Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PRINCIPLES
OF
AGRONOMY
TEXT-BOOK
OF
SCHOOLS
CROP
AND
PRODUCTION
SHORT-COURSES
AGRICULTURAL
HIGH-
FOR
IN
COLLEGES-
BY
FRANKLIN
PROFESSOR
OV
S.
AND
AGRONOMY
DIRECTOR
UTAH
ENGINEERINCr,
IN
UTAH
AGRONOMY,
Weto
THE
OF
THE
BOHOOL
AGRICULTURAL
fork
COMPANY
1915
rights reserved
AGRICULTURAL
B.S.
AGRICULTURAL
MACMILLAN
All
OF
COLLEGE
STEWART,
GEORGE
INSTRUCTOR
Ph.D.
HAREIS,
COLLEGE
MftMM
SP"C.
COLL-
H3
Rl5
Copyright,
By
Set up
and
the
1915,
MACMILLAN
COMPANY.
Kortooab
J. S. Cushin^
Co.
Norwood,
December,
Published
electrotyped.
"
^um
Berwick
"
Mass., U.S.A.
Smith
Co.
"^
iQ^S-
PREFACE
Agricultural
extended
instruction
demand
for
The
suitable
variation
schools
the
but
This
one
book
texts
one
few
in
has
that
years
become
the
insistent.
different
in
schools
required.
are
year
high-school
has
teaching
in
precede
agriculture
Some
is
high-
while
agriculture,
written
Although
ought
others
treated
of
only
the
Constant
Bulletins
of
school
by
all
where
United
the
to
of
which
not
of
number
agriculture
cussion
diswho
ciples
prin-
practices.
find
will
the
at
end
publications
are
made
to
H.
L.
States
of
the
each
been
the
taught.
the
ter.
chap-
given
of
Cyclopedia
Farmers'
to
of
Department
in
in
mentioned.
Bailey,
standard
be
help
of
not
is
the
language
has
should
the
farmer
practical
references
been
Agriculture
and
subject,
of
has
reference
American
his
accessible
most
the
readings
list
complete
although
text-book,
information
supplementary
A
for
to
of
more
husbandry.
understanding
non-technical
many
wishing
better
probably
chapters.
useful
in
underlying
Those
the
should
chemistry,
than
more
animal
or
primarily
be
to
in
giving
study
its
and
assist
all, of
schools
horticulture
botany
will
perhaps
find
in
of
presupposed,
will
for
instruction
knowledge
some,
designed
is
course
list
last
text-books
several
give
the
the
four.
give
in
that
great
so
within
rapidly
so
in
works
on
library
Very
of
few
culture,
Agrieach
every
refer-
vi
Preface
have
ences
been
made
since
The
is
possible
order
in
and
crops,
solely
what
and
read
They
A.
A.
the
manuscript
to
N.
and
Butt,
offered
GEORGE
Utah,
May
1,
1916.
relying
the
leagues
col-
agement
encour-
preparation
obligation
E.
Ball,
D.
A.
all
their
for
special
FRANKLIN
Logan,
of
College
Messrs.
I.
soils,
of
number
during
and
with
as
them.
Director
Widtsoe,
dents
stu-
much
as
instead
under
it
as
that
familiar
about
says
are
and
field
principles
criticism
Pederson,
Anderson,
and
Agricultural
friendly
J.
N.
text
Utah
book.
President
of
only
therefore,
directly
indebted
are
the
at
L.
become
the
valuable
suggested,
laboratory
to
authors
this
is
applications
upon
The
C.
It
the
in
is
lications,
pub-
station
available.
not
are
agriculture
practical.
work
of
of
experiment
state
them
of
many
teaching
made
to
F.
of
fessor
Pro-
Bracken,
whom
valuable
to
have
suggestions.
S.
STEWART.
HARRIS,
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PASK8
1-5
Introductory
.........
is
What
2
and
Agriculture
agriculture
agronomy,
PAKT
Plant
Its
and
of
Factors
Frost,
13
Wind,
19
II
19
10
14
Water,
20
Pests,
16
Adapted
season,
12
Sunlight,
18
of
Length
CHAPTER
21.
crops,
III
23-38
Struotuee
Plant
Cells,
26
leaf,
23
Plant
35;
branches,
25
Tissues,
parts,
27
The
37
Underground
plant,
27
root,
35;
flower,
The
of
Kind
The
seed,
The
26
Crop
stem,
-37;
plants,
30
Buds
The
and
37.
stems,
IV
CHAPTER
Plant
4.
9-22
growth,
plant
Soil,
Environment
Temperature,
in
PLANT
CHAPTER
The
sciences,
agriculture,
book,
this
THE
I.
the
Opportunities
of
of
Scope
Divisions
.3 ;
and
Agriculture
industries,
the
varied,
are
of
Phases
agriculture
39-49
Functions
39
Growth,
Osmosis,
44
Transportation,
Respiration,
Transpiration,
48
Response,
41
46
49.
;
;
Photosynthesis,
42
Translocation,
48
;
;
Contents
viii
CHAPTER
PAGES
The
Plant
as
Factory
compounds, 54
55 ;
plants, 51
on
man
Protein, 56
PART
importance of
VI
soil,68
the
of better
of
Permanence
Minerals
Quartz,
71
rocks, 70
Mica, 71
72 ; Dolomite, 73 ;
rocks, 73
heat
atmosphere,
70-80
Chlorite,72
73 ;
Gypsum,
; Methods
cold, 74
and
VII
feldspars,71
; The
71
soil,68
of the
Soils
op
and
Economic
69.
soil management,
Fokmation
and
soils, 68
; Conservation
CHAPTER
Origik
Storage, 59;
67-69
Definition,67
Need
plant
Is
Soil
the
; The
SOIL
THE
II.
.CHAPTER
What
53 ;, Plant
; Control
61
Harvest,
oils,56
and
ence
Depend-
Carbohydrates,
concentration, 59;
Animal
factory, 57;
55 ;
Water,
; Fats
Asli, 56
Domestication,
54 ;
Flavors,
animals, 51
plants and
of
Interdependence
of
50-63
of soil
Zeolites, 72
Apatite, 73
formation, 74
of vfater, 75 ;
; Action
78 ; Plants
and
animals, 78
and
ene,
pyrox-
Caloite,
ing
; Soil-form; Action
Ice, 76
of
; The
; Classification
soils,79.
of
CHAPTER
Physical
Properties
of
texture
structure,
83
to
Hovr
gravity of soils,86
87 ; The
.....
organic matter,
88.
according
to
texture, 82
lation
; Re-
; Air
organic matter
81-89
Soil
the
VIII
in the
soil,86
; Heat
of the
soil,88
of the
Maintaining
soil,
the
Contents
ix
CHAPTER
IX
PAGES
The
Water
of
Soil
the
90-97
condition
points, 93
Methods
of
of
soil
94;
of soil
92 ;
Capillary water,
90 ; Variations
moisture, 91
Free
of
94 ; Need
water-table, 95
for
ical
crit-
94
; Loss
preventing evaporation,
; The
of soil water,
96 ; Use
field soils, 93 ;
in
water
91
water,
92 ; Other
Hygroscopic water,
Quantity
soil moisture,
moisture,
The
in
ture,
of soil mois-
movements
Quantity of
96 ;
used
water
by plants, 96.
CHAPTER
The
Control
Soil
of
Irngation
of water
of
104;
for
Water
to
106.
; Kinds
115
moisture,
; The
drainage,
of
109
of
to use,
; Need
Removing
excessive
Benefits
drainage,
of
The
dry-farming. 111;
soils, 113
tion
ques-
Dry-farm
116.
Tillage methods,
XI
118-124
Soil
the
plants
What
ods
; Meth-
irrigation,106
CHAPTER
Plant-food
102
Dry-farm
; Sources
of water
amount
Over
98
of water,
alkali,108
Removing
of
soil
Drainage
Scope
Dry-farming:
of rainfall.111
crops,
103
irrigate,105
economy,
;
the
; Measurement
applying water,
When
98-117
Increasing
supply, 100
water, 107
108
use
from
the
soil,118
Composition
of
and
serve
reanalysis of soils,120 ; Available
plant-food,121 ; Making plant-foodavailable, 121 ;
soils,119
; The
Quantity
of
foods
Losses
124
that
in
are
plant-food removed
scarce,
122
plant-food,123
; Relation
of
by plants,
of the
Exhaustion
; Plant-food
plant-food to value
121
in
of
Plant-
soil,123
organic matter,
a
soil,124.
Contents
CHAPTER
XII
PAGES
Manukes
125-137
Fektilizers
and
126
Types of fertilizers,
; How
determine
to
fertilizer
129 ; Lime,
of
128
fertilizers,
Phosphorus
130
fertilizers,
of farm
farm
Value
of farm
134 ; How
of
139
; How
soil
Bacteria
XIII
organisms, 138
soil,139
grow,
140
and
the
farmer,
; Relation
Crop
and
manure
moisture,
149
for
rotation
bacteria,
mation,
for-
humus
to
; The
The
fixation
of
;
144.
XIV
Rotations
145-153
denitrification,143
and
CHAPTER
Tillage
of
Kinds
nitrogen, 141
to
Nitrification
Bacteria, 139
in the
Relation
142
nitrogen,
136 ;
crops,
138-144
bacteria
141
Handling
of bacteria
number
; Kinds
SoiL
THE
Kinds
133
fertilize different
to
CHAPTER
OF
131
136.
manures,
OKeANISMS
Home-mixing
manure,
in manure,
132 ; Losses
manure,
manure,
Green
fertilizers,
Potassiam
130
fertilizers,
; Indirect
129
and
Controllingweeds, 147
plant residues,
Tillage of
145
of crops, 151
148
various
crops,
Methods
of crop
CHAPTER
Conserving
150
Reasons
rotation,152.
XV
Special
Soil
Alkali
Problems
:
Kinds
growth, 156
Indicators
of
161 ;
of
Erosion
:
soils
Topography
the
alkali,155
soil
Blowing
of judging
of
Reclamation
acidity,157.
158.
154-163
soil, 162
of alkali
acidity, 157
Methods
Prevention
:
; Effect
Indicator
of the
of
of
land, 161 ;
; Chemical
plant
Acidity :
Correction
of
soil
preventing erosion,
blowing, 160.
value
on
of native
Depth
analysis,
analysis,163; Productivity, 163.
162
and
Methods
vegetation,
structure
; Mechanical
Contents
PART
III.
xi
CROPS
FIELD
CHAPTER
XVI
PAGES
Wheat
167-190
Relationships,
ground, 170
168
; The
and
kernel, 170
adaptation, 173
Weeds,
value, 183
and
ing, 187
181
Harvesting, 178
Diseases,
182
186
; Uses
Markets
Prices, 188.
XVII
Maize
or
191-207
Relationships,191
leaves, 193
Dent
corn,
corn,
196
The
195
flower, 194
; Flint
; Soft
or
192
Roots,
corn,
198
Seed
planting, 200
and
201
and
value, 204
Harvesting,
203
195
Types,
196 ; Pop
197 ; Pod
corn,
rieties,
197 ; Va-
; Factors
; Silage,203
production,
in
of the
seed-bed,
199
of the
growing crop,
Enemies, 204 ; U.ses
; Treatment
and
; The
corn,
Preparation
Storage
ear, 194
193
198 ; Sweet
flour corn,
Adaptation, 198
culms,
; The
; The
marketing,
205.
XVIII
CHAPTER
Other
bution
Distri-
Rust, 180;
wheat,
Elevators,
CHAPTER
Corn
in
above
seed-bed,
180;
smut,
Quality
Storage, 184
of
Preparation
plant
The
Varieties, 171
179; Loose
smut,
Insects,180
168
Roots,
208-223
Cereals
Oats:
208
Origin and relationships,
Distribution,210
;_Harvesting
212
Enemies,
and
214.
crop,
222.
222.
and
marketing,
Sowing and
marketing,
Description and
217
Uses,
220.
Bice
221
Uses,
221.
Enemies:
212
and
;
tion,
cultiva213
Uses,
216;
cultivation,
Enemies
209
; Distribution
215
distribution, 219
220
Buckwheat:
Description,
Seeding
Description,
Barley:
adaptation, 216 ;
and
Rye
; Varieties,212
and
;
vesting
Har218.
uses,
Handling
Description and
Description
the
tion,
distribuand
Description, distribution,and
use,
uses,
xii
Contents
CHAPTER
XIX
PAGES
224-240
Potatoes
224
Varieties, 227
Origin,
of land, 2.30 ;
Storage, 235
234
and
; Use
and
insects,236
and
value, 239.
CHAPTER
Root
planting,
Harvesting
Weeds
and
Cutting
during growth,
233'; Treatment
marketing, 235
Diseases, 236
231
Seed,
XX
241-255
Crops
Sugar-beets : History,
and
seed, and
241
distribution,243
and
252.
Turnips
Culture, 253 ;
254 ; Culture
and
and
Value,
tation
Adap-
the
land,
247
Harvesting, marketing,
251 ;
Butahagas
254.
Carrots
and
of sugar,
; Manufacture
Description,
of
during growth,
value, 250
Mangel-wurzels
Culture,
253 ;
; Use
Preparation
Treatment
seeding, 245;
storage, 249
Descriptipn, 243
252 ;
Use,
Description,
Description,
255.
use,
CHAPTER
XXI
Alfalfa
256-270
Name
and
origin, 256
258 ; Stems
and
Varieties,261
land
263 ;
value,266
and
; Flowers
and
267
264
and
Roots,
seed, 260
adaptation, 261
seeding, 263
Harvesting,
Mixtures,
259
; Distribution
of the
growth,
leaves,
Relationships, 258
Storage,
Enemies,
265
aration
Prep-
; Treatment
during
; Use
268 ; Seed
and
tion,
produc-
269.
CHAPTER
The
Clovers
Other
and
XXII
Legumes
"
.
Bed
clover
272
clovers
Culture, 273
Alsike
clover,274;
Description,272
;
clover, 274
Crimson
Use
:
Distribution
and
White
clover,275.
value,
and
273.
clover, 274
Field
Peas
tation,
adapOther
Sweet
Descrip-
271-285
Contents
adaptation, 275
and
tion
Culture, 278
282.
Culture,
283.
Cowpeas
Soybeans
Legumes
Miscellaneous
Description, 280
Description, 282
and
Culture
Description, 278;
Beans:
Use, 280.
Sowing, 276
Use, 277.
harvestiug, 277;
xm
ture,
Cul-
Vetch, 284
; Other
legumes, 284.
XXIII
CHAPTEE
286-301
Grasses
Timothy
289
Description, 288
; Use
and
Description,292
and
293.
use,
value, 291
Adaptation,"
294;
Orchard-grass
295
; Value
299
298
use,
;
Culture, 294;
and
Adaptation,
Other
Bermuda-grass,
299
297
Meadows,
Definition,302
plants, 304
Condition
Over-stooldng, 309
312
Kinds
of
304
;
;
Native
304
ture,
pas-
Crop
animals, 307
different
310
good
308
pastures,
;
;
311.
Meadows,
316.
XXV
318-332
of
; Distribution
seed-bed
328; Storage
Description,
Relationships,320
Varieties,322
tionship and
Other
laneous
Miscel-
; A
grass,
Improving
Management,
grass
302-317
pasture, 302
; For
308
Origin,318
Preparation
Enemies,
300
.......
Sorghum
323
oat-grass,
Millets
and
320
Value
Systems
CHAPTER
Sorghums
meadow
pastures,
Soiling: Use,
Culture, 297
XXIV
Soiling
and
Mixtures,
of
Brome-grass
Johnson-grass,
Importance, 303
;
ture,
Adaptation, 295; Cul-
Tall
CHAPTER
303 ;
value,
294.
301.
grasses,
Pastures,
and
Smooth
grasses
Value
Description, 293
Use
296.
use,
ture,
Cul-
Jtedtop:
Culture, 293
Blue-grass
Description,295
Description, 297
and
292
289
292.
Enemies,
Adaptation,
Kentucky
Adaptation,
329
types, 331.
marketing,
Culture, 329.
description,330
326
; Culture
ment
; Treat-
Use, 327
328.
Millets
and
tion,
Descrip-
adaptation,
seeding, 325
Harvesting,
and
;
and
and
Sudan:
Eela^
value, 330
Contents
XIV
XXVI
CHAPTER
PAGES
Fibers
"
Misoellaneoos
and
Fibers
835
Description,
338
Adaptation,
marketing, 337
and
value, 340.
Other
fibers, 341.
Miscellaneous
342
fibers :
Rape, 843
marketing, 345
Fruits,
; Truck
349
Miscellaneous
crops:
Cabbage
and
Enemies,
343.
345
346
and
Use
rabi,
kohlbacco
Toand
Curing
potatoes, 347
Sweet
; Timber
351.
crops,
CHAPTER
Improvement
is
; The
tests, 362
Better
Ideal
Steps
of
Importance
be
breeding,
in
356
tion,
; Artificial selec-
chosen, 361
362
tivation,
Cul359
Reproduction,
plants should
best
sought,
selection, 360
; Natural
law, 363
Mendel's
? 354
Seed-testing, 357
Variation, 359
360
.......
improvement
357
XXVII
353-365
Crop
op
What
"
340
vesting
; Har-
tion,
Descrip-
Flax:
Culture,
336
Hemp,
349
crops,
Culture,
337.
Culture, 338
Sugar-cane,
335
Kale, 343
Distribution, 345
Relationships, 334
Use,
Adaptation, 338
.....
History, 333
Cotton.
333-352
Crops
riety
Va-
Crossing, 362
large numbers,
364
seed, 364.
XXVIII
CHAPTER
366-378
Weeds
Definition,366
364
Dissemination,
372 ;
367
Classification,
Eradication,
Herbicides, 376
PART
from
; Losses
383
should
; The
fields,384
tion,
; Preven-
principles,375
MANAGEMENT
FIELD
XXIX
Farm
the
Plan
370
377.
CHAPTER
Planning
Occurrence, 368
weeds,
373 ; General
Summary,
IV.
381-386
be
stable, 381
farmstead,
;
ditches,385
Size
; Use
and
383
shape
of waste
Number
Arrangement
of fields,384
places, 386.
of
and
;
enterprises,
number
Fences
of
and
Contents
CHAPTER
xv
XXX
PAGES
What
Chops
Grow
to
387-391
in
Conditions
producing
various
for
of
as
that
Caring
for
392-399
Machines
that
seldom
of
392
mechanic,
are
duty
395 ; The
XXXI
.......
equipment, 393
Machines
used,
machinery,
Success
of
Good
to
Profits
man
each
from
crop,
404
farm
farmer
402
Keeping
yields
vs.
the
to
labor, 404
horse
A.
Addresses
of
400-406
ing,
farm-
records,
403
acre,
Understanding
Appendix
B.
Laboratory
Appendix
C.
Fertilityin
of
and
Farm
by
United
.
periment
Ex-
States
.
Produce
and
Different
412
....
Value
of Manure
Kinds
of
.
Farm
.
Measures
Appendix
E.
Weights and
Appendix
F.
Quantity of Seed
Appendix
G.
Most
408
411
Bushel
and
Guides
Animals
Common
of the
Agriculture
Composition, Amount,
Produced
407-430
....
Agricultural Colleges
Department
D.
Markets, 404.
Stations
Appendix
Proper type of
APPENDICES
Appendix
buildings,398.
Production
Capital, 401
and
machinery,
date, 394
XXXII
management,
403 ; Profits
farm
Depreciation, 396
; Suitable
Crop
in
of
out
; Size of
395 ;
machinery,
397
395
in
Extremes
get
CHAPTER
Factors
391 ;
crops,
Farm
the
farmer
The
Crop
391.
crops,
CHAPTER
Equipment
various
Planted
Weights
413
414
to the
of
Acre
Seeds
to
416
the
417
Contents
XVI
PAGE
Appendix
H.
Appendix
I.
Rules
418
Rules
Measuring
for
in
Hay
Measuring
419
Stack
the
Appendix
J.
Wheat
420
Calendar
Harvest
....
Appendix
K.
Prices
of
Wheat
on
Chicago
Market
(1863421
1910)
Appendix
L.
Appendix
M.
Crop
for
Statistics
Plowing
as
affected
United
Continental
by
Shape
of
the
423
States
l?ield
424
.
Appendix
N.
Depreciation
Average
the
Acre
for
Farm
Year
Cost
and
425
Machinery
.
Appendix
O.
Glossary
to
426
THE
PRINCIPLES
OF
AGRONOMY
'
Principlesof Agronomy
The
it
processes
He
of
is secreted ; he
composition of milk and the
the
of butter
manufacture
in the
stillhe may
milk
how
and
cow,
undergoes
and
cheese;
cow.
familiar with
be
may
of
stomach
in the
hay is digested
which
by
methods
the
understand
may
how
know
not
milk
to
even
or
a
ciples
training in the underlying scientific prinbut not in the art or handicraft.
agriculture,
has
sometimes
made
that
the
if
sciences.
not
sciences,he would
This is probably true, but no
to
learn
if he
even
need
one
were
assertion
familiar
were
person
the
The
"
study agriculture.
to
is able to master
person
able to do
so,
he would
to
do
with
the
land
have
little time
all
with
some
is
the
have
for extensive
brief knowledge
of the
principles
underlyingthe industry in which
the teaching of agrithey are engaged. This justifies
culture
to those who
have had little trainingin the
even
some
so-called pure
natural
be
able
and
sciences.
the
to
Agriculture and
very
better
foundation
the
of
the
understands
one
social sciences,however,
comprehend
agriculture.
3.
The
the
better will
principlesand
industries.
"
all industries.
the
one
problems
Agriculture is
of
at
Manufacturing,
Introductory
mining, and
dependent on
the soil for their existence ; indeed, the
himself
commerce
would
the
are
products of
life of
very
man
be
farm, in addition
The
to
being
aspects quite
as
social and
has
consequence,
important
as
educational
economic
phases.
4.
Opportunities
in
for young
are
men
called with
louder
on
opportunities
every
hand
to
and
satisfaction in being
than
at
for him
who
can
the
history
present,
training.
who
secure
knows
joy
direct producer.
phases of agriculture,such
schools, engaging in demonstration
Other
in
Never
voice
most
with
of intelligence,
industry, and
how
use
The
"
connected
those
on
There
varied.
agricultureare
as
teaching it
in the
experimental
and working as
work for the states and the government,
are
assuming greater
an
expert adviser for corporations,
importance every year, and offer good opportunitiesto
of abilityand training.
men
young
and
Principks of Agronomy
The
5.
of
Division
"
in many
restorative,tropicalor
according
purposes
into
the
to
in
of
intensive
as
instructional
For
income.
divided
be
it may
or
three
temperate
source
classed
diversified, exploitiveor
extensive, specialized or
or
be
It may
ways.
divided
be sub-
Agriculture may
agriculture.
parts
animal
agronomy,
husbandry,
horticulture.
and
vegetables,and
also
addition
In
chemistry, and
these bears
these
to
number
flowers.
three
animal
plant and
It is difficult,
therefore,to find
is logicaland
that
at
the
Phases
of agronomy.
time
are
so
of
pf agriculture
entirely practical,
closelyinterrelated.
The
"
Each
applieddivisions.
subdivision
"ame
pathology.
present volume
deals
sometimes
called agronomy.
agriculture
outside
meaning of this word is not widely known
The
of the schools,and
It
from
comes
fields."
At
even
two
there
Greek
it is used somewhat
words
"
meaning
loosely.
the
to
use
mean
of
the
management
crops,
may
and
farm
management.
be applied to any
one
The
term
"
"
agronomy
of these branches.
To
give the beginner in
Scope of this book.
agriculturalstudy a general idea of the principlesof successful
production of crops, and to furnish him a basis for
7.
"
Introductory
study
in
of
present
the
Part
will
as
the
be
of
well
is
part
service
to
made
of
apply
studying
and
III
in
other
Part
and
of
its
plant
the
object
take
growth,
In
discussed.
agriculture.
Part
II,
as
of
to
the
problems
Some
This
management.
entirely
numbers
and
horticulture
up
horticulture
devoted
IV,
are
phases
later
to
is
of
agronomy.
soil
the
management
to
who
fundamental
Part
field
students
those
to
is
agriculture,
principles
the
to
likewise
crops
of
volume.
agronomy.
field
branches
discusses
as
is
study
other
of
well
as
study
to
of
relating
these
also
The
10
8.
of
Factors
Principlesof Agronomy
plant growth.
must
general,there are
in order for plants to
(1) a home, or place
In
"
be favorable
make
air.
