

is attempting

409.

first must

to

attempts

makes

themselves.
have

the

appear
dis-

of itself.

care

competition

they

armor

and

care

probably

methods

cultivation, and

whose

man

in their

place

methods
are

the

are

of

growth

crop-plants

take

maintain

fit to

more

left to

were

to

ground

constant

would

keenness

ever-increasing

weeds

if it

years,

their

hand,

by

example,

effort

cultivated

other

competition

for

Wheat,

protection.

in

other

survived

have

to

petitors.
com-

attacked

has

His

favorable

the

On

for

against

them.

fight against weeds

relentless.

only

They

eradicate

to

natural

places.

new

some

against

not

conditions

with

the

more

have

effort

crops

made

in

that

long

so

by cultivation,

who,

man,

and

ways

ground

survived

have

Weeds

plants but

their

hold

to

operating

been

to

he

stand
with-

part.

growing
farmer

in

Alfalfa

Weeds
in potatoes and
weeds
the

as

volunteer wheat

the

are

that

farm

wheat

they crowd each


competition for moisture.
at

appear

thinned

to

the size

or

in beets

pigweeds

common

crop-plants themselves

land

367

Sometimes

the
thickly upon
other out by shading or by
Much
to drydamage comes
so

in this way,
which causes
first glance. Apples and
insure

distinctly

as

foxtail.

or

stand

are

largerlosses than
be
peaches must
one
apple limits

large fruit. When

qualityof another, it is a weed.


Some
maintain
that ugly plants are
weeds,
persons
and only ugly ones.
Morning-gloriesare not ugly but
they

abominable

are

it is valuable
weeds

as

in its natural

instance, are

not

Canada

This

of

clearer statements

flowers which

of the

not

for
small-grains,

morning-glories
have

weeds,

worst

our

do

consider plantsthat spread rapidly

is usually the

definitions,but

commonly-used

regard

persons

all noticeable,while

at

Others

be weeds.

Some

have

flowers

thistle, two

showy flowers.
to

The

Sagebrush is ugly, but

home.

only those plants that


attention.

attract

and

nuisances.

than

the

one

Below

case.

are

two

they probably make no


given : (1) "A
plant

which

interferes with the growth of the crop to which the


field is temporarily devoted,"
Any
(2)
injurious,
"

troublesome, or unsightlyplant that is at


useless

or

410.

classified

This

'

or

more

as

years.

the most

are

such

all weeds, and

as

time

As

regards length

annuals, winter
to

whether

is,perhaps, the

of life,weeds

annuals, biennials,

they
most

live one, two,


useful as well

comprehensive classification made, for in it

Another

The

as

"

perennialsaccording

and

same

comparativelyso."

Classification.

be

may

the

upon

useful

grasses,

it depends the method

grouping is

mustards,

objectionto this system

to

name

of eradication.
the

composites, and
is that

annuals

families,

legumes.
and

peren-

The

368

nials often

occur

Principlesof Agronomy
within

Both

perennialsuggests
systems of naming

family, and

tell whether

To

different treatment.
or

the
are

hence

weed

is an

demand
annual

of control.
general method
helpfuland should, therefore,

be used.
411.

Occurrence.

"

No

farmers

are

exempt

from

weed

in
even
everywhere; they grew
Ever
Eden.
since, they have been spreading far and
that they
and ingeniousmethods
wide by the numerous
transmitted
to the next
have
generation,or that they
So
have
since acquired in the strugglefor existence.
that no
done the work
spot has
thoroughly has nature
escaped.
At the doorstep, they creep out from the edge of the
of a crack ; along the pathway, they cover
out
stone
or
all ground not constantly trodden ; in waste
places,they
and struggle
the landscape; in crops, they crowd
mar
in the cemetery, they grow from
for supremacy
; and even
with a
It is only the livingman
the graves of the dead.
hoe or a plow that they respect ; only from him do they
hide their heads, and then, not until he uses
sharp edges.
Nor do they lack persistency
root,
; let him leave a single
and though they languish for a time, if he does not find
the solitary
root
by which they clingto the soil and to
have
life,they take a fresh hold and before he is aware,
tightenedthe grip until he realizes that he has lost his
opportunityof easy conquest.
Not only do they persistin the soil,but they feed on
other plants as parasites. The dodder twines about the
alfalfa,
on
sucking the sap ; the mistletoe does the same
Plant diseases are largelydue to plant parasites.
trees.
The first year that virgin land produces a crop, some
in. Soon they trespass in large numbers.
weeds
creep
In a forest regiondevoid of common
weeds, let a fire lay

pests.

They

occur

The

370

Principlesof Agronomy

profitwhen the grainis sold. Often he does this


innocently,but he has been known to do itwillfully.Much
get more

clover seed has been mixed

sweet

with alfalfa because

the

the market

pound for pound.


Canada
blue-grassseed has been imported to adulterate
that of Kentucky blue-grass.
(9) Settlers have introduced, for medicinal properties,
new
plants,which have later proved to be unmitigated
clover

was

nuisances.
the

across

worth

less

Burdock

on

and

hoarhound

have

continent, coming perhaps

as

been

coaxed

herbs

from

Europe.
seed by
(10) Finally,a few weeds scatter their own
of miniature explosionsgenerallycaused by a pod
means
of the vetches.
The squirtingcubursting,as in some

accomplishesthe same
by the rind keeping
purpose
rigidand forcingthe seeds out.
413. Losses from weeds.
Exactly what are the losses
due to weeds, is usuallyextremely hard to estimate.
In
in others moisture
some
cases, they steal plant-foodand
from the crop-plants.In addition large weeds shade or
crowd
all of these
out the smaller useful plants. One
or
In the West, however,
result at any time.
injuriesmay
cimiber

"

the

loss of water

is the

most

serious, since, upon

moisture

the

depends the quantityof crops produced,that is,


is the limitingfactor. Badly-infestedfarms lose
water
much
in selling
values on account
of weeds.
They can be
cleansed only at great expense
in cash, labor, crop loss,
and
time.
Paint adds more
to the price of a building
than the cost of material and application
detract
; weeds
from the price of land than the cost of eradication.
more
Some
farms have suffered so much
They are eye-sores.
that they will not bring the owner
reasonable price;
any
they are unsalable. Coe^ cites an instance where land
"

South

Dakota

BuUetin, No.

150.

Weeds

valued

$150

at

to $200

could

371

not

be sold because

it

was

infested with horse nettle.


Some

weeds

poisonous, causing loss by the killing


the weakening of stock.
or
Larkspur, loco, and water
hemlock do this ; other weeds taint milk, or render animals
unclean

are

burs

injurewool to a considerable extent.


these direct injuriesto the crop, the farmer suffers
losses no
less important. Weeds
may
carry

Besides
other

plant diseases
of cotton
which

keep

shelter insect pests.

or

the

of

troublesome

also attacks

numbers

fungus alive

until it finds another

attack cotton.

to

weeds

common

Alfalfa leaf-weevil

ease
dis-

tunity
oppor-

is sheltered

during the winter in dead weeds and rubbish of any sort.


Many weeds are a great hindrance in harvesting. They
and other machinery.
clog grain-binders,
potato-diggers,
Containingmuch moisture,they prevent crops from curing
quired
properly. In marketable
products, extra labor is resuch foreignmatter.
to remove
Moreover, when
the crop sells,the buyer docks in price or weight, or in
of the
both, far beyond the actual damage, on account
due to impuritie
of dry stems, seeds, odor, or taste
presence
loss.
direct money
noticeable of all difficultieswith weeds

Here
The

most

is

in their removal, incalculable

labor

expended yearly.
performed no other

is

and
other purpose
of weeds, the loss would
the killing

If cultivation had
service than

is that

no

be

mous,
enor-

but cultivation benefits the crops by looseningand


A crop that
and perhaps in other ways.
mulching the soil,
increases the labor of

is one-third weeds
half.

Here

is

handlingit by onereckoned, but one deserving

loss seldom

consideration.

Tumbleweeds,
numbers

and

even

catching

sufficient almost
moderate

winds

in wire

to

hide

exert

fences, lodge there in


the fence lines.

immense

pressure

Strong
on

this

Principlesof Agronomy

The

372

the

straining on

surface, tugging and

increased

wire,

looseningposts in soft ground, and pullingstaples. In


accumulations
addition to being unsightly,these weed
of disastrous fire.
when dry increase the possibility
that weeds
exert
students maintain
a
Finally, some
From
moral stress on the farmer.
one
viewpoint it does
extend to
reasonable that the neglectof weeds may
seem
reasonable, perhaps, is the idea that
other things. More
the farm,
be allowed to over-run
the weeds would
not
If, however,
not already present.
if the carelessness were
there be

loss in addition to the

moral

dollars due

to

damage

the harm
414.

phase

in the United

of crops

million

States

nually,
an-

is,indeed, astounding.

Prevention.

Let

"

eradication.

"

hundred

one

us

The

glance at the vital,practical


of seed, the

sources

structure

of the injury are all


plant, and the nature
of control.
factors in determining the method
Here, as anywhere else,prevention is primary. Seed
of the weed

be clean ; let the farmer and seedsman


that.
It is fundamental.
Then
the farmer

look well to

must

wisdom

in

hauling manure

is likely. If ditch banks


will carry

but few weed

seeds.

from yards where


and fields are
Let

be cleared ; horses and sheep cannot


If man
is careful,there is no need
cars,

ships,or

food

the wisest kind


cut
legislation

should

fence lines
"

carry

nation
contami-

clean,water

roads and
then

cise
exer-

stickers."

of seed scatteringfrom

quire
products. These last,however, reof inspectionand legislation,
with the

Inspectionand education
the most
from which aid is expected.
are
hopefulavenues
In a largemeasure,
the problem of eradicatingweeds
be handled
must
by the community, that is, by the
farmers as a group
in a cooperative unit.
the
Under
direction of the county farm
demonstrator, the farmers
that are not alreadyorganized should cooperate to combat
to

minimum.

Weeds

373

weeds, especially
weeds which could be exterminated
new
rather easilyon account
of their small number.
Canada
thistle is spreadingthrough entire sections,
where it might
be held at bay. Then
everybody must be alive to nize
recogHere
is a field for county
new
menaces.
agents,"
"

teachers,students,and
agricultural
technical knowledge.
To

assist the farmers

who

try

farmers

to

who

control

have

weeds,

some

law

compelling,at least,the mowing of weeds previous to


seeding should be in force. The law must, of course,
enough to make it effective.
carry with it a penalty severe
A law alone is of no avail. Unless a representativepart
of the community is livingthe law, offenders will not be
punished. In such cases the law becomes dead, and worse
than useless. Only the minority can
be driven or deterred
make
and enforce
by a law; the majority must
it. Good
first,cooperation, second ; a
farming comes
general enlightenment, third ; force and penalty have
placesonly after these have served.
415.

are

Eradication.

"

especiallywhile the weeds are


then killed much
easilythan
more
annuals, which

culture

methods

is the
them

farmers

Meanwhile

crux

are

seed every
necessary.

of the

automatically,as

whole
soon

as

young,

later.

year,

To
matter.

all the

must

vate;
culti-

since they
To

minate
exter-

only reasonable

prevent
This

their seeding
eliminates

seed in the soil has

To
germinated, which, however, may not be for years.
gain control of biennials, two years instead of one are
Plowing
required,for the plant forms seed two seasons.
Winter
will kill them.
or
cutting below the crown
annuals, beginning growth in the fall,need attention
vation
and early spring. Ordinary cultiduring the autumn
destroys these three kinds of weeds.
is
difficulty
It is,however, with perennialsthat most

374

The

encountered.

Some

rootstocks

or

part of the plant lives


seed-stems

and

Leaves

years.

Principlesof Agronomy

each

grow

These

year.

from

up

parts

number

of

root-crowns

generally

are

delions
deep in the ground that they are hard to reach. Danand mallows
examples of plants propagated
are

so

by

Rootstocks

root-crowns.

buds,

with

both

out

into scales

dwindled

leaves have

and

stems

which

of

one

any

underground

are

ered
cov-

The

grow.

hiding buds

which

send

with
difficulty
thistle,quack-grass,

This

roots.

will

stems

is the

Canada
salt-grass,
morning-glories,
rushes, and sedges.
The roots will eventuallystarve

if they

are

fed.

not

leaves feed the roots ; therefore,no green part is to


with
to rotate
be allowed above ground. It is necessary

The

will smother

that

crops

by shading, or

them

that

will

cultivation.
The
rootstocks ought to
permit constant
be plowed in the fall,thus giving frost a chance to
get
in a good lick."
Constancy alone can
prevent pests
gainingstrength; leaves above ground soon become green.
"

The

chlorophyllmakes

must

be exhausted.

lettingan

the

for

the

storehouse

that

besiegingfleet would not consider


occasional ship-loadof suppliespass the blockade.

When
then

food

strict blockade

is the time

to

the enemy,
In the control of weed pests,

strike.

is identical.

has weakened

easilykilled
immediately after they germinate, before they can
tablish
escourse

This

root-system.

them, since their lease


will both
near

root

Weeds

on

most

are

is the

life is

now

best time
weakest.

the plantletsand

out

the surface where

to

attack

ing
Harrow-

bring other seeds

they find conditions favorable

to

begin growth.
It is
in the

lose

nearly as essential
soil

as

it is to

in time,
vitality

to

kill the
some

germinate the seed that is


weeds.
Though all seeds

live

number

of years

in the

Weeds
soil.

Among

these

375

eocklebur, and

mustard,

are

other

hard-shelled seed.

If, for any reason, weeds are not attacked when only
few days old, cultivation should not be delayed longer
a
than
be weaker
As
to
some
plants seem
necessary.
be a good time for attack.
during blooming, this may
It is,in that seed has not yet formed.
Delay beyond
sequences,
blooming period is likelyto be fraught with serious confor some
weeds
seed very
mature
shortly
after the blossoms
disappear. Some flowers of a plant
show

may

seed.

the

at

The

blossom

416.

the

serve

begin to

soon

principles.

General

others contain

mature

signalhung
ripen.

out

that

should

that seed will

warn

time

same

"

as

Clark

and

Fletcher

to

give

following:

"1.

There

by

is

weed

no

known

which

attention, if the

constant

cated
be eradi-

cannot

nature

of its growth

is understood.
"

ripenseeds.
"3. Cultivate
frequently,particularlyearly in the
to destroy seedlings.
so
as
season,
be induced
to germinate
weed
seeds can
4. Many
in autumn
by cultivating stubble immediately after
of these seedlings will be winter-killed
Most
harvest.
be easilydisposedof by plowing or cultivation in
or
can
2. Never

allow weeds

to

"

spring.
"

seeds should

bearing mature

5. All weeds

be burnt.

i
they be plowed under,
of ordinary
be destroyed by the use
6. All weeds can
implements of the farm, the plow, the cultivator, the

Under

no

circumstances

should

"

harrow, the spud, and the hoe.

constantly on the alert


from becoming established."
"7.