Of
these
six factors,man
can
(1) the
and
supply of soils,
(2) the plant-food available.
do littlethat will influence
regards a given spot, man
can
water
As
heat, light,oxygen,
His method
and
depth
or
texture
of soil.
depends on his
and, by so doing, to
power
to
"
The
Plant
and
its Environment
11
The
12
Principlesof Agronomy
forces
these
plant diseases
nuisances, and
in
with
reckoned
be
to
as
such
are
are
pests
factors.
of
Length
9.
season.
the
Of
"
the
controlling
States, lengthof season
factors
Canada
several well-marked
are
no
course,
singlefactor
alone
moisture, soil,and
for
count
effect of
the
South
much,
short
to
they
moved
barley
have
into
the
causes
the
though
Al-
of temperature
overcome
growing-seasonthat
fail when
range
production.
for this.
accounts
daily
cannot
belts of
injurious
crops
North.
from
That
shorter
periods of growth
is well known.
than potatoes and corn
Cotton requires
seven
or
eight months without a frost,while barley or rye
can
having only two or four months
get on with a- season
between
frosts. Oranges and
bananas
not
are
grown
in semi-tropicalclimates where
the growing-season
save
lasts almost the whole
Coconuts
are
produced
year.
only in tropicalregions; corn extends over a rather broad
from
the tropics well into the temperate
zones.
area,
of adaptability
This power
comes
largelyfrom the power
of corn
to adjust itself to shorter growing-seasons. By
the selection of early-maturingplants, corn-growing has
gradually extended well up toward the Canadian
ary.
boundAll crops have
of growth to suit the
they
are
carried.
cowpeas
power
seasons
of
A crop
some
are
of
new
changing
under
confined
the time
certain conditions
entirelyto the
ton
Cotsec-
Plant
The
its'Enmonment
and
13
of latitude.
thirty-seventh
degree
red clover are
widely grown
north
not
Timothy and
of this parallel,
but
in the
Potatoes
South.
in every
potato-growing
state, but profitable
is limited to the states in the North ; corn
does best in
are
grown
growth.
Although
"
the
corn
belt," other
corn
well north
grows
crops
south
and
of
pay
and
that
one
does not
crop
Economical
pay,
problems
that another
as
An
of crop
response.
in which
is grown
a crop
our
and
agriculture
into
enter
survey
areas
generalboundaries of climate
to supplant another.
Abbe^
100
miles have
soil that
caused
never
of the
extensivelywill
and
disturb
examination
show
cause
square
better.
pays
crop
one
over
areas
than
more
the
50
of
per
5 per cent
fluctuation in crop yields,and not over
for the whole
United States.
Though in moving a crop
cent
from
much,
to
section
one
to
very
littlecan
This
is largelydue
little when
vary
however,
that
another
have
plants,if
Tender
not
attributed
be
to
abnormal
are
to
it in
are
seasons
for
counts
season
a
the tendency of
long periods
well
done
length of
given
climate
considered.
and
occur
tion.
sec-
casiona
Occrops
by untimely frosts.
nipped and retarded in
killed
killed,are
growth.
10.
Frost.
melons,
are
"
wheat
succulent
frost-bitten when
slightlybelow
and
Many
are
plants,such
the temperature
Weather
Bureau
Bui.
36,
as
corn
and
drop is but
like rye, barley,
by rather sharp
p. 364.
Principlesof Agronomy
The
14
but
Alfalfa and
frosts.
and
grass
show
wheat
sign of
no
slightfrost,
injury. Many
a
thawing
in
spot
one
largerunning
air.
cold
the
away
to
the
hold
water
At
any
in sections with
occur
When
stems
or
streams
are
tling
setcarry
less
likely
air drainage.
good
and
between
is drawn
there
out
of the
times
Some-
frozen.
in temperature
drop
to
seem
rate, frosts
freeze,water
buds
spaces
sudden
slopes
that
from
away
land
that
thawing
plant just as
wilted
drouth
leaves
that
from
blightedappearance
A day or so
heat.
or
look as though they had
or
Records
if
as
after
been
injuredby
a
frost,the
scorched
excessive
injured
by a fire
close.
too
was
how
Death
of
district for
number
of years show
early in autumn
late in the
about
frosts
spring and how
be expected. These will vary
but, as already
may
some,
settler
pointed out, not so widely as to prevent a new
from
anticipatingwhat crops will mature;
provided,
of course,
that he knows
how
long the crop requires
and
how
farm
hardy it is. General
practice in the
climatic
localitywill gradually readjust itself to meet
demands.
far wrong
Farmers
in
regard
in
established
to
time
of
districts do
planting and
not
choice
go
of
crops.
11.
range
Temperature.
of
"
After
length of
season,
daily
affecting
The
Plant
and
its Environment
15
Principlesof Agronomy
The
16
in the Great
as
warm
supply. Days are practically
Lakes
region or in the Great Basin as they are at New
Mornings, evenings,
Orleans, but only for a few hours.
cooler,whereas in the South nights
and nights are much
well as days keep warm.
Many plants are sensitive to
as
even
though it remains several
a lowering of temperature
tions
degrees above freezing. On this account, daily fluctuaof considerable importance.
are
heat
Some
evidence
to
seems
found
about
to use
spring wheat seem
the same
quantityof heat for ripening. Spring grain has
warmer
a shorter but
growing period.
decreases.
As elevation increases,temperature
Going
from low to higher land is nearly equivalentto moving
southward
from the equator.
northward
or
High mountains
in the tropics show
all gradations of vegetation
in passing from tropicalto arctic regions. Many
found
the equator are covered
with perpetual snow.
peaks near
Aside
from
the
creased
change produced, intemperature
Fall and
total heat.
elevations
plant growth if
to
seem
soil and
have
moisture
little influence
relations
on
equally
are
favorable.
12.
has
How
Water.
noticed
Every
"
the
person
at
effect of abundant
moisture
in
on
plants
them.
Duggar,
Plant
Physiology, p.
406.
Principlesof Agronomy
The
18
fall
unending struggleagainstevaporation,and heavier rainis a theme
Not
of constant
prayer.
rainfall
are
gation
Irri-
harmful.
hardness
when
grown
to
in moist climates.
Excessive
warm
many
causes
up
water
suflBciently
permit sowing
to
early crops.
"
"
"
with boards
branches
The
crops
because
or
earth.
lack
of
height, branching,and
are
have
low
limbs.
in flax and
other
controlled by thickness of
planting.
great quantitiesof starch
benefited
or
sugar,
by clear
The
Plant
its Environment
and
19
weather.
branches
from
of trees, or
getting under
stems,
or
grains.
or
behind
strong wind
Sometimes
that roots
to walls.
This
prevents air
currents
them.
badly
of young
Tender
leaves,
plantsare uncovered.
sand
flowers may
be rasped by the wind-borne
Plants with tough coverings,such as cacti and
The
formation
of sod
greatly
aids the farmer in preventingthis injuryand in reducing
with blown soil particles. Where
that caused by contact
hot,dry winds blow for several days continuously,evaporation
and transpirationare
increased to such an
extent
burned
from sudden
that plants are
drying. Crops
subjected to such winds present a dry, blasted appearance
not far different from frost or fire injury.
Winds
are
temperature regulators,for they mix the
some
"
air, preventingcold
"
or
warm
air from
remaining in
one
"
20
The
Principlesof Agronomy
get enough
cannot
food
mineral
enable
it to
abnormal
to
grow;
ment
arrange-
size of soil
or
particlesmay
vent
pre-
proper
root
As
development.
alreadypointedout,
moisture
moderate
in the
favorable
"^
treme
"
"
soil is
more
than
wetness
exor
dryness. Decayed
leaves,stubble,and
soils
render
'^
manure
capable of holding
"S
more
"
"
S
1
"
thus
water,
insuring a steady,
reliable supply. To
create
these
desir-
able conditions
to
control
weeds,
insects,and
diseases
chief
and
plant
the
are
virtues
cultivation
of
and
manuring.
16.
Pests."
Great
numbers
of
by shading,
by
ing
steal-
moisture
plant-food,and
and
by
The
Plant
and
its Environment
21
put
on
17.
the
crop
which
Adapted
he cannot
crops.
growing-seasonof
"
any
harvest.
Only those
section
are
crops
that mature
in
grown
there to advantage.
than others.
varieties will prove more
thrifty
farther north than ordinary
alfalfa thrives much
Some
Grimm
Finally,a varietyof
section
drouth.
any
plantlong cultivated
develops resistance
Desirable
strains may
resisted some
to
be
in
ular
partic-
frost,water, heat,
started
from
or
single
fully
successhardship more
than other plants. This is only a part of the constant
to their
attempt of plants to adjust themselves
has modified the plant and
surroundings. Environment
will continue to do so.
Meantime, it gradually becomes
better and better adapted to the section. This is the
for home-grown
seed. By this means,
chief argument
to fit
lends a helping hand to the plant struggling
man
itselffor its surrounding.
plants that
have
of
Principles
The
22
READING
SUPPLEMENTARY
Any
Plant
of
textbook
Physiology,
(Ecology
of
botany.
B.
Geography,
A.
Plant
Physiology
and
Between
Bureau
M.
E.
Plants,
Plant
Relation
Agronomy
Duggar,
400-436,
and
494-507.
Abbe,
Weather
Warming.
W.
F.
Schimper.
F.
Ecology,
Climates
Bulletin
1-14,
pp.
No.
and
36.
E.
Clements.
Crops,
Cleveland
CHAPTER
PLANT
Just
and
as
farmer
of
their
in
plants in order
large
is
the
on
farmer
handle
to
particularly
obstacles
the
18.
(Fig. 4)
Roots,
readily distinguished
pith of
and
wheat,
observation.
openings
eye,
leaves
which
in that
In
the
corn
Neither
in
the
be
seem
to
they
outer
of plants
wide-awake
microscope,
can
but
seen,
be
are
bark
in
more
or
can
of
vast
less
23
such
which
skin
be
knows
with
independent
of compact
remains
of
minute
one
aided
un-
of them.
stomata
of
nor
the
knows
of
of
common
animals
seen
the
and
bran
of
of
be
bark,
melons,
matters
as
must
everybody
number
nothing
tion
loca-
and
leaves,
of
only
separated by walls
of trees,
kind
schoolboy
not
a
the
processes.
that
likewise
pores
tion
produc-
conditions
rind
wood,
are
leaves
yet every
the
Under
in
Rings
them.
of
way
satisfactorily. This
stems,
about
the
location
and
control.
so
the
abnormal
for effective
are
of
more
crop
nature
"
economic
and
tion
func-
determines
structure
within
on
under
in the
activity of life
understood
flowers
mechanism
Plant
his
true
plant diseases,
Cells
and
remove
goes
parts
the
understanding
activity that
the
smoothly,
unobstructed
clear
know
to
keep it working
to
plant functions,
measure
Therefore,
the
to
development.
depends
of
engine
understand
must
best
engineer needs
of his
arrangement
the
so
STRUCTURE
locomotive
III
the
parts
another
substance.
but
the
walls
Principlesof Agronomy
The
24
which
to be built of
seem
When
structures.
cut
the cells of
extent
the
within
of small, box-like
number
they resemble
honey-comb.
Originally,"cell"
inclosed space
vast
across,
cell was
name
to
of this
Because
some
blance,
resem-
chosen.
used
was
to
designate only
the
Examination
of
important in the
make-up of the plant
so
as
the
mass
substance
living
occupying
of
It
the inclosure.
this
that
found
was
substance
ing
liv-
instead
chiefly
parts differing
in
compactness.
Moreover,
it
covered
dis-
was
gen
oxy-
independentlyof
Fig.
4.
"
Plant
cell
showing
'""'''"''^'"^''^'""''''
DuggiT'
growth
consisted
of individual
in
an
cells; and
when, work
that
nimiber
is done, the
cells do it.
Since
processes
named
The
26
20.
Kind
of
Principlesof Agronomy
Only higher plants have
plant.
"
well-
even
Crop plants.
much
"
like each
Plants in the
other.
The
same
country.
same
species
all seed plants
group
tissues of
or
Plant
Structure
resemble
(spermatophytes)
each
27
scribed
enough to be deIn method
of growth, there are two
as
a group.
kinds, monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous. Grasses
are
monocotyledonous,that is,they have undivided seeds.
They grow largelyby increase in size of cells; dicotyledonous
plantshave splitseeds and grow by layingdown rings
of new
tissue. Practically
all crops, save
only the grasses
and grains,grow
fering
by adding tissue in rings. Though difin growth habits and in appearance,
they do work by similar means.
22. Plant
Crop plants
parts.
have
roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
seeds, and buds which
are
simply
leaves or flowers in protectivecoverings.
The
anchor
the plant
roots
other
"
leaves and
and
water
carry, elaborated
as
the roots.
a
This
and
water
flower up
sunlight,
transport
the
to
up
the
the
take
place
mineral
food from
Some
the leaves
salts, and
the leaves
them
plantsuse
in which
elaborated
to
to
into
food.
store
plant-foodis
factured
manu-
available.
of
the
plant transmits
The
flowers
runnersFig.
fore-
are
seed
by which the
life and reproduces
on
5.
"
radish.
Root-hairs
(After
Duggar.)
Each
crop
"
The
28
Principlesof Agronomy
shows
the
Fig.
6.
"
Root-hair
soil.
in the
small
as
adjustability
force themselves
and
particles
to fitinto every
into
space
to
shape permits
close
contact
and around
root-
with
every
soil
angle.
Plant
Wherever
with
contact
Structure
solid
body
29
is made,
substance
causingit to
root-hairs and
Root-hairs may
new
ones
root-hairs
7.
"
They
the
form
to
of
corn.
various
up
and
coat.
tissues form
water
known
and
sorption
ab-
are
Root-tip
nearly water-proof
small tubes
between
inch
an
(After Curtis.)
forming continually.
cease
xylem, takes
the cell-wall
possiblea rapid
and plant-food.
be half
less.
Fig.
and
inous
mucilag-
soil particlesmakes
of film moisture
usuallymuch
the
As the root
gets older,
epidermis takes
Beneath
in layers. One
carries it toward
tracheal tubes
on
these, the
the stem
in
elongated cells
known
tracheids.
Between
this water-transporting
as
tissue and the epidermis lies the endodermis, a layer of
cells rich in starch,and the cortex, a layer of corky cells.
as
or
in
of
Principlesof Agronomy
The
30
Water
between
passes
faster than
If the central root grows
subordinatingthe side roots, the plant has
the others,
system.
system, of which
with,
the central
outgrow
or
root-system, such
24.
The
the
of
to
the
passage
which
this
minute
end
walls
inch
leaves.
from
with
spirallyor
roots
length.
pits in woody
have
fibrous
with
continuous
of
means
leaves is effected,are
walls.
In
each
continuous
in
more
somewhat
to
directlyabove
connects
root,
tracheal tubes, by
thickened
leaving
or
The
to
pace
the
affording a
roots
of cells
out
keep
cereals.
and
The
"
from
passes
transfer
tubes
dissolve
an
water
xylem
of grasses
(Figs.8-9).
stem
into which
those
as
givingrise
roots
root-
pigweeds
red-root
examples.
are
alfalfa,carrots, and
tap
formation
other
opening
The
walls
walls.
the
gradually
sometimes
thickened
are
This
thickening
strengthensthe stem, while the thin placespermit a more
ready passage of liquid into and out of the tubes. At
the end,
one
tube
but is
to
slightly
water
necessary.
Examination
shows
row
does not
one
In
of
with
directly
connect
side making
the next,
lateral movement
of
the
which
tube
area.
These
wood
cells
Plant
CAoas
Structure
seer/o/f
r*ind
UDI
LONC/T
Fig.
8.
"
Section
31
of oak
NAl.
branch
tissues.
(cr*eDftex}
CCCT/OM
showing
longitudinal
(After Osterhout.)
and
cross-section
Principlesof Agronomy
The
32
phloem.
Xylem, phloem,
what
is known
These
outer
and
at
on
and
the inner,
as
the fibro-vascular
as
small
are
the
fiber
wood
new
of less compact
quantity
smaller
on
and
edge
bundles
the
form
of the plant.
ring of new
growth each year, they increase
in size until they form a series of wedge-shaped bundles
radiating from the central pith. Medullary rays pass
these bundles dividing them
from each
radiallybetween
other.
Along these medullary rays, food, air, and water
bark
When
to deeper tissues.
is stripped from a
move
willow, for example, it parts from the wood at the cambium
The rings of the
exposing a smooth, moist surface.
division between
the tubes and the
a
woody part mark
completes
finer,more
compact
wood
markings are
with
Beneath
this is a
beneath
is
Stone
an
cells are
substance
that renders
them
cortex
from
water-proof.
of
(ehdo,inner,
the
cells and
pericycle.
more
or
The
34
Principlesof Agronomy
of this group
grasses and palms
usually slender for their height. In some, such as
with
the internodes are filledwith pith interspersed
"
corn,
harder
much
at
the nodes
at the
than
stem
internodes, and
is
it is
is farther from
that
successive internode
smaller in each
The
bundles.
of the fibro-vascular
strands
the
"
ground.
the
Water-conducting tissue
(Figs.10-11).
distribute the
of the xylem joins the leaf-veins which
leaf
The
25.
Fig.
water
10.
"
of leaf showing
Section
"
cellular
structure.
between
the
cells. The
cells absorb
the water
spaces
and
also
cpbon
dioxide taken
in
at
intervals
across
small
the
on
the under
cell so
most
side.
both
the upper
and the
ordinary plants,the number
on
On
loss of water.
Beneath
cells containingmany
the upper
thus reduces
is a
epidermis
group
the
of
are
space
less
closely
between.
Plant
Just
above
Structure
35
midrib
cells
an
branch
in alfalfa.
as
of net-work
at the
In this
base
case
in grapes, or
the veins form
that is,have
and
grains
the midrib.
large central one known
as
venation is typicalof monocotyledons.
Leaves
"
may
Stomata
of carnation
be borne
directlyto
the
on
leaf.
of beans.
They
may
plant. They
be
or
This
without
kind
be compound
may
or
two-ranked
of
(AfterDuggar.)
leaf-stem,or petiole,or
sort
parallel-veined,
are
11.
Fig.
from
as
dicotyledons. Grasses
spread apart
simple as in the
as
in the
case
tached
atas
case
of
grasses
and
the
"
The
36
discontinues
growth
the fore-runner
as
flower
The
mature.
as
soon
floral parts
These
are
the
pistil.
and
is
product of
union
Principlesof Agronomy
corolla, the
Each
stamen
stalk and
powdery
pollen.
three
to
flower
consists of
hollow
twenty
or
slender
receptaclebearing
There
from
are
stamens
more
on
and
Fig.
12.
legume
"
ovule
or
tube
comes
Flowers
a
are
borne
close,compact
called
head.
singly or
one,
such
at
in contact
which it fertilizescausing a
cell,
is
the base
(Fig.12).
When
pollen grains reach the stigma
they germinate and send long, slender
tubes down
the style to the ovule.
Pistil
of
tilization.
fershowing
Dissolvingits way to the ovule, this
ovary
seed to
red
or
the egg
begin development.
in clusters.
as
with
If the
white
cluster
clover,it is
with
long,
Plant
slender branches
panicle;
extent
is called
while
that
37
Structure
with
one
the flowers
the branches
in
are
shortened
elongatedmass
compact,
the
to
are
spikes.
As
The
seed.
28.
Buds
and
have
must
bud.
leaves and
are
to
makes
buds
up
until conditions
or
resinous
or
this protectivecoveringcalled
lined with
are
flowers
strong enough
substance
Some
Budding
"
protectionuntil they
some
favor growth.
branches.
themselves
to expose
gummy
"
soft,fluffymaterial
flowers from
to
begin growth
from
extends
bud
only to
in the axil of
the cambium,
leaf.
but
as
in
rings of growth are added the branch is embedded
Just
deeper tissue. Thus, knots are formed in timber.
at the base of a branch
the stem is usuallyenlarged.
29.
Underground
modifications
of
lack much
stone, wood,
strong-walled
and weeds
Potatoes
"
enlargedstems.
tissues described,but
of
stems.
send rootstocks
or
and
They show
tissue that
onions
the various
is composed
horizontallybeneath
are
grasses
the surface
The
38
soil.
These
of
roots
plants
plants.
as
to
necessary
in
only
closely
sending
textbook
of
Plant
Anatomy,
Plant
Physiology,
Cyclopedia
Methods
of
of
and
stems
and
formed
adapted
plants
this
READING
botany.
W.
C.
B.
American
Plant
perform
to
Stevens.
M.
Duggar,
pp.
Agriculture,
Histology,
C.
J.
15-63.
Vol.
Chamberlain.
II,
stem
and
Root-crowns
pp.
lions,
dande-
and
united
new
up
SUPPLEMENTARY
Any
alfalfa,
carrots,
are
parts.
stem
modifications
simply
is
sod
means,
beets,
which
root-crowns,
Buds
develop
are
such
plants,
root.
both
start
underground.
spread
form
will
this
By
Agronomy
of
which
buds
contain
new
Many
Principles
11-22.
rootstocks
function.
and
can
CHAPTER
PLANT
Specialization
number
in
kind
tissues
of the
work.
plant
with
thrived
slowly developed
best-adapted
best.
fitted
to
Since
specialized
more
differentiated, have
have
to
seems
varied
the
on
is
and
expression
in
in
conducive
land, where
tions
condi-
The
in
ture,
mois-
demanded
turn,
best
the
greater
varying
naturally
to
and
more
This
ocean.
This,
response.
others.
out
texture,
differences,
way
in the
light,soil
as
temperature
complexity
greater
on
best
evolved.
been
true
work
structures
crowded
gradually
more
of forces, such
number
individual
effective, plants
they did
than
more
necessity
essential
doing
have
more
much
of the
with
plants
activities
work
been
of
performs
highly probable
means
Gradually
carry
it is
great
difference
tissue
account
on
struggle
the
This
is,each
Moreover,
rise to
given
tissues.
functions, that
of work.
In
has
higher plants
different
definite
that
FUNCTIONS
variety of structural
and
presupposes
a
IV
good
required
of
the
plant.
30.
Growth.
maturity,
As
"
they have
and
leaves, stem,
and
rootstocks
of tissues
cases
runs
or
few
but
proceeds,
growth
higher
Though
Buds,
roots.
of
it.
just
are
after
original sprout
branches,
later.
come
accompanies
ahead
tissues
the
tubers
plants
increase
Many
39
in
complex
at
germination.
develops
into
flowers,
seed,
tion
rapid differentia-
size, and
plants develop
in
some
tracheal
Principlesof Agronomy
The
40
epidermiswhile
cortex, and
plant is stillsmall.
the
whether
Growth,
by the development of
enlargement,
new
of cells. Each
number
in the
increase
or
measured
process
plants,both
processes
cells in
Thin-walled
divide and
at the
on
go
growing parts of
redivide forming
granular to
time.
same
fibrous
mass.
plant constantly
first sign of
cellS. The
new
In all crop
more
Shortly it
to
seems
be
splitlengthwise
entirely of strands. These
and then crosswise forming pairs of small bodies which
the middle
themselves in two parallelrows
across
arrange
of the cell. Fine thread-like strands graduallypullthese,
composed
half to
one
end, and
end.
they
Here
hardened
and
into
cells have
come
between
the two
nuclei.
When
this has
the
originalone.
In
few
two
hours,
few
cells may
divide giving rise
days, the two new
to more
cells,each behaving as the first so long as
new
growth continues in that region of the plant.
Young plantsat firstgrow throughout,but soon
ledonous
dicoty-
or
plants develop
in other
branches.
All
growth. This
to
cambium
parts except
later
the phloem.
at
and
the
tinues
growth discontip of elongating
ring of
active,buildingfirstone
other
cells
remains
thin-walled
cambial
determines
then
and
on
which
the
cell
The
42
will
over
to
cease
water
because
Principlesof Agronomy
the air is used
when
grow
up.
A coat
of oil
oxygen
is unable
to
On
the
"
and
the green
substance
known
chlorophyllare
essential to increase of dry weight. Young seedlings
grow
in darkness
if other conditions
are
favorable, yet no
increase takes place,for they move
food from the seed
storehouse to growing tissue. The quantity of food available
last
must
until the roots can supply water
and mineral
salts,and until leaves have reached into light and air
as
Plant Functions
and
become
can
Under
green.
43
gases
are
taken
in by the
in
the
air,
enters
the
leaves
make
sugar,
other
small
through
the
Considerable
In
consequence
plant. This
the plant,but
oxygen
from
oxygen
"
of this,oxygen
not
comes
from
the manufacture
the
breathing of
in an unknown
Chlorophyll,
of plant-foodafter
accomplishesthis manufacture
way,
which the plant nourishes itself. The followingchemical
reaction shows the different beginningand end products :
.
6 CO2
Sugar, under
6 H2O
C6H12O6
6 O2.
ferments,
lose,
changes to starch and this to oil or celluBut nitrogen,
calcium,
plants,to wood.
potassium,phosphorus, sulfur,iron, and magnesium are
brought from the soil. Nitrogen and sulfur togetherwith
class of comlittle phosphorusare united into another
a
pounds
for any organic
called proteins,a general term
product containingnitrogen.
the raw
Such is the way
in which plantsmanufacture
All these
inorganicelements into productsthey can use.
called enzymes,
and in some
The
44
union
of
find
compounds
raw
Principlesof Agronomy
use
33.
Osmosis.
yet
it
long time
was
that
known
plants,
clear understandingexisted as to how
they enter
part they take in plant growth. Some thought
the plant feeds entirely
on
water, and
such,
others that soil particles,
as
the plant. Jethro Tull, about
enter
be
that intertillage
1674, advocated
no
what
or
For
nourishment
and
water
"
taken
are
from
the soil by
clear.
showing that
Soon
discoveries
came
neither
water
soil
nor
alone is plant-food,
but that certain soil
out
their tissues.
leaves
FiG.
13.
used
Apparatus
"
to
demonstrate
(From
osmosis.
Bailey.)
science
of
was
of water
which
The
plants
build
intake of carbon
by
by osmosis
of these
of
was
basic
proved.
Knowledge
enabled
principles
the
with
hitherto
plant production to advance
unknown
rapidity.
Kernels of grain,germinated on wet cloth or
paper over
of wet sand or sawdust, develop root-hairs for the
a box
and mineral
food. The
absorption of water
seedlings
will grow
and use water, as will a geranium cutting passed
through a stopper with the cut end under water.
Roots
will develop, the plant will continue
to grow,
and
the
quantityof water in the bottle will diminish though open-
Plant
Functicms
45
have
gases
"
solids
even
in
prevent
of escape
into the plant and
taken
been
to
The
by which
process
is complex.
some
cases
"
Liquids
driven
are
the
membrane
admits
of salt,
fresh water
the
is driven
free passage
through in
on
one
other.
of water
an
attempt
Some
salt
liquidof uniform concentration.
ment
through into the fresh water, but the chief movepasses
is made
by the water.
To demonstrate
osmosis, a strong solution of common
salt may
the largeend of
be placed in a thistle tube, over
which a pieceof parchment paper or bladder is tied tightly
air (Fig. 13). If the solution stands high
to shut out
enough to reach into the small tube above the bulb, a piece
of stringor an elastic band can be used to mark the height.
to
make
the
After immersion
in fresh water
from
few minutes
to
few hours, the solution rises in the tube showing the intake
The
46
of
is the
agriculturally,
Osmosis;
water.
which
Principlesof Agronomy
the
from
water
by
process
through a
concentrated,
flows
dilute solution
cell-sapis more
inward.
the
and
the
cells become
the
brought in contact
or
goes in the opposite
flabby and wilt. This
If strong solutions
ceases
as
than
concentrated
long
So
rises.
temperature
osmosis
with the root-hairs,
direction
creases
in-
solution-concentrations
in
.
and
passes
difference
the
as
are
is one
Plants
;
able to exercise
seem
used
not
absorption
plant,they enter
of selective
power
by the
substances
foods.
Plant
shape.
As
to
enter.
one
to
take in the
the
planttheir
hold
causes
pressure
plant there
is
more
some
ment
move-
due to osmosis.
Transpiration.
"
Not
only do
mineral
raw
rigidand
are
Throughout
of water
34.
and
take
roots
in water
a
a
stream
the water
of vapor,
that
passes
evaporated
it cannot
be
seen
under
Water
vapor,
escaping by
means
of the stomata.
Plant Functions
47
"
"
mouthed
two
bottle.
In
three hours
or
the
will
transpired water
collect on
the glass in
able
drops,and under favorconditions
with
the sides.
Plants transpire
mous
enor-
quantities. For
each pound of dry substance
they add to their
weight by growth, over
200
pounds of water
have
passed through
the plant. Measurements
of transpiration
show
that
pounds
about
300
water
are
of
pound
Fig.
14.
wheat
"
of water
used with
Comparison
(AfterWidtsoe.)
produced.
growth in
A pint of wheat
(Fig.14)
or
The
48
Principlesof Agronomy
plants,and
more
water
dry
for
be used
to
much
water
they do
that
according to whether
of water
at
water
more
during the
water
more
diminishes
35.
crops
have
wilting. Some
die from
not
of developing few
the power
also have
have
they
large quantities
plants transpiremuch
small
or
disposal. Some
than others ; most
to be wasteful
plantsseem
period of bloom ; and quick-growingcrops use
than
Darkness
also
steady-growing ones.
their
transpirationconsiderably.
Translocation.
Since
"
all the
starch
be the
largestpart
and
other
be moved
must
of the
plant.
zymes
En-
sugar
sugar
or
plants
stomata
many
or
Desert
produced.
matter
the power
to hold
spiration
in their tissues against the forces of tran-
of water
abundance
an
it to the fruit,stem,
example, great
seed when
and
move
seed is set.
fruit. Seed
Fruit trees
in early summer
one
translocation.
porous
in stem
36.
to
crop
roots, or
food from
wood
to the
is called
less
plants become
more
or
in both, during the seed-setting
Transportation.
through the
to
plant matures
Most
or
period owing
the
of carrots
and
food from
stored in roots
tities
quan-
tracheal
the
sieve tubes, or
can
flow down
"
Water
tubes
and
is transported upward
sap, downward
through
CHAPTER
if they
in their purpose
energies
other
bent
are
of aim
variety of
the
in
itself
the
foods
raw
elaborate
and
of
the
plant against
In
the
the
fruit
that
Often
containing
draws
his
but
of life to
other
or
cell-contents
has
been
seeds, and
sap,
beets
and
carrots
grain
and
beans
and
put
to
useful
seeds,
cane-sugar
some
is
50
and
sap
sap
cork,
in the
part
or
midst
for rubber
Every
is both
tein
pro-
harvesting.
wood,
plant
stems,
seed,
oil, or
of
or
the
leaves, flowers,
For
products.
hay
the
stem,
as
forage,
roots,
roots,
are
the
for sugar.
use;
all furnish
are
for
stems
adjustment
sugar,
producing
takes
he
the
manifestations
the
cell-walls,such
times
get immature
turpentine,
blossoms,
dead
of
is vitally interested.
man
starch,
in
energy
pounds,
com-
species.
sometimes
stored
gather
part
some
than
the
plant,
roots,
it is just the
straw;
plant
of the
it is the
in
more
perpetuate
products
Sometimes
or
to
preserve
to
needs, and
greater
plant
tissue-building
products
of
to
Power
into
nothing
are
struggle
them
gleness
Sin-
of the
it attempts
existence.
these
time
surroundings
of the
for
ting
is,of transmit-
organization
the
in which
ways
struggle
storage
to
show
to
seems
some
generation.
another
to
All their
toward
or
species,that
the
simple
are
such.
to have
production
seed
toward
characteristics
life and
and
be said
can
continuing
of
means
complexity, plants
their
Notwithstanding
FACTORY
AS
PLANT
THE
stem
example,
and
perfumery
is made
product.
Drugs
leaf,
of
and
The
stimulants, such
from
Plant
as
Factory
as
substances known
as
51
quinine,come
in
be found
part.
any
38.
If only
Interdependence of plants and animals.
the earth,then the provisionof nature
plants were
upon
for
"
plants to give up
for animals
Animals
to
and
carbon
use
these processes,
and
plants,directly
would
reverse
feed upon
when
oxygen
dioxide and
be useless.
indirectly
; directly
and indirectly
when
plant-eaters,
they are
they are
for the prey of carnivorous animals either
flesh-eaters;
ate
plants, or animals that ate plants. On the other
hand, decayed bones, flesh,and manure
restore
to the
soil and air substances upon which the plants feed either
directlyor indirectly
plant-foodis at once
; directlywhen
taken from the broken-down
tissues,and indirectlywhen
these decaying substances promote the growth of soil bacteria
which take atmosphericnitrogen
and make compounds
that the plant absorbs.
Soil devoid of organicmatter
is almost useless
decaying plant and animal substance
It can
of its being compact.
hold water
account
on
for only a short time ; air and heat cannot
pass through
it readily.
Many
plants requirelimestone soils for development.
Part of the limestone ledges supplying lime is composed
largelyof shells of small animals that extracted lime from
in which they lived. These animals probably
the water
released as
fed on
water
plants,and breathed oxygen
of nature, plants
In the economy
by plant processes.
"
"
and
animals
39.
need
Dependence
each other.
of
man
on
plants.
"
Since
animals
Principlesof Agronomy
The
52
such
entirelyas
salt, comes
as
from
made
Cloth
as
Furthermore,
plantcontributions.
are
plantsas
or
are
bark
the skin
of
raiment
the
tropicalsavage;
are
made
Modern
of skins.
or
and
built of wood
dwellingplaceswere
Formerly, most
leaves
and
animals
or
is
forestryindicates that
to
an
effort to
far back
Moreover,
if not
making
rock, and
brick-clay,some
Especiallyis this
part.
true
an
as
organicprocess
preserve
in the
realizes
man
his timber
sources.
re-
history of cement,
some
exist,since others
from
Attention
this and
and
Furniture
cases.
wherever
well
as
carbonate
limestone
somewhere
pounds
com-
have
sulted
re-
in the chain
of
carbon
originalsource
not
all substances
such
gas.
used
the
photosynthesiswas
only of all carbonate products,but of
wood, coal,petroleum,and natural
as
of these materials yieldsheat energy
dioxide
Combustion
used
iii
warm
Animals
drawers
themselves
of loads.
are
Horses
direct bearers
of burdens
pull tillageimplements
and
and
The
haul
farm
burros
carry
wagon
and
herds;
Plant
products
goods
locomotive.
cats
and
bees and
Factory
market
to
and
man
as
Horses
53
in
regionsinaccessible to
and dogs assist in tending
and
sects;
in-
other
essential in education
and
in national
and
of paper
or
cloth,both plant
products. Medicines, dyes, and chemicals are supplied
in part by plants. Finally, more
peopleearn their living
by the culture of plants and the rearingof animals than
made
artistic well-being,
are
live in and
cannot
pursuit. Plainly,man
of hunself ; he must be fed,clothed,warmed, and sheltered
Since he cannot
dispensewith plants,
from the weather.
by
any
let him
40.
other
not
Domestication.
civilized
savages
them.
scorn
were
do.
savages,
Wild
When
"
the
they lived
tender
shoots
sufferingto
some,
while
those
in better
provided areas
Principlesof Agronomy
The
54
Stern necessitydrove
less disturbed.
were
creatures
useful, the
were
savage
subjectionby
brought under
fire and make
most
machines
alone
who
man
throw
to
as
Originally,
If they
native haunts.
brutes were
gradually
from
came
mestica
do-
animals
to
man
arrows
or
could
stones.
use
Weaker
than
animals
many
and
relatives
are
still in the
fields.
Wild
disappeared. Plants
have
came
doubtless
be
found
varieties appear,
41.
Plant
are
many
that
would
useful
not
serve
yet known
man,
and
could
as
new
plantswill be developed.
of kinds of subHundreds
stances
compounds.
found in plants. Some of these man
finds useful
"
So closelyrelated
use.
appropriatesfor his own
these compounds that they may
be included in eight
are
(1) water, (2) carbohydrates, (3) proteins,(4)
groups:
inal
ash, (5) fats and oils,(6) aromatic substances, (7)medicand
(8) acids. In importance the last
properties,
and
three rank
be
far below
even
these
are
not
neglected.
42. Flavors, perfumes, and
other characteristic odors,
such as lemon, mint, and rose-water, have various uses.
to
The
Flavors
of
Carbon,
and
Plant
fruit and
hydrogen,
arrangement
as
nuts
and
55
distinguishthem.
to
serve
in
oxygen
various
'
quantities
these substances.
compose
and stimulants,such
Factory
The
drugs
quinine,
morphine,strychnine,and
usuallycontain nitrogenin addition; while the acids of
fruits,such as malic acid in apples and tomatoes, citric
acid
as
in citrus-fruits and
tartaric acid
and
currants,
in
consist of carbon,
grapes,
three
classes of
These
hydrogen, and oxygen.
compounds promote palatability,
give
variety,increase healthfulness,or
rather than
system
43.
Water
weight
serve
of green
constructive
as
from
composes
60
plants. (1)
content
keeping the
solvent
which
stimulate
It forms
carries mineral
90
to
of the
cent
rigid; (2) it
salts and
nervous
foods.
per
the
acts
as
distributes elaborated
of
plant-foods
; (3) it regulates the temperature
from root to
stream
plants by maintaining a constant
leaf where
heat, reduces
evaporation,which uses much
the temperature
to
normal.
In
the animal
The
extra
increases
body,
succulence
water
caused
Dry
palatability.
oxygen
water
to
from
80
made
from
cellulose
the
seem
water
in the
occur
tissues.
and
carbon
sugar
sugar-cane
Cellulose makes
dioxide.
up
is the
usual
form
the
of storage,
form, though in
is ordinarilythe temporary
of the storage compounds.
and sugar-beetsit is one
When
carbohydrates
and
are
heat
digested by
energy
and
man
may
and
be
The
56
made
combustion
sugars
as
into fat.
of the muscle,
ligaments,and
in the
cells
uses
connective
these
Slow
tissue.
foods.
part
Starch
and
are
crude
Principlesof Agronomy
it furnishes
eats
meat
to supply
composition. Man
these needs because plantsare not usually rich in nitrogenous
these in direct
substance.
Animal
bodies
must
first get
them
from
in storage. Leaves,
plants which contain them
embryo of seeds,and a layer of cells justbeneath the seedrich in nitrogen. Leguminous plants are much
coat
are
richer in proteinthan grasses or cereals ; and legume seed,
such as peas and beans, are composed largelyof protein
and vital;
Proteins, then, are both scarce
compounds.
they cost about three times as much as carbohydrates if
ordinary pricesare considered.
46. Ash
to several,
comprises from a fraction of one
but usually less than 2 per cent, of the dry matter.
It
is scattered through the plant as stone
cells of the stem
and leaf,in the cell-sap
to promote
osmosis, and in the
into the
protoplasm itself. A small quantity enters
composition of protein. It is called ash because it remains
after burning. Animals
this mineral,
so
concentrate
in the bones and teeth,and use it in smaller proportions
in blood
47.
and
and
flesh.
oils
are
The
58
the
caused
Principlesof Agronomy
important reaction
most
This
knoAvn.
is
whole
Fig.
15.
Apparatus
"
Without
of time
would
green
showing
plants,it
until life'could
die and
these would
not
animals
use
up
essential is sunshine,which
of the
aeration
would
exist
would
be
on
feed
(After Detmer.)
leaf.
simply
earth.
upon
First
them.
matter
plants
ually
Grad-
then die.
only enables
it into clouds
but vaporizeswater, lifting
Equally
plantsto grow,
which
return
The
the water
Plant
as
it run
rain, letting
as
Factory
down
59
hillsideand hollow.
In this
is,has
yet been
not
Plants
"
"
"
into flesh,
to
find the
and
of their tissues.
50.
Storage.
besides
"
Man
eat;
and
hence
other animals
they
eat
must
do
quantity and
thing
some-
gain
Principlesof Agronomy
The
60
energy
reserve
to
carry
on
stored food.
Should
meal.
and
the followingmeal
tillthe next
them
waste
and
away
starvation results.
in the plant when
Something quite similar to this occurs
During the fruitingperiod,plants use
storage is made.
it. Perhaps
food more
rapidly than they manufacture
to say that the plant moves
be more
accurate
it would
the food,
or
leaf.
in
of storage
seed, root,
When
or
sugar
The
in
the
At
is almost
whether
stem.
is first made
composed
be laden
of starch.
in beans.
Here
it remains
cell seems
Plastid
to
be
until translocation
Much
can
the seed
so
stored
oil,supposedly
on
in
given
space.
Embryos
are
energy
rich in
this account.
depositit as
The
vacuoles
when
the
concentrated
found
are
Plant
Factory
61
cell-sapdries,leaving the
remain
to
as
dissolved.
Less
too
sugar
soluble
sugars
in storage than
This
sap.
Harvest.
advances
Plants
"
in
vary
composition
as
age
because
one
know
almost
for what
what
he
and
devoid
he wishes
of it at another.
the
plant. He
wants
bloom
part.
in the soft
or
nearly mature.
Wheat
makes
Man
must
also know
must
best hay at
Beets
and
carrots
yield roots
at
the end
of the first year, but seed only at the end of the second.
It is rather generalfor stems, roots, and leaves to lose food
material
rapidlyas the
They
not
or.
plants advance
shell out
biennials
the tops
are
are
or
legume be
way
as
not
by shattering. When
to
cut
when
rich in delicious,digestible
food.
be cured in such
must
leachingwith rain
the
seed forms.
maturity.
Care
to lose value
seed
that
by
is desired,
seed
does
the second.
Fruit
is picked when
full
enough to be delicious,
yet when firm
enough to withstand handling. Cotton is picked after
the bolls break, but before the lintweathers from the seed.
it is in the
Man
cuts short the life of the plant when
grown
and
condition
at
once
mature
that
Principlesof Agronomy
The
62
ally,by air
or
Considerable
of the
Control
52.
gained more
More
and
better machines,
largefields within
any
have
and
has
given him
within
short
two
or
time.
;
timothy.
larger hayfields. Some
control
to
power
vanced,
ad-
over
ture.
na-
tively,
effec-
propelledmore
harvest
be
Orchard-grass must
timothy may be mown
three weeks.
chosen to grow
much
more
enormous
an
within
time
civilization has
As
"
man
have
cut
harvest.
know
must
American
shell
more
farmers
to
tend
easily
If
others;
some
potato
varieties
man
the
action ;
He
plant world.
set
may
and then, at the rightmoment,
certain
forces
in
gather a harvest
The
in
superior
yield
"
God
And
fruitful,
it
moveth
"
it
aod
have
fowl
And
in
tree,
shall
them
multiply,
God
said,
which
which
is
for
air,
and
Plant
Physiology,
Chemistry
Plant
of
is
Chemistry
Principles
of
of
Plant
less
diligent
earth,
fish
of
and
the
living
every
Be
them,
unto
the
the
have
the
upon
fruit
of
given
you
face
of
tree
yielding
i. 28,
(Genesis
the
due
suband
sea,
that
thing
herb
every
earth,
seed
and
every
to
29).
PART
ON
botany.
B.
M.
Duggar,
C.
Agriculture,
Physiology,
said
the
over
Behold,
meat"
of
textbook
God
over
REFERENCES
Any
his
earth.
seed,
be
63
of
replenish
and
the
the
that
to
and
dominion
of
Factory
says:
blessed
upon
bearing
Bible
and
the
over
as
quality
and
The
neighbors.
Plant
Jost,
L.
and
Irrigation
W.
pp.
Animal
Practice,
250-279.
pp.
Stoddart,
pp.
50-106.
102-190.
Life,
J.
A.
Harry
Widtsoe,
Snyder,
pp.
pp.
216-230.
175-234.
you
CHAPTER
WHAT
The
but
soil
is
the
most
the
world.
basis
of
and
yet
common,
The
fact
for
possible
that
entire
places where
the
get
all
of
human
the
this
precious,
of
soil is scanty
It
the
the
covers
makes
globe
almost
is
in
thing
blanket
productive
area
agriculture,
prosperity.
most
living
IS
foundation
land
to
man
SOIL
the
only
the
practically the
in
THE
not
it is also
VI
it
but
anywhere;
dwellings of
man
are
few.
53.
Definition.
earth's
from
and
of the
in
nature
from
scarcely
Some
organic
soils
some
are
rich
some
are
low
of
some
soluble
fact
that
thing, but
The
begun,
in
rich
in
in
varies
which
of
feet, and
weathering
which
on
almost
composed
soil
tirely
en-
This
is called
have
be
required by plants
foods
but
elements
practically
salts.
soil may
rock
of
sary
neces-
surface
land
hundreds
to
all the
certain
soils in arid
may
layer of soil,
muck
to
entire
foods
roots
matter.
are
what
the
of the
their
for
certain
secure
inches
fragments
from
of
with
few
to
material
home
Almost
growth.
is covered
earth
thickness
able
are
loose
find
plants
they
their
in
while
which
which
for
has
in
crust
soil is the
The
"
of
all
the
regions contain
"
soil
almost
"
any
considered
67
is
by
necessary
no
the
foods
makes
clear
means
composition
as
others
quantities
excessive
variation
great
in
deficient
waste
or
the
definite
structure.
heap
of
na-
Principlesof Agronomy
The
68
everything eventually
make
to
of minerals
and
remains
soils.
of
destroyed
The
"
and
the
thrive.
plantsmay
soil cannot
the
from
removed
or
rocks
brought together
are
in which
of it a home
Permanence
54.
of all kinds
Fragments
remixed
and
it is mixed
be
earth.
lutely
abso-
It will
fall,but
soil will
the
of producing food.
means
remain
It may
be
ever-present
an
abused
and
have
its fertility
lessened,but it cannot
be entirelydestroyed ;
and, if left to the reviving action of nature, it will in time
have
restored.
part of its lost fertility
55.
The soil is at
importance of the soil.
foundation, not only of agriculture,but of all
Economic
"
the very
welfare.
human
he
would
should
be
The
industries of
left without
food
and
railroads would
clothingif
Mines
and
cease,
the
would
soil
close,
to
cease
would
man
stop
Since livestock
maintained
are
by
crops,
on
the
the
Conservation
resources,
the
Forests may
will continue
of ages
one
grow
of
most
the
in need
in the
work
"
"
Of
all the
of conservation
lifetime
after he is gone
of nature's
soil.
of man,
when
is the soil.
and
"
national
waterfalls
the product
depleted, can
be
re-
the
What
newed
only
at
great
the
therefore,
Weed
57.
of
tilled
are
by
of
of
and
as
of
of
date
based
do
of
on
of
this
would
of
handling
information
country
its
soils
to
of
soil,
than
and
tillers
factors
exist.
to
are
other
out
methods
greatly
of
was
plants,
soils
add
welfare
the
little
known
while
methods.
the
handling
founded
tions.
genera-
food
account
soils
rule,
but
the
to-day
the
soils.
best
when
or
of
adopted,
to
the
into
are
productivity
of
take
take
under-
previous
be
time
its
As
from
servation
con-
to
"
soils
not
Since
importance
ways
of
well
if
farming.
the
at
methods
not
are
of
fertility
not,
may
which
which,
greater
better
they
nation
any
down
nature
present
and
profits
of
the
known
are
real
production
crop
Many
of
the
important
management.
devised
were
result,
or
69
most
for
the
handed
may,
them
known
soil
better
methods
These
Most
of
preservation
Is
The
expense.
movement,
is
Soil
to
the
the
nations
nothing
could
be
discovery
of
the
the
of
prompt
the
land.
is
semination
dis-
VII
CHAPTER
from
largely
of the
rocks
the
earth
of
up
of which
material
Thk
FORMATION
AND
ORIGIN
in
but
vegetable
soil is made
the
soils
some
is
which
matter
intimately mixed
tell in all
It is difficult to
which
and
weathering
mixing
of
since
often
the
organic
of
matter.
of rock
from
of
amount
great
it almost
causes
plants.
dead
mineral
the
crust
is made
part
cases
soil is derived,
given
with
derived
the
quantity
certain
been
bodies
the
has
considerable
from
matter
SOILS
composing
minerals
and
OF
to
lose
its
be
defined
original identity.
Minerals
58.
as
solid
any
substance
and
nature,
having
and
be
may
made
of
minerals
Elements
united
rocks
and
59.
rocks
occurs
been
going
has
been
mica.
in
"
for
to
it is
mineral
the
kinds
content.
compounds
of minerals
form
are
compose
soils.
It is probable
in the
that
every
ing
soil,since weathersince
every
weathering
action
has
70
with
contains
and
ages,
rock
usually
Different
their
aggregates
in
position
com-
associated
which
compounds;
somewhere
exposed
rock
and
minerals.
on
but
minerals
disintegrate to
mineral
has
form
minerals
Soil-forming
known
that
form
of
is
chemical
crystalline form.
considerably
to
may
origin, occurring
single mineral;
feldspar,
vary
unite
to
definite
Granite
quartz,
granites
inorganic
aggregate
an
mineral
practically definite
of
impurities.
some
of
usually
"
of
a
composed
up
rocks.
and
mineral
been
car-
Origin and
Formation
minerals
soil-forming
of Soils
71
or
main
the
spars,
following: quartz, the feldhornblende and pyroxene,
mica, chlorite,talc and
serpentine,the zeolites,
calcite,dolomite, gypsum,
tite,
apaare
which
Both
Quartz
makes
silicon and
minerals, and
composed
Hornstone
oxygen
are
are
found
present in
61.
soda,
of
great many
rocks.
most
of quartz, which
soils contain
is almost
other
Quartzite is
in
together.
opal are
more
than
entirelyinsoluble.
The
or
alumina.
They
over
Hornblende
are
21
and
per
cent.
pyroxene
are
of nearly the
same
Principlesof Agronomy
The
72
elements
with
quartz in mica
however,
Chlorite
is
associated minerals.