Be

Farm

Weeds,

pp.

to

prevent

15-17.

new

weeds

376

The

Principlesof Agronomy

sion
practiceof summer-fallowing land, to the excluwhatever
of all crops throughout the season,
may
be said againstit,affords the best opportunity to suppress
For lands foul with persistentgrowing
noxious
weeds.
perennials,a thorough summer-fallow will usually be the
"

most

The

and in the end, the least expensivemethod


effective,

bringingthe weeds under control.


To
keep farms free from weeds, few methods
such good results as a systematic short rotation of
clover at
with regular seeding down
to grass
or
of

"

give
crops,

short

intervals."
417.

have

Herbicides

been

in Europe, Canada,
of years
Some
interestingthings have

number
States.

with

experimented
and

the

been

for

United

discovered

Copper
concerning the spraying of weeds to kill them.
iron sulfate,common
sulfate (blue vitriol),
salt, sulfuric
acid, slaked lime, corrosive sublimate, and
have

compounds

given

some

several other

in different experiments.

success

is necessary
the crop
or
If a rainstorm
the weeds.
follows

Much

care

is

injured

after
soon
along with
off and
lose their effect.
spraying, the chemicals run
With more
knowledge of the effect of chemicals on plants
in their application,considerable
and
care
more
help
should

be derived

from

the

use

of herbicides.

Copper sulfate is mixed twelve pounds in fifty-two


mon
gallons of water; it kills burdock, prickly lettuce, commustard,
to

Common

soil,kills
It is most

prostrate pig weeds, and

cording
goosefoot,ac-

experiments at the Iowa Station.


salt,applied both as spray and directlyto the
but also injures the crop-plants.
weeds
some
in which
is just
valuable on an area
weed
a

startingand

where

the crop

can

be sacrificed to eradicate

the weed.

Carbolic

acid, mixed

one

part

to

four

of water, aids

The

378

Weeds,

U.

and

S.
No.

D.

A.
28.

Farm

Foes,

American

of

Cyclopedia

of

Agronomy

Shaw.

Thomas

Friends

Farm

Principles

Bulletins

Weeds,
Weeds

279.

306.

Dodder

368.

The

M.

Weed,

How

to

Used

in

Medicine.

of
in

II,

Kill

Them.

Johnson

Eradicating

Relation

Farm

to

Eradication

of

464.

The

Eradication

of

531.

Larkspur,

545.

Controlling

Canada

610.

Wild

660.

Weeds

"Poison

Onion

Bindweed,

and

Quack-Grass.
Weed."
Thistles.

Methods

Their

of
Control.

Grass.

Seeds.

Glory.

or

110-118.

pp.

and

Method

1-55.

pp.

Vol.

Agriculture,

Farmers'

188.

C.

Eradication.

or

Wild

Morning-

PART

IV

MANAGEMENT
FIELD

CHAPTER

XXIX

PLANNING

In order to make
of

THE

FARM

well-balanced

yieldingthe highestreturns,

farm

business capable

considerable

careful planning

is necessary.
Farmers
too
to
are
develop
prone
the farm enterprise
along lines of least resistance,arranging
the

fields in the
time

rather

than

planning

during all the years that the farm


will be operated. Planning is as important in farming
in business; and
conducts his
as
no
good business man
to

save

and

easiest way,

affairs without
The

fact that

work

definite scheme.

exactly how he
his farm to be arranged permanently should
wants
not
have to change them
prevent his making plans. He may
in later years,

somewhat
not

farmer

working

on

planning should

does

but

be done

this should

of

kind

some

plan

all the

but every

livestock

farmer

should

that

to

capable

have

no

reason

meantime.

for
All

in mind.

available

it is

plan

be

in the

with the future

be that sufficient capitalis not


farm

know

not

some

It may
the
to place on
of

supporting;

stock

as

soon

should be planned to
farm
possible. Almost
every
from time to
this end.
to be added
Other
enterprises,
time, should be provided for in the plan. Some of the
ment
establishto a good farm
situations and appurtenances
as

are

419.
one

shown
Plan

in

should

Figs. 92
be

97.

to

stable.

type of farming to another


381

"

Constant
with

every

changing from
shift in prices

The

382

is not

consistent

Principlesof Agronomy
with

good business

methods.

Every

type of farming has its ups and downs, there being a

more

priceof all farm products,


those susceptibleof rapid over-production.
particularly
who stands
succeeds is usually the one
The farmer who
by his colors until the time of adversity has passed; he
follows his peris then ready to reap the reward which
sistence.

or

less

regularrise and

fallin the

be foolish to continue in
It would, of course,
be made
under
could never
to pay
a type of farming that
finds himself; but
the farmer
the conditions in which
he should

not

be induced

to

change

on

account

of

reverses

depressionin prices.
A series of years with high pricesfor any farm product
of over-production.
is almost sure
to be followed by years
When
the price of potatoes is high, everybody plants
that the price will fall. A good
potatoes; this means
of
account
market
for hogs can
on
easily be overdone
the rapidity of their multiplicationand the short time
to maturity. It takes a longer
required for them to come
time to change the price of horses, cattle, and apples
than that,of hogs and potatoes ; but they too are subject
and
like wheat
that can
to changes. Staple crops
corn
be stored from one
year to another and transported great
distances are
much
less affected by rapid fluctuations
in pricethan the more
perishableor bulky products.
As a rule, it is safer to go into the raisingof potatoes
when pricesare low than when they are high,because only
few farmers
will plant potatoes during a depression.
The farmer who plantsabout the same
of each crop
area
gets the advantage of high pricesas well as
every
year
having to suffer from the low; he is usually better off
than
the farmer
who
changes his system every year.
The
unstable farmer is likelyto make
changes just at
that follow

the wrong

temporary

time.

Planning
420.

Number

of

the Farm

383

Each

enterprises.
"

farmer

should

maintain

enough enterprisesto make sure that his income


will not be shut olT by the failure of one
two
or
crops ;
and stillhe should not have so many
enterprisesthat no
is possible. Each
farm
should
have
specialization
a
number
of major kinds of products from which the greater
part of its income
learn these

is derived.

This

enables

the

farnier

branches

him
especiallywell and makes
able to compete
in them.
There
tions,
are
only a few condiin farming is
however, where high specialization
If a farm
desirable.
is located near
a
specialmarket,
if conditions are particularly
favorable to some
or
product,
it may
to
specialize;but on the ordinary farm,
pay
diversification with a number
of leadingproducts is much
to

safer.
421.

other

The

It should

of the farm

can

it is necessary
to

to

For

town.

located

so

that

and

of the farm

the

operations

on

the farmstead
is

This

the town.

nearest

home

with the greatest economy


;
time, be a desirable place to live.

same

farms

many

be

be carried

it should, at the

farm

with it,is the center

buildingsconnected

activities.

On

including the

farmstead,

make

many

is located

on

the

corner

usually a poor location,since


more
tripsto the land than

convenience

best location is in the center

in

the

getting at

of the

farm

but

land, the
so

many

located next
to a
advantages go with having the home
public road that this is usually a better place to build.

Something

in the

of

for the convenience


Where

land is owned

practiceto put
the

house, since

great, and
is not

gettingat the land is sacrificed


being on a regularlytraveled road.
of

ease

on

barns
the

both sides of the road, it is a poor


the side opposite
and stables on

danger

the arrangement

desirable.

for

passing vehicles is
and beauty
convenience

from

Principlesof Agronomy

The

384

farmyard should be kept neat and the various


buildingsarranged for convenience, beauty, and healthfulshould be taken in planningthe farm
As much
care
ness.
the city home, because the farmer is as much
home
as
of life as his cousin living
entitled to the conveniences
in the city.
The

422.

have

that

farms

been

of fields.

generationto
into fields

sub-divided

and

of the

Some

"

from

down

handed

divided

been

generationhave

number

and

Arrangement

shapes, seemingly without any plan,


until it would be impossibleto adopt any definite system
of this kind
Farms
without a complete rearrangement.
and
should be overhauled
entirelyreplanned to permit
of various sizes and

A
machinery and modern methods.
sirable
great deal of time is wasted on irregularfields of undethe

of modern

use

sizes.
The

fields should

be

from

easily accessible

have

is to

in good repair enables

them.

lane

annoyance.
on

the farmer
well

as

two

or

to

The

haul

rangement
ara

largeloads of

largeloads of

the

to

one

rotation.

desirable

situated in such

road

pasture

crops

time

saves

rotations

the farm, it is desirable to have

size in each

all be

with each field. This road if kept

rurming

Where

main

one

to the fields as

manure

farmstead.

the

that it is connected

way

arranged that they will

so

in

are

and

operation

all the fields the

number

from

of fields should

same

not

largerthan necessary, since the land between fields


is usually wasted, and encourages
the growth of weeds.
be

423.

Size

and

fields will depend


other
is done

factors.

For

shape
on

of

fields.

the crop

garden

crops,

"

The

grown

where

and
most

best
a

size for

number

of

of the work

by hand, the size of the field is not important ; but


for ordinary crops, where machinery is employed, fields
should be so large that time is not lost in too frequent

The

386

land,

other

factors

of Agronomy

in

convenience

neatness,
of

Principles

handling

kept

be

must

water,
mind

in

and
in

ber
num-

planning

ditches.
425.

of

patches
of

their

rocks.
the

often

to

lot,

wood

Where

justify.
the
for

till these

to

more

land

for

Farm

Management,

G.

Farm

Development,

W.

Cornell

York,

useful

F.

Warren,

M.

pp.

Hays,

Bulletin

No.

pp.

that

it

is

for
does

295.

I,

Cyclopedia

of

American

Agriculture,

Vol.

II,

The

Farmer,

Management,

T.

F.

F.

W.

Hunt,

C.

Taylor,

S.

D.

A.

Yearbook

for

1892,

pp.

U.

S.

D.

A.

Yearbook

for

1912,

pp.

U.

S.

Farmers'

Bulletin

70-90,

pp.

U.

No.

pp.
pp.

142-161.
90-97.

9-26.

pp.

Card,

H.

Economics,

Profit.

case,

year

96-116.

Vol.

A.

each

365^01.

239-269,

Agriculture,

D.

of

READING

American

Agricultural

account

on

pasture,

purpose

of

Farm

the

permanent

Cyclopedia

Young

is

contain

presence

patches

this

other

some

the

or

SUPPLEMENTARY

New

cultivate

to

arrangement,

costs

use

or

difficult

are

farms

Many

"

cultivation.

require

not

that

returns

advisable
a

land

places.

waste

topography,
It

than

of

Use

pp.

198-207.
117-135.

343-364.
343-364.

370,

Replanning

Farm

for

CHAPTER

WHAT

Crops

form

CROPS

considerable

in livestock.

or

TO

The

GROW

part of the income

farm, whether

every
crops

XXX

the farmer
income

may

of tically
pracis specializing
in
be derived

from

the sale of crops or from the sale of milk and beef,which


into more
refined products. The
are
crops transformed

keeping of
feed

to

any

them.

kind

of stock is impossible without

True, feed may

be

purchased from the


profits. Warren, in

outside, but this greatly reduces


York State, found that the farmers who
New
always sold

money

livestock

business.

possibleto raise

considerable

little additional

very

in

Men

ought, in addition

he

crops

but

find

may

it

hay

at

have

make

profitscertain,
stock products, to have some

to

Crop adaptation.
"

losses in

to

It is probable that

farming result each

right crops
whether

in the

of extra

farmer

most

sell.

to

426.

amount

expense.

hobby for livestock raising


;

made

though they were


the dairy business

even

crops,

crops

to

as

from

raise

poor

crop,

year

culture

it is not

from
methods.

not

as

many

raisingthe
In deciding

sufiicient to know

that

but its relative value in comparison with


it will grow;
Too
other crops should also be taken into consideration.

produce the crops that


have always been raised,without making a careful study
be more
not
profitable.
to see if other crops would
many

farmers

are

satisfied to

387

The

388

In

and

Principlesof Agronomy

decidingwhat
the market
can

crops

to

crop

raise,the climate, the soil,

be taken

must

be made

to

grow

into consideration.

under

number

Most

of climatic

and it is
conditions,but they do best in a given zone;
working with a handicap to take them out of the zone in
in
Cotton might be made
to grow
which they do best.

parts of New
it could never

York

State

compete

or

Colorado, but in these places

with that

produced in the Southern

States.

preferenceregarding soils also. Peaches


and cherries will grow in a heavy clay,but they do much
better in a sandy soil. The
small-grains,on the other
hand, do best on a heavy soil,although they will grow
Crops have

in sand.

It is well for the farmer

soil to which

each crop

is

to

learn the kinds of

adapted in planning his

ping
crop-

systems.
A

farm

be able to

produce a given crop ever so


well, but unless there is a profitable
market, it should
be

not

the

may

grown.

Perishable

crops

must

be

raised

place of consumption; bulky crops for market


be produced profitablyat a great distance from

near
not
can-

the

railroad.
427.

Diversity of crops.

"

in

The

value of crop rotations


been discussed.
It is not

has
keeping'up fertility
advisable,however, to do as one
man
proposed after
reading of the benefits of rotation : plant all his farm to
alfalfa a few years, then plow it all up and plant to corn,
and the next
to wheat, raisingbut one
each
year
crop
While this procedure would give the soil the benefits
year.
of a rotation)it would
lack the diversitydemanded
by good farm practice.
A
on

and

nimiber

of crops

should

be raised at the

same

the farm in order (1) to lessen risk,(2) to distribute


horse-labor

more

evenly throughout the

season,

time
man-

(3)

What

to

equipment

use

best

can

to Grow

389

and (4) to get


effectively,

more

distributed farm
raised will not

Crops

income.

It may

be

give equal returns;

be raised in

better-

all the

that

crops

paying
and
largequantitiesas practical,

as

the others produced with

labor

but

the

one

otherwise

that would

be

idle part of the time.

Crop specialties. Under certain conditions


For example, parts of California
specialties
pay.
428.

"

well

so

crop

can

adapted

to

the

raisingof

compete with them.

oranges

Farmers

that

no

crop
are

other

this condition

under

probably justifiedin raisingbut one crop, and


of the soil by the use
of fertilizers
in maintaining the fertility
Under
these special conditions, it is difficult
well-balanced
to have
a
agriculture
; and. it is doubtful
be secured with the
if permanency
of soil fertility
can
intensive cultivation of these specialties.
are

Conditions

429.

well

farming,as

for

as

of conditions.

set

various

crops.

"

Each

type

of

a special
particular
crop, requires

each
Some

of the

factors that

determine

have been discussed


successfully
of the requirements of a number
already. A summary
of the common
justifyattention.
crops may
with
Corn
requiresa climate having a hot summer
of moisture
nightsnot too cool. It needs a large amount
during the period of most rapid growth, and it needs a
which
be
cannot
soil well stocked with organic matter
entirely supplied through the applicationof mineral
what

crops

can

be raised

fertilizers.
Oats

grow

best in

cool, moist

climate.

They

are

of the soil,but demand


about the fertility
particular
If the soil is too
that it be well suppliedwith moisture.
rich,there is a tendency for this crop to lodge and rust.
not

so

Barley is less particularabout


but it has many

other

moisture

requirementswhich

than
are

the

are
same.

oats,

The

390

Wheat

grows

much

endure

Principlesof Agronomy
wide

over

of conditions,and

range

cold weather

more

than

It is also

corn.

able to adapt itselffairlywell to moisture

can

conditions.