It
iron.
and
alumina
forms
granitesand gneisses,
mica, are usually excellent
silicate of
soil of
usually forms
from
of their feldsparand
account
64.
rich in
when
even
abundantly
most
occurs
schist which
poor
on
It
unavailable.
food
is similar,but inferior,
to
schist.
hornblende
and
Talc
The
zeolites proper
not
are
crystallization.
in the course
of
but are formed
originalrock ingredients,
rock decomposition by the atmosphere, heated
water,
and
other
a
agents. Although zeolites rarely form
large proportion of the rock-forming minerals, they are
of
water
of interest because
of
of the
of the processes
some
continuation
within
the
soil
their formation
common
cementing materials for
They are
holding together sand grains.
eral,
66. Calcite, or lime, is an important soil-formingminwhich is but slightlysoluble in pure water, although
in
rocks.
much
in the presence
readily by acids.
more
so
dissolved
from
water;
hence
times.
many
is
much
of marine
exceptions.
rich
old
on
that
fresh water
directlyfrom
dissolved
saying
country," has,
and
It is
partly
comes
of lime
of it has been
The
dioxide.
Limestone
partly by concretions
animals
country
framework
of carbon
''
and
A
itated
precip-
limestone
few
Principlesof Agronomy
The
74
form
leached
blue-grassregion
is
an
soils
Sandstone
this way.
richest soils.
of the very
some
tucky
Ken-
The
example
of soil formed
often
but
are
poor,
in
this depends
grains together.
Claystone soils are usually rich in plant-foodmaterial,
Hardtoo
but are
heavy for the best growth of crops.
of alkali accompanies
where
formed
excess
an
are
pans
cementing the
material
the
on
the clay.
chemical
various
known
formation.
formed
are
decay
rock
important of these
cold, (2) water, (3) ice, (4)
most
and
(1) heat
agenciesare:
Soils
physical agencies of
and
weathering. The
as
"
and
the minerals
from
soil
of
Methods
71.
Their action
(5) plants and animals.
mechanical
and chemical, the mechanical
causing
the
and
of the materials.
agents
source
organisms
and
are
of the
rain,
source
to
the
about
as
the heat
cold
rock
weather
and
to
This
which
in
back
weathering
masses.
and
All of the
of energy
for the earth.
Wind,
all directlydependent on this
are
In addition
of heat.
"
be ultimately traced
may
the
sun,
cold.
and
of heat
Action
72.
rock.
This
the water
comes
9 per
allows
cent
to
rock-masses
of
water
of its volume.
powder
Thus,
which
assist in the
into soil.
to
When
enter.
break
cold
freezes,and, in freezing,
expands
charges
heated, causing
This
nature
are
constant
widens
uses
the crevice
heat
and
cold
charged
constantly being diseffort to
crumble
the
Formation
Origin and
73.
and
Action
chemical
Fig.
16.
"
of
water.
action
Streams
wear
is
perhaps
gorges,
Water
"
of Soils
through
the
grinding
rocks
In mountain
most
into
75
its
physical
important of
fine
particles.
torrents, bowlders
raspingin
their ceaseless
Principlesof Agronomy
The
76
and
time
scattered
are
as
over
Columbia
of the
gorges
places, are
thousands
of abrasive
action.
of
rolling bowlder
is
in the
which
particles,
into countless
ground
the
meantime,
the
In
stream.
bottom
The
rivers,which,
Colorado
of feet deep,
of
course
land.
of
acres
many
and
the
out
gouge
in
good examples
are
is carried
Mississippi River
annually carries
into the Gulf of Mexico
a 640
acre
enough earth to cover
mense
field 286 feet deep. In addition to this, it deposits imquantitiesof silt along the lowlands above its
mouth.
Effects of water
action are
shown
in Figs. 16
The
downstream.
and
17.
abilityof
The
as
a
water
exert
and
considerable
action
the grade of
as
varies,there
water
also
pounding,
constant
in loosening
rocks, especially
shiftingsmall fragments.
Water
dioxide which
the
sea-shore
up
and
74.
and
great
Ice.
"
sand
move
down,
out
universal
by
soil.
and
their
Waves
of
in
and
Its power
of carbon
tides
other materials
continuous
while
along
"
in and
pounding
out,
often
caverns.
In
mountainous
countries,where
solvent.
wash
on
is called nature's
to dissolve is
tons
varies
reloading of transported
their
Rains, by
materials.
and
unloading
constant
stream
is
suspended material
to carry
of these
slidingand
slides often
rollingsnow
are
of
common
contains
and
moves
there
is
rence.
occur-
thousands
of
everything
its way.
Trees, rocks, and all kinds of debris are
below to be taken out by swollen
jammed into the canons
streams.
Origin and
Ice in the form
Formation
of Soils
77
Fig.
17.
"
Soils
are
of
and
a
the rock
very
over
which
moved
many
times
before being
production.
is ground into
the glaciermoves
resultingfrom
the Aar glaciercarries
suspension daily. The
streams
for crop
away
280
tons
of solid matter
Justedal, which
covers
an
in
area
78
of 820
square
miles, discharges on
besides the
of sediment
tons
Principlesof Agronomy
The
'
Vatnajokullglacierin
summer's
material
Iceland
day
in solution.
1968
The
dischargesannually about
of earth.
14,763,000 tons
babies when
These
compared
apparent
with
are
Asia.
and
of glacial
origin,
all
The
different in structure
very
from
regions
potentialplant-
tilth.
Glacial soils
those formed
slower process
of disintegration.
They are
In the northern
to considerable depth.
by the
form
usually unipart of the
United
'a
part
soils of these
fertilein
very
are
the northern
over
States and
American
over
ice sheet.
to
atmosphere.
The
oxygen
and
carbon
"
The
dioxide.
The
in
softened.
are
Feldspar,
in the presence
Plants
breaking up
and
rocks
animals
and
join with
mellowing
other
atmosphere.
agencies in
soils. Some
of
the
of
plants are
of Soils
79
able to
Classification
of
soils.
"
Soils may
be
classified
are
addition
sometimes
to
which
it was
formed.
classification according to
origin,soils
composition.
The
80
they
which
and
them,
of
method
of
the
all
number
the
suited,
are
Agronomy
soils,
which
Lyon,
Pippin,
Soils,
E.
Hilgard,
Any
W.
textbook
of
Agricultural
The
Soil,
The
Soil.'A.
Cyclopedia
Physics
P.
H.
King,
D.
Hall,
of
of
American
Agriculture,
particles
their
value.
READING
and
Buckman,
1-82.
pp.
1-62.
pp.
H.
or
W.
Wiley,
geology.
pp.
1-60.
1-69.
pp.
6-31.
pp.
Agriculture,
F.
H.
King,
Vol.
pp.
I,
49-68.
pp.
324-342.
crops
composing
Any
should
however,
affect
physiography
Analysis,
of
properties.
SUPPLEMENTARY
Soils,
ithe
them,
on
size
other
of
classifying
factors
of
growing
vegetation
native
the
Principles
take
adequate
account
to
The
82
Principlesof Agronomy
the
"
"
to
soil texture.
"
States
various
It
is
PhysicalPropertiesof
soil type must
depend
various sizes.
The
mixtures
(1) coarse
83
on
terms
the Soil
most
commonly
used
of these
for these
are
Relation
of texture
to
water-holding capacity.
Of the propertiesof soils affected by texture, probably
is of greater practicalimportance than the waternone
"
With
why
coarse
such
follows
clay soil
sand
as
will
hold
may
45
per
scarcelyhold
cent
15 per
of water
The
cent.
of this fact is
when
Soil structxire.
"
Structure
as
refers to
sticks may
standing
under-
see
of
the
the arrangements
be
be
box in various ways, so the soil grainsmay
different arrangements.
Sticks may
numerous
piled in a
grouped in
be piled
Principlesof Agronomy
The
84
in
particlesmay,
groupings. The
the sticks.
between
of air space
volume
fitted
and
way
The
same
soil
different
have many
similar manner,
sizes of particles
numerous
present in
a
complex arrangement
possible. The grains may be wedged tightlytogetherso
be flocculated
that air is almost
excluded, or they may
soil make
every
into
even
more
loose-fitting
groups
with
an
considerable
air
space
between.
The
soil,known
extending
such
but
in
it cannot
condition exists,
where
structure
How
the
only when
82.
direction
every
in
to
modify
structure.
coarse-grainedsoil cannot
always fairlygood; but
The
"
structure
of
be greatlyaffected,since it is
with
is
clay, constant
care
to
prevent its becoming puddled. Many
a
necessary
farmer has learned through sad experience that he can,
a
by cultivating
clay soil when too wet, so injurethe tilth
that several years are required to get the soil back into
good condition.
The
that
most
structure
causes
common
of
soil is affected
of soil
movement
factors
are
the
by almost everything
particles. Among the
Physical Propertiesof
Fig.
18.
"
Hardpan
in arid
soil three
the Soil
feet
below
85
surface.
The
86
Principlesof Agronomy
nate
growth of roots, (3) freezingand thawing, (4) alterwetting and drying, (5) organicmatter, (6) soluble
The tilth is the
salts,(7) animal life,and (8) storms.
of these factors,
action of a number
result of the combined
the
all of which
hail,and
Specificgravity
83.
soils.
of
"
carbonate.
weight of
The
like
storms
soil
may
spaces.
"
as
heavy
"
"
be
air is necessary
to the
growth of all plants,it is impossibleto have a fertile soil
84.
Air
in
the
soil.
"
Since
through which
and plant roots
in germinating,
without
spaces
air
in
can
circulate.
Seeds
growing,requireoxygen
which
while carbon
dioxide is given off.
is absorbed
The decay of organic matter
and forms
requiresoxygen
carbon dioxide,which
acctunulates in the soil-air with
If the condition of the soil
the depletionof oxygen.
does not favor the free movement
of air,the oxygen supply
becomes
reduced to the point where plant growth is
soon
retarded.
The
aeration of the soil is dependent on its
number
of other
a
texture, structure, drainage, and
sand air moves
factors. In a coarse
readily,but in a clay,
is slow.
especiallyif compact, the movement
Puddling
87
its
flocculating
particlesinto groups
of
promotes the ready movement
air. The size of particlescannot
be changed, but their
is affected by plowing and harrowing,which
arrangement
thereby indirectly
influence aeration.
A water-loggedsoil usually has its producing
power
reduced by lack of oxygen;
and the free circulation of
air,resultingfrom placingtile drains under such a soil,
is in part responsiblefor the increased yields following
drainage. The beneficial nitrifyingand nitrogen-fixing
bacteria of the soil requirean abundant
supply of oxygen
for their best growth, and. their action is practically
discontinued
when
the air supply is reduced
below
a
certain point. In sotae
soils the aeration may
be so
great as to result in the loss of excessive quantitiesof
water.
This condition,however, is rarelymet, and may
be remedied
in most
cases
by packing.
85.
is
Heat
of the
soil.
important because
of seeds and
effect
soil. When
the
action
temperature
of its influence
on
the
of the
changes
and
is reduced.
The
bacterial action
the later it is
earlier
kept warm
soil
germination
The
chemical
on
chemical
on
"
of its
in the
and
all
soil is warmed
in the fall,
have considerable
longer is its growing-season. This may
importance in regionswhere earlycrops
practical
is so short
bring the best pricesand where the season
that crops do not fullymature.
Soil heat comes
largelyfrom the sun, the rays of which
effective when
most
are
strikingperpendicularly.A
south slope,therefore,is considerablywarmer
than one
than
warmer
facingthe north, and a sandy soil is much
it slow to
heat of water
makes
clay. The high specific
soil is usually late in
and as a consequence,
a wet
warm,
Principlesof Agronomy
The
88
sive
startingthe growth of plants in the spring. The excesture.
evaporation from a wet soil also reduces its temperaand a
heat, tillage,
Such factors as color,specific
of others play a very important r61e in regulating
number
the temperature
86.
The
of
soil.
soil is without
of the
organic matter
doubt
one
of other
physicalproperties
of organic matter, which,
are
improved by the presence
of mineral matter
on
decaying,increases the availability
in the
soil and
hastens
desirable chemical
changes.
Bacteria, which are so important to the soil,could not do
their work without organic matter, since they secure
their
of a soil,
by its decomposition. The fertility
energy
the presence
of organic
therefore,depends as much
on
matter
other factor; and the maintenance
of
as
on
any
include the keeping up of this important
must
fertility
and
temperature,
number
constituent.
87.
matter
Maintaining
organic
matter.
"
The
organic
leaves, and
remains
the
although
stems,
of animals.
going on until
For
ages,
soilshave
accimiulation
has
been
largepercentage of organic
material.
In arid soils, however, where
the growth
of vegetation has been
is
light, the organic content
of the chief problems in the managelow; hence, one
ment
of arid soils is to increase the proportion of organic
some
matter.
Organic
by the addition
of farm manure
and other organic refuse, and
by the
The wise
raisingof crops to be plowed under.
farmer
will,if possible,apply largequantitiesof manure
in order
matter
IX
CHAPTER
WATER
THE
Plants
supply of mineral
they
crops
reflection
of
during
the
often
half
earth's
is
chief
the
while
the
fertile soil.
with
On
at
Origin
of
time
some
That
contained
come
in
it has
by
at
in
on
cannot
save
the
water
amount
crop-yields.
Over
concerned
in
regions, the
excess
cultivation
therefore,
whole,
be
to
more
understood
soil
in
time
than
water.
The
"
precipitated
the
soil of
percolation,
been
the
precipitation
influenced
after
it falls.
of soil water
large
by
area,
of
man,
of moisture
growth;
of
the
connected
of
water
of
water
from
the
atmosphere.
have
may
surface;
dry regions
by
irrigation, or
can
he
he
be
The
region.
but
of moisture
quantity
he
soil.
soil has
therefore, will
but
and
the
the
given field
that
in
water
of otherwise
factor
In
90
than
carefully studied
The
vapor.
of
any
any
available
crop
areas
no
growing-
more
by flooding the
or
soil
be
of vast
The
usually
of
humid
needs
been
some
the
reduces
the
thoroughly
88.
lack
the
agriculture
more
regions, the
of the
soil prevents
is
year
during the
conditions
tillable
is withheld,
function.
to
particular
limiting factor
in parts
if water
food, but
cease
growth.
receiving
without
humid
in
moisture
water
time
and
any
moisture
Even
of the
wilt
soon
very
yield of
season.
require
considerable
for
live
may
outside
any
animals
plants and
All
SOIL
THE
OF
do
may
may
pendent
defall
rain-
much
to
increase
reduce
The
it by
drainagewhen
Water
of the
Soil
91
of the crops.
He may
also increase the efficiency
of the
moisture in the soil by certain tillage
operations.
89.
Variations
moisture
moistvire.
so
day.
to
period.
It seldom
More
The
"
stable
day
short
soil
lime, or
from
in
as
the
to
season
remains
quantity of
phosphorus,
the
season
same
even
and
for
is
90.
The
condition
of the
soil moisture
depends largely
the
91.
Free
with water,
gravity.
water.
a
"
When
the
soil becomes
This
drainage
water.
The
water
due
is known
to the
as
saturated
action of
free,or
itational,
grav-
The
92
Principlesof Agronomy
so
that of
as
below, in which
practicedto
is
rapidly sinks
this
but
water,
it
case
drier soil
Drainage
be free water.
drain
that cannot
remove
the
moisten
to
to
ceases
filled with
has
unaided.
away
Capillary water.
92.
drained
out
of the
is held in
of the
water
field conditions
soils under
has
free water
that
deal of moisture
all the
After
"
great
each
ordinary cultivated
is of this nature,
and
it is
this form
93.
supplies water
Hygroscopic
water.
dust,
may
which
be
when
being heated,
on
condensed
on
part of the
it seems
to
moisture
be dry.
is
Road-
which
give off water
vapor
cold body. This last moisture
called hygroscopic water.
If a
will
a
soil retains is
soil is dried
"
to
completely with
heat
and
then
allowed
to
This
way
stand
much
more
firmly.
It does
capillarywater
not
move
from
is held, only
particleto
The
particleas
does
Water
of the
Soil
93
the
capillarywater.
Hygroscopic water
is of no direct use to plants,since the soil has a greater
attraction for it than have the plants.
94. Other
critical points.
in late
It has been shown
that there are
number
of critical points in the
a
years
tioned.
percentage of soil moisture besides those already menFor example, there is a point at which
plants
wilt. This occurs
there is a small
when
quantity of
in addition
the hygroscopic water.
to
capillarywater
There is another point in the capillary
below which
water
this point the
the movements
slow.
Above
are
very
is much
more
capillarymovement
rapid.
The quantity
95. Quantity of water
in field soils.
of
of moisture found in field soils depends on a number
and
Of these, the amount
conditions.
frequency of
rainfall is perhaps most
irnportant. In arid regions,
the point of saturation, while
the soil is seldom
near
in regions of great rainfall,it is kept constantly wet.
The
is found.
these extremes
Every gradation between
of moisture that a soil will hold depends almost
amount
of organic
and the amount
entirelyon the size of particles
"
"
which
matter
capacity.
its water
contains
more
the
ment
The
it contains.
clay that
than
water
fairlydry really
seems
moist
In
sand.
as
follows
8 per cent
Sand
Silt loam
25
per
cent
Clay
40 per
cent
The
clay
was
able to
sand.
Organic
power
of soils to
much
experiT
one
maximum
finer the
humus
matter,
humus,
retain water.
is desirable.
as
much
as
greatlyincreases
This
is
one
reason
the
the
why
The
94
Methods
96.
of Agronomy
Principles
of
Soil moisture
"
This
soil by weight.
either
based
be
may
the total
on
weight of the soil and water, or on the dry soil alone. For
a
example, if on heating 100 pounds of soil there was
loss of ten pounds, there would be 10 per cent of water
the wet
basis,there being ninety pounds of soil and
on
On the other hand, since ten pounds
ten pounds of water.
is 11.1 per cent of ninety pounds, there would be 11.1 per
in the soil on the dry basis. The quantity
cent of water
97.
also be
may
of soil moisture.
Loss
The
"
that
water
falls
on
can
from
In
the surface.
to
reduce
be necessary
it may
to
sections of excessive rainfall. Too
much
but
minimum,
any
condition
is undesirable, as
erosion.
the
soil open
the rain
as
This
fast
as
increase
it in
run-off under
it is likelyto
loss is diminished
receptivein
and
run-off to
cause
structiv
de-
by keeping
order
that it may
absorb
it falls. Percolation can
be reduced
When
man.
held there
by
some
98.
moisture
until needed
protectingcover
Need
for
is
be
preventing
from
once
as
mulch.
evaporation.
The
plant
that stored in the soil; hence, if
"
The
Water
of the Soil
95
the
Fig.
altitude
19.
all
Reservoir
"
play
consideration
surface
99.
their
free water
With
of the
where
water
depth
of the water-table
is found
In
is known
below
soil, an
cannot
changing water-table
near
important
surface.
is encountered.
roots
irrigationwater.
Drying
the
of preventing loss'
method
water-table
the surface, as
of
storage
part.
is the wetness
quicklyis one
The
for the
digging
as
soil at
the water-table.
have
which
"
of feet in
water
penetrate below
too
water
The
from
some
near
level.
Principlesof Agronomy
The
96
since roots
kills them,
chief
reason
sooner
no
thereby weakening
for draining soils is
heightsduring wet
The
100.
seasons.
of soil-moisture
movements
moisture
the permanent
lower
to
plant. The
to injurious
prevent its rising
to
much
The
effect.
surface tension
particlesof equal
from
is moved
capillarywater
which
to
is free water.
there
wherever
down
due
are
of distinct forces.
number
the
or
entire
the
rises and
water
works
When
thickness.
water
have
not
by force of
the films
make
to
After
on
soil
is removed
is reduced
and
in that direction.
If there
gradual movement
moisture
is evaporation at the surface or if roots remove
from
surface tension,
below, this force of capillarity,
or
there is
draws
water
film water
from
other
present, the
When
parts.
there
is much
is
comparatively rapid ;
but as the soil approaches dryness, it greatly diminishes,
and finallyceases.
A little water
is moved
from place
to place in the soil by what
is known
thermal action.
as
There is an evaporation of water
from one
place in the
soil and a condensing of it in another.
Movements
by
this method
slow and of little importance.
are
101.
Uses
The
of soil water.
of the
principal use
is to supply the needs of plants
soil water
crops cannot
be produced without it. Soil water
also acts as a carrier
of plant food.
The plant can
take up only food that is
movement
"
"
in solution;
water
no
consequently, without
other
food
can
be
obtained.
the chemical
use
Quantity
two
or
of
water
three times
used
as
by
much
amount
proper
Water
of
also increases
in the soil,
making
plants.
"
water
each
plant
day as
CHAPTER
agriculture it is
In
of
CONTROL
THE
"
the
remove
if the
while
by
land
is
is
water
for
of
the
arid
of crops.
use
is
by
to
drainage,
be
may
increased
where
irrigation
adopt
to
necessary
in
precipitation
is accomplished
amount
necessary
done
becomes
scant
This
is
conditions,
it
conserving
it
content
water
the
change
to
this
water,
dry, its
WATER
Where
soil.
available,
not
methods
the
Under
irrigation.
desirable
often
of
excess
SOIL
OF
in
present
water
the
soil
by the methods
of dry-farming.
'
IRRIGATION
103.
in
even
is not
Where
this
condition
irrigation.
figures
This
20
to
method
if he
even
but
with
add
when
great
water
to
this
water
and
arid,
the
of
growth
any
conducting
advantages
many
would
person
it to
cause
He
can
best
during
all
times
are
the
to
In
"
soil
crops.
of
part
the
the
soil
by
shown
are
24.
irrigation
more.
he
of
there
for
advisable
has
could
moisture.
exists
Methods
yet
sufBcient
it is often
time,
soil
regions
humid,
some
moisture
in
the
Increasing
apply
can
water
not
it to
think
begin
at
his
only
one
and
well
as
himself
crop
water
and
at
very
farmer
when
the
advantage
dis-
some
raining
cease
disposal,
have
as
nate
fortuat
can
will,
do
needed,
same
time
The
Fig.
Fig.
20.
21.
"
"
Control
Water
Cement
of Soil Water
being taken
to
lining prevents
the
99
land.
seepage.
Principlesof Agronomy
The
100
time
injuredat the
supposing it to be under
be
might
if it
on
such
another
it from
withhold
by
at
22.
and
in
"
Water
Sources
diverted
from
of
the cost of
are
irrigation
of applying water.
expense
reservoir
supply.
water
running
bed of
it to
fall
all.
streams.
stream
the land
to turn
that
be
with
wisdom.
most
common
for
suitable dam
is to
in rook.
justified
by
are
The
"
of water
water
tunnel
through
rain, even
control, would
the farmer's
came
The
water.
the disadvantages of
Among
Fig.
as
is found
irrigation
is placed across
the
The
head
carries
of such
The
canals
is sometimes
other times
Control
of
Water
miles from
many
the land to be
Soil
101
is along the
irrigated
banks
at
of
the stream.
Where
irrigationwater
river,only part of the water
Fig. 23.
"
good
type
of weir
is secured
can
directlyfrom
for measuring
irrigation
season
water.
of
order
are
to
make
built.
more
These
water
at
times
when
it is
Principlesof Agronomy
The
102
As
cropping season.
less plentiful,
becomes
land is taken up and water
more
for accomplishing
storage usually increases and methods
pumping of
it become
complex and thorough. The
is rapidly
from wells for irrigation
underground water
being used
not
increasingin
as
land
Fig.
and
24.
"
trouble.
"
are
the
two
Artesian
water.
"
Irrigationwater,
should
be measured.
to guess
instead of
is often
water
led
has
to
used
use
measurements
of water
and
principaldevices
weir and
the current
to
as
In the past
taking accurate
for
irrigation.
endless
with the
making
crops,
This
measurements.
The
of
the custom
it has been
of
sections.
many
Measurement
105.
well
and
disputes and
for those
cerned
con-
expressingquantities.
for
"
measuring flowingwater
meter.
With
the former
The
of water
the
many
in most
ones
acre-foot.
103
its cross-section,
and
from
these
is calculated.
of
ways
expressingquantitiesof water,
common
use
second-foot
are
the second-foot
represents
cubic
one
and
the
foot
of
"
twelve
hours
106.
Methods
methods
Fig.
of
25.
"
of
applying water.
applying water
Irrigation
exactly an
water
to
The
"
land
acre-foot.
are
being distributed
four
principal
by furrow
method.
soak
used
of not
on
the
crops
water
ground between
that
are
is
run
the
in furrows
intertilled and
It
rows.
This
has
and allowed
can
well be
the advantage
reduces
evapora-
Principlesof Agronomy
The
104
tion greatly as
of water
can
and
labor
more
is
required.
only on
is used
land with an
even
slope. Overhead-irrigation
for lawns and gardens, but is never
practiced on a large
the high cost of installing
scale.