It will grow in a very


soil that is fairlyfertile. It

Rye is adapted to cool climates.


soil,but does best in

poor

produces

never

of conditions

under the best


heavy yields even
is,therefore,not adapted to intensive

very

and

farming.
All of these grain crops
from
be

to

may

large markets as they


shipped. Most farms

be grown

at

great distances

sufScientlyconcentrated
with profit,raise some
can,

are

where it would
consumption even
not pay to raise it for shipment.
Potatoes require a rather cool climate,and do best in
mellow, deep soil. They need sufficient moisture to
a
insure a uniform, even
growth ; but their quality is
is present. Potatoes
water
are
injured if too much
perishable
; hence the price is likelyto be irregular.
Mangels, sugar-beets, and other root crops require
conditions similar to those required by potatoes.
Since
be shipped any
they cannot
great distance, the market
for sugar-beets is dependent on
to a
nearness
sugar
factory.
Alfalfa is one
of the most profitable
forage crops where
conditions favor its growth. It requiresa soil containing
lime, and prefersan open sub-soil. The grass crops require
cool,moist conditions for their best growth. Every
farm should produce some
forage. The kind of crop to
raise for this purpose
depends on a great many
conditions,
such as moisture, climate,soil,and the kind of livestock
kind

of

whose

grainfor

food

home

it is to

Cotton, sugar-cane,
and

be.
and

rice all

other specialconditions

comparativelysmall

areas.

requirea

which

warm

limit their

climate

growth

to

What
The

Crops

Orow

to

fruit-crops
usually pay

391

well if raised under

the

particularsoil,climatic,and

they demand.
should

From

the

experienceno

years

430.

Work

same

time.

work

for

be

crops

wasted

that

are

before

are

favorable,
mistake

available,one

is

should

in gettinga diversityof profitable


difficulty
conditions.

any

in producing various

cropping system,

conflict with

that conditions

see

may

numerous

for almost

crops

Before

be exercised to

since many
discovered.

marketing conditions which


planting an orchard, great care

crops

each

other

As far

should

crops.

"

In

arranging

be selected which

by requiringattention

do not
at

the

the work should be evenly


possible,
distributed during the year.
After being planted, the
small-grainsrequire very little attention until harvest
time.
Corn and potatoes, on
tivation
the other hand, need culduring the growing-season. The main work in
at thinning and at digging time.
raisingsugar-beetscomes
Hay needs but littleattention except at harvest. Much
of the work in an orchard can
be done during the winter.
Thus, by proper planning,crops may be selected which
at different
use
labor, machinery, and irrigationwater
times.
This
greatly increases the profits,by making
certain and larger,and by insuringconstant
returns
more
men

and

as

horses.

READING

SUPPLEMENTARY
field crops.
Management, G. F. Warren,

Any book
Farm
New

on

York

pp.

42-103, 402-415.

(Cornell)Bulletin No. 295.

Soils,Lyon and Fippin,pp. 497-502.


Economics, H. C. Taylor, pp. 65-77.
Agricultural
Vol. I, pp. 81-109.
Agriculture,
Cyclopedia of American
U. S. D. A. Farmers'

Lands.

Bulletin

446, The

Choice

of

Crops

for Alkah

CHAPTER

XXXI

EQUIPMENT

Farming

by

the

from

is

the

with
of

and

by hand,

has

been

the

the

to

of

in

size of

that

The

now

does

of

all this
a

thing
The

as

could

be

To-day

grain-farming

well

as

the

In

as

ago

could

get

has

The

changed.

without
of

considerable

the
these

he

aid

of

various

knowledge
392

this
limited

slow

ods
meth-

with

had
modern

capital

agriculture,

of

little

machines,
farmer

devices

of

very

complicated

some

formations.
trans-

farmer
but

no

the

similar

The

"

every

machinery.

of

wrought

along

since

machinery,

was

only by

mechanic.

With

Before

with

branches

has

equipment

there

exists, since

done
now

other

were

possibilitiesof

by the

limit

be

can

farm

raised

be

the
done

was

however,

the

harvested

is limited

grain-farm

use

In

this, respect.

could

such

no

the

on

is

that

cows

increased.

greatly

that

farmer

in

grain harvester,

that

generations

knowledge

operation

an

of

century,

revolution

grain

of modern

use

largely

of machine.

used

last

of

is available.

431.

few

kind

some

the

very

use.

in

operation

the

were

quantity

hardly

milking

implements

the

amount

then

The

few

complete

agriculture
time

of

During

invention

the

aid

is

the

to

is conducted

farming, practically everything

the

simple.

very

of crops

the

early history

There

machinery.

FARM

that

industry

an

planting

done

not

now

of

use

THE

OF

but

hardly
chine.
ma-

requires skill

mechanism.

The

The

394
Some

machine

new
a

farmers

Principlesof Agronomy
to

go

and

the other

device that is put

result they have

hundreds

and

extreme
on

buy

the' market.

of dollars' worth

every

As

of idle

equipment. The wise farmer is conservative in purchasing


equipment, and buys only standard implements.
He is not, however, afraid to purchase a machine
when
he

sees

433.
many

that it will

earn

Machines

that

kinds

new

Fig.

of these

94.

"

money.

get

of machines

Cement

finds

out
are

many

of

date.

"

Every

offered for sale.

uses

on

year

Some

the farm.

safelybe purchased at once, but the majority


of new
devices are only in the experimental stage when
first put on
the piarket. They may
be good in principle,
but probably many
thingsabout them will be perfected
can

after
will be

few years

of trial. This

means

that there

rapid change, and that the first machine will


be rendered out of date by more
It is
perfect models.
usually a good thing,therefore,for the farmer to let new
equipment have a year or two of trial before he ties up
a

Equipment of

395

the Farm

his money
in it. Standard
equipment such as wagons
and plows seldom gets out of date.
434. Machines
that
seldom
used.
Some
are
pieces
"

of equipment

almost

seem

used but few times in

are
a

that

few

acres

of

grain needs

yet it seems

and

waste

a
a

to

season.

The

fanning mill
have

the

on

necessary

farmer
to clean

this machine

farm

who

has

the seed,

idle except

few

This difficulty
be
days during each year.
can
in part by the cooperation of a number
of farmers
overcome
in the purchase and
of such machinery. Seed
use
grain can be cleaned almost any time during the year.
This makes
it possible for a dozen
or
twenty farmers
the same
for
to use
fanning mill, making the expense
each one
rule can
be appliedto
slight. The same
very
the ownership of grain drills,
harvesters, threshingmachines,
and numerous
other implements.
The
size of machinery
435. Size
of machinery.
be adapted to the. needs of the farmer.
On the
must
all the machinery
very large farm, it is desirable to have
labor
so
largethat it may be operated with as littleman
as
possible. Where fields are small, on the other hand,
be used to advantage on account
largemachines cannot
The traction
of the constant
turning that is necessary.
be
in tillageoperationsmay
of power
engine as a source
used under certain conditions,but it finds no place on the
In trying equipment of all kinds, the
ordinary farm.

for

"

farmer

should

his needs.

consider well the sizes that

The

his work, and


tied up
436.

work

machines
not

so

should

will best meet

be large enough to

large that capital is unnecessarily

in them.

duty of machinery refers to the


of land served, by an
done, or the area
The

amount

of

implement

duty of a mowing machine would


great if it could be working the year round, but

during one
be very

do

season.

The

The

396

Principlesof Agronomy

only during the comparativelybrief periodwhen


The duty of a graindrill
hay is in the rightstage to cut.
when
grain can be planted is
is low, because the season
cover
only a limited area
short and one
implement can
The duty of an implement is increased by keepof land.
ing
it in good working order and by running it double
shifts during the busy season.
By using lightsand chang-

it is used

FiG.

ing men

95.

"

and

four hours

in

Gasoline

engine used

teams,

for staclcing hay, Wisconsin,

potato digger may

if necessary,

be

run

twenty-

thereby making its duty


three times what
it would
two
ordinarilybe. The
or
other implements,
same
plan may be followed with many
437.
Depreciation. Every farm
ciates,
implement deprepartly through wearing out and partly through
gettingout of date. A gasolineengine built fifteen years
less to-day,had it not been
ago would be worth
very much
used at all,because many
improvements have since been
a

day

"

Equipment of
made.

The

Minnesota

397

the Farm

Experiment

Station

found

that

depreciationof equipment each year ranged from 12 per


for threshingoutfits to 3.47 per cent for grain tanks.
cent
Implements having compHcated machinery hke corn
binders depreciate much
more
rapidly than simple ones
like wagons.
Depreciation is dependent less on actual
than on
the care
rust
use
given. Machines
soon
away
left exposed to the sun
if
when
and
storms
even
they
used.

not

are

The sure
to waste
machinery.
way
the farm is to buy expensive machinery and

Caring

438.

on

money

for

Fig.

"

96.

"

but

Cheap

Some

houses

machine

are

as

built to protect.
water

expense,
many

It

and
and

sun

the

season

when

that they

machinery they
shed

neat

for itself in

desirable.

even

constructed

will suffice. This

will pay

of the

so

are

rapidlyas
simple but

expensivemachines to
is a good idea to clean

the end

or

necessary,

sheds, however,

depreciateabout
out

not

Costly

of the year.

leave it unprotectedduring all seasons


machine

shelter.

effective

can
one

were

that will keep

be built at
year

slight

if there

are

shelter.
and

repair all machinery

it is put

away.

All

at

parts

398

The

likelyto

Principles of Agronomy

should

rust

is always ready for


machine

the

when
of the

All machinery
as

good

other

time.

of repair,

state

the

depreciationand increases

knives, plows, and

much

of valuable

waste

great

be kept in

should

this lessens the

Mower

practiceof repairing
in the beginning
for use

out

done, the implement

The

use.

is taken

results in

season

If this is

be oiled.

efficiency.

similar implements work

if kept well sharpened.


efficiently
Farm
though
Suitable
farm
buildings, albuildings.

more

439.

"

necessary,

farm.

part of the
for the farmer

be

may

well

as

considered

They

as

the non-productive

as

needed

are

protection

as

for his stock, farm

products, and

machinery, yet they add nothing directly to the farm


income.
Buildings, therefore, should not be expensive,
capital that is needed

since they tie up

enterprises. People who


and

farming
to

the

criticize the

buildings. The
however,
will

There

in
money

farmer

now

no

of farm

great waste

of time.

cement

with

and

other

of expensive

conservative

in this

spect,
re-

ings
showing in build-

farm

proved
buildings could be imthat, with proper
planning, the

that

design, and

arrangement

likely

are

in his working capital.

doubt

invested

ductive
pro-

nothing about

for his lack


be

must

more

obtained

his desire to make

cripplehim
is

farmer

average

or

know

its profits are

way

in the

could

have

buildings in
The

been

cases

many

modern

The

better spent.

results in

farmer, by the

use

of

available

struct
building materials, can conall necessary
pense.
buildingsat comparatively low exCare in planning enables him to do much
more

his money

than

buildingswithout
of convenience

overlooked

if he constructed

regard
and

in the past.

to

number

arrangement.

sanitation

have

The

also been

of small

tance
impor-

largely

Equipment

the

of

SUPPLEMENTARY

Farm

Structures,

Farm

Management,
of

Cyclopedia

K.

G.

of

Physics

Farm

Equipment,

S.
No.

D.

A.

W.

F.

W.

Ohio

Card,
H.

Farmers'

Hays,

Bui.

297.
Farm

Bulletins

Corn-Harvesting

347.

Repair

475.

Ice

481.

Concrete

574.

Poultry

589.

Home

of

Farm

I,

162-278.

pp.

40-47.

pp.

329-553.

223-254,

Davidson

Motors,
M.

303.

Vol.

pp.

King,

Minnesota

Producing

355-364.

pp.

Agriculture,

Farm

Development,

U.

Warren,

and

Farm

of

F.

F.

Machinery

Cost

Ekblaw.

Agriculture,

Farm

READING

T.

American

Management,

Farm

J.

399

Farm

and

Chase.

355-384.

pp.

Crops,

Minnesota

Bui.

Machinery.
Equipment.

Houses.

Construction
House
Made

Construction.
Silos.

on

the

Livestock

Farm.

117.

FACTORS

OF

of the most

One
maintain

proper

CHAPTER

XXXII

SUCCESS

IN

TION
PRODUC-

CROP

difficult things in any business is to


its parts. There is a
balance between

that
tendency to develop hobbies, which means
had a hobby
other phases will be neglected. A merchant
and
of keeping his store
neat
clean, claiming that an
He
attracted
trade.
was
so
orderly establishment
particularabout scrubbing and putting things in order,
in they were
that when
customers
came
neglected;
constant

customers

secondary

were

to

give

and

neatness, he lost

As

also lected
negand to other

result of his hobby

his store

of his trade and

most

He

was

model

attention to
the others.

one

He

the business well


to

or

phases of

two

be

must

his business and

constantly on

organized,to

of his-

neglect

the alert to keep

ing,
the capitalall work-

have

practicethe right type of farming,to handle

and

animals

in the

best

advantage. He
farming is made
up of
Size

of farm.

best way,

of

bankrupt.

became

farmer, unless he is careful,will give most

The

440.

buying

to

of his business.

in spite of the fact that

crops

cleanliness.

attention

proper

important parts

to

and

to

market

to

the
the

recognize that successful


important factors.
great many

must
a
"

In

order

to

make

success

in

the production of crops, the farm must


be of the proper
be obtained, but unless a considersize. High yieldsmay
400

Principlesof Agronomy

The

402

If it does not
also to pay for itself in a very few years.
do this,they say there is nothing in farming. Every one

recognizesthe fact that capitalis requiredto enter the


capitalis often invested in
banking business; yet more
a

than

farm

in

small bank.

probably be done with


raisingof field crops can
culture
less capitalthan is required for any other branch of agriDairying and the pure-bred livestock business
require a large initial outlay for stock; fruit-growing
of years
of capital a number
requires the investment
atively
before returns
expected. Notwithstanding the relare
low capitalrequired to raise field crops, they
The

the

be successfully
produced without

cannot

investment

be

purchased or
suitable seed-bed
rented and
prepared. Seed must
a
be planted and the crop cared for during growth, then
of considerable

harvested

and

failures

is not

available.

to

442.

and

The

operate his farm

Proper type

followed
used.

occur

prospective farmer, therefore, to


successful should have at his disposal sufficient

most

funds

before any returns


secured.
are
in farming because sufficient capital

marketed

Many
be

land must

The

money.

is

as

In every

of

fanning.

important
section

in the most

to

success

The
as

type
are

of

farming

the methods

types pay better than others,

some

the discovery of the

"

efficient manner.

paying type is

one

of the chief

the land.
This has been discussed
on
problems of the man
more
fullyin Chapter XXX.
443. Good
Farming will not
management.
pay
under the most
favorable conditions without
intelligent
"

management.
that unless

There

are

so

many

chances

for

losses

good judgment is exercised failure is sure to


result. In farming,new
conditions are
constantlypresenting
themselves; hence it is impossible to lay down
be constantly alert and
any set rules. The farmer must

Factors

of Success in Crop Production

ready to adapt the

method

conditions

to

of the industries,
the work

many

after year,

and

when

Farming, on
during

two

any

that each

Seasonal

day presents

same

variations

rienced.
expe-

the

never
are

In

year

is
difficulty

no

the other hand, is

years.

they exist.

is exactlythe

learned

once

as

403

same

great

so

problems.
The economical use of horses and machinery
plowing,
planting,and harvesting at the right time and in the right
and marketing products to the best advantage,
way
both call for the highest type of executive ability.It is
new

"

"

enough
produced at
not

444.

some

business

are

records.

kind

of books

set

from

profitscame

phases of his

but

and where

in order

the losses

to

tell where

occur

of

set

eliminate

Profits

to

fanner

that the chief aim

the farmer

high

of ten

dollars
than

farm

an

of ten

an

acre

the

simple

acre.

In

"

advanced

high acre-yields.
desirable, they are by no means
is to get

His

wants.

total income

to

it advisable

idea is sometimes

of the farmer

high yieldsare

all that

yields

vs.

the
discussing
crop production,
While

simple

indispensable.By doing this, he is


unprofitable
crops and raise only those

farmers
will find
Few
givinggreatest returns.
to keep a complex set of accounts, but some
bookkeeping will certainlypay.
445.

his

is

accounts

able to

records, tell which

of

without

cannot,

profitable.The merchant keeps books


him.
tell whom
he is owing and who
owes
of these things
can
usually keep account

farmer

without

farmer

The

"

be

most

primarilyto

farm

good crops ; they must


profit. This requiresgood management.

Keeping

keeping

The

be able to raise

to

for his
on

chief

year'swork.

farm

of 100

is to

concern

acres

net

earning

is more

earning of twenty-fivedollars

an

get

able
profit-

acre

on

acres.

High yieldsdo

not

always bring

high

net

profitfor

The

404

Principlesof Agronomy

example, potatoes usuallybring actually


to the farmer
less money
during a year when yieldsare
high all over the country than during years of low yields.
Methods
should be adopted which give large yields; but
of equal importance, is the organizationof the business
will receive a high total
that the farmer
in such a way
income even
though the yieldof any individual crops is
not
high. In short, the function of the farmer is not
primarilyto make his land give big yields,but to use the
The
land in helping himself to get a largeyearlyincome.
farm is for the farmer, and not the farmer for the farm.
each

acre.

446.

should

For

Profits from
not

he

money

The

"

profitsfrom

from the

Some

uses.

labor.

horse

all his

expect to make

he should also make

the horses

and

man

farmers

men
seem

farmer

the land;

he hires and from


to

think

that

paid out for hired help is lost,whereas in reality,


a
good profitshould be made on every day's labor used
the farm.
To do this requires careful management.
on
The work must
be so well planned that no time is spent
be arranged
doing unprofitable
jobs. Employment must
for rainy days and other times when
it is impossibleto
do the regularfarm work.
More
attention is usuallygiven to man
than to horse
labor. No farmer would
think of keeping hired men
if
there was
work for them to do, but idle horses are kept
no
the place for months
at a time.
on
By providingwork
for all the horses on the farm, the cost of producing crops
is greatlyreduced.
447. Understanding each
Each
kind of crop
crop.
has its own
peculiarrequirements,which must be catered
to if they are
to be
farmer should
profitable. The
base his practicesupon
a
knowledge of the needs of his
money

"

crops.

He

must

understand

containing lime, while

corn

that
needs

alfalfa needs

soil

soil having consider-

Factors

of Success in Crop Production

able organic matter.

He

irrigation
water,

other

the

he

crops

which

the

and

raises

market

should also learn how

so

448.

they

Markets.

can

much

"

be sold at

better

markets

to

is useless

profit. The
than

market-time

extra

to

lose

he has made

dealer

He
or

He

increase yields,but

the

or

is

thinking
questionof

twice

year

"

The

season.
more

once

by

during the

farmer may,
ever,
howtranssingleunwise action

entire

attention to his crops.


number
of ways
of marketing

farmer.

raise crops
unless
ordinary farmer is a

salesman.

his attention only

attracts

than

be

must

just during the marketing


at

To

It

producer

continuously how

quality of
able to produce crops
have the highest success,
an
observing naturalist.

be

demands.

therefore,the farmer

fertilizers,

factors affect the


to

as

405

through

season

available to

are

the

sell all his crop


at wholesale
to the
mission
disposeof it through a com; he may

may

consumer

charges a percentage for making the


eer
sales ; he may
sell on a regularmarket through an auctionretail his products in small parcelsto the
; or he may
of selling
of these methods
No one
individual consumer.
man

who

is best in all

cases.

local markets,

place of

Farmers

instead

of

too

are

to

investigatingevery

trust

to

possible

sale.

Considerable

loss

accompanies

products; hence, the common


higherpricesis not always to be
loss often amount

to

the

storage

of

most

practiceof holding for

farm

and

prone

recommended.

more

than

age
Shrink-

the increase in

of months.
If
pricereceived after holding for a number
indications
low
harvest and
at
prices are particularly
The
farmer
pay to store.
point to a rise later,it may
markets
watch
closelyfrom one year to the next,
must
and investigateevery opportunityto market his products

profitably.

The

406

Success

doing

in

distinct

well
of

kinds

marketing,

other

neglects
short

of

or

of

business
of

phase

work.

his

the

work

in

that
attention

Management,

Rural

Economics,

G.
T.

F.

he

that

must

its

American

Agriculture,

Vol.

I,

Cyclopedia

of

American

Agriculture,

Vol.

II,

Cyclopedia

of

American

Agriculture,

Vol.

IV,

Agricultiu-al
The

Cooperation

U.

Economics,

in

Farmers'

Farm

Welfare,

Farmer,

Young

The

and

No.

D.

A.

F.

Business

G.

T.

C.

Taylor.

G.

454.

621.

Marketing

Fairchild.

H.

P.

Roberts.

Boss.

Bulletins

Successful

Powell.
I.

Handbook,
Andrew

Farmers'

pp.

Hunt.

Agriculture,

Management,
S.

H.
T.

importance

New
Farm

York
Products.

Farm.

162-202.

pp.

pp.

many

81-109.

215-276.

of

often

result

give

Carver.

N.

must

Warren.

of

Wealth

in

fad

way,

READING

Cyclopedia

Rural

as

farmer

is,

in

has

particular
and

successful

SUPPLEMENTARY

Farm

who

alone

judgment

good

factors,

balanced,

consist

not

farmer

crops

The

success.

for

The

raising

Agronomy

does

calls

it

important

well

of

production

crop

thing

one

Principles

keep
to

falls
his
each

fies.
justi-

Appendix

410

Nevada
New

Hampshire

New

Jersey

New

Mexico

Brunswick.

lege.
AgriculturalCol-

"

"

Dvirham.

"

New

"

Oklahoma

Oregon

Stillwater.

"

Corvallis.

"

Pennsylvania
York

New

Geneva.

"

nell
College of Agricultureand Cor-

Ithaca.
Carolina

North

College

"

Rhode

Island

South

Carolina

South

Dakota

Tennessee

"

Station

"

State

"

"

College.
Mayaguez.
Kingston.
"

Clemson

lege.
Col-

Station

Experiment
"

Rico

Porto

"

State Station

lumbus.
Co-

Agriculture

of

College

Reno.

"

Brookings.

"

Knoxville.

"

College Station.
Utah
Logan.
Vermont
Burlington.
Raleigh.
Agricultural Virginia Blacksburg.
leigh. Texas
Ra-

West

"

"

State

Station

"

"

Dakota

North

"

"

Washington

College.
Ohio

West

"

Station

Experiment

Woos-

"

The

United

D.C.

One

as

Bureau

Bureau.

Bureau

of Animal

Bureau

of Plant

Industry.
Industry.

Service.

"

of

Division

Madison.
Laramie.

Bureau

Chemistry.

of

Bureau

of Soils.

Bureau

of

BiologicalSurvey.

of Publications.
of Statistics.

Office of

Bureau

Dominion

"

Weather

Some

Wisconsin

Morgantown.

Department of Agriculture is at Washington,


write to one
address the Secretaryof Agriculture,
or
The most
of the Department.
important divisions

may

follows

Forest

"

States

of the Divisions
are

Virginia

Wyoming

ter.

Pullman.

"

Experiment

of Public

Office

Stations.

Roads

and

gineering
En-

Entomology.

of the most

important addresses

Department
Ottawa,

of

in Canada

Ontario
culture,
Agri-

Ontario.

Experimental Farms, Ottawa.

are

Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ontario.
Agricultural College, Winnipeg,
Manitoba.

Appendix

41

APPENDIX

LABORATORY

Manual
A

of

Lessons

Soil,

on

The

Physical

Soil

Physics

Unit

in

E.

of

Laboratory

A.

Soils,

Manual,
D.

J.

Grading

Manual

Laboratory

L.

D.

E.

O.

Call

Barto.
and

E.

G.

Schafer.

Russell.

J.

Properties

and

Crops,

Agriculture,

of

Agriculture,

Examining

and

"

Manual

Laboratory

GUIDES

Soils

Agriculture

of

McCall.

G.

Mosier

and

A.

F.

Gustafson.

G.

Montgomery.

EUif.

Grain,
Farm

J.

G.

T.

L.

Lyon

Management,

and
G.

E.
F.

Warren

and

K.

Livermore.
Manual

Laboratory
and

Malon

of

Yoder.

Cereals

and

Forage

Crops,

Geo.

Livingston

C.

Appendix

412

APPENDIX
FERTILITY
Approximate

Maximum

IN

FARM

Amounts

PRODUCE
Removable

to

an

Acre

Annually

From

Hopkins'

Soil

Fertilityand

Permanent

Agriculture.

(Ginn " Co.)

413

Appendix
APPENDIX
COMPOSITION,

AND

AMOUNT,

PRODUCED

BY

D
VALUE

DIFFERENT

MANURE

OF

KINDS

OF

FARM

ANIMALS

(Resultsof experimentsconducted

at Cornell

University Experiment

Station)

AMOUNT

MINIMUM

THE

REPLACE
THE

OF

BY

SOIL

GOOD

FROM

ABSTRACTED

ELEMENTS
ACREAGE

OF

DIFFERENT

CROPS
Wheat

5 tons

Barley

5 tons

Oats

5 tons

Corn

7 tons

Meadow
Red

hay

clover

TO

MANURE

FARMYARD

8 tons
12 tons

Beans

10 tons

Turnips

15 tons

Potatoes

10 tons

Cabbage

25 tons

Carrots

10 tons

Appendix

414

APPENDIX

WEIGHTS

E
MEASURES

AND

AvoirdupoisWeight
16

pounds
hundredweight (cwt.)

100

20

=1
.

=20

Ldnear
12 inches

(in.)

3 feet

5^ yards, or

I65 ft.

foot

=1

yard (yd.)
rod (rd.)
mile (mi.)

=1
=

rd.

320

1760

yd.

144 square
9 square

inches

5280

Square

square

yards

160

square

rods

1
1

36

1
1

feet

acres

Solid
1728

cubic inches

(cu.in.)

27 cubic feet
1 cubic
1 cubic

24j cubic

yard
yard
feet

12 in. X

or

ft.

63,360 in.

(sq.ft.)
yard (sq.yd.)
square
rod (sq.rd.)
square
acre
(A.)
mile (sq.mi.)
square
foot

1 in.

township (twp.)

acre

section

Cubic

nn..^

Measures

1 cubic

foot (cu. ft.)

1 cubic

yard (cu.yd.)

128 cubic feet


1 ft. X

32,000 oz.

1 section

sections

43,560 square
160

mile

1 square

(ft.)

1 square

(sq.in.)

feet

acres

lb.

Measures

30j
640

2000

=1

rods

1 mi.

cwt.

Measures

=
.

(T.)

1 ton

=
.

1 ton

320

pound (lb.)
hundredweight (cwt.)

=1

(oz.)

ounces

46,656

1 load

1 cord

1 board

cu.

in.

perch
foot

Appendix

Measures

Liquid

gills

2
4

3H

(gi.)

=1

pint

pints

=1

quart

quarts

=1

gallon

(gal.)

gallons

=1

barrel

(bbl.)

=1

cubic

7J

gallons

gallon

415

U.

S.

water

water

gallon

(pt.)
(qt.)

foot

pounds

8.3254

cubic

231

(approximately)

inches

.....

Dry

Measures

pints

=1

quart

quarts

=1

peck

pecks

=1

bushel

bushel

2150.42

(pk.)
(bu.)
cu.

in.

Appendix

416

APPENDIX

QUANTITY

OF

SEED

PLANTED

TO

THE

ACRE

Wheat

1-2

bushels

Oats

2-4

bushels

Barley

l2~2|

Rye

Peas

bushels

bushels

1-2

bushels

2j-35

Buckwheat
,

yj.

J oats
(peas

bushel

1 bushel
2

bushels

Flax

^-2

Com

15-20

pounds

Potatoes

10-18

bushels

Red

8-12

pounds

pounds

clover

Alsike

clover

6-10

White

clover

4-8

bushels

pounds

Timothy

10-15

pounds

Orchard-grass

15-20

pounds

Sugar-beets

12-16

pounds

Blue-grass

10-15

pounds

Alfalfa

10-20

pounds

Brome-grass

15-20

pounds

Bur

12

clover

Sweet

clover

pounds

10-25

pounds

Mangels

5-8

pounds

Redtop

6-8

pounds

Appendix

418

APPENDIX

RULES

MEASURING

Measuring
J

"

foot.

cubic

Measuring
make

to

hay.

Measuring
Some

packed.
the

more

of

five

ton.

(See Appendix I.)

is to

rods

160

and

The

"

long, or

that

foot, or

as

is four

all calculations

SQUARE

are

rods

crib, find
hard

is very

mow

acre,

A
as

and

long.

others;

calculate land

to

in decimals.

MEASURE

corn

.4.

or

than

acre.

one

eight rods wide

surveyor'schain

ear

to

it will be

longer,it
Settled hay will usually weigh
400 cubic feet will weigh one

heavier

easiest way

rods

square

are

long,therefore,equals an

40 rods

A
so

figure 160

per

hay

cubic

about

capacity

the

hay in

it becomes.

compact

pounds

of

of

deeper the hay is, the harder

The

kinds

Measuring land.

quantity

The

"

find

To

multiply by f

feet and

accurately.

estimate

stands

shelled.

bushel

of

bushels

two

"

of cubic

number

the

grain contains approximately


capacity of a bin, find the number
or
multiply by 8 and divide by 10.
of

multiply by y,
It requires about
com.

ear

one

the

determine

To

feet and

of cubic

bushe)

grain.

20

rods

and

stripfour rods

wide

rod

long, etc.

It is divided
Ten

measurements

wide

stripone

does

the

chains

EQUIVALENTS

into

100

square

links,

equal

Appendix

419

APPENDIX

RULES

A
for

FOR

number
L

the

stack

found

stack

on

from

other

the

other).
from

following formulas

(O +

the

W)

the

number

on

obtained

average

the

feet

over

overthrow

side to

one

of cubic

STACK

(a line is thrown

side and

bottom

Then

the

and

overthrow

the

THE

IN

taken

are

width, O

ground

the

over

HAY

measurements

the

to

distance
on

MEASURING

length, W

the

of

in the

is the

the

bottom

stack

be

may

multiplied by

itself and

this

product by

the

length

of

stack

ft.

cu.