Its disadvantages are
the large evaporation. It has the advantage of
and
the surface in a condition
supplying water
evenly over
similar to rain that leaves the air as well as the soil damp.
is practicedby filling
Sub-irrigation
deep ditches on
and allowingit to soak
the sides of the field with water
through the soil and saturate the sub-soil without wetting
the surface.
It may
also be distributed through underground
is probably the most
pipes. The latter method
economical
of using water, since it reduces evaporaway
tion
bakes
in
to
minimum.
The
107.
can
be
used
of
amount
considerable
condition, and
crusted
extent,
water
to
use
the amount
on
will
available.
will apply
depend,
to
As
supply,most
than
or
more
by the applicationof
manure
Crops
same
vary
crop
in their water
does
in all climates
taken
requirements,and
requirethe same
quantity
not
and
into account
on
in
determining how
twelve
more
the
inches.
than
extra
water.
The
this amount
water
feet of water
crops
yield
be
is used, but
is probably
much
more
the
of water
factors must
to
be
use.
if the rainfall is
may
even
as
niuch
as
slightlyincreased if
the cost of applying
than
the
increased
The
106
Principlesof Agronomy
If
soil is deep
are
retentive,a few heavy irrigations
usuallybetter
than many
but, on a shallow, sandy soil,
light ones;
and
it is necessary
to apply water
much
water
can
go without
their roots
Deep-rooted crops
longer than those keeping
the surface.
Under
a
near
often.
farmer
to have
be used
number
on
one
crop
one
for
it may
require the irrigationstream
small part of the season, leavingthe water
to waste
is grown,
only a
at
but
Over-irrigation.
109.
"
time he gets
chance
The
whether
be served
can
on
number
farmer
who
by
of crops..
irrigates
every
not
is as
night and
sleptduring the performance. On being asked why he
interested to stay
not
attended, if he was
sufficiently
awake, he repliedthat he had to go because he had a
bad
largerarea
if it is used
of water
given stream
as
every
ticket.
season
To
to the theater
went
when
irrigate
water, both
not
of which
necessary
is
waste
of time
and
water
precious. Too much
reduces actual yieldsand, in addition,ruins the land by
washing out fertility.It would not be so bad if the
offender alone had to suffer,but his follycauses
injury
to his neighbor located on
lower land by water-logging
the soil and causingalkali to rise. There should be laws
to prevent the excessive use
of irrigation
water.
110.
Need
are
for economy.
"
can
There
is very much
more
be served by the available
water;
the best
water
will
produce
The
times
many
as
much
as
it will if applied to
less
methods
plentiful,
introduced.
farmer, as
in water
As
one.
These
well
will be
to
as
the
distribution
the
107
six
or
of land
acres
available
water
comes
be-
of greater economy
will be
of benefit to the individual
general community.
Economy
prime
requisite.
DRAINAGE
111.
Removing
million
acres
Fig.
excessive
of land
27.
"
"
water.
in the United
Machine
for
There
"
many
containing so
States
digging drainage
are
ditches.
raised there.
be successfully
that crops cannot
of it
while some
Part of this land is in permanent
swamps,
much
water
is
so
fairlydry surface
near
that
roots
appearance,
cannot
but
penetrate
with
to
any
water-logged
land having
ground
water
great depth.
The
108
Principlesof Agronomy
agriculture
The only way to
all such fields is the surplus water.
on
make them suitable for crops is to drain them.
Drainage
practicesare shown in Figs. 27 to 29.
of
arid regions,
In most
much
112.
Removing alkali.
the land contains a high percentage of soluble salts. This
that the growth
in such largequantities
often accumulates
of
of plants is prevented. Drainage is the only method
permanently removing the alkali,which is gradually
The
in the way
chief difficulty
of successful
"
Fig.
28.
"
Draining
an
orchard.
carried away
Much
of the land
by percolatingwaters.
that is at present valueless,on account
of its high alkali
content, would
were
be of excellent
quality if its
excess
salts
removed.
113.
Benefits
of
drainage.
The
The
from
109
dramage promotes
more
desirable
home
for plants. It
warms
the
of crops.
Fig.
crops
29.
"
Drainage
outlet
that
is likely to
clog.
it very decidedly
tilth. All of these
and
improves structure
benefits working together result in a good net profitin
almost every case
It is
where drainage is properlydone.
a
common
experiencethat when twelve or fifteen dollars
an
acre
are
spent in drainage, the value of the land is
increased from twenty-fiveto fiftydollars.
of drainage.
114. Kinds
Any one method of drainage
is not suited to all conditions,nor is it always practicable
that might seem
best. The entire
to employ the method
"
"
set
Principlesof Agronomy
The
110
of conditions
be taken
must
it renders
land
area
The
into small
ditches
open
weeds
and
Some
are
form
the
waste
fields that
of constant
of covered
difficult to
are
the
cuts
get at.
fallingearth and
danger to farm animals.
is usually preferablefor
filled with
become
source
occupied, and
land
drain
With
the covered
drain, a trench
ordinary purposes.
material placed in the bottom
that will
is dug and some
This is later covered with
allow water
to pass through.
earth.
Some
of the materials
used
Installingthe drains.
is to lay out
the
Some
system.
The
"
be used
deciding where
to
for such
drains
tile.
cement
Where
almost
are
The
tile
can
all circumstances.
of instrument
in
tours
determining the conplace the drain lines. A
the proper
depth for the
except
in unusual
good depth.
cases.
Usually about
four
feet is
The
The
bottom
of the ditch
should
111
have
an
grade,
even
there
they
must
is
be
for roots
should
be taken
work
of
would
otherwise
have
to
to
Care
necessary.
tendency
be
the joints of
with
filling
dirt.
The
coveringcan
The
usuallybe done with a team.
outlet should be screened to keep out small water-loving
animals, and should be so constructed that it will not be
easilyclogged.
DRY-FARMING
116.
Scope
of dry-fanning.
More
"
than
half of the
twenty inches
annual
inches
dry-farming.
of annual
It
does
rainfall,has
not
to
come
be
difPer essentiallyfrom
process
of
the
called
any
is directed
available
moisture.
117.
The
question of rainfall.
"
The
total amount
of
Its distribution
only consideration.
time,
throughout the year, the quantity fallingat one
and
the evaporation all modify its effectiveness. In
tion,
some
regionswith a comparatively high total precipitarainfall is not
most
are
the
of the water
harvested.
large percentage
The
112
Principlesof Agronomy
placesthe
at a few times during the
in great torrents
rain comes
In such cases
comparatively littleof the moisture
year.
of it runs
off. The intensity
of
sinks into the soil; most
evaporationis also important, since it so greatlymodifies
the next
when
summer
In other
it is needed.
Hot
regions, with
many
lenge
clear,windy days, chalman's
best effort.
It is difficult to
in the
water
which
store
soil from
times
several
evaporate.
and,
time,
of
the
at
the
same
high humidity
air, the
loss
tively
by evaporationis relalow.
Twelve
in
inches of cipitatio
prewell distributed
a
region of
low
Fig.
30.
"
deep, uniform
adapted
to
soil,well
dry-farming.
would
evaporation,
doubtless
make
dryfarming more
ful
successthan
twenty inches
distribution of rainfall :
and
from October
Cascade
to
March
extends
west
of
the
Sierra
ranges
The
114
hence, it
farm
cannot
Principlesof Agronomy
be used in
soil is at least
Fig. 32,
"
eightor
Plowing
stubble
on
dry-farm.
Fig.
33.
dry-farming is shown
"
large mulching
in
implement
good type
Fig. 30.
used
in
dry-farming
The
119.
Dry-farm
crops.
"
No
given for
the dry-farm. The problem
set
rule
115
can
climatic and
be
soil condition.
OF
JRRICATION
I-
ON
PERCENTACE
OF
PLANT
DIFFERENT
been most
Of
these.
PARTS
SI
i
40
JO.
it
" S(..ll,i
SLeo-ve
!Wo.t".
Fig.
34.
The
amount
of moisture
proportion
wheat
is king.
comes
precipitation
best;
where
but
where
which
of different
the
plant has
affects
the
parts.
In regions where
is severe,
winter-killing
the spring-plantedvarieties
have
rye
Principlesof Agronomy
The
116
been
hot
In
conditions.
important
become
successful
varying
raised with
been
have
most
dry-farm
wide
over
climates, the
that
crops
Fig.
difficult,
up
been
It has
35.
well
grow
Experiments
crops.
field peas,
some
extent.
done
well.
120.
methods
Trees
not
drouth.
extreme
the
Experiment
to
of water
amount
Alfalfa,
used
by
Station.)
for shade
usually it
the
determine
(Utah
Potatoes
Tillage
are
under
smooth
and
sections,but
to
to
has
permits it
which
rows,
been
has
Corn
crops.
being planted in
be cultivated during growth.
of
advantage
depending on
grain-sorghums have
success
of conditions, and
range
and
emmer,
and
fruit
is difficult to
methods.
successful
"
are
grown
get them
the
Though
in all dry-farm
in
some
started.
tillage
same
areas,
most
of
the fundamental
to
Deep
plowing, usually
in
the
is
once
fall,and
in the soil.
considerable
The
117
35.
READING
SUPPLEMENTARY
of Irrigation
Practice, J. A. Widtsoe.
Principles
and Drainage, F. H. King.
Irrigation
F. H. Newell.
Irrigation,
Mead.
Elwood
Institutions,
Irrigation
E. A. Moritz.
Engiiieers,
Working Data for Irrigation
Fortier.
Samuel
Use of Water in Irrigation,
and Pumping, B. P. Fleming.
Practical Irrigation
Drainage, C. G. Elliott.
Practical Farm
Dry-Farming,
Dry-Farming,
J. A. Widtsoe.
Thomas
Shaw.
Campbell.
Vol. I, pp.
Agriculture,
Cyclopediaof American
F. H. King, pp. 286-328.
Physicsof Agriculture,
Soil Culture
Manual, H. W.
U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.
Bulletins
Garden.
138.
263.
Practical Information
266.
371.
399.
of
Irrigation
524.
Tile
for
Beginners in Irrigation.
Grain.
Drainage
on
412-440.
the Farm.
Moisture.
XI
CHAPTER
soil
ago.
From
down
to
thought
be
to
fed
plant-food
known
not
that
theory
organic
carbon
gas
in
was
that
the
control
their
After
is derived
ash
only
real
the
from
function
One
or
growing
known
that
carbon
from
of the
was
humus,
which
the
comes
it
air.
that
became
it
all
period
the
from
that
dioxide
soil, it
the
soil and
how
to
its plant-food.
What
121.
plants
required
obtained
potassium,
and
material
the
other
soil
the
was
held
this
was
it
many
from
comes
long time
that
and
find
part
gators
investisoil that
generally
from
years
times
During
come
food.
plants
air
to
easy
for
furnished
of
the
to
greater
held
rather
the
Romans
in the
oil, and
nitre,
was
and
different
substance.
supposed
matter,
the
idea
single
was
At
few
century,
substance
one
from
Greeks
nineteenth
plants.
was
secured
plants
of
the
a
on
some
fire, water,
and
materials;
plants
food
real
the
find
to
food
their
secure
ancient
the
of
beginning
the
SOIL
comparatively
the
of
time
the
sought
was
until
discovered
not
was
plants
by which
method
The
THE
OF
PLANT-FOOD
from
by
plants
water,
phosphorus,
nitrogen.
from
use
number
chlorine,
by
plants.
Elements
most
from
calcium,
sodium,
in
seven,
come
including
soil.
the
of
and'
are
118
the
Of
"
the
addition
to
soil.
magnesium,
not
used
those
These
are
iron, sulfur,
non-essential
silicon, are
ments
ele-
ten
elements,
also
by
taken
plants
up
in
119
from
the
number
of
taken
are
of
up
All crops
than
of the
one,
Water,
do most
reasons
which
other crops.
This is one,
for practicingrotation.
furnishes
were
from
be
the
and
oxygen
soil. Only
required if its
small
sole function
a
as
carrier
elements
than
the
but only
by
is much
crops
of
The
Soils
greater
method
has
been
largely
of insoluble material of no
food value for plants. The
of actual plant-food in the soil is comparatively
amount
of this
small, but since plants do not use large quantities
food, the supply is sufficient for crop production. Hilgard has compiled in the followingtable a great number
of analysesof typicalsoils.
These analyses show that less than 5 per cent of humid
is
soils is composed of plant-foodand that the remainder
in strong
insoluble even
largelymade
up of material
acid.
In arid soils,the.proportionof plant-foodis somewhat
there, it comprises less than 10
higher,but even
122.
per
"
are
made
up
The
than
matter
organicmatter
that
in humid
in soils of arid
soilsis usuallymuch
higher
Table
"
Chemical
Composition
op
Humid
and
Abid
Soils.
123.
Principlesof Agronomy
The
120
The
Strong
analysis of soils.
the plant-food in
Acid
Hydrochloeic
"
In
Analysis
order
to
determine
sample to a
laboratory,where he analyzes it. He does the sampling
since the accuracy
of the analysisdepends
very carefully,
the accuracy
of the samples. If, for example, he
on
should analyze just the surface inch, his results would not
apply to the lower depths of the soil where roots often
in composition at
feed; frequentlythe soil varies much
these different depths. Again, if the sample should be
taken from a low place containingconsiderable organic
matter,
it would
not
soil,the chemist
takes
pling,
sam-
of
therefore,the chemist takes soil from a number
places in the field and at various depths and mixes all
together in order to get an average
sample for analysis.
After the sample has been
of
prepared, the method
analysisdepends on the information desired. If the total
The
122
Principlesof Agronomy
crops
Table
2.
Mineral
Soil
table,which
following
Foods
by
ee'moved
crop.
the
prom
Crops
Total
Phosphoric
Crop
Acid
21.1
Wheat
Barley
Oats
lb.
19.4
lb.
18.0
lb.
12.3
lb.
hay
clover
Potatoes
The
24.9
lb.
21.5
1b.
33.1
lb.
Turnips
of
20.7
Meadow
Red
Maize
lb.
table shows
quantities
phosphoric acid used by
different crops.
127.
Plant-foods
that
are
scarce.
"
Of
the
ten
ments
ele-
be considered
required by plants,only three may
These
are
as
scarce.
nitrogen,phosphorus, and potassium.
be deficient,
In a few soils calcium and sulfur may
but they are
usually present in sufficient quantities to
crops
for centuries.
Plant-foodof
in order
maintain
to
the Soil
123
the
Exhaustion
of
the
the
soil has
soil.
been
contended
up
that
and
that
been
tion
possibleexhausfor
many
held.
years;
Some
have
impoverished
maintained
the
The
"
discussed
numerous
used
of
be
long before
will not
crops
grow.
the soil is
Others
so
have
by
Losses
surface
the eastern
have
been
in
washing.
In
part of the
leached
material
original
so
of the limestone
some
United
much
areas
of
soil
The
124
Principlesof Agronomy
main
washed
from
the surface.
130.
Plant-food
organic
in
matter.
The
"
organic
of the
matter
available
the mineral
matter
of the soil.
,
131.
Relation
order that
of plant-food to
soil may
value
of
be valuable, it must
soil.
have
"
In
ample
the only
supply of plant-food; but this is by no means
Farmers
sometimes
submit
consideration.
a small sample
of soil to a chemist with the request that he analyze it
and
tell what
knowing
Those
who
are
an
familiar
that it is impossibleby
merely
READING
3-46.
CHAPTER
MANURES
Plants
AND
mineral
the soil in
foods.
balanced
are
FERTILIZERS
of various
may
XII
if any
These
condition
an
available
should
be
one
present
in order that
congenial environment.
of these
supply
in
the plants
Crop yields
elements
necessary
is
in
if all
exceptionallysmall quantities. Even
other conditions
of
favorable, the producing power
are
soils could be materially increased by simply changmost
ing
the available supply of one
elements.
The
two
or
addition of a fertilizer may
effect this readjustment.
Where
land and
raised continuously on
moved
recrops are
each year, a certain amount
of plant-foodis carried
An unreplenisheddeposit of money
in the bank,
away.
how
ually
matter
no
large,will in time be exhausted if contindrawn
be
The
out.
plant-foods in the soil may
considered in much
the same
way, and while this analogy
is not entirelytrue, yet the same
principleholds.
Some
soils contain a very great store of plant-food,
but
present
such
even
will not
continue
to
endure
yields. If
protesting by giving reduced
system of agriculture is to be maintained
no
matter
that
farm
rich, at least
how
is removed
manure
must
or
be
on
any
soil,
matter
fertilizers.
125
permanent
returned
commercial
without
abuse
of
Principlesof Agronomy
The
126
fertilizers.
of
Types
132.
often
are
direct
as
By far the
added
materials
The
"
indirect fertilizersare
or
most
to
ous.
numer-
manure,
is
materials
action
called amendments
the
on
In
be hauled
grow
are
as
fertilizer,
they
United
How
are
similar purpose.
In order for them to be
serve
fertilizer
one
hundred
for commercial
year
used.
It is
applying it.
with
the
One
use
account
of the most
These
of
use
of farm
are
addition
that
manure
is
of this commercial
of lack
of judgment
important problems
supply these
the
In
"
million dollars
of fertilizersis to know
to be able to
economical
is
on
needs.
fertilizers in
fertilizer is wasted
direct
plowed under.
than
States, more
each
spent
to
determine
to
plant-food
these substances, which
is a common
practiceto
the soil,it
to
133.
to
addition
used
for the
they furnish.
must
are
needs
nected
con-
the needs
in
an
in
of
gent
intelli-
manner.
It is impossibleby any
simple matter.
is the best treatment
to say just what
for a
singlemeans
soil,but by combining the knowledge of science and the
no
Manures
wisdom
and
Fertilizers
127
of the practicalfarmer,a
partialsolution of this
problem can be reached.
A chemical analysisof the soil
is very useful in determiningthe needs of soil,but it is
not
sufficient. Such analysis must
be compared with
field tests of fertilizers,
and with practicaltests of crops
in
order
determine
to
soil needs.
Where
is
Nitrogen fertilizers.
At
present the
sodiimi nitrate,or
chief
source
Chile saltpeter,
found
is the
in Chile.
beds
of
It lies
surface of the
the
"
and ammonium
sulfate formed.
nitrogen.
of electricity
and in other ways,
It is possible,
by means
that
the nitrogenof the air in such a manner
to combine
it can
be used as a fertilizer. The chief productsof these
calcium
nitrate and
calcium
cyanamid.
are
processes
in the way
of using these fertilizers
The main difficulty
20 per
cent
The
128
Principlesof Agronomy
more
in the manufacture
power
which
is
required
of them.
tankage, hoof
animal
great many
and
horn
wool
and
of the nitrogen
availability
in these compounds diminishes about in the order given.
In dried blood the nitrogen is available at once, while in
be used but slowly.
leather and hair it can
hair waste
are
all used.
The
Nitrogen-fixation.
135.
"
While
the
use
of
some
mercial
com-
Phosphorus
fertilizers
are
obtained
from
both
now
of the bone
is firststeamed
or
burned
to
remove
fat and
available.
Mineral
which
with
aluminum.
The
presence
of the
The
130
aciditybefore
tralize this
will thrive.
This
but it is
such
lime
has
by the
been
graduallygivingway
is much
limestone
easier
depends
alfalfa and
clover
of
form
use.
used
some
extensively,
very
finely-groundlimestone
to
handle.
to
to
as
crops
is best done
Burned
of lime.
which
Principlesof Agronomy
The
great extent
effectiveness
the
on
of
fineness of
grinding.
"
139.
Indirect
fertilizers.
to
the most
Among
to
use
of their indirect
common
sulfate,soot, and
are
salts.
is not
While
it may
be advisable
for specialcases,
since they add
recommended,
their temporary
salt,iron
common
of these materials
some
added
are
stimulatingaction.
or
gypsum,
manganese
substances
Many
"
benefit may
no
have
reaction.
140.
Home-mixing
would
rather
mixed
than
pay
to
largelybecause
have
to
pay
of
fertilizers.
more
they
do
realize how
not
brands
elements
materials
simple fertilizing
and potassium
acid-phosphate,
that cannot
manufacturers
be learned
by
year
what
such
when
any
is
they
purchased in
more
if obtained
sodium
as
as
nitrate,
farmer
poor
special
no
who
will
policyto
for fertilizersabout
is told
This
chloride.
possess
subjecta littlestudy. It is a
of dollars every
is known
save
much
of fertilizersthan
the
Fertilizer
already
are
the commercial
farmers
Many
"
pay
which
secrets
give the
hundreds
nothing
Better
by the salesman.
would
lead the farmer to spend a few dollars
economy
buying books on the subject,as the information obtained
from one
make
book may
possiblethe saving of from 25
to 50 per cent
the fertilizerbill. Any farmer can
on
at
littleexpense
a
lizers
place in which to mix fertivery
prepare
; then, by purchasing the materials best suited to
Manures
his conditions,
he
much
and
Fertilizers
mix them
can
himself and
effective fertilizer at
more
other
the
131
therebyobtain
same
expense.
respects is often
great
advantage.
141.
Value
is the surest
EFFECT
OF
of farm
manure.
of
means
MANURE
ON
The
"
PERCENTAGtOr
DIFFERENT
m
Effect of
manure
animal
^Hu.k. 9^"-""
on
produces a
husbandry; and
farm
every
of permanent
ft
B^-*'
proportion of different
quantity of
a
wise
use
parts of
this
corn
plant.
by-product
of
of it is at the foundation
agriculture.Since
improved
PARTS
^^
lUCr^.nICb
"
PLANT
1ST
Per
M.
36.
manure
preservingsoil fertility.
Practically
ST
Fig.
of farm
use
way
in which
it made
it
in the
Principlesof Agronomy
The
132
yieldof
evident.
very
was
crops
is
Manure
now
known
Manures
Fig.
37.
"
the
effect on
have
an
Fields
used
in famous
porportionof
different parts
fertilizer experiments.
ment
(Penn. Experi-
Station.)
of the
plant (Fig.36).
kind
Kinds
to
test
of farm
of farm
animal
the
manure.
value
"
material.
by
eat
kind
of food
factors.
Old
the
other
The
much
rich food,
in which
of different fertilizers.
The
is different.
manure
That
and
poultry and sheep is concentrated
produced by cattle and horses contains
coarse
way
from
each
produced by
dry, while that
more
water
and
produce
the best
manure.
and
and
Manures
Liquid
in
Losses
ments
38.
proper
ment.
over.
its
material
that, when
in
occur
is used
to
will be
manure
leached.
left carelesslyexposed to
loses about half its
manure
by
large measure
without
of storage even
expensive eqitipmethods
in manure
readily
are
The plant-foodscontained
This loss
but
them
away.
yard, it is wet
of
ficial
bene-
by
(Figs. 38, 39). Experi-
Losses
"
piled where
shown
have
soluble and
carry
manure.
Manure
"
the weather
value.
bedding
by fermentation
leaching and
Fig.
so
liquid.
the
143.
is
the liquidand
absorb
which
soils. Good
most
of both
than
manure
133
Fertilizers
be
can
little rain
If
If
manure
has
is
every
washed
to
required
to
dissolve
is left scattered in
manure
through by
plant-foodis
in
overcome
be
an
and
open
rain and
out
stored
for
any
length of
The
134
Principlesof Agronomy
piled that it
be done by puttingit under
This may
the pileof proper
shape.
time
it should
be
so
bacteria
is filled with
Manure
be
cannot
cover
or
leached.
by making
fungi which
and
are
the
of these tend to make
Some
constantly at work.
heat, causing a loss of considerable nitrogen.
manure
best in manure
Since these destructive organisms work
that is loose and fairlydry, their action can most
easilybe
Fig.
39.
"
Manure
pile in
unsightly and
an
Handling farm
that the
haul it out
prevents any
and
manure.
best way
spread it
to
on
to
manure
"
exclude
place.
air and
strated
Experience has demon-
handle
the
inconvenient
farm
land when
either
manure
fresh.
is to
This
tation.
leachingor fermen-
Manures
of the
pilescauses
an
and
135
distribution of plant-food
irregular
over
Fertilizers
common
manure
carrier.
FiG.
40.
Manure
"
carriers
are
becoming
almost
farm
necessity.
doubt
The
136
spreader is
manure
possiblea
by
limited
farmers
are
soils will
without
and
use
distribution than
even
of
amount
makes
be made
by
that is appliedis usually
manure
can
be obtained.
Few
quantity that can
Most
in danger of over-manuring their land.
forty or fiftytons to the acre every few years
the
suffering
any injury.
145.
crop
more
The
hand.
Principlesof Agronomy
How
fertilize different
to
crops.
"
While
each
tive
exactly the same
plant-foodelements, the relaPotatoes
quantitiesused by different crops vary.
sugar-beetsuse relativelylarge quantitiesof potassium
uses
the
to
necessary
have
the
fertilizerconform
to
the
needs
of
the soil.