(O times

W)

^.

c^

times

ft.

cu.

(O
For

small, low

ricks

W)

"

the formula

use

^W

times

ft.

cu.

For

round
"

or

stacks, get the


find

bulge,"
the

from

ground

top of the

the

vertical

and

stack.

circumference

(C) at

height of the
height from

measured

average

the

Then

slant

the formula

use

or

above

the base

circumference

circumference

the

to

8 times

"

the

(height

.100

of the

base

When

the

the

number

by

There
or

but

30
cubic
ton.

feet

or

For
after

of stack

as

after

days.

well

year

stacks

round
30

ton

prairiehay

as

The
with

the

343
ton

number
the

time

this number

find how

to

that
as

feet

of

there

settled

has

closer.

be

used

5 to

are.

days

30

For

alfalfa
has

6 months

512

varies

settling.

or

with

more

the

tled
set-

422

usually accepted

are

usually contains
to

is divided

regions for hay that

hay has settled

cubic

tons

many

considered

in different

When

ft.

cu.

feet is known,

feet in

used

are

days.

and

top)

cubic feet is often

feet

more

feet

feet in

cubic

343

422

of

of cubic

of cubic

cubic

422-512

height

slant

number

about

are

more,

as

cubic

depth

Appendix

420

APPENDIX

HARVEST

WHEAT

January.

and

February

April.

Australia, New

"

May.

Egypt,

Upper

India, Syria,

Central

Algeria,

California, Oregon,

"

South

Carolina,
Arkansas,

Utah,

Portugal,

South

July.

New

"

Argentine

Republic.

India.

Cyprus,

Persia, Asia

Colorado,

Missouri,

Minor,

Central

and

British

and

September

Turkey,

Southern

December.

"

"

North

Kansas,

Italy, Spain,

South

Northern

Columbia,

Central

"

South

Burmah,

Minnesota,

of

Indiana,
Nebraska,
South

of

England.

Minnesota,

Belgium,

Dakotas,

Holland,

Great

Manitoba,
Britain,

Russia.

October.

Peru,

Ohio,

Austria-Hungary,

Scotland,

Sweden,

Russia.
November.

Georgia,

Greece,

Pennsylvania,

Bulgaria,

Switzerland',

Poland,

Morocco.

Virginia, Kentucky,

York,

Wisconsin,

Roumania,

Canada,

Denmark,

New

England,

"

Japan,

France.

Germany,

August.

China,

Mississippi, Alabama,

Tennessee,

of

Canada,

Asia,

Carolina,

Illinois, Iowa,

Michigan,

Lower

Chile, and

Zealand,

"

Egypt,

Texas,

"

June.

Russia,

CALENDAR

Cuba.

Mexico,

Upper

March.

Lower

"

New

Africa.
South

Wales.

Norway,

North

of

Appendix

421

APPENDIX
PRICES

OF

WHEAT

Months

(CHICAGO

Lowest

of

Prices

Yearly
OF

August

.80

March

1.07

Months

of

1.12i December

@2.26

June

February

.77

@2.03

November

@2.85

May

1.55

December

January

July

.76i @
August
.73i @ 1.311 July
and Sept.
Feb. April,
.991 @ 1.32
1.01
@ 1.61
August
.89 @ 1.46
July
.81i @ 1.28
April
.831 @ 1.30i August
1.46

April
August

November

September
October

February

July
August

1.55

1.04i @2.20

Highest

Prices

.85

November

.83

January
August

1.26f

December

l.Oli@ 1.76i May


.77
@ 1.14
April
December
.81! @ 1.33i

October

.86i @

1.32

January

January

.95f @ 1.43i

October

December

.911 @

1.40

April and May

.90

1.13i

June

October
.

.731@
.691 @
.661@

March
.

October
.

August
April
.

June

.741 @
.85

cash wheat.
Hutchinson

February
.9lf April
.84f January
.96

.94f

June

"7li@2.00
September
.75i@ 1.08f February

February

July

.691 @

December

Range
Prices

December

August

iNo.

1863-19101

MARKET)

1.081 August
1.16
April

The

ing day.

"

corner"

figures$1.04^ "LOSJ

the follow-

Appendix

422

(CHICAGO

WHEAT

OF

PRICES

MARKET)

1863-1910

(Continued)

Months

of

Yearly

Lowest

Range

Months

of

Highest

Years
Prices

.69j

October

1892

Prices

Prices

OP

.91|

February

"54|

.88

April

.50

.651

April

.48f

.83|

May

.531

.941

November

.64|

1.09

December

.62

1.85

May

.64

.79i

May

.61*

.871

June

"63i

.791

December

.67i

.95

September

.701

.93

September

.811

1.22

October

.771

1.24

February

July

1893

1894

September

1895

January
.

June

1896

April

1897

October

1898

1899

December

1900

January
.

July

1901

October

1902

March

1903

January

1904

August

1905

.94f

1906

Aug. -Sept.

.69i

1907

January

.71

.841

@1.11

.99i

1.60

June

.901

1.27*

February

1.05i

April
October

July

1908

August

1909

May

November

1910

by

The
Charles

Leiter
B.

"

"

corner

Murray,

figure.

editor

of

The
the

above
Cinoinnati

table
Price

was

compiled
Current.

Appendix

423

APPENDIX
CROP

STATISTICS

Calculated

Agriculture.
as

here

FOR

The

calculated

CONTINENTAL

Yearbook

from

average
are

the

yields
averages

UNITED

United'
per

acre

of the

States
and
ten

Department
value

yearly

STATES

per

of

bushel

averages.

Appendix

424

APPENDIX

PLOWING

AS

AFFECTED

BY

(8

inch

SHAPE

furrow)

OF

THE

FIELD

426

"

Appendix

APPENDIX

GLOSSARY

Alkaloid.

action,such
Ash.

as

Mineral

"

Awns.

matter

Beards

"

plantsthat stimulate or deaden


morphine, and caffein.
strychnine,
in

Substances

"

left after

seed-coats

on

burning ; ashes.
chaff.

on

or

Extremely small one-celled plants,


of the plant kingdom. They depend
animals,either livingor dead, for food.

Bacteria.

Bast.

Bracts.

the smallest

"

"

Leaflets

"

on

other

bers
mem-

plants or

fibrous part of the bark.

The

"

nervous

the base

near

much

of true

reduced

leaf,or

rootstocks

on

any

in size.

normally
envelope of the flower ; if the parts are separate,
Calyx.
they are called sepals; if not wholly separate, they are lobes.
bark and wood.
It
Cambium.
Growing tissue usually between
leaves

Outer

"

"

between

hes

the

bundle, and

phloem

and

the

bundles, when
of the woody cylinder,the cambium
wood

and

of the

active,are
seems

to

fibrovascular

on

the outside

lie between

the

bark.

Capillarywater.

All water

"

without

Carbohydrates.
"

and

these

as

xylem

heating,if exposed

to

that will evaporate

the air.

Substances
such

oxygen,

that is held in films and

consistingwholly of carbon, hydrogen,


tute
They constisugar, starch,and cellulose.

as

the greater part of the

dry weight of plants.


Smallest
unit of livingthings,consistingof cell-wall inclosing
Cell.
jelly-like
cytoplasm and heavier nucleus.
Cellulose.
Material
composing cell-walls. Cotton, wood, walnut
cellulose.
shell,bark, straw, and cabbage leaves are chiefly
of plants,by the use of which
Chlorophyll. Green coloringmatter
"

"

"

plants manufacture
Corolla.

their food.

The

petals,or
(usuallyshowy).

Cortex.

"

The

"

the

the trunk
Cortical.

or

inner

floral

envelope,in

All of the tissues between

bark.

epidermis;

the

in

woody plants,the whole

the flower

the cambium
exterior

and

coveringof

branches.

Pertainingto cortex ; outer layersof the potato tuber,


except epidermis,outside of the faint yellowish-green
ring.
is
Fertilization
caused by the male element of
Cross-fertilization.
"

"

Appendix

427

pollen uniting with the female element of the ovule. The


transfer of pollenfrom another plant is called cross-pollination.
Crude fiber. Fibrous part of plants hard to digest cellulose.
;
"

Current

meter.

An

"

fast the water

lowered

apparatus

"

Plants

"

seeds in

stream

to

find how

flows.

Denitrification. Changing of nitrates

Dicotyledons.

into

two

with

less usable form

of nitrogen.

cotyledons or seed-leaves or with


and
plants grow from a cambium
sions
They form two of three great divi-

two

These

parts.

to

lay down

ringsin the stem.


in higherplants. They are
subdivided
into gymnosperms
such as pines,and angiosperms such as oak trees, peas, and all
plantswith splitseeds. See Monocotyledons.
Elements.
Various
chemical
substances
that cannot
be separated
into two
other substances.
or
more
by present means
The part of the seed that begins growth ; the germ.
Embryo.
"

"

Endodermis.

Inner

"

Endosperm.

The

"

It

embryo.
white

of

contents

seed that lies outside

suppliesfood

for the

growing

the germ
or
It
is
the
seedling.

part of wheat.

Entomology.

Enzymes.

skin,usually rich in starch.

The

"

science that deals with

Chemical

"

reactions

An

"

it is cast off

earlyyears of growth. The

outer

ing
cover-

breaking down

or

changing of compounds by

and
the
heating of manure
of alcohol from sugar by yeast.
Bundle
bundle.
or
body consistingof fibers,and of

Fibro-vascular

the

as

"

which

transport

down

squash vines

Grouping

"

water

up

They show

the stem.

and

in wood

Flocculation.

in

the transformation

as

reaction, such

formation

foods

trees

The

"

chemical

ducts

plantsor animals that aid in

is often cortex.

of trees
Fermentation.

outer

by

within

of starch to sugar.
covering (from epi,outside,and dermis,skin);

changes,such

or

Epidermis.

substances

insects.

as

of the

the
in

corn

stems

and

elaborated

pith as strands,and

V-shaped bundles.
soil particles.

formaldehyde in water, usually40 per cent.


Fungus,fungi. A group of plants such as mildew, smut, mold, and
mushrooms
mostly of thread-like tissues and devoid
consisting
of spores (detached
of chlorophyll.They propagate by means
Formalin.

"

Solution

of

"

cells)instead of seeds.
Genus.

"

A group

generalname,

of
as

closely-related
speciesof plants,all bearing one
the clovers ; Populus,the poplars.
Trifolium,

Appendix

428

Gravitational water.

Water

"

in

of film water.

excess

It passes

ward
down-

through soil due to pull of gravity.


Water
held closelyby soil particles
thin
a
as
Hygroscopicwater.
It cannot
be evaporated without
film.
heating.
Pores in plants. The
Lenticels.
epidermis is often torn by the
These openingsmay penetrate into deep tissue.
growth beneath.
"

"

Ldnt.

Cotton

"

lAnters.

fiber.

Short

"

fiber

The

Medullary.
"

seed.

cotton

on

inner

layersof

the potato, inside the faint

ish-green
yellow-

ring.
Medullary
bark

rays.

Ducts

"

Microorganisms.

Plants

"

without

seen

pithy

or

animals

extending radiallyfrom

areas

of stem.

center

to

or

small

so

that

they

be

cannot

microscope.
Plants

Monocotyledons.

or
having only one cotyledonor seed-leaf,
seed in one
part. They usually have parallel-veinedleaves,
and since they have no
cambium, do not lay down
ringsin
growth. They constitute one of three great divisions of higher
and orchids
plants. All grasses and cereal grains,palms, lilies,
are
examples. See Dicotyledons.
Natural
selection.
Selection or persistence
in nature
of those individual
fit to survive,out of the many
that begin life.
most
Nitrification. Changing less available nitrogento nitrates which
are
readily used by plants. Bacteria change ammonia, free
nitrogen,and nitrites to nitrates by oxidizingthem.
gen
Nitrogen-fixation.Making free nitrogeninto compounds of nitro"

"

"

"

that
Nodules.

are

solids

or

can

Enlargements

"

of bacteria

which

take

into solids

readily.

of

legumes containingcolonies
food made
on
by the plant,but which
air. Legumes are the only agricultural

on

live

be made
roots

nitrogenfrom the
plantsknown to bear nodules.
Nucleus.
The
of cell activity,
center
usually darker
"

other

cell contents.

Organism.

Any livingthingor body, as

"

Osmosis.

"

the

than

Passage of water
to equalizethe

or

dissolved material

concentration

crobe.
animal, a mi-

plant,an

of the

through a
solution

on

brane
mem-

both

sides of the membrane.

Ovary.

"

The

part of the

pistil
containingthe

ovule

or

ovules

seed-case.
Ovule.

"

The

body which,

after

becomes
fertilization,

the seed.

the

Appendix

429

Palisade cells.

leaves.
Elongated cells under the epidermisof some
Branching flower-cluster or seed-cluster,as in oats.
Plants or animals that subsist or feed on livingplants
"

Panicle.

"

Parasites.

"

animals.

or

Pathology.

The

"

science concerned

with

the nature, cause,

and

trol
con-

of disease.

Pericycle. Region of
"

Phloem.

Fibrous

"

the

the stem

tissue

cambium

; inner bark.

justoutside the phloem

justoutside
plant-food passes

the inner part of the bark

on

which

through

elaborated

downward.
of sugar
and
Photosynthesis. Manufacture
starchy foods bychlorophyllin the presence of sunlightfrom water and carbon
dioxide.
and synthesis,
to put together.)
(From photo,light,
of
of ovary,
Pistil.
flowers,consisting
style,
Ovule-bearingorgan
when
the
seed-case.
and stigma ;
ripeor mature,
membrane
Plasma
A thin,colorless membrane
coveringthe protoplasm.
"

"

"

protoplasm,which store starch


contain
and which
chlorophyllor the yellow color of flowers.
Pollen.
Contents
of the anthers,usuallyin the form of small grains.
Plastids.

Small

"

distinct bodies

of

"

carries within

Pollen

it the

male

this unites

When

element.

ovule, fertilization results and


seed growth begins. Pollen is usually flne powder, such as the

with

female

the

yellowishdust
Protein.

Plant

"

or

element

that

and

from

comes

animal

nitrogen

in the

and

tassels.

corn

taining
compounds comprising protoplasm,con-

sulfur,in addition

to

carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen.

Protoplasm. The livingcontents of a cell,rich in nitrogen.


Reproduction. Process of startingthe next generation.
ganisms.
Respiration. Breathing ; a process that proceeds in all livingor"

"

"

Oxygen is used

given off.
Saprophytes. Organisms
"

that

carbon

secure

already combined.

foods

from

up,

dioxide

and heat
liberated,

part of then- food for energy

These

foods

often

are

dead

tissue.
Fertilization
Self-fertilization.
"

pollenfertilizes the

ovule.

When

process

is called self-fertilization.