Green
helps to make
and helps to
manures.
"
available
correct
The
the
defects
mineral
that
foods
of the
exist in its
soil,
physical
nature.
XIII
CHAPTER
ORGANISMS
The
soil is not
which
and
compounds
organisms
work
and
the
make
plants.
All
on
the
If it
life
in
A
of
147.
life
the
mixing
soil
matter
soil
the
in
soil.
and
by
increasing
soils, where
matter
soil; certain
work
increase
by
of
the
sending
the
higher
improve
circulation
their
roots
fungi
138
of
particularly
they
forms,
each
productive.
diversity
of
of
organic
of the
many
important
aeration.
air
into
every
assist
in
and
in
The
add
part
the
in
making
and
availability
is
with
important
are
mineral
mixing
tunately,
For-
teems
continually
are
the
mineral
squirrels and
as
and
soil.
available
the
but
great
such
ground
the
valueless.
soil
"
its continuance
dead
many
the
making
by
heavy,
plants
be
of
growing
to
plant growth
of
condition,
Earth-worms
Their
higher
this
Animals,
plant-foods.
wet
would
animals
in
and
merely
organisms.
mellow
more
for
swarm
consumed
toward
the
useful
action,
organisms
soil.
burrow
gophers,
the
in
exists
in
microscopic
of
them
which
life
These
and
plants
dependent
composed
soil is not
Kinds
is
be
support
of
renewing
time
soil
to
the
myriads
their
for
unable
matter
earth
organisms
unseen
cease.
bodies
its
transforming
productiveness.
composing
the
on
would
plant-food
would
materials
is filled with
but
matter,
its
dead
the
SOIL
constantly
are
renewing
on
not
were
of dead
mass
living organisms
THE
OF
of
decay
ganic
or-
the
of
; and
the
are
last,but
the bacteria,
least,
come
not
important
most
139
soil organisms
of all the
Bacteria.
"
The
existence
by Leeuwenhoek
of their real nature
of
bacteria
in 1695, but
until
few
covered
dis-
was
known
little was
They belong
to the plant kingdom, and
are
composed of singlecells
about
^^ ^^ iiich in diameter, although they vary
25000
considerably in size as well as shape. Increase is rapid,
since under
a
half
favorable
hour.
At
conditions
years
one
ago.
may
in about
divide
that
number
might
be
probably
tions.
be supported under existingcondiabout as large as can
Desert
soils low in organic matter, water-logged
soils,and sandy soils have comparatively few bacteria;
have
while loamy soils,especiallyif manured,
many.
Cultivated soils of the ordinary type usually have from
149.
1,000,000
Where
of bacteria
number
The
to
10,000,000
conditions
are
bacteria
in the
soil is
in each
gram
exceptionallyfavorable
of soil.
the
ber
num-
ever,
high as 100,000,000 to the gram ; howof
this varies greatly during the different seasons
ture,
the year, and is affected by soil moisture, crops, temperaorganicmatter, and a number of other factors.
teria
The size and shape of bacof bacteria.
150. Kinds
classified as
spherical,
greatly. They are
vary
often compared in form
and spiraland are
cylindrical,
often
runs
as
"
The
140
Principlesof Agronomj/
with
may
occur
multiply
in
cubical
main
types
in
others
masses.
separate into
two
to
make
may
The
rod-shaped
direction;
one
The
parts.
three
forms
intermediate.
able
they
not
are
The
more.
being
in but
increase
spiral-shapedforms
or
of planes; hence
number
the
differ from
sphericalforms
of two
in aggregates
singlyor
They
corkscrews.
are
bacteria
aid in locomotion.
151.
How
bacteria
colorless makes
are
grow.
The
"
unable
them
for
animal
obtain
organic matter
Oxygen is
can
foods
their
by
Bacteria
way
of the
without
respond
as
few
from
most
forms
mineral
matter.
bacteria
for their
presence
or
in the
growth;
absence
temperature
changes
in much
livingthings.
At very
low temperatures
while
at
high tures
temperaof best growth
very
temperature
live without
can
grow
from
free oxygen.
to
do other
plant and
dead
entirelyon
either in the
stillothers
abilityto live
subsist
needed
None
oxygen.
animals.
but
grow
of oxygen;
same
of energy.
Organic
needed
for food.
phytic
Sapro-
livingplants and
others
use
source
bacteria
that
of sunthe energy
light
position
depend on the decom-
to
fact
grpw
best at about
few
quire
species rehigh as 140" F. for their most rapid growth. At
as
bacteria are quickly killed,
temperature of 160" F. most
although
heated
for
many
spores
a
of
bacteria
will
often
live after
being
and
amount
proper
balance
141
of food
is
one
of the
most
and
ceases
152.
the
death
result.
may
Relation
to humus
formation.
Tillageventilates
excretions.
Practically
soil, thus
"
removing these
all plant residues eventually find their way
into the soil,
where
kind.
they undergo changes of some
They may
decay entirelyand, with the exception of a small quantity
of
mineral
air;
they
matter,
undergo
may
the formation
become
of humus
which
soil ;
they
or
may
remain
The
greater
goes
gets into the soil under-
of humification, and
process
the
resulting in
original form.
that
into
passes
transformations
in the
gas
of great benefit.
as
result,it is
*"
The
of the
changes occurring in the organic matter
soil are largelythe result of bacterial action.
Some
fungi
begin the decay of woody matter, but the decomposition
The
carbon
of the organic
is completed by bacteria.
in the formation
matter, by its decay and union with oxygen
of carbon
addition
to
carbon
energy
organisms.
to the micro-
dioxide,
many
other
of them
being rather complex.
compounds are formed, some
of the compounds
Many
resultingfrom organic
more
decay act as solvents in making mineral matter
humus
available to growing plants. The
remaining in
the soil as a result of decay is usually lower in carbon and
higher in nitrogen than the plant residues from which it
in arid climates
This is particularly
the case
formed.
was
where
decay
has
gone
on
with
but
small
quantitiesof
Of
all the
moisture.
153.
Relation
to
nitrogen.
"
plant-food
of the soil,
nitrogen is probably the
elements
changed from
one
needing
one
constantly be worked
It must
attention.
most
form
another.
to
and
over
the soil as
free
the air,or
as
To
Principlesof Agronomy
Tlw
142
in the soil a
of crops,
problems of agriculture.
The
atmosphere contains
of the
one
supply
greatest
nitrogen,but
form and is,therefore,not in a
this is in an uncombined
condition to be used by plants. The supply of combined
nitrogen in the soil,on the other hand, is limited. It was
of losses which
time that, on account
thought for some
exhausted
occurred, this supply would in time be entirely
and that it would eventuallybe impossibleto raise crops.
This
We
action
before the
was
know
now
that, under
other elements
in such
store
of bacteria
proper
the
able to combine
are
vast
of
understood.
was
conditions, these
nitrogenof
that it can
ganisms
or-
be used
by plants.
The
as
discovery of this process known
nitrogen-fixation
is responsiblefor a change of ideas regarding soil fertility.
a
way
kinds of bacteria
Other
are
able to
contained
animal
nitrification. When
as
like the
ammonia
nitrates,
or
and
available
forms
transformed
are
into
of
nitrogen,
non-available
is known
fixation
first found
as
denitri-
fication.
The
154.
in connection
roots
It
was
of
with
of
little nodules
legumes such
observed
nitrogen
was
which
are
found
to
occur
on
the
and clover.
beans, alfalfa,
that where these plants grew, the nitrogen
as
peas,
Organisms of the
of the soil
content
that
the
nodules
the roots.
The
was
143
showed
Investigation
by bacteria working on
increased.
caused
were
Soil
are
able
free
use
155.
Nitrification
and
denitrification.
"
Most
of the
of
nitrification,is converted
the
process
and
it is
into
nitrites
again ready
to
be
The
144
Principlesof Agronomy
used.
Nitrification requires a
proper
amount
and
of soil moisture,
In
soil there
the
for the
action.
are
largequantitiesof
on
to
and
Bacteria
by
By
by
carbon
the
the
wet
farmer.
is able
under
tillagemethods,
of these
of
the
stroyin
de-
where
Only
importance.
will go
Soil bacteria
"
increase
of
keep
to
of
the
up
mineral
which
barnyard
furnishes
he
ing
assists in mak-
ing
plant-foods. By drainsoils that
to
manure,
is able
invisible,but
into
crops
nitrogen supply,
organic matter,
of humus
farmer
does ;
their usefulness
leguminous
nitrate
applied to poorly
great economic
methods,
the various
by the liberal
out
these
little effect.
introduction
plowing
favoring their
available
good
in
proper
his rotations, he
and
the
their work
he may,
him.
conditions
fertilizers are
nitrate
doing
but
but
have
organisms
156.
the
among
In
aerated
ammonia.
able
just the opposite to those favorPoor
drainage and a
nitrifyingbacteria.
of soil air
lack
nitrites and
into
back
in conditions
work
These
temperature,
denitrifyingorganisms which
are
nitrates
the
change
favorable
oxygen,
conditions.
of other
number
good supply of
to
and
acid,
are
by
get the
powerful, workers
proper
greatest
in his
behalf.
SUPPLEMENTARY
READING
The
146
Principlesof Agronomy
tilth,attention
must
present. When
be
given to
wet
very
the amount'
of moisture
Fig.
41.
"
Field
in good
condition
for crops.
may
be made
mellow
with almost
any
kind
plow,
be given a
of
Soil in
Tillageand
158.
Controlling
farm.
every
crops,
with
They
and
them
Crop
weeds.
thrive under
market
are
147
without
the
all conditions
desirable
42.
"
farmer's aid.
available
they shade
good
plants; and
to
menace
that produce
Fig.
more
Weeds
"
the
Rotations
to
Weeds
pete
comare
plant-foodand
and
crowd
out
seed-bed.
the
In arid regionswhere
of crops.
duction
crop profarmis limited by lack of moisture, successful ing
value
be
Principlesof Agronomy
148
The
farm
as
probable that a
performed in order
it is
it may,
operationsare
allowed
to
cultivator is used.
big weeds,
weeds
or
Much
which
are
to
scattered
kill
new
be
may
become
mere
the
weeds
have
It takes
seed
but
time.
same
control
and
of trouble
crop
begin
and
grow
kill weeds
to
the
at
in trying to
is wasted
energy
benefits
other
soil receives
cultivating.Be this
large part of the tillage
farmer
allowed
cultivations
The
the
grown,
kind
fallow land,
be used to
tooth
used
kill weeds
to
of land, and
the crop
of weeds.
On
depends
kind
the
on
harrows, and
beneath
crops
often required.
are
implement
stirring
if they
hoeings
implements
such
as
and
corn
soil
with
running just
effective.
are
potatoes,
blades
some
sort
tilled
For
of cultivator
great
the work
159.
matter
of weed
secret
at
the
Covering
control with
any
righttime.
and
manure
plant residues.
"
Organic
of any
soil that is
In the orchard, leaves fall to the ground ; in
accumulates
on
the
surface
cropped.
the grain field,stubble is left after harvest ; and in meadows
that are to be followed by another crop, a sod must
be disposed of. These
plant residues cannot
decompose
readily if left at the surface. They need to be turned
under and mixed with the soil in order to decay and give
up their plant-foodsas well as to assist in making available
Tillageand
the mineral matter
149
Crop Rotations
must
is constantly
manure
and mixed
be covered
all
Practically
kind of plow,
good.
of this
there
times
are
when
FiG.
ture;
and
depends
on
43.
it is
"
necessarv
Orchard
soil in good
conservingthe
to
scant
soil mois-
save
tilth,
life of agriculture
very
supply of
water
(see Fig.
44).
If the soil is compact
the surface rather than
used
order
by plants. The
that
it may
and
hard, rain
water
will
absorb
it
nm
can
off
be
therefore,be loosened in
moisture.
The
water
that is
from particle
to particle,
by capillarity
and if the surface particles
are
pressed tightlytogether,
the water will rise to the surface where it is lost by evaporation.
be prevented by stirring
the surface
This loss can
of earth which does not
and forming a loose,dry mulch
in the soil moves
The
150
allow moisture
to
preservedby
many
Prirwiplesof Agronomy
readily. This mulch may be
implements, such, as harrows and
escape
kinds.
cultivators of various
!FiG. 44.
"
Cultivation
while
the
crop
the yield.
moist
more
greatly
is young
influences
Delaware.
after
actuallysavingwater.
The
161.
implements of
Tillage of various crops.
be divided
into three main
classes
(1)
tillagemay
plows, (2) cultivators,and (3) crushers and packers.
of the plow is to loosen and pulverThe primary purpose
ize
think they
are
"
"
make
it
more
growth of plants.
are
of
nimierous
Tillageand
suited to
much
wider
The
range.
151
Rotations
Crop
walking plow
ridingplow.
old
is
rapidlygivingway to some
form of
Many different kinds of cultivators are used in preparing
the seed-bed,in eradicatingweeds, and in tilling
during growth. Every farm should be equipped
crops
with several kinds of cultivatingimplements. A
very
useful and simple device used to smooth
the land and to
break
clods without
taching
compacting the soil is made by atnumber
of planks together with their edges
a
useful
overlapping. This planker, or float,is especially
to precede the grain drill,
since it scrapes off little elevations
and fillsdepressions,
thus insuring a more
uniform
depth of planting.
162.
for
Reasons
rotation
of
crops.
Some
"
of
sort
centuries.
practiced for many
The reasons
for this practice were
probably not at first
understood, even
to-day all the effects of alternate cropping
crop
that there
kind
known
not
are
has
rotation
seems
requirethe
;
no
of rotation
been
on
but
good
almost
so
many
excuse
every
reasons
are
for not
farm.
now
known
practicingsome
All crops
same
do not
proportions;
tively
potash or nitrogen,while others need relais grown
more
phosphorus or lime. If one
crop
land, the available supply of
continuouslyon the same
and
is reduced
the yield will finally
certain elements
decrease; but if crops with different requirements are
alternated, the food supply of the soil is kept in a more
Each
kind of plant has a different
condition.
balanced
of growth. If shallow-rooted
rooting system and manner
continuously,only part of the soil is used,
grown
crops are
shallow-rooted
while an alternation of deep- and
crops
this difficulty.
overcomes
some
One
use
more
for crop
of the soil. This is made
of the
chief
reasons
rotations
provemen
is the im-
possibleby the
use
Principlesof Agronomy
The
152
legumes were
control
possible
of plant diseases,insect pests, and weeds is made
indeed, such considerations
by the rotation of crops;
often
the farmer
cause
otherwise
not
do
to
Economy
so.
horse-labor, machinery,
Fig.
from
45.
Every
"
the
of
raising
163.
be sufficient reason
Methods
of crop
requiredin making
is to decide
on
include
results
nitrogen-gathering
farm.
other
crop.
These
benefits,
for
practicingrotations.
Careful planning is
rotation.
"
good rotation.
what
crops can
this is done
conditions.
When
to raise and
the placing of it
The
of man-labor,
Use
number
he would
irrigationwater
and
should
in the
of crops on
alone, without any of the
considerations
would
rotation
crops when
change his
can
The
first essential
best be grown
the
under
quantity of each
the
crop
be determined.
followingprinciplesshould
be
kept
in mind
in
XV
CHAPTER
SPECIAL
region has
Every
in
apply
to
conditions
found
found
are
not
that
farms
of the
make
it presents.
It is not
all the
On
for
solve
to
possible
with
These
stand,
under-
to
even
or
to
which
problems
discuss,
to
farmer
each
the
soil
those
neighborhood.
same
order
others
farm,
each
identical
it necessary
soil in
own
found
not
local;
merely
are
area.
other
his
these
large
special conditions
study
of
comparatively
are
on
certain
Some
places.
other
PROBLEMS
SOIL
ALKALI
arid
In
regions, there
excessively
are
spoken
usually
valueless
that
by these
prohibit
high
of
strong
by
the
soluble
salts
causing
injury
the
of
farmer
of salts
soils, it is
crops.
should
in the
the
know
how
to
strata
of the
154
in
quantities
management
prevent
soil that
until
surface
the
of
In
water.
the
to
taining
con-
crops
near
know
relation
to
which
is rendered
good
quantities
their
salts
soil
brought
are
taining
con-
soils, however,
raise
necessary
In
soluble
present
are
will
of land
acres
The
Many
large
and
present
to
they
of salt
evaporation
arid
if
alkali
concentrations
judging
alkalies.
as
growth.
considerable
of
quantities
salts
crop
of
millions
are
of
amount
the
of
the
is used
quantity
such
soils,
tion
accumula;
and
in
SpecialSoil Problems
regions where
he should
alkali
164.
the
know
Kinds
how
soil in
alkali.
in
shown
alkali.
of
are
already
vegetation are
on
155
soluble
Any
"
Figs. 46 and
injurious quantitiesmay
often
salt
be
ent,
pres-
Effects of
47.
present
considered
in
an
injuryare : sodium
salt ; sodium sulfate,
salt ;
or common
chloride,
or Glauber's
sodium carbonate, or sal-soda ; and magnesium sulfate,or
The
Fig.
salt.
epsom
46.
In
"
spot with
Alkali
addition
to
cause
vegetation
these, sodium
killed.
nitrate and
districts.
damage in some
chloride is injuriousto vegetationwhen
present
number
of
Sodium
in lower
;
soil when
other
salts do
concentrations
sodium
than
carbonate,
any
or
tioned
men-
alkali,injures the
by dissolvingthe
Plants
causing a hard crust to form.
of
in the presence
of relativelylarge quantities
organicmatter
will grow
the sulfates.
The
156
Effect
165.
of
Principlesof Agronomy
alkali
on
plant growth.
The
"
injury
to
to
the
root
has
with
cell-sap
Fig.
47.
plant. When
on
the other
the
soil and
166.
"
An
hand,
water
normal
higher concentration
passes
from
soil,the
than
the
too
concentrated,
of the roots
out
into the
plant dies.
Reclamation
reclamation
orchard
In
solution.
concentrated
more
of
alkali
lands.
on
"
The
removal
permanent
of excessive
salts by
the
accumulation
of
alkali results
is
from
over-
from
above
and
SpecialSoil
Problems
concentrates
them
157
in the
lower
as
lands.
tion,
cultiva-
reduce the
of these salts.
ACIDITY
Most
sulfate
of ammoniun
also finallyresults in
by
are
acid condition.
an
An
"
the growth of
of plants,among
number
dock, horsetail,and
sorrel,sour
common
of soil acidity.
Indicators
167.
as
corn
which
spurry
legumes to do well.
of laboratory tests may
and a number
Blue litmus paper
of
be resorted to in determining acidity and the amount
lime necessary
168.
to
corrected
by
the condition.
correct
of
Correction
other
soil
acidity.
"
Acidity is best
use
of
form
some
usually pay
Swamp lands high in organicmatter
acid that it does
not
pay
to
correct
often contain
the
sour
so
much
condition,
The
158
Principlesof Agronomy
lime
tions; burned
and
plish
accom-
Ground
the result.
both
limestone
ground
and
cheaper
limestone
the burned,
than
caustic lime.
or
EROSION
One
sections have
which
to
however,
formed.
been
It
the
Among these
slope of the
matter
at
times
on
influence
and
out
Some
have
ravines
of certain
contend
is washed
fertility
carried away.
of the world
of
is much
cultivation.
erosion
intense,
more
factors
Many
will take
that
place.
of rainfall,
the quantity and season
the
are
of the soil,the organic
land, the texture
amount
in the soil,and
Where
Erosion
slope
farmers
and
more
streams
water
the land
falls in
is done.
has considerable
formed.
are
take
loose,
soil is in
the
serious where
damaging
coarse-textured
unless
not
Methods
more
of preventing erosion.
"
Erosion
cannot
be avoided
later be
plowed under
as
green
manure
before
SpecialSoil
Problems
159
the regular
Parts of the land most
crop is seeded.
to wash
are
kept constantlyplanted to grass.
Erosion
furrows
time
usually begins by
avoided
across
they
become
in the
of
formation
rapidlyincrease
great washes.
This
condition
small
until in
may
the
likely
care
The
be
with
construction
and
BLOWING
is experienced
sections,considerable difficulty
being blown away, leaving fields bare to the
of the plowed zone.
After the land is plowed
bottom
the plowed
and a crop planted a wind-storm
may
carry
In many
with soils
soil and
seed
to
having
an
to
arid
lesser
a
or
This
condition,
serious
particularly
is also found
neighboring field.
degree
semi-arid
in
regions
places where
other
many
climate.
Plains,
In
large areas.
have
be directed toward
greatest care
must
be taken
been
trees
abandoned
have
such
been
almost
in this way,
holding the
in
as
every
is most
tion
opera-
soil in
plowing and
over
place.
ing.
harrow-
to be carried
effectual in
The
160
Principlesof Agronomy
leave
to
be
cannot
used
surface of small
at
clods
readily moved
by wind.
Plowing is
rightangles to the direction of wind. In
be
cannot
usually done
at
170.
blowing.
of
is
It
"
the
on
long
stretches of barren
Where
is left summer
largetract
districts,blowing
a
fallowed in
begin and
may
the
dry-farming
whole
district be
it
rapidlycuts
it passes.
The
which
the ground over
great problem,
therefore,is to prevent the first blowing. One effective
is the alternate cropping and fallowingof long
means
stripsof land. A crop, say corn, is planted in a long strip
few rods wide at right angles to the wind.
Next to
a
this comes
a
strip of fallow land, and then another of
In this way
there is no large area
of fallow land in
crop.
one
body and the soil does not start to blow.
Seeding
When
affected.
to
grass
necessary
to
to
or
the soil
move,
other permanent
some
in placeswhere
be used vary
begins to
with
driftingis worst.
conditions
be used
is sometimes
The
sometimes
will be sufficient,
while at other times
must
crop
every
methods
measure
one
known
means
to
by
the wind.
METHODS
Since there
are
OF
so
JUDGING
factors
many
nearly
transaction
man's
as
there
expenses
SOILS
care
should
possibleits
true
an
entire
is
so
be exercised to determine
value.
is sufficient money
through
transactions
Often
wasted
course
at
to
an
in
pay
one
a
agricul-
The
162
probably less on
is flat. Under
Principlesof Agronomy
some
rollingsurface
may
be
be ferred.
prepracticallyall conditions, however, the
desirable,while under
Under
the surface
land may
others smoother
be
must
given consideration
in
depth of
ments
the soil and its generalmake-up are
important elevery
A
soil may
be nearly
entering into its value.
perfectat the surface,but if it is only a few inches deep,
classes of farming. A shallow
it is of little value for some
is
soil has a low water-holdingcapacity and its root-zone
sufficient to give the best results for certain crops.
not
of a hardpan or of a streak of coarse
The presence
gravel
the surface greatly reduces the value of any
near
piece
often land is purchased on
surface exof land.
Too
a
amination
merely. This is a dangerous practice,since
it is impossibleby lookingat the surface to tell what lies
173.
Depth
below.
The
and
structure
condition
of the
soil.
of the sub-soil
can
"
The
best be studied
methods
are
chemical
It shows
are
which
elements
abundant.
well
as
It may
of
the presence
SpecialSoil
1*75. The
Problems
analysis of
mechanical
163
soil shows
or
experience the
without
texture
After
little
fair accuracy
feelingit. There is no
be judged with
can
analysis simply by
an
its texture,
for
difficulty,
a
example, in distinguishing between
sand and a fine clay ; but in determining the texcoarse
ture
of an
intermediate soil, a mechanical
analysis is
useful. Since the texture
of a soil helps to determine
what
to
crops
176.
grow,
it should
be? known.
mined
Productivity. The real value of land is deterby what it will produce. Its chemical composition
"
and
texture
littleif crops
may
do not
judge hastilythe
crops are tried,even
to
indicators
thrive.
For
this
value of land in
though
available.
are
seem
chemical
it is not
reason
wise
projectbefore
analyses and other
new
factors enter
So many
for
count
overlook
it is easy
to
be right if yields are
to
production that
some
into crop
of them,
be
satisfactory.
Natural
vegetation, topography, depth of soil, and
tors
chemical and mechanical
composition are all good indicaof the value of land ; but the real
proof of the
but
all must
"
pudding
is
of land
value
eating,"and the
its productivity.
is in the
READING
SUPPLEMENTARY
How
to
Choose
Soils,E. W.
Farm,
T. F. Hunt.
Hilgard,pp. 313-370,
422-526.
513-531.
Experiment
Stations.
PART
III
CROPS
FIELD
CHAPTER
WHEAT
The
from
the
from
call
"
word
old
it
these
"
words
white
darker
in color.
Wheat
back
beyond
this
plant
the
time
about
China.
It has
also
the
prehistoric Stone
(Genesis
this
plant has
served
been
in
Christ,
dwellings of
Lake
wheat
out
With-
14).
xx.
down
men
into
back
speaks of
Bible
times
early
very
The
Age.
have
its history
throws
Far
written,
were
to
the
was
grains being
before
in
white.
plants.
first histories
centuries
both
wheat
other
seems
Germans
mean
perhaps
It
discovery
intermission
to
the
day.
present
its
Geographically,
the
supposition that
rate,
any
Perhaps
the
Euphrates
de
when
widely
cultivated
Candolle,
recorded
over
for
search
origin is equally
the
a
earth
center
Dondlinger,
history
from
Booh
of Wheat,
167
p.
1.
and
began,
China
of spread
region.
^
The
uncertain.
valley is its
Tigris-Euphrates
by
is favored
At
the
came
seem,
cultivated
found
been
Swiss, which
in
when
thirty
the
harvest
oldest
says,
turn
the
may
which
and
rye
nurtured.
was
cultivated
the
it
that
of
in
this day
others
suggests
of
one
which
though
to
account
on
is
To
Dondlinger
us,
whete,"
related
further
called
"
Strange
are
Dondlinger
to
comes
hwaete."
weizen."
sativum)
"
EngHsh
English
"
{Triticum
wheat
Middle
XVI
to
place
birthHunt.
it
was
Egypt.
suggested
the
The
168
"
177.
Principlesof Agronomy
Relationships.
"
The
Graminese
is the botanical
and
on
the kind
of wheat.
the most
limits of variation
The
unfavorable
conditions,the
are
tent
ex-
the Utah
Experiment
Station reports finding
inch for eighteen or
an
at
The
170
if all of
to
Principlesof Agronomy
thread-like branches
these
placed end
were
end.
179.
The
plant above
ground.
"
plant. These
between, in
most
cases,
nodes
as
culm, has
to ten
are
is hollow and
inches
solid,while
sometimes
The
head,
or
lets, as
sections
the
spikeletis a
five flowers
pollen seldom
self-fertilized.
called.
On
each
side of the
chaff,or
coarse
so
are
escapes.
This
causes
the
flowers
to
be
171
Wheat
wrinklingbetrays the
which
is not
berry.
location of the
than
more
one
embryo,
fourteenth
or
of the
germ,
entire
easily be removed
embryo is oily and can
with a pin or the point of a knife blade.
The remainder
of the berry is endosperna. Cut in two across
the groove,
the grain shows plainly.
under a hand lens three distinct
and the starchy part inside,
layers; the bran outermost
with a layer of dark aleurone cells between.
The
When
wheat
interior,the
Fig.
is milled, flour
outer
49.
"
layers making
two
yield of wheat,
good
the
from
comes
bran.
white
In
big
Pennsylvania.
slightextent.
Like all living things,wheat
to
keeping qualities
Varieties.
181.
diiferent
under
"
climatic
and
soil conditions.
distinct environments,
many
attempt
if they
are
winters
are
wheats
are
to
fit
grown.
which
This
is
of the crop
and
nature
plasticplant organisms,particularly
useful.
mild
to
range
varies
and
of the
East
the
where
Mississippi,
rainfall abundant,
Between
the
soft winter
the Rockies,
Principlesof Agronomy
The
172
north
of Nebraska, where
the
summers
are
alternate
having Uttle snow,
grain; hence,
freezing and thawing injure fall-planted
hard
the
the farmers
spring varieties. Because
grow
winters are less rigorous and because snow
protects the
winter wheats do best on the
plants from freezing,
young
The
Great Plains squth of Dakota.
hot, dry ripening
and
the
winters
period favors
wheat
tends
severe,
grain. On
hard
soften and
to
amber
the
Pacific
wheat
coast
to whiten
hard
in
sponse
re-
but blend
into
another.
one
wet
Great
are
Plains
alone.
Clearly,then,
Certain
one
now
variety
existingeight
one
Once
their characteristics
merely variations,
of continuous
fairlyfixed on account
become
selection for
are
no
definite qualitiesare,
however,
desired
with
improved. Chief
these are : (1) high yield to the acre, (2) high weight
among
for a bushel, (3) hardness accompanied by high nitrogen
content, and (4) resistance to drouth, insects, or plant
diseases. Better
varieties may
be secured
by three
methods
desirable plants
of the most
: (1) by selection
from ones
now
; and (3) by
; (2) by cross-breeding
grown
the bringing of superiorspeciesfrom some
other part of
the world that has climate and soil reasonably like the
in
will also
one
question. Better cultural methods
improve the health and consequentlythe yieldof the crop.
reference
to
which
varieties may
be
Wheat
182.
Distribution
and
adaptation.
primarilyadapted to growth
coniined there.
by no means
into every
cultivated by
been
Chinese
and
civilized
other
It has followed
and
races,
other Asiatics.
Although wheat
"
in the temperate
continent
race
173
It
zone,
it is
the Caucasian
clime, and
for
is
has
also
example, by
the
is the
bread-stuff
of
Wheat
has
hundred
matured
the
to
equator
miles
Mackenzie
from
River, both.fully
a thousand
within
and
miles north
on
two
the
of the
United
States.
Egypt,
Canada.
has
It
spread round
is
common
the world
from
east
in Brazil, Peru,
to
west, wherever
opportunities have
presented
themselves.
Nor is production closelylimited by elevation.
dred
hunIn Russia and Palestine,regionsfiftyto one
sea-level
feet below
produce abundantly, while
show
and Peru
Ecuador
profitablecrops at 10,000 feet,
mountains
wheat
is produced at an
and in the Himalaya
suitable
elevation
crop,
conditions
crop
of
and
11,000 feet.
however, grows
About
between
500
three-fourths
and
1500
of the
feet above
sea-level.
At
but
the equator
little growing
the
near
areas
of production
sea-level.
Near
are
high,with
the extremes
of
The
174
Principlesof Agronomy
Fig.
has
50.
Wheat
"
questionable. The
farms
should
be
large
opinion of the
to
be
most
best
economical.
informed'
men
to
be
that
wheat
should
175
Wheat
wheats
These
the
have
adapted
themselves
illustrateonly
variations
to
a
conditions.
dimatic
few
of the attempts
of
to
crop
more
crop.
preparation of
land for planting differs with the region. The
chief
difference is in amount
of seed and time of sowing; the
of cultivation are primarily the same.
methods
include plowing in the autumn
In general,the methods
183.
Preparation of seed-bed.
"
The
late
or
summer
as
off
soon
to
as
sible
pos-
prevent
run-off of rain
seed that
stubble
is adapted to
ought
winter
harrow
without
after
every
a
plantingtime
had
Farmers
"
their system
under
turned
Sometimes
be
to
after harvest.
the
seeding.
and
Seed
184.
or
the
land
loose, moist
comes.
crusts
use
of
farming. The
early as possible
as
should
harrowing. If farmers
rain that
better
the
seed-bed
lie
through
disk
it, and
land
or
free from
starts
weeds
176
The
Principlesof Agronomy
The
grain ought
screened
to
to be
weed
remove
rubbish,
seed,
shrunken
kernels.
kernels
plump
and
ter
give bet-
yields than
shrunken
Large,
small
because
ones,
give the
But
they
plants.
than screening
young
more
is necessary.
the
grain
For
one
smut,
should
with
treated
or
be
hyde,
formalde-
pint
fifty
to
into
contained
About
in a half barrel.
ten
minutes
to
grain. In
another
solution
all
wet
the
is
quired
re-
the
meantime,
sackful
might be
and
filled to
screened
economize
time.
From
three
to
six
under
to
irrigation
eight pecks
For
are
spring-plant-
The
178
Principlesof Agronomy
is to harrow.
185.
Harvesting.
that
is not
The
season
"
harvest
There
is
no
season
in
some
in
varies
United
the
in
month
the
year
States
May
in
Texas,
where
to
is cool
the weather
Methods
differ
as
moist.
or
widely
Fig.
53.
and
hauled
off and
header
has
grainin
are
or
parts
many
old-fashioned
work.
rapidlywinning
United
to
way
in all
States
removes
into tightwagon-beds to be
supplanted
one
at
In parts of western
stacked
combined-harvester,
sacks the
Thresher
elevates them
been
the sickle
harvesters
progressivecountries.
the binder has given
the heads
"
In
seasons.
as
on
machine
some
that
operation.
threshing. The
large farms by the
cuts, threshes,and
Wheat
179
the straw
dries sufficiently
to permit easy
separationof the grain
from chaff. In some
locaHties the wheat
cut
is
green
ripened by
for which
the
of starch
translocation
from
the
straw,
so
When
shed
to
as
rain and
resist the
attack
stacks
When
heads
of fowls
or
rodents.
186.
wheat
and
Diseases.
is attacked
Closed
is spread
and
is
smut
by tiny,black
themselves
attach
about
serious.
most
are
187.
the
smut
time
same
the
to
heads
form,
Infected
the
wheat
like sound
when
a
can
not
in appearance
be
10 to
preventedby
should
be
taken
or
planting.
spread
hollow.
handled
the
out
to
per
the
cent
It
grows
the
inside.
are
dull
kernels.
though
treatment
that
After
in bags
40
At the time
and
of
in the lower
except they
ones
the sound
loss of from
hardens.
the kernel
enters
are
Sprouting
inside.
the resemblance
kernel.
young
smut
kernels
as
the
enters
that
spores
may
by glume spot,
smut
the
Wheat
"
On
account
of
threshing
of the crop.
This
described
formalin
loss
is 40
per
cent
maldehyd
for-
The
180
188.
Loose
Principlesof Agronomy
plant at floweringtime, and
The
disease is less prevalent
kernel.
Treatment, however,
by closed smut.
smut
the
enters
since the
difficult,
more
are
spores
is
only method
known
the hot-water
as
one
treatment, which is extremely
hard to use successfully
since,if the water be a few degrees
the germination qualityof the wheat is injured
too warm,
or
destroyed. The grain is soaked for four hours in cold
more
readily penetrates wet
grain.
water, since heat
and
To
kill the
in
water
by poisons. The
be reached
cannot
the wheat
smut,
maintained
is immersed
133" F.
at
The
for ten
addition
minutes
of the
Because
heating necessary.
of the difficulties,
be
only small quantitiesof seed can
This
is then
soAved on
seed plat which
will
treated.
a
yield clean seed for next season.
is a fungous disease which attacks the stem
189.
Rust
cold wheat
and
makes
leaf; that
spores
live
other
some
constant
on
the
winter
over
plant.
In
is the
stem
more
serious.
The
in the
in
standing straw or even
the spring,after germination,the
The injuryconsists
fungi attack the wheat at any time.
in a failure of the grain to fill. Although considerable loss
results,about
to
all that
can
to rotate
varieties,
avoid over-irrigation.
crops,
to
Insects.
"
flies and
is to
drain
choose
sistant
rust-re-
Hessian
be done
Wheat
181
rotation
In
are
wheat
districts,
some
the wheat
straw
suffers considerable
which
worm,
stem
191.
Weeds.
to
loss from
wheat
of control.
jointworm
works
in bent
grow
in the
positions,and
the header.
There
few
and
crowd
the value
most
of the
June
The
the crop,
hinder
harvest, and
Russian
of the
some
mustards
accumulates
the
seed
lies for
strength under
intertilled crops
lower
weeds
states
clover, and
cheat
or
middle
considerable
cause
The
Mountain
thistle,sweet
Since
with
mustards,
grass
in
out
are
in wheat-fields
common
the
are
"
is
mon
com-
West.
trouble
in
some
tricts.
dis-
in the
ground, it
single-cropping. Rotation
years
is,therefore,an
effective method
of
combating it.
Russian
almost
thistle,a
master
and, for
tumbleweed,
of the Nebraska
wheat
long time,
farms, is now
spread
a
it into
water
localities;irrigation
new
on
a
pest
with
to
dry-farm,but
be reckoned
with.
no
where
matter
it exists it is
Sweet
clover
and
June
but they
thorough tillage,
grass
bother
are
in
easilycontrolled by
haphazard farming,
The
182
Principlesof Agronomy
often
from
192.
chess.
Quality in wheat
has to absorb
consists of the
largequantitiesof
This
largerleaves.
substance
is because
water
of the
abilityits flour
thereby producing
of a nitrogenous
presence
called
"
Millers and
bakers
know
that
some
varieties of wheat
Wheat
much
are
Hard
valuable
more
183
than
others
for flour-making.
varieties often
dealers who
distribute
it to homes
or
bakeries.
Bread
being
used
number
of other
foods
are
flour
saved
at
was
foods.
common
breakfast
made
Now
these
Even
cereal
carried the
that
comprise
are
Formerly, only
waste-spout
and shorts
Bran
of stock-feeds.
wheat.
by-products
the water-wheel.
valuable
In addition,many
from
the mill.
other
for
valuable
the most
among
from
mixed
the
with
the bran.
Cracked,
swine, than
or
broken
whole
wheat
wheat, which
is better, especiallyfor
in
some
cases
escapes
and
does
not
The
184
is ground
wheat
Principlesof Agronomy
as
of all other
grainscombined.
In cash value
rice which
alone feeds
is second
over
to
of the
corn
oats, and
four
produce about
each
wheat
yield,it
in total
For
second.
as
States
In the United
earth.
wheat
well
as
other
root
and
crops,
for a given
of persons
standard
them
at a lower
number
area
than
greater
tain
wheat, but main-
the
living. Wherever
it is in Germany,
of living is increasing,as
standard
Russia, and parts of India, the use of wheat is spreading.
The
Dondlinger says :
great intrinsic food value of
of cultivation and preparation for use;
wheat; its ease
its wide
adaptation to different climates and soils; its
quick and bountiful return; and the fact of its being
and variety
paniferousand yieldingsuch a vast number
of products are all factors that enhance
the value of the
wheat grain. Its combined
qualitativeand quantitative
importance gives to wheat a great superiorityover
any
other cereal,and causes
it to be dealt in more
extensively
the speculativemarkets than any other agricultural
upon
product. As an essential part of the food of civilized
it assumes
nating."
man
an
importance so vital as to be domi"
easiest way
to
store
wheat,
other grain for that matter, is to put it in sacks
194.
any
it
Storage.
from
comes
The
ground.
until he
it
of
or
from
The
the
thresher, and
owner
uses
to
it
permanently in
the weather.
1
Book
pile them
this method
can
store
"
as
on
or
as
the
makeshift
place where
Sometimes
of Wheat, p. 8.
it will be tected
prothe sacks are
left
Principlesof Agronomy
The
186
blocks long by
feet
hundred
several
Elevators.
Lakes,
Great
elevators
used, and
entirelyby machinery. It
thresher
into dump
wagons.
are
its way
not
.into
platforms. Trap-doors
into cars,
by hand.
boats,
Terminal
sometimes
wide
over
grain
directly from
loose
The
it to
carriers elevate
the
which
it
mills.
runs
Not
it pours
grainand
like water
once
grain
elevator
the
which
down
is it moved
occasionally
affairs,
million bushels of grain. Scattered
elevators
holdingthree
far and
or
the loose
pours
carry
common.
chutes, down
open
cellars. Endless
vast
men
which
cars
more
handle
almost
into
really
are
region of the
becoming
are
sacks
finds
which
Particularly in the
"
Here
the
thousand
one
elevators.
miniature
195.
local export
our
to
bushels, storehouses
fiftythousand
to
of which
some
have
mills
These
part of
Stillanother
acres.
ment,
ship-
it waits
high, where
or
cover
the
tributary
to
are
country
the
immense
are
large
smaller
concerns
structures
and
times
some-
Wheat
Wheat
is often
bought and
storage charges
price. Small
in elevators,about
days
and
the
Fig.
greatest
55.
grain,however,
planted.
farmer
know
to
bushel
for each
elevators
is contracted
Marketing.
196.
made
are
for rented
expenses,
at
but
space
"
It
whether
is
to
help
to handle
in the
the world's
springbefore
difficult for
sell at harvest
the
or
rise in
store
Large terminal
"
await
stored to
ally
grain independently; occasionelevator.
an
By far
cooperate and run
number
sell at
threshing time. Much
farmers
number
cents
half cent
Sometimes
two
187
"
the
same
time
he loses any
saves
him
grain
crop.
it is even
ordinary
during the
and
To
labor and
must
sell the
storage
The
188
in
price.
This
indeed, there
rise sometimes
"
be
may
does not
drop instead of
studies
farmer
store
Principlesof Agronomy
the
a
"
markets.
answer
the expense ;
rise. The intelligent
pay
Will
it pay
to
in consideration
as
mills
and
merchants
business venture.
great
avenue
for advance
in marketing is
In the
of
systematicgrading.
is graded as follows :
Winter
White
Long Red
Red
Hard
Wheat, Nos.
more
Chicago wheat
Winter
Winter
graintrade
1 and
4.
2.
Winter
Wheat,
Nos.
1, 2, 3, and 4.
Colorado
Northern
Spring Wheat,
Nos.
1 and
2.
4.
The
of it.
according to grade. In
The grain
sections,little reliable grading is done.
some
buyer, making a shrewd estimate of the grade, knows
197.
Prices
vary
few
cents
Wheat
what
he
189
sellingsimply
take the priceof grade No. 3, though his
wheat," must
No. 1.
grain may be No. 2 or even
Generally,the agent
will pay
less than he should.
tion
Therefore, a standardizaof wheat
and other grain would
for
save
money
can
"
growers.
To
are
cities. The
and
grain, enormous
exchanges
in other
Chicago and smaller ones
in which
buyers
Exchange is a large room
at
sellers meet
to
business.
transact
Much
of
the
buy
go
certificates and
up
hold
them, expectingpricesto
up.
man
"
"
"
"
"
READING
SUPPLEMENTARY
The
Wheat, P. T. Dondlinger.
Growing in Canada, the United States,and Argentina,W.
of
Book
Wheat
Rutter.
Story of
Grain
of
Wheat, W.
C.
Edgar.
99-144.
P.
The
190
Fields
Wheat
of
Story
and
Loaf
and
Wheat
No.
of
S.
No.
World,
the
RoUin
E.
Smith.
Wood.
B.
Harry
Investigations,
Bui.
Minnesota
Snyder,
of
J.
Crops,
Farmers'
132.
Insect
219.
Lessons
250.
The
J.
Practice,
Irrigation
A.
Vol.
Agriculture,
II,
660-670.
pp.
Eyck.
Ten
Field
D.
T.
Bread,
American
W.
Principles
U.
of
of
Agronomy
of
85.
M.
Southern
Markets
Flour
Cyclopedia
Wheat,
Principles
F.
Duggar,
Bulletins
Widtsoe,
pp.
pp.
240-253.
32-67.
Enemies
of
from
A.
the
Grain
of
Prevention
Wheat.
Growing
Wheat
of
Epidemic
Rust
Smut
and
1904.
Loose
Smut
of
Oats.
267.
Buckwheat.
507.
The
534.
Durum
596.
The
Smuts
Wheat,
Oats,
and
Barley,
Com.
Wheat.
Culture
the
616.
of
Winter
United
Wheat
of
Winter
Wheat
in
the
Eastern
Half
of
States.
Varieties
for
the
Eastern
United
States.
.
CHAPTER
CORN
"
the
Smith
of
from
to
pioneers
them.
culture
corn
family, but
to
close
the
other
relatives
199.
plant
to
like that
below
inch
generally
all the
occupy
inches
and
at
plant
grown
then
once,
is young
the
in
soil,
Maize
So
turn
thus
the
these
to
tance
impor-
vast
57.
the
as
of
the
to
common
grasses
it has
know,
we
grass
no
to-day.
of wheat,
surface
of
hills, the
sent
but
leaving little
191
for
Other
corn
young
larger part
of
from
about
node
ground.
fibrous
outward
grow
the
the
by
out
develops
downward.
roots
and
to
far
Powhatan
field conditions
belongs
remain,
grow
such
American
first roots
growth
start
strange
of
John
settlers
the
seemed
closely related
The
saved
plant
the
grow
Captain
have
in Figs. 56
"
to
Chief
the
cereals.
"
fish.
natives
Indians
Indian
in existence
Roots.
root-system,
an
of
shown
is not
how
field
to
the
the
America
Relationships.
198.
Mexico.
settlement
Some
are
New
with
forcing
in
find
found
Plymouth
at
It must
corn.
to
to
or
by
applied
name
for
Europe
visitors
and
hill
each
Jamestown
starvation
sell him
European
settlers
English
the
the
was
Mexico,
in
term
common
"
Peru,
fertilizing
crop,
corn
Early
it in
growing
taught
was
Indian
maize.
or
corn,
{Zea Mays)
"
corn
all grains,
MAIZE
OR
"
Because
XVII
roots,
As
in
eighteen
roots
unused
rapidly,
soil.
never,
the
is
corn
order
to
twenty
or
reach
While
ward
downthe
however,
Principlesof Agronomy
The
192
Fig.
Fig.
57.
"
56.
Corn
Good
"
on
an
corn
culture.
The
194
Principlesof Agronomy
are
transpiredto maintain growth.
quantitiesof water
Wilting often takes place, but the rollingof the leaves
cally.
and turgidityis restored automatireduces loss of water
Kernels
Each
"
develops
ear
in the
axil of
in the groove,
part way
up the plant.
develop from the ovary part of the flower on the
leaf from
cob.
flower.
The
202.
Each
bud
is fertilized by
pollen borne
the
on
This alightson
tassels.
connects
receive it.
203.
The
ear.
lets,each of which
of
rows
is even.
"
bears two
An
ear
spike-
of kernels,the number
rows
is a great
All kernels
loosens when
are
covered
with
membranous
in
warm
hull that
water.
The
embryo is near the cob on the side toward the tip of the
The
remaining part, about seven-eighths of the
ear.
if hard, starchyif white.
corneous
whole, is endosperm
"
Corn
The
white
and
is more
valuable
at
between
more
for feed.
of structure
grain on
the tip of another, and
as
195
selves
occasionallymanifest themthe tassel,as divided cobs, as one
ear
Abnormahties
borne
Maize
contains
endosperm
corneous
or
tassels borne
as
on
or
cobs.
204.
Types.
Indians
The
"
used.
now
in America
growing
better kinds
corn
Fig.
58.
much
was
inferior to
"
Good
ears
of dent
one
the
the
species.
corn.
is experiencedin
widely that littledifficulty
changing a variety or in improving it. It is only about
sixtyyears since corn improvement was begun ; yet within
made
of the advance
most
this short period has come
Widely different
since white people first grew the crop.
and varying conditions of growth have given
of corn
uses
this varies
so
205.
over
because
the
com
(6) pod.
is by far the most
the soft,starchy
corn
cluded
important, as it incrop.
endosperm, which
endosperm
at the
crown
It isso called
incloses
partially
without
cover-
The
196
Principlesof Agronomy
be very
dent may
to
shallow
roughness to the
hard for animals
shrink
or
so
or
deep
in
to
as
kernels
The
ear.
dent
ripening.
siderable
give connot
are
too
chew.
to
eightinches in circimiference
and eightto ten inches in length,with deep,wedge-shaped
kernels extending well over
both tip and butt.
cal
Cylindriwith small butts and no bare cob at the tip are
ears
most
desirable,because the shellingpercentage is high.
of the hard,
account
is so called on
206. Flint com
of which are round and smooth.
glossykernels,the crowns
The dent fails to develop because hard endosperm covers
inclosing
the crown
as well as the sides of the kernel,entirely
the starchypart. The kernels are more
nearly round,
shallow than dent kernels. Less corn
wider, and more
in proportionto cob grows
the flint ear.
Flint corn
on
differsfrom dent in having a longer,slimmer ear, a larger
shank- which
increases the difficultyof husking, and
Desirable
fewer
six to
of kernels.
rows
Dent
are
ears
longertime to mature
than flint,but this is not always the case.
Although
next to dent in importance, flint corn
produces somewhat
less than
207.
one-twelfth
Sweet
com
in the
chew
them
are
so
very
the ears,
which
are
of the
generally
Corn
inch
an
thick
being used
four to
and
Maize
or
197
six inches
stock-feed.
Pop corn
of the corn
cent
per
produced in this country. It is
largelyconsumed
as
popped corn." Popping consists
of a rapid heatingwhich causes
the kernel to explodeand
inside out.
turn
bears several
The
plant suckers freely,
early.
ears, and matures
as
"
209.
Soft
both
at all.
to
as
Pod
readilyground, it was
it is
received this
com
a
husk.
The
ears
are
to
short and
extent
some
soft maize
nor
are
the
kernel
plants
for cattle
grown
on
scale.
Varieties.
211.
by the
each
because
name
flint. It is used
than
commercial
grown
for food.
is inclosed in
smaller
com
and
ear
Because
Incas of Peru
210.
flour
or
varieties of corn,
be changed and
There
are
the
same
No.
Wisconsin
standard
212.
No.
7, and Minnesota
13
are
wide-spread,
varieties.
Distribution.
total
The
"
production of
corn
and
1905
Mexico
to
1909
in the order
about
of the
was
named
76 per cent
world, in eight
or
states:
TJw
198
Principlesof Agronomy
sas,
Iowa, (3) Missouri, (4) Nebraska, (5) Indiana, (6) Kan-
(8) Texas.