Sieve-tubes. Vertical row


elaborated food passes
"

end walls.

pollenand
ovule of the same
plant,the
See Cross-fertilization.
the phloem through which

results from

of cells in

downward,

union

so-called

of

because

of sievelike

Appendix

430

Species. One kind of plant,as alfalfa,red clover,white clover,


or
Any group
assemblage of individuals
maple, oat.
sugar
"

that

ancestor,

alike

much

so

are

which

or

as

to
not

are

of

to be the progeny

seem

unUke
sufficiently

to

similar

one

the

warrant

to them.
botanical name
than one
givingof more
Spermatophytes. Plants that produce seeds, as all the so-called
higherplants.
Spike. Cluster when seeds or flowers are borne on short pedicels
close together,
branches
as in wheat.
or
bringing the spikelets
of large
tissue in leaf, so-called because
Loose
Sponge tissue.
"

"

"

Stamens.

cells.

between

spaces

The

"

of flowers

pollen-bearing
organs

is the anther

the essential part

and this is usuallyborne


pollen-case,

or

on

stalk

filament.

or

that receives the pollen; it is usually


part of the pistil

The

Stigma.
"

styleor stalk.
Stoloniferous. Spreadingby means
at the

top of

of

"

which

at

appear

or

the surface

near

rootingbranches, or stolons
; in grasses, sod-formingby

rootstocks.
Stomata.

Mouth-like

"

of carbon

intake

the

openings in
dioxide

When

and

plantswilt,two
closingthe opening.

pass

out.

leaves

of

plants. They permit

allow

small

Style. The neck-like or stalk-like part


stigma well out toward the opening
Tissue.
Groups of cells that do the same
"

"

water

and

oxygen

to

cells fall together,


partly

of the

pistilthat holds the

of the flower.
kind

of work

speciahzed

parts of plants or animals.


Channels
Tracheal tubes.
tubes iftwoody part of plant,for carryor
ing
from
water
to leaves.
roots
They are found in the xylem
"

and

thick and

have

Translocation.

thin

Movement

"

placesin

their walls.

of stored food from

one

part of the plant

another.

to

Transpiration. The givingoff of water from the leaves and other


parts of plants. This water has been used in carryingdissolved
material
the leaves.
to
Evaporation also cools the leaves
"

in hot weather.

Vacuoles.
Weir.

"

Xylem.

"

"

sap
trees

Bodies

of

inclosed in the cyptoplasm.


cell-sap
device to measure
flowingwater.
That
of
the
fibro-vascular bundle, through which
part

passes

upward.

is almost

It lies within

xylem.
entirely

the

cambium.

Wood

in

INDEX

Aeration

Absorption,

selective,

farm,

Accounts,
Acid

correction
how

of

Action

157.
103.

43,

enzymes,

of

Adaptability

plants

and

of

formation,

Agents

soil

Agriculture

defined,

Acre-foot

of

Age

of, 157.

detected,

crops,

advance

of

and

the

sciences,

2.

as

60.

12, 21.

as

an

as

business,
art,

1.

divisions

of,

barley,

389.

its scope,

1.

beets,

relation

243.

smooth,

social

distribution

240.

blue-grass,

Kentucky

294.

environment,

to

12,

21,

48,

and

390.

flower,

220,

390.

Grimm,

243,

wheat,

261.

264,

leaf-weevil,
leaves,

289.

mixtures,

173, 390.
431

269,

260.

marketing.

284.

262.

264.

irrigation,

345.

269.

257.

inoculation,

390.

390.

sugar-cane,

timothy,

260.

history,

283.

sugar-beets,

vetch,

262.

267.

harvesting,

323.

soybeans,

tobacco,

263.

sorghum,

kernel,

agriculture,

261.

enemies,

rice, 221,
rye,

41.

of, 86.
171.

262.

distribution,

293.

wheat

permanent

cultivation,

390.

273.

clover,

in

tissues,

256.

common,

228,

potatoes,

redtop,

soil, importance

adaptation,

295.

149.

red

4.

through

cells

Alfalfa,

389.

210,

the

Aleurone

orchard-grass,
plants

in

390.

mangels,
oats,

of,

Air:

flax, 337.

hemp,

of,

aspects

of, 4.

phases

276.

field-peas,

1,3.

definition

387.

21,

and

professions

educational

and

Agronomy

281.

12,

crops,

in, 3.
other

to

3'.

390.

335,

cowpeas,

1.
4.

industries,

297.

389.

198,

cotton,

of,

opportunities

brome-grass,
corn,

2.

science,

390.

216,

3.

civilization,

1.

alfalfa, 262,

278.

61.

74.

the

definition

beans,

103.

ing,
influenc-

usefulness,

and

of

Adaptation

irrigation,

soil, factors

86.

of, 157.

cause

the

of

46.

403.

soils

sour

or

furrow

of

Advantages

266.
276.

370.

256.

Index

432

Alfalfa:
256'.

name,

nodules, 259.
263.

crops,

nurse

267, 304.

pasture,

planting, 263.
relationships, 258.
258.

root-system,

seed,

260.

preparation, 263.
production, 269.
Siberian, 261.
stems, description, 259.

seed-bed
seed

storage, 265.

value, 266.
varieties, 261.
weeds, 267.
Alkali

injury done to vegetation, 156.


injury to plants, 46.
kinds of, 155.
freedom
from,
108,
permanent
of, 156.

reclamation

minerals, 71, 72.

126.
Amendments,
Analysis of soils,120.
how
useful, 127.
in land valuation, 163.

use,
'

fiber, 333.
husbandry,
pathology,

its field,4.
4.

Animals;
as

in soil formation,

agents

79.

dependence
on
plants, 51.
Apatite, composition, 73.
Aphis, cabbage, 344.
and
real
specific gravity
Apparent
86.
compared,
Apples, 349.
and
soils compared,
Arid
humid
81,
120.
Ash:
in plants, 56.

uses

by plants and

Astragalus,
Atmosphere

animals, 56.

Benefits

251.
:

of drainage,

108.

of manure,
132.
of organic matter,

Bermuda-grass,

88.

299.

Berseem, 275.
358.
Bindweeds,
Bird's-foot
trefoil,284.
Blackleg of potato, 238.
of grass
Blade
leaf, 170.
Blight, early, 237.
Blowing of soils, treatment

for, 159,

160.

284.
in soil formation,

280.

Beetles, flea, 344.


Beets, 251.
culture
and
good farming, 250.
relationships, 241.
sugar,

amount

varieties,216.

219.

value, 219.
Basalt, 71.
Beans, 278, 349.
culture, 278.
description, 278.
harvesting, 280.
planting, 279.

clover, 274.

Aluminum

Animal

seeding, 217.
uses,

of sugar-beets, 245.
of its problems, 154.

resistance

Alsike

pests, 218.
standard

156.

some

Bacteria, 139.
action
organic matter, 141.
on
and soil nitrogen, 142.
classes of, 139.
description, 139, 140.
food and
growth, 140.
the farmer
how
assist, 144.
may
139.
in
number
soils,
of,
Barley, 215.
adaptation, 216.
alkali resistance, 216.
cultivation, 217.
description, 215.
distribution, 216.
enemies, 218.
harvesting, 217.
history, 215.
marketing, 218.

78.

Blue-grass, Kentucky,

304, 393.

Index

434

and

Clovers

other

legumes,

254, 271.

Cocaine,

value, 205.
with

of

with

198, 199.

Critical

points

Crop

production

in

moisture,

soil

191.

planting, 200.
seed-bed
preparation, 199,
selection
seed,
of, 200;
silage, 203.
soft or flour, 197.
standard
varieties, 197.

limited

by elements,

122.

Crops :
adaptation of, 12, 21, 387.
adapted to dry-farming, 115.
as
income, 387.
diversified,388.
knowledge
of, 404.
miscellaneous, 341.
relation

relationships, 191.
and

periods of plants for water,

93.

pests, 204.

seed

clover, 275.
105.

flower, 194.
harvesting, 203.
history of, 191.
irrigation of, 202.
kernel described, 194.
leaves, 193.
marketing, 206.

root-system,

203.

corn,

Crimson

flint, 196.

196.

377.

adaptation of, 335.


culture, 336.
description of, 335.
distribution, 336.
harvesting, 337.
history, 333.
marketing, 337.
use
of, 337.
varieties, 334.
280.
Cowpeas,
adaptation, 281.
culture
and value, 282.
description, 280.

Critical

194.

197.

for spray,

333.

Cotton,

enemies, 204.
factors in production,

pop,

203.

rape,

Cortex, 29.
Cost
of buildings, 398.
of drainage, 109.
Cost

122.

pod,

sublimate

Corrosive

71.

June-grass, 297.
moisture, 10, 18, 100-117.
mustard, 181.
plant-food, 10.
plant composition and j'ield,62.
Cork
cells,29, 32.
Corn, 191.
adaptation, 198.
culms, 193.
cultivation, 201.
dent, 195.
distribution, 197.
ear,

and

cowpeas

Corolla, 36.

soils,67, 70, 81, 119.


of soil,68.
Conservation
Control

204.

uses,

71.

pyroxene,

195.

types,

73.

hornblende,
mica, 71.
plants, 61,
protein, 56.

196.

sweet,

Coffee, 351.
of :
Composition
carbohydrates, 55.
fats and oils,56.
feldspars, 71.
gypsum,

producing, 197.

storage, 205.

375.

Cocklebur,

Corn:
states

344.

to

soil texture,

82.

staple, 382.
storage of, 405.
Cross-fertilization,362.
Crystalline rook, 71.
349.
Cucumbers,
Culms

of corn,
193.
of wheat, described, 170.

Index
Cultivation

and

manuring,

and

moisture

objects of, 20, 146,

148, 149.
benefits

in soil, 146, 149.

derived

improvement

from,

of

145.

soil structure

by,

145.

Cultivators, kinds
Culture

of

of, 161.

seeds,

297.

clover, 271.
alsike, 274.
crimson, 275.
red, 272.

336.
282.

field-peas, 277.
flax, 338.
341.

corn,

culms, 193.
flower, 194.
kernel, 194.
leaves, 193.

orchard-grass, 295, 296.


potatoes, 224, 234.
red clover, 273.

roots, 191.

293.

rice, 221.
rutabagas,

field-peas, 275.
flax, 338.
Kentucky
blue-grass, 293.
leaf, 34.
mangel-wurzels, 251.
millet, 330.

orchard-grass, 295.
potatoes,

corn,

Dependence

clover, 272.
redtop, 292.
rice, 221.
rutabagas, 253.

organic

matter,

of mineral, 70.
144.

196.
of

man

animals, 51,

on

53, 58.

225

red

141, 153.
Denitrification,

209.

oats,

rye,

of

287.

grass,

374.

Decomposition

Dent

280.

cowpeas,

254.

220.

Definition

335.

cotton,

sorghum, 325.
soybeans, 283.
Sudan-grass, 329,
sugar-beets, 245, 247.
timothy, 289.
tobacco, 346.
turnips, 253.
wheat, 175-178.
Curculios, cabbage, 344.
25.
Cytoplasm,

Dandelions,

194.

ear,

oats, 212.

rye,

274.

sweet,

white, 274.

mangels, 252.
millets, 330.

redtop,

254.

carrots,

201.

hemp,

259.

stems,

clover, 255.

cowpeas,

260.

barley, 215.
beans, 278.
Canada
blue-grass, 293.

brome-grass, smooth,

cotton,

Depreciation in machinery,
Depth of drains, 110.
Depth of soils,81.
Description of :
alfalfa,258.
flower, 260.
leaves, 260.
roots, 258.

alfalfa,263.
barley, 217.
beans, 278.
beets, 245.

corn,

435

plants

and

219.

smooth

brome-grass,

sorghum, 320.
soybeans, 282.
sugar-beets, 243.
timothy, 288.
turnips, 253.
vetch, 284.

297.

396.

Index

436

Description of:
wheat,
culm, 170.
kernel, 170.

Diversity

of

under
Division

Dolomite,
Domestication

Diabase, 71.
moths, 344.
plants, 35, 40.
Dicotyledonous
Diffusion
of salts,45.
Diorite, 71.

prevention,

Bordeaux

Drainage
and

ture,
mix-

204.

236, 238.
sugar-beets, 248.
wheat, 176, 179, 180, 181.
potatoes,

plants, 16, 21.

of the

U.

304.

orchard-grass, 295.

to, 113.

228.

red

clover, 272.
redtop, 293.
rice, 221.

E
Ear

323.

Sudan-grass,
sugar-cane,

329.

347.

sweet

clover, 275.

sweet

potatoes,

timothy, 289.
tobacco, 345.
wheat, 173.
white
clover,
Diversification

of

described, 194.
Early blight, 237.
Effect of manure
plants, 131.
on
Effect
of water
of
on
development
plants, 10.
Elements
limiting crop
production,

219, 220.

sorghum,

S., 112.

115.

sorghums
for, 319.
tillagein, 116.
Dry matter, cost of, 47.
Dry-rot of potatoes, 238.
Duty of machinery, 395.
Dye plants, 351.

oats, 210, 211.

rye,

advantages
dis-

in installing, 110.

procedure

soils suited

281.

grass,

and

110.

machinery
for, 117.
tillagemethods, 116.
:
Dry-farming
in relation to rainfall. 111.
of problem,
111.
scope

335, 336.

potatoes,

covered, 110.
depth to lay, 110.
ditches, advantages
open

crops,

mangels, 252.
millet, 329, 330.
native

108,

of, 108.
of, 109.
reduces
heaving, 109.
of
problem, 109.
scope

areas

197, 198.

cowpeas,

problem,

benefits

Dry-farm

barley, 216.
beans, 278.
beets, 245.
blue-grass, 294.
brome-grass, 394.
222.
buckwheat,
cotton,

alkali

Drouth-resistant

alfalfa,262.

corn,

the

Drains

of

animals,

cost

Distribution

of plants and

156.

alfalfa,267.
barley, 218.
beets, 248.
corn,

tance,
impor-

53, 54.

337.
of

and

composition
71.

Diamond-back

Diseases

of

of cells, 40.

root, 168.

Disease

advantage

crops,

irrigation, 106.

347.

corn

122.

Elevation

and

temperature,

Elevators, grain, 136.


of wheat
kernel
Embryo
274.

of crops,

171.

383, 388.

Embryo

or

germ,

37.

16.

described,

Index
222.
Emmer,
Endodermis, 29,

Enemies
of

Farm
32.

manure

value

of corn,
of oats,

and

rape,

kale, 343.

of, 126, 131.

Farmstead,

204.

4.

Environment

location
Fats

of plants to, 12, 21, 48,

and

occurrence,

uses,

vegetation, 9.
modifications
9.
by man,
relation of plants to, 9.
of plants to, 4.
response
action of, 43, 60.
Enzymes,
Epidermis, 25.
393.
Equipment,
necessary,

56.
56.

57.

composition

Feldspars,
Fences

385.
385.

unnecessary,

troublesome,

of preventing,

Evaporation

from

tance,
impor-

neat,

158.

Fenu-greek, 284.
Ferns, 26.
Fertility of soil, importance

affecting, 158.

methods

and

71.

where

composition,

native

factors

of,

arrangement

of, 383.
oils

149.

conditions

in

383.

Entomology,

Erosion

383.

convenience

214.

adaptation

losses in, 133.

cabbage,

and

437

of

Fertilization, 259.

158.

soils, prevention

of, 95.
Executive
ability of farmer, 403.
Exhaustion
of soils by
removal
123.
plant-food,
Existence, struggle for, 50.

Fertilization
Fertilizers

of

of corn,

194.

130.
of home-mixing,
advantages
commonly
used, 126.
indirect, 126.
needed
in
applying,
judgment

127.
needed

Factors

in

production,

crop

12,

20.

plant growth
control, 10.
Families
of plants, 26.
Factors

Farm

of

and

Fescues,
403.

buUdings, 398.
good roads on,

planning,

384.

381.

size of, 400.

Farmer,

executive

Farmer's

income,

:
Farming
machinery
management

ability, 400.
403.

for, 392.

of,

relation

of

sugar-beets to,

of, 402.

250.

301.

animal,

rearranging, 384.

of, 126.

Field-peas, 275.
adaptation, 276.
culture, 277.
description, 275.
harvesting, 277.
irrigation,277.
seeding, 276.
and value, 277.
use
Fields, size and shape of, 384.
Fiber

402.

organization of, 400.


persistence needed in, 382.

types

their

136.
by different crops,
phosphorus, 128.
potassium, 129.
used
as
stimulants, 130.
used
for nitrogen, 127, 128.
value
used
in U. S., 126.
waste

accounts,

servation,
con-

68.

333.

miscellaneous, 341.
vegetable, 333.
Fibro-vascular
bundles, 32.
of nitrogen, 128, 142.
Fixation

Index

438

Flax:
338.

adaptation,
culture, 338.
description, 338.
fiber,339.
history of, 338.
seed, 339.
use
of, 340.
value
of, 340.
Flea-beetles, 344.
on

Genus,

Grain

Flower

in

Fluctuations

yield

due

to

climate,

13.
Food:
of bacteria, 140.

animals, 59,

in plants and

reserve

60.

by plants, 185.

storage

storage in seed, 60.

compared,

crops
grasses,

291.

for seed

of food, 49.

diseases, 238.
by plants, 43.

Formation

of cellulose

Formation

of humus,

Former
plants, products
Foxtail, 367.
Frost

of,

Greenhouses,
Green

hardy

effect

on

toward,

some

Grimm

13.

common

crops,

14.
factors

influencing,

14.

injury to crops, nature


of, 14.
time of, 14.
Fruits, 349.
citrus, 349.
small, 349.
tropical, 351.
Function
of plant parts, 27.
Functions, specialization of, 39.
Furrow
irrigation, advantages
103.
Fusarium

oxysponim,

Fusarium

wilt, 238.

238.

305.

water,

its importance,

91, 92.

52.

crops

for pasture,

native, 304.
relationships, 286.
Grasspeas, 284.
Gravitational

141.

under, 168.

Granite, 70, 73.


Grapes, seedless, 364.
299.
Grass, Bermuda,
blade of, 170.
leaf sheath
of, 170.
Grasses, 286.
description, 287.
forage, 288.
importance of, 287.
mixtures

288.

in transference

Formalin

189.

speculation, 189.
Graminese, plants included

described, 36.
parts of, 359.

Forces

large scale, 186.

loss in storage,

Forage
Forage

drilling,396.
handling on

beggar weed, 284.


quality, 182.

Flour

42.

oxygen,

Glaciers, action in soil formation, 77.


Gliadin, 182.
Gluten, 182.
Glutenin, 182.
Gneisses, 71, 72.
Grades
of wheat, 188.

196.

corn,

and

soils, 78.

Glacial

beets, 249.

Florida

26.

Germination

Flint, 71.
Flint

roof, 351.

Gardens,

13,

Growth

351.
'

136.

manure,

alfalfa,261.
in higher plants, 39, 40.

Guar, 284.
Gypsum,
composition

and

tance,
impor-

73.

Handling
Hard
Harvest

134.

manure,

wheat

regions, 172.
by crop

control

62.

of, Harvesting of :
alfalfa,264, 269.
barley, 217.
beans, 280.

and

chinery,
ma-

Index
Harvesting

of:

Hygroscopic
water,
definition, 92.
importance, 93.

beets, 250.

brome-grass, smooth,

439

298.

93.

203.

corn,

337.

cotton,

field-peas,277.
mangels,

Ice

252.

oats, 213.

Implements

orchard-grass,

classes

295.

235.

potatoes,

to

red

clover, 273.
rice, 221.
soybeans, 283.
sugar-beets, 347, 349.
timothy, 290.
wheat, 178, 189.

Hay, oat,

208.

Heart-rot

of beets, 248.

'

Heat

and

cold

agents

as

factors influencing, 87, 88.


importance
of, 87.
of soils and
moisture, 9, 18.
total, 16.
by drainage,
Heaving of soil reduced
109.

Farmers',

Income,

from

qomposition

means

of,

machinery,

Humus

formation,

pests of
alfalfa, 267.

Insect

204.

oats,

214.

344.

236.

sugar-beets,
wheat, 180.
Iron minerals,

141.

silicates of magnesia,

corn,

potatoes,
120.

Hungarian clover, 275.


Hyacinth beans, 284.
72.

Injury :
of 46, 156.
by alkali, nature
of frost, 14.
to wheat
by chinch-bug, 180.
Inoculation
for alfalfa, 262.

cabbage,

397.

arid soils compared,

and

of soil acidity, 157.


fertilizers,126, 130.

beets, 249.

351.

Humid

of lime, 72.

387.

portance, barley, 218.


im-

and

71.
Hornstone,
its field,4.
Horticulture,

of alumina,

crops,

403.

in size of plants,

Indicators
Indirect

240.

71.

Hydrous

structure,

145.

371.

cultivation
of, 341.
Manila, 341.
New
Zealand, 341.
Herbicides, use of, 376.
Hessian
flies,injury to wheat, 180.
of fertilizers,130.
Home-mixing

Housing

308.

40.

240.

House-gardens,

148.

seed, clean, 357.


seed impurities in, 358.
varieties, adapted, 356.
of
soil
Improvement

Increase

73.

Hops, 351.
Hornblende,

farm, 150.

kill weeds,

Income

adaptation,

on

pastures,

'

Heat:

Hemp,

77.

of crops,
353.
Improvement
by breeding of plants, 356.
of crops,
357.
by cultivation
by selection, 361.
defined, 354.
gains from, 353.
ideals of, 356.
methods
of, 353, 357.
in soil formation,
need
of, 353.

74.

Hematite,
Hemlock,

in soil formation,

Iron
72.

sulfate

71, 72, 73.

for spray,
plants, 43.

by
Irrigation
use

249.

104.

by

377.

flooding, advantages,

Index

440

Irrigation of :
alfalfa,264.

Late

blight of potatoes, 237.


Leaf, description of, 34.
Leaf-spot of beets, 248.
Leaf-weevil, alfalfa,269, 371.

202.

corn,

orchard-grass, 349.
234.

potatoes,

Leaves

to

amount

use,

methods

104.
102.

measurement,

of applying,

103.

of supply, 100.

sources

of corn,

193.

271-285.
Legumes,
and
nitrogen fixation, 142.
description, 258.
Lespedeza or Japan clover, 284.
Life depends on
sunshine, 69.

rice, 221.
sugar-beets, 247.
Irrigation water
:

advantages of, 101, 102.


of too much,
106.
use
when
to apply, 105.
Istle,341.
storage,

Jaokbeans, 284.
Japan clover, 284.
Jasper, 71.
Jethro
TuU, 44.
Johnson-grass, 300.
Judging value of land, 161.
June-grass, 297.
control
of, 181.
Jute, 341.

Lime:
a
fertilizer,129.
feldspars, 71.
for soil acidity, 157.
hydrous silicates of, 72.
sulfate of, 73.
Limestone, 72.
dissolved by carbon
dioxide, 72.
Limonite, 73.
133.
Liquid manure,
of, and wheat, 184.
Living, standard
as

of farmstead,

Location

Loco,

Loopers,
Loss

383.

371.
344.

cabbage,

in weight

of plants

by respiration,

42.

Losses

in farm

manure,

133.

Lupines, 284.
K
M

Kale, 343.
enemies

of, 343.
Kentucky
blue-grass, 293, 304.
adaptation, 294.
description, 293.
seeding, 294.

Machinery:
in

care

selecting,394.

effect of vegetation

of, 397.
cooperation, 395.
depreciation of, 396.
duty of, 395.
for dry-farming, 117.
for farming, 392.
housing, 397.
size, 395.
Maggot, cabbage-root, 344.
Magnesia
minerals, 71, 72.
used by plants, 43.
Magnesium
73.
Magnetite,
341.
Maguey,
Mallow, 374.
Malt
barley, 217.

judging

Man

value

and

Kernel

use,

294.

described, 194.
Kinds
of cultivators, 151.
of crops,
404.
Knowledge
342.
Kohlrabi,
Kudju, 284.

Labor

of

corn

of

man

and

horse, 403, 404.

Land:

value

waste,

value of, 161.


on
of, 161.
in relation to plant-food, 124.
value

care

on

plants and

51, 53, 58.

386.

Larkspur, 371.

dependence
to

control

the

earth, 63.

animals,

442

Index

Movement

of capillary water,

Movements

of soil moisture,

92.
96.

beans, 284.

Mung
Mustard,

375.

of, 181.
tumbling, 359.

Ochrus,

grasses,
grass

304.

pastures, 304.
selection, 359, 360.

Natural

Negative

factors

in crop

production,

Zealand

hemp,

341.

Nitrification, 142.
Nitrogen,
and

45.

wheat

Nodules

of grasses,
170.
of alfalfa,259.

Nucleus,
Nurse

Nuts,

25.

crops

by plants, 43.
Opal, 71.
Opium, 344.
Opportunities in agriculture,3.
Oranges, seedless, 364.
Orchard-grass, 295-304.
adaptation, 295.
description, 295.
irrigation, 349.
seeding, 295.
value

quality, 182.

cycle, 143.
fertilizers,127, 128.
fixation, 128, 142.
its importance in soils,122.
of soil and
bacteria, 142.
restoration
by bacteria, 142.
of supply, 127.
sources
Nodes

for alfalfa,263.

351.

Oat-grass, tall meadow,


29, 304.
Oats, 208.
adaptation, 210.
and peas
for forage, 276, 277.
cultivation, 212.
description of plant, 209.
distribution, 210, 211.
enemies, 214.
harvesting and storing, 213.
hay, 208.
history, 208.
marketing, 213.
panicle of oats, 209.
pests, 214.

and

use,

seeding, 212.
spikelets of oats, 210.
uses,

296.

Orchard, soils,349.
cultivation, 349.
Organic matter
:
action on
soil,141.
arid and
humid
regions compared,
119.
beneficial effects on
soils,88.
decomposition, 141, 143.
how
maintained, 88.
plant-food content
of, 124.
sources
of, 88.
of the soil :
Organisms
bacteria, 139.
importance of, 138.
kinds, 138.
Organization of farming, 400.
Origin of branches, 37.
Origin of buds, 37.
Orthoclase
feldspar, 72.
Osmosis, 44, 46.
Over-irrigation, waste
accompanying

practice, 106.
Overstocking pastures, 309.
Ovule, 35.
Oxygen :
and life,10, 41, 42.
as
an
agent in soil formation,
liberation
by plants, 43.
limits growth, 49.
to plants, 42.
use

relationships,209.

213.

oils,56.

harvesting, 296.

12, 20.
New

of fats and
284.

Oil formation

Native

varieties, 212.
yields by states, 211.
Occurrence

control

Native

Oats:

Palisade

cells,34.

Panicle, 37.

78.

Index
Paris

green,

Parts

of

Pastures

Plant-food

344.

flower, 359.
:

308.

of, 310.

management
mixed
native

Plants

grass,

304.

grass,

304.

dry-farms, 306.
ordinary conditions,

Planning
Planning
Plant

and

rotation, important
in, 153.

the

and

affected

as

agents

pathology,

animal

development
useful

to

4.

of,
man,

productivity of soils,124.

availability of,
needed,
balance

121.

125.

ash

of,

content

control

by sunlight, 18.
in soil formation,

364.
54.

79.

56.

of carbohydrates,
of, by planting and

55.

pruning,

62.
difference

in

food

demands,

119,

136.

injured by alkali, 156.


to winds, 19.
interest in, 50, 52.
man's
of carbon
dioxide
use
by, 42, 43, 57.
Plant
structure, necessity for study,
how

in relation

23.

Plasma

25.
membrane,
Plastids, 25, 34.
Plowing :
injury to wet land, 84.
objects of, 146, 148.
150.
Plows, compared,
Pod

corn,

197.

196.
Pop corn,
Poppies, 351.
Potash-containing
minerals, 71.
Potash
71.
feldspar,

Potassium,

43.

limiting factor, 123.


as
fertilizer,129.
129.
fertilizers,sources,
119, 136.
Potassium-loving
crops,
Potato, 224, 361.
acre-jdelds, 228.
adaptations, 228.
blight, 237.
cultivation, 234.
a

391.

compounds

Plant-food

tors
fac-

381.

farm,

Plant-breeding,
Plant

crops,

119, 136.

367.

work,

12, 21,

51.

Phosphorus-loving
Photosynthesis, 42.

environment,

animals, their interdependence,

as

309.

qualities of, 303.


303.
temporary,
wheat-grass, 304.
Pathology of plants and animals, 4.
Peaches, 349, 385.
Peanuts, 284.
Pearl millet, 331.
Pears, 349.
Peas, 349.
Perieycle, 32.
Permanent
agriculture and minerals
in soil, 125.
Persian
clover, 275.
Pests, 20.
Phloem, 30, 32, 33.
Phosphate of lime, 73.
:
Phosphorus
128.
fertilizers,sources,
its importance,
43, 122.

Pigweeds,
Pistil,36.
Planning

to

149.

48,
and

308.

302.

permanent,

adaptation

on

origin, 302.
overstocking,

of, 10.
in organic matter,
124.
in soils,120.
manufacture
of, 43.
method
of transferring, 48.
of the soil,old theories, 118.
removed
by crojis, 122.
of soil acidity, 157.
Plant
indicators
Plant
parts and their functions, 27.
control

aUalfa, 267, 304.


definition of, 302.
for different animals, 307.
used for, 304.
grasses
importance
of, 303.

improving,

443

cultural

requirements,

224.

Index

444

description, 225.
digger, 396.
diseases, 236, 238.
distribution, 228.
early crop, 233.
harvesting, 235.
history, 224.
insects, 236.
internal
brown
spot, 238.
marketing, 235.
pests, 236.

planting, 233.
relationships, 225.
second
growth, 238.
seed-bed, 230.
seed cutting, 233.
seed selection, 231.
storage,
uses,

Red

clover, 271.

adaptation,

"

271.

sickness."

compounds,

43.

56.

by animals, 59.
in plants, 56, 60.
occurrence
to animals, 56.
uses
Protoplasm, 24.
Pruning, 62.
Pteridophytes or ferns, 26.
349.
Pumpkins,
tance,
imporcomposition and
Pyroxene,
concentration

"

value, 273.
Redtop, 292, 304.
adaptation, 292.
culture, 293.
description, 292.
value

Regions
Relation
Relation

and

293.

use,

for hard
of

wheat,
to other

corn

of

plants

172.

cereals, 191.

their

to

ment,
environ-

9.

81.

composition,

273.

description, 272.
distribution, 272.
harvesting, 273.
history, 271.
importance, 271.

235.

239.

varieties, 227.
yield, 228.
Preventing erosion, 158.
Productivity in land valuation, 163.
and horse labor, 403, 404.
Profits, man
Properties of soils affected by texture,
Protein

of alkali lands, 156.

Reclamation

Potato:

Relationship
Reproduction
Reserve

food

of

cereals, 168.

of plants, 359.
in

animals

and

plants,

59, 60.

Respiration, 41, 42.


of plants
Response

to

peculiar

vironment,
en-

49.

Rhizoctonia, 238.
Rice, 221.
description, 221.
harvesting, 221.
history, 221.
production of world, 221.
uses,

221.

Rivers, their

importance

in

soil formation,

76.
Rock:
definition

of, 70.
soil-forming, 73.
71.
weathering agents, 74.
Rolling land, effect on moisture, 150.
Q
Roof-gardens, 351.
Quack-grass, 358.
Roots, 27.
Quality in wheat, 182.
adjustability of, 27.
and
climate, 183.
Quality of wheat
of, 28.
cap
of,
Quartz, proportion of earth made
plants included, 241.
crops,
71.
191.
of corn,
development
of wheat,
168.
R
development
general characteristics, 241.
Rape, 343.
growing section of, 28.
enemies
of, 343.
with
203.
hair, 27, 44, 46.
or
corn,
cowpeas
Real specificgravity, 86.
system, of alfalfa, 30, 258.

445

Index
Rootstocks

underground

or

stems,

37.

Rosette

of

Rotation

potatoes,

of

crops

definition, 359.
essentials of good, 365.
growth and description, 37.
231.
home-grown,
production of alfalfa,269.

238.

and

plant-food, 119.
from, 151.
principles to guide in, 153.
Rotation, planning a, 133,
Rubber, 351.
Russian
thistle,358, 359.
dispersion of, 181.
Rust
of wheat, 180.
253.
Rutabagas,
culture, 253.
description, 253.
seeding, 254.
and value, 254.
use
219.
Rye,
adaptation, 220.
description, 219.
distribution, 219, 220.
benefits

field treatment,

selection

175,

Selection

sodium,

Sampling

of

rate

of grass

leaf, 170.
alfalfa,261.

tubes, 33, 48.


composed
Silica, minerals
Sisal, 341.
Size

of, 45.

brome-grass,

304, 397.

culture, 297.

description, 297.
harvesting, 298.

120.

and

value
in

movement

301.

adaptation, 297.

155.

plants,
injurious, 155.
soils for analysis,

of, 71, 72.

Smooth

376.
to

of

of

fields,384.
machinery, 395.
soil particles, 82.
Slender
wheat-grass,
Small-grains, 364.

plants,

Smut

use,

298.

stinking, 179.
or
description of, 179.
closed

238.

loose, 180.

crops
adaptability
profitableproduction, 13.

Seasonal

length

of, and

26.

defined.
soils, 79.

Sedges, 301, 304.

crop

and

for, 176.

treatment

Snow

as

an

agent

in

soil

formation,

76.

tion,
producSoda

12.

Sedentary

of fields,384.

Siderite, 73.

of

Second-foot

284.

Sieve

Scab, potatoes,
Schist, 72.

Seaweeds,

72.

Serradella,

Siberian

49.

Season,

361.

crops,

Sheath

220.

359, 360.

Serpentine,
Shape

71.
Sandstone,
Sanfoin, 284.

Sap,

of, 358.

natural,

injurious

methods

Sagebrush, 367.
Salt-grass, 301, 304.

for spray,

of,

199.

artificial,360.

301, 304.

diffusion

in, 60.
grain, preparation

for

Seeding blue-grass, 294.


Selecting machinery, 394.

Salts

of food

storage
Seed-bed

220.

Rye-grass,

for corn,
200.
for potatoes, 231.

selection

history, 219.
seeding, 220.
uses,

Seed:

103.

feldspars, 71.
Sodium
salts, injurious
plants, 155.
flour corn,

Soft

or

Soft

wheat

197.

regions, 171.

effects

on

Index

446

Soils:

SoU:

acidity and crop production, 157.


by lime, 157.
acidity corrected
86.
aeration,
bacteria, 139.
classification,79.
68.
condition, effect on
crops,
definition
of, 67.
in land valuation,
depth and structure

formed

exhaustion

by

named

and

and

texture

thickness

surface

and

cold, 74.

83.

area,

composition
in forming, 75.

advantages

of, 313.
favoring, 312.
for, 316.
management
crop
definition, 312.
disadvantages
of, 312.
conditions

SoUs:
active

in formation

of plant-food

in,

of, 74.
120.

analysis of, 119.


blowing of, 160.
classification of, 79.
composition of, 119.
depletion of fertility by

leaching,

123.

determining
each

inexhaustible,

not

suited

one

evaporation
exhaustion

fertilizer needs

problem,
from,

of, 123.

154.

95.

for

125.

dry-farming,

113.

origin and

composition,

sedentary,

79.'

70, 81.

of, 127.

action

of water,

76.

Sorghum
:
adaptation, 323.
broom-corn, 323.
cultivation, 325.
description, 320.
distribution, 323.
enemies, 328.
grain, 322.
harvesting, 326.
history, 319.
marketing, 328.
planting, 325.
relationships, 320.
"

Soiling,302.

amount

ticles,
par-

correction

of, 67.

agent

as

of

sour

by
formation, by ice, 77.
formation, by plants, 79.
formation, by rivers, 76.
an
formation, snow
agent in, 76.
forming minerals, 70, 71.
forming rocks, 73.
need
of up-to-date
management,
methods
69.
in,
moisture
and
soil heat, 9, 18.
particles, size of, 82.
particles, tillage affected by, 81.
of, 68.
permanence
suited to dry-farming, 113.

agents

not

Solvent
heat

size

to

soils,157.
of, 157.
texture
of, 81.

123.

78.

water

according

of glacial origin, 78.

factors, influencing plants, 19.


of atmosphere,
formation, action
formation

161.

82.

effecting, 158.
crops,

174.

judging of,

162.

erosion, factors

by wind, 78.

for wheat,

sweet,
uses

322.

and

varieties

value, 327.
of classification,322.

yields, 326.
and millets, 318.
Sorghums
importance on dry-farms, 319.
Sow-thistle, Perennial, 358.
Soybeans, 282.
adaptation, 283.
culture, 283.
description, 282.
harvesting, 283.
value

as

feed, 283.

Specialization, 383.
Specialization of cells,26.
Specialization of functions in higher
plants, 39.
Specialties, 389.
Species defined, 26.
Specific gravity of soils,86.
seed plants, 26.
Spermatophytes
or
Spike, 37.
Spike of wheat described, 170.

Index
Sprays, 376.
carbolic
acid, 376.
copper
sulfate,376.
corrosive

Sugar-beets, 241.
adaptation, 243.
alkali resistance, 245.

sublimate,

blight, 248.

377.

iron sulfate,377.

cultivation,247.

salt, 376.
Squash, 349.

description, 243.
diseases, 248.
harvesting, 347, 349.

Stamens,

36.

Standard

of living and

Starch

wheat,

184.

manufacture

insect

by plants, 43.
produced
by sunlight, 19.
use
by plants, 60.

Stigma,

33.

relation
closed

or

farm,

on

Stomata,

smut,

179.

seed

34.

storing, 250.
thinning, 247.

170.

troubles, 248, 249.


Sugar-cane, 356.
analysis of sugar
from, 347.
description, 347.
distribution, 347.
Sugar in plants, 61, 250.
wheat, 184, 185.
Siilfur uses
by plants, 43.
starch
Sunlight, and
production, 19.
effect on
plants, 18.
of all life,59.
Sunshine, the means

405.

by plants,

of grain from
of manure,
Structure

60.

pests, 185.

133.

235, 236.

potatoes,
:

complexity of, in soils,84.


factors affecting, 84.
of cells,'
24, 25.
of soil and
cultivation, 145.
of soil and land value, 162.
of soils,definition, 83.
Structure

and

Sweet

tilth, 84.

arid

compared,

and

humid

storage

251.

in plants, 61.

Sweet

potatoes,

196.

347.

347.

regions

farming, 406.
Sudan-grass, description, 329.
culture, 329.
Sugar :
346.
analysis of in sugar-cane,
43.
change to starch,
maimfacture,

corn,

use,

81.

Successful

of, 181.

Sweet

adaptation, 347.
distribution, 347.

of plant, 23.
Struggle for existence, 50.
Style, 36.
Sub-irrigation, 104.
of

clover, 274.

control

Structure

Sub-soil

value, 250.

weed

205.

crops,

and

use

alfalfa,265.
beets, 250.

food

good fanning, 250.


seeding, 247.
preparation, 245.

to

and

seed-bed

381.

Stooling of wheat,
Storage :

corn,

pests, 249.

pests, 249.

36.

Stinking

241.

irrigating, 247.
leaf-spot, 248.
marketing, 250.

382.

crops,

Stem, 30,

Stock

heart -rot, 248.

history,

Stable

447

Talc, composition,
Tall

meadow

72.

oat-grass, 299, 304.

284.
Tangier peas,
Tap-roots, 30.
Tea, 351.
:
Temperature

and

elevation,

16.

daily fluctuations, 16.


relation to winds, 19.

448

Index

Temporary
pastures, 303.
of
to
washing
Terracing
prevent
159.
soils,
Texture
of soil and
water
retention,
92, 93.
of soils, 81, 82.
Texture
Thallophytes, 26.
Theories
of plant-food, 118.

Turnips:
seeding, 253.
and value, 254.
use
of
Type
farming, 402.
of
195.
Types
corn,
U

Thistle

Underground

Canada,
Russian, 358, 359.
TiUage :
affected
as
by size,of soil particles,
358.

"

81.

objects of in dry -farming, 116.


Tilth
Timber

and

structure,

crops,

84.

361.

Use

of

337.

Vacuoles,

Truck

Value

349.

Tull, Jethro, 44.


359.

277.

herbicides, 376.
lime for acid soil,157.
mangels, 252.

enemies, 292.
harvest, 290.
origin, 288.
planting, 290.
states
producing, 289.
value, 291.
Tissue, definition of, 25.
Tobacco, 344.
culture of, 346.
curing, 346.
distribution, 345.
marketing, 346.
in land valuation, 161.
Topography
Total
16.
heat,
Tracheal
tubes, 29, 30, 48.
Transferring plant-food, 48.
of food in plants, 38.
Translocation
Transpiration, 46.
within
plants, 48.
Transportation
soils,79.
Transported
Trefoil, bird's-foot, 284.
yellow, 275.
Tropical fruits, 351.

371.
Tumbleweed,
mustard,
Tumbling
Turnips :
culture, 253.
description, 253.

oils,57.

field peas,
fiax, 340.

description,288.

crops,

for alkali, 126.

blue-grass, 294.
brome-grass, smooth, 298.
by plants, 55, 56.
carbohydrates
clover, 255.
cotton,

Timothy,
adaptation, 289.
culture, 289.

37.

alfalfa,266.
amendments

fats and

288, 304.

stems,

oats, 213.

orchard-grass, 296.
239.

potatoes,

animals, 56.
proteins
red clover, 273.
to

redtop,

293.

rice, 221.
rutabagas,
rye,

254.

220.

soil analysis, 127.

sugar-beets,

250.

potatoes,

sweet

347.

turnips, 254.
vetch, 284.
water
by plants, 47, 96.
wheat, 183, 280.
Useful
plants, 52.
products of former

of

25.

alfalfa,261, 266.
analysis of soil,127.
bacteria, 142.
barley, 219.
beans, 280.
brome-grass, smooth,

298.

450

Index

Weeds:

Wheat:

biennial, 367.
control, 372.

cultivating for destroying, 373.


definition, 366, 367.
eradictaion
of, 373.
history, 366.
injurious to wheat, 181.
injury done by, 147, 371.
introduction
of, 369.
laws, 373.
losses

from,

methods

370.

of destruction, 375.
368.

occurrence,

of:

alfalfa, 267.
beets, 248.
potatoes,

236.

sugar-beets, 248, 249.


wheat, 181.
perennial, 368.
poisonous, 371.
rotation
of crops
helps

eradicate,

quality in, 182.


regions for soft, 171.
relationships, 168.
168.
root
development,
rust, 180.
seed-bed

preparation,
176, 179, 180.
soils for, 174.

175.

smut,

speculation, 189.
spike described, 170.
storage of, 184, 185.
Turkey
red, 362.
and
use
value, 183.
varieties, 171.
weeds
injurious to, 181.
Wheat-grass,
301, 304.
When
to apply irrigation water,
105.
White
274.
clover,
Wind, action in soil formation, 78.
Wind
in relation
to plants, 19.
Wind
19.
regulates temperature,
Worms,
cabbage, 344.

376.

spraying for, 376.


summer-fallowing
for, 376.
Western
wheat-grass, 301.
Wheat
and

Xylem,

29, 30, 33.

standard

amount

to

of living, 184.
sow,

176.

distribution, 173.
362.
Durum,
exchanged, 189.
factors

determining quality,

Yellow
Yield

183.

flour, 171, 182.


geographical origin, 167.
grades of, 188.
growth above
ground, 170.
hardiness, regions affecting, 171,
172.

harvesting, 178.
history of cultivation, 167.
improved
varieties, 172.
insect pests of, 180.
181.
joint worm,
kernel described, 170.
loss by not grading, 189.
marketing, 187.
origin of word, 167.
pests, 180.

preparaing

for planting, 175, 176.

trefoil,275.
of

alfalfa,262, 263.
alfalfa seed, 263.
barley, 216.
beans, 280.
300.
Bermuda-grass,
blue-grass, 294.
223.
buckwheat,
cabbage, 343.
carrots, 255.
corn,

197, 198, 199, 201.

cotton,
cowpeas,
crops
emmer,

335, 336.
282.

relation

to

soil condition, 68.

222.

field-peas, 271.
flax, 338.
forage crops, 291.
Johnson-grass, 301.
kale, 343.

451

Index
Yield

of:

lessened

Yield

by weeds,

mangel-wurzels,
millet, 330, 331.
oat-grass,

252.

orchard-grass, 295,
pearl millet, 331.
penicillaria,331.
poor
rape,

354.

clover, 275.

sweet

potatoes,

tobacco,

good, 353, 355, 358, 365.

clover, 272, 273.


redtop, 293.
rice, 221.
rutabagas, 254.

349.

345.
254.

turnips,
vetch, 284.
white
clover, 274.

Zeolites, composition

219.

soiling crops, 312,


soybeans, 283.

sweet

teosinte, 331.
timothy, 289, 290, 291.

296.

red

rye,

329.
245.

347.

sugar-cane,

299.

oats, 210, 211, 212.

and

of:

Sudan-grass,
sugar-beets,

370.

72.

313, 314.

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