These
eightstates
have
an
would
three-hundredth
produced on one
if this particular
section were
not
part of the earth's area
especially
adapted to corn production.
in
four
213. Factors
production. The
important
factors that determine
the successful production of corn
:
(1) market conditions,(2) lengthof growing-season,
are
and (4) soil.
(3) rainfall,
If the crop, its manufactured
products, or the meat
produced by feedingit,did not sell to advantage, the crop
could not be grown
though the climate and soil were
favorable to its production. The
belt of
ever
so
corn
the United States has shipping facilitiesthrough a network
of railroads and waterways ; Chicago and St. Louis,
markets
the great meat
of the world, are at hand ; vast
factories in which starch,glucose,
oil,and sirupare made
have grown
of
to conceive
up in the region. It is hard
favorable marketing conditions than here exist.
more
214.
is extremely sensitive to
Adaptation. Corn
frost
much
that the length of its growing-season
so
so
is measured
by the last spring frost and the first one of
frost in the fall injuresthe plant to
autumn.
One slight
of warm
such an extent that, although a month
weather
follows the freeze,this first drop of the thermometer,
even
though of only a few hours' duration,ends its growing-season
An even
temperature free from cold nights is
is
desirable,but absence of frost for nearly five months
absolutelyessential. In the corn belt there are no late
springfrosts and no early fallfrosts.
The water
requirement in proportion to dry matter
earth
not
be
"
"
"
Corn
Maize
or
199
matter
in
organic matter
are
loose,black, and
in the
common
is grown
the heavier
on
loessial soils,which
are
are
soils,but
belt.
corn
is at
The
its best
on
rich
crop
the
was
36.9
bushels
crop
and
24
and
in the South
bushels
grown
by
even
bumper crop of
boy is worthy of
The
more.
Tennessee
attention.
215.
Preparation
rather
seems
winter
moisture
of the
seed-bed.
advantageous to
to
corn
"
Deep
because
soil,and
ing
fall-plowit enables
allows
frost
organic
abundant
matter
cations
applicause
growth in corn, moderate
of farm manure
Corn is a good crop
usuallypay.
other sod-producers. Whether
or
to follow clover,alfalfa,
plowing is done in spring or fall,the plow should cover
to mellow
the seed-bed.
of
Since largequantities
The
200
Principlesof Agronomy
216.
Seed
and
planting.
"
has decided
upon
the
the
feet.
four
or
to
sows
acre
rows.
for grainproduction,
able.
silage,thicker planting is desir-
as
as
soon
be needed
better
than
to
than
Some
hand-hoeing may
Shallow is
keep down weeds in the rows.
deep cultivation,and frequent better
very
occasional.
It is
a
Principlesof Agronomy
The
202
usually unnecessary
good start,
in
but
case
INCREASE
INCHES
IN
OF
GRAIN
OF
y|"LO
irrigatecorn
the soil is too dry
to
apply the
AND
STOVER
APPLIEDTO
WATER
IRRIGATION
until it has
to
germinate
before
water
BY
PRODUCED
DIFFERENT
40
planting
ACRE
AREAS.
I
\
Fig.
60.
Results
of irrigation
on
corn.
cated
will be indiirrigation
by a dark color and by the wiltingof the leaves.
The
and
will
distribution of irrigation
water
amount
greatly with conditions,but it is rarely necessary
vary
than thirty inches during a season.
It is
to use
more
to apply water
convenient
usually more
by the furrow
method.
The charts (Figs.59 and 60) show the results
to be secured from judiciousirrigation.
rather
than
after.
"
The
time
for
Corn
218.
from
the
the
Maize
203
Harvesting.
is when
corn
or
"
thumb
nail.
About
this time
the
husk
to the
fodder, much
Some
the
corn
between
the
risk
add
rows
much
to
The
"
"
the
practiceof
hogging-off is increasing. Sometimes
ears
are
pulled by hand or machinery and the stover
be strippedoff and
pastured. Again the leaves may
saved,
the
or
top of the
stalks and
leaves
of cutting
perhaps, is the method
satisfactory,
stalks at the ground and stacking them in shocks
field or in the yard to be husked later.
There
bind
and
knives
done
are
several kinds
shock
and
and
corn.
short-handled
by hand,
buskers
the
in
spiteof
shredders.
of corn-cutters,
Much
maize
hoes.
Husking
great
Most
cut.
off the
in the
of which
some
is cut
with
long
is commonly
there
expense
are
machine
and
the
mechanisms
have
retarded
complicated, easily-injured
the universal adoption of corn-harvestingmachinery.
into silageis allowed
Corn to be made
219. Silage.
to stand in the field until the grain is in the roasting-ear
stage, when it is cut, usually with a binder, and hauled on
low wagon
to the silo. Here it is cut into piecesa half
a
into the silo. It
inch long, or thereabouts, and blown
and
itself for
settles into an
air-tightmass
preserves
feed in winter when
dairy stock have no pasture,
green
when
in the hot, dry summer
succulent feed is
or
"
scarce.
The
204
220.
in
Enemies.
Principlesof Agronomy
Weeds
"
corn-growing,but as
largelycontrolled by
be
the
cause
trouble.
corn-grower
of the Great
Besides
be
enemies
picked off
the
smut
troublesome
most
are
the
corn
ear-worm
are
The
the crop.
smut
masses
before they burst and
burned
to
lives
smut
it is useless to treat
rotation
This
and
smut
As
spores.
manure,
and
and
weed,
perennial bind-
Plains.
weeds, maize
the worst
pigweeds
common
The
difficulty
most
thistle,milkweed, and
Russian
all
the
cause
of crops
are
is likewise true
the seed.
in
spread
soil
cultivation
of control.
corn
billbugs,the
ear-worm,
chinch-bugs,which do
is grown
damage, especiallywhere corn
after
year
the
on
otherwise
are
the
are
best
and
land,
same
methods
of control.
used
advantageously. A
bug is given in Chapter XVI.
are
221.
crop
Uses
enters
shelled.
and
and
well with
while
corn
horsemen
human
furnishes energy
balanced food.
breakfast
foods.
husks, and
also
alfalfa,which
About
"
canned
foods,
Corn
beef
fat.
corn,
remedies
without
of it
Corn
of
the
no
as
equal.
feed.
It
bone
builder,
alone
is not,
hominy,
and
chinch-
first being
it has
is a flesh and
and
year
farming
nine-tenths
much
use
clean
for the
treatment
mixes
however,
value.
siderable
con-
culture methods
Sometimes
For
Dairymen
where
or
Fall-plowing and
poor.
or
Clean
of the
root-louse, rootworms,
winter
over
should
corn
meal,
sirup are
oil, starch, distiller's grain, cobs,
popcorn,
corn
Corn
other
any
wheat
Maize
or
205
in this country
other
singlecrop
country, although the
one
world
and
in value
rice surpass
the world crop of corn
because littlemaize is grown
in the Old World.
The
great number
givesit a
to
it grew
Fig.
the stumps.
and
needed
61.
its selling
price. It
almost
"
can
corn
be
put
particularly
pioneers of the MississippiValley
the
on
which
to
uses
useful
because
of
of
crop
good
It furnished
unbroken
type
both
It and
littlecare.
of farm
land,
even
among
grain bin.
animal
meat
was
and
human
food
were
222.
Storage
percentage
molds
of the
and
marketing.
of moisture
in
"
kernels
Because
and
of the
cob, the
high
grain
The
206
is
power
injuredby freezing,though
On
hurt.
not
are
is to shock
fodder
is marketed
animals
that
to
The
struction
con-
markets
greater precautions
For
big markets
taken
there
classes
of three
"
much
are
as
It does
cereals,but
is wheat
except that
grades Nos.
1, 2, 3, and
READING
and
The
Com
Crossley.
Crops,Montgomery.
The
Book
of
of Corn
Judging,A.
D.
Shamel.
Field
A. Yearbook
U. S. D.
A. Farmers'
pp.
255-264.
398-427.
Com
the South.
199.
Growing in
Corn-growing.
229.
The
Production
253.
The
Germination
292.
The
Cost of FillingSilos.
303.
400.
Corn-harvestingMachinery.
A More
Profitable Com
PlantingMethod.
414.
Com
415.
Seed
81.
Cultivation.
Corn.
not
in drying.
SUPPLEMENTARY
Corn, Bowman
to
other
largelyas
so
are
on
it does, it is handled
where
No.
handle
"
mostly
being
are
into world
each
feedingqualities
farm.
Corn
enter
the
in Fig. 61 is
shown
for the
Principlesof Agronomy
of Good
of Seed
Seed
Com.
Corn.
4 in
CHAPTER
XVIII
CEREALS
OTHER
Besides
in
America
is confined
rice
and
though
for
not
grain, and,
few
are
districts
is less
in the
grown
account,
grown
important
South.
wheat,
Buck-
to
extent
some
for
important
more
that
on
commonly
Rye
cereal, is
true
Sorghums
grain.
for
to
cereals
barley.
and
oats
are
the
wheat,
and
corn
the
with
grouped
are
than
forage
millets.
(Avena
OATS
that
oats
husk
barley,
thinner
than
one
and
oats,
not
since
the
It
is not
region
of
from
the
where
spread
cattle
sections.
colonists,
the
surprising
the
When
oats
of
horses
that
had
later,
long
especially
introduced
did
best
into
in the
damp
208
.
them,
This
from
came
plains
cared
in
America
North.
the
by
is
for animal
ably
prob-
"
west-central
been
of
nothing
probably
in
Tartary
no
much
them.
Eurasian
after
has
cultivate
knew
oats
central
great
region
and
knew
not
they
long
has
Europe
over
did
wonder
wheat
barley
the
Romans
or
that
Egyptians
least, although
at
strange,
and
little
until
food
consider
The
oats.
is
It
"
human
we
kernels
Greeks
extensively
feed.
when
the
covering
for
used
not
were
and
wheat
relationships.
and
Origin
223.
sativa)
Asia
"
for.
They
cool,
moist
the
early
210
The
Principlesof Agronomy
holding them
far
apart.
twelve
long and
with
inches
intermediate
be nine to
panicle may
two
to eight inches wide,
The
from
measurements
most
common.
The
singlekernels
Each
husk,
kernel
rolled.
when
free from
of the husk
that
longerand
instead
with
of at
awn
the
end
occurs
with
as
that
of the wheat
hair.
Oats
crooked
grain is proportionatelymuch
oat
"
hull-less shell
as
identical with
the
Distribution.
225.
away
rye.
covered
comparatively thick
from the interior grain
threshing. A
grain
varieties known
on
wheat, barley,and
kernel
with
breaks
Some
the husk
the back
on
is covered
hull,which
or
the
uncommon,
somewhat
appears
rather
are
naturally adapted to
that have a cool,moist
are
zone
is
growing-season. The
crop
the moisture
not sensitive to kind of soil except as it regulates
favor
supply. Heavy soils rich in organic matter
distribution of moisture in the soil,and, therefore,
even
best. Sandy soil demands
are
frequent applicationsof
moisture for high yields.
countries
The
are
and
the
throughout
the
the favorable
that have
best
producers. A
of
temperature
Canada,
Parts
of Scotland
and
northern
the Scandinavian
enable
them
as
United
reasons
Austria-Hungary,France,
almost
to
climatic conditions
these
world
areas
and
oat
crop.
countries
have
are
producers.
too
For
small to
the five
Other
follows
as
United
211
the nations
years
Cereals
produced annually
States
932,000,000 bushels
European Russia
865,000,000 bushels
Germany
583,000,000 bushels
France
299,000,000 bushels
Canada
295,000,000 bushels
There
vast
are
and
gentina
Ar-
whose
the world
for wheat
as
exceed
oats
The
and
areas
Oregon
leadingstates
(8) New
the
in the West
which
have favorable
are
ington
Wash-
to
favorably. The
most
have
district is not
York
New
United
the
over
consin,
(3) Wis(1) Iowa, (2) Illinois,
diana,
(5) Nebraska, (6) Ohio, (7) In-
are
York, and
Washington
from
situated
are
in order
spread
are
states
(4) Minnesota,
but
grains, however,
in total weight.
oat-producing
and
other
These
corn.
(9) Michigan.
perhaps the
large. Many
small
and
most
Western
gon
Ore-
ideal climates,
mountain
valleys
generallyisolated
also
conditions.
average
of forty to
forty-fivebushels.
(1902-1911) are
acre-yields
as
By
states, the
leading
follows:
Washington
47.6 bushels
Montana
43.0 bushels
.
Idaho
41.7 bushels
Utah
41.5 bushels
The
212
The
than
226.
good
farmer
Varieties.
Oats
"
may
bushels.
hundred
one
all average
four bushels.
more
Principlesof Agronomy
classified into
are
groups
cording
ac-
planting,color,
and size and
are
spring and winter
winter
varieties principallyin
The
South
oats.
grows
order to throw
the growing-seasonin the cool part of the
short pedicels and
If the spikeletsare
borne on
year.
side oats, or
all on
side of the culm, they are
are
one
horsemane
oats ; if the head spreads,they are
ing.
spreadto
of
shape of panicle,season
shape of grain. There
"
"
These
are
the
Further
types.
oat
classifications
get
introduce
new
ties
varieties every year, and old varieA hopeless confusion
results rendering
new
names.
leadingvarieties for
Clydesdale, Swedish
227.
Seeding
the seed-bed
naming
the country
and
for oats
Select,and
oats
may
be
American
cultivation.
The
"
Banner.
preparation of
are
impossible. A few
Big Four, Silvermine,
sown
to
one
soon
as
four
The
inches, just
the land
can
be
eightpecks depending on
In some
districts as little as three or
supply available.
four pecks are used ; in others as much
twelve or fourteen
as
the grain
pecks. Harrowing may
as
begin as soon
is up and continue until it would injurethe plant. From
five to thirty inches of irrigation
be applied
water
may
in parts of the West, in one
to six applications.
228. Harvesting and
Oats
are
usually
marketing.
cut with the binder, though the header finds occasional
"
Cereals
Other
213
in the
should
oats
be cut
not
hard-dough stage,
the
through
time
is often
straw
so
reached
at
green
the
this
the shocks.
with
the second
"
The
system
to
be handled
its way
into the elevator
graded like wheat, except that
the groups
classed as white, mixed, and red.
are
Four grades in each group are made.
is standard.
229.
Uses.
The
"
important
most
of
pasty
The
of them.
in the
mass
of oats
use
cattle,hogs, and
as
White
is for
horses,
hull prevents
stomach
the grain is
nutritious,and easilymasticated.
palatable,
Rolled
oats,
oatmeal, is used
or
Scotch
of wit
between
who
said he
Scotchman
noticed
that
men
in
This
and
human
as
England
ate
rise to
gave
Dr.
them.
food.
Samuel
oats
The
were
The
clash
Johnson,
feed for
Scotchman
The
214
Principlesof Agronomy
that
sagely remarked
the best
and
best horses
the
in
grew
England
in Scotland.
men
impurities by-products
used for feed, as is the
factories
of oatmeal
are
frequentuse as bedding for animals,
straw, which has more
although,as roughage, the straw supplemented by some
hay or grain may carry stock over winter nearly as well
hulls,lightgrain,dust, and
Oat
"
"
Oats
wild hay.
as
alone, or mixed
with
make
peas,
fair
hay if cut before the graingets hard and while the leaves
and culms are
stillgreen.
Peas, of course, increase the
nitrogen in the ration.
230.
Enemies.
Wild
mustard
clean
seed, and
"
The
is bad ;
in
troublesome
ahead
mature
clean
some
Wild
fields
of the
crop
and
sulfate
iron
long sown
to
helpful
are
oats, because
shell out
oats.
rotation,
oats
and
all trouble
cultivation
spraying with
of eradication.
means
weeds
common
very
they
before harvest.
enter
the
same
oat
way
The
at
as
spores
treated
in
being perhaps
the best.
Rust
causes
much
be remedied
directly.
lodging.
and the army- worm
The chinch-bug,springgrain-aphis,
for the chinch-bug
Remedies
injurethe growing crop.
Clean cultivation and
have been given in Chapter XVI.
help to control the others. It is not usually
fall-plowing
profitableto spray or otherwise treat growing oats for
Cereals
Other
insects.
Grain
weevils
and
215
the Angoumois
grain moth
fatal to
man.
(Hordeum sativum)
BARLEY
From
of civilization,
man
has
vated
culti-
much
are
kernels
chief apparent
The
it stools less,has
shorter
straw, and
differences
that
the
husk,
usuallycovered with a lightly-adhering
the grain is crushed.
which breaks when
Barley heads
of
commonly have beards, although there are a number
lack hulls,and others
varieties that lack them;
some
lack both beards and hulls. These, however, are
not
as
yet in generaluse.
The
and, therefore,bear
spikeletsare single-flowered,
kernel.
Three
however, lie side by
spikelets,
only one
side. In one
type all three spikeletsbear grain,while
is fertile,
in another
one
giving
type only the middle
each
to one
rise to three rows
or
on
respectively,
row,
sides making six and two
side of the spike, the two
are
"
rows
hence
the
name
of these
types
two-rowed
and
six-rowed barley.
Two-rowed
is
216
The
either spring
or
barley
winter.
standard
are
(3) California.
and
are
Principlesof Agronomy
and
Hanna
are
States, Tennessee
Beardless
do
varieties of
Cahfornia
Feed
and
Bay
Of the two-rowed
rdost
popular. In
The
Southern
Brewing
type Chevathe
well.
six-rowed
in California.
common
her
These
Mountain
Winter,
States
and
winter
grow
232.
and
adaptation.
"
No
other
grain
withstands
crop
above
at
65"
north
latitude.
sea-level it yieldswell.
It is
on
well-drained
Peru,
In
loam_soils
at
11,000 feet
leadingcrop on the
Africa,though it does
with
moderate
moisture.
almost
It grows
considerable
on
any soil and withstands
drouth
Since
being, therefore, a good dry-farm crop.
it is the most
well in arid
alkali-resistant cereal,it grows
of the United
States.
Idaho is first,
with an average
acre-yields,
of about 40 bushels ; Utah second,with 38.5 bushels ; and
yields are
Washington third, with 37 bushels. Good
from 50 to 100 bushels, though 125 bushels have been
harvested in some
districts undfer irrigation.
For barley as for other
233. Sowing and cultivation.
small-grains,a fine, deep seed-bed is desired. This is
average
"
The
218
Principlesof Agronomy
forty-eighthours
within
removal
of dirt and
for both
feed and
for careful
thirds of all
shocking
"
"
and
uses.
"
same
reason
are
rejected." In
The
"
that
as
stacking. Since
carefullyhandled.
its way
of wheat.
and
grades
barley
grades 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Enemies
careful
and
be
must
that
"
235.
The
seed much
barley finds
similar to
of
other.
malt.
each
Careful
stated
weed
of
two
malt
Two-
by
groups
each there
are
and
chinch-bug,grain-aphis,
Hessian
dies,
fly. Remewhere pests are present, are fall-plowing,
rotation,
clean farming. Insects in the bin are controlled by
are
and
of
fumigation. Loose and closed smuts
ments,
barley are prevented by the formalin or hot water treattion
respectively.Where the rusts are present, selecof stiff
and plant-strawed,early-maturingvarieties,
ing
carbon-bisulfide
'
well-drained
on
land
not
so
rich
in organic matter
as
to
it.
cause
It is much
the Latin
but not
so
much
The
on
the
Pacific Coast
for horses.
In
countries
used
of
cereal foods.
(1) the
by-products are used in various ways:
for bedding and feed,although the beards, or awns,
straw
lower the feedingvalue; (2) hulls and broken grain for
feed products; and (3) malt sprouts and brewers' grain
(remnants from malt industry),
which are high in protein,
for feed, particularlyfor dairy cows.
In the West
and
Other
South, some
mixed
and
barleyis cut
Cereals
219
for hay.
green
Hull-less
barley
fairly
good hay,
The
value
related to
the livestock
and
corn
industry. Barley
and
is
closely
bran
are
biHion
world
and one-half
crop, barley yieldsonly one
bushels and ranks far below the other grains. In
the United
States
second, and
corn
(Secalecereale)
EYE
236.
Description
and
over
Spain
to
wheat
than
in
times
Roman
"
and
Rye
came
into
spread rapidly
any
other
crop.
Another
species occurs
as
distribution.
and
Central
to
sixth,wheat
oats
root-system
is fibrous,but
few
leaves and
producesmore
are
mixed.
Germany
more
than
The
220
Principlesof Agronomy
fourth
of the crop
in this order :
of the world.
Other
countries
low
fol-
any
"
seed-bed
increase
drillsin fall or
farms
the
yield.
spring at the
rate
It
is usually
of five
sometimes
sown
good
with
six
or
of the
Rye bread feeds a vast number
people in Russia, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and other
Europe. It is yielding
parts of Slavonic and Teutonic
food.
As animal food, the grain
place to wheat as human
is used mostly in mixed
It is better for hogs
rations.
238.
and
Uses.
horses
"
grain also
forms part of the mixtures for malt, and the by-products
used as animal food.
When
are
green, the plant furnishes
second-class
hay, or, if plowed under, a poor
green
The
is poor
feed on
of being
straw
manure.
account
tough. Fall-plantedrye is sometimes pastured by cattle
than
for
other
animals.
The
Other
Cereals
221
valuable
sheep. In parts of Europe the straw is more
than the grain,being woven
into mats, carpets, plates,
dishes,baskets, boxes, trunks, and various trinkets and
articles of apparel. Rye cannot, at present, be an important
In Europe, it
grain crop in the United States.
ranks high ; in the United States, it is only eleventh ; as
or
world
crop,
rice.
oats, and
(Oryza sativa)
RICE
Rice
has
distribution.
fed
Description and
nearly half of the population of the earth for about 4000
In 1694, a trading vessel carried the first rice
years.
Carolina.
It spread slowly until the last thirty
to South
during which time it has become a valuable crop
years,
239.
"
The
China
50 billion
.18
12 billion
high price
"
about
three
any
cents
other
that must
be removed
before
it is used
pounds
pound
"
gives
crop.
that the
panicles
husk called paddy
for food.
Upland
types, lowland
requiringto be
while upland
flooded a large part of the growing season,
is not irrigated.
The
most
240. Uses.
important use of rice is as
the hull ; rollers
food for man.
Machinery removes
covered with sheepskin,one
going faster than the other.
and
lowland
are
"
the two
pounds
pounds
billion pounds
The
are
70 billion
The
a
follows
America.
India
Japan
All Europe
it
as
Central
The
222
Principlesof Agronomy
feed.
food
flour
value.
Rice
straw
or
value.
EMMER
241.
wheat
Description and
and
differs from
spikeletsretain the
of
sub-species
chieflyin that in threshingthe
use.
it
kernels
"
Emmer
During
sections of the
United
profitablygrow oats
quantities.
Rustits
winter
ing
for feed produce constantly increas-
West
emmer
It is planted,as
are
are
recommending
qualities
winter
in the
winter
drouth-resistance
Both
use.
Black
and
It is grown
Europe, and east
in the glumes.
is a
and
"
four to twelve
an
acre.
BUCKWHEAT
It
{Fagopyrum esculentum)
Buckwheat
Description,distribution,and uses.
is not a true cereal,since it belongs to the dock, instead
of to the grass family. It came
from Manchuria
to New
York, and Pennsylvania, where it is still
England, New
largelyused as a catch-crop when other crops fail and it
is too late to replant them.
The plant has a tap-root ; a branched stem two or three
feet in height,each branch ending in a flat-topped
cluster
242.
"
Other
of white
of the
flowers;
The
and
but
it pays
crop
has
and
better
failed
shocked
than
and
crop
in order
land
the
as
value
for
hogs
used
for
feed
and
and
binder
wheat
Buck-
flour.
straw
It
is
it is rather
has
times
somecoarse
unpalatable.
READING
SUPPLEMENTARY
Cereals
in
America,
Field
Crops,
Field
Crop
Southern
T.
Wilson
F.
of
Hunt,
and
Crops,
pp.
280-410.
Warburton,
G.
Production,
Field
Cyclopedia
Livingston,
J. F.
American
175-268.
pp.
Duggar,
pp.
pp.
Agriculture,
145-193.
1-31, 68-77,
Vol.
II,
pp.
217-230.
202-206,
559-564.
U.
other
stems.
the
but
bedding,
planted
some
with
of pancake
poultry
and
where
succulent
source
be
hull.
yield is small
It is cut
the
dry
to
Its
on
loose
field may
mature.
those
brown,
or
gray
strong,
begin growth.
to
is famous
some
no
is dark
that
yet
like
something
rather
short
so
1, and
July
as
seed
with
is
223
leaves
The
covered
growing-season
late
as
broad
and
morning-glory.
angular,
Cereals
S. D.
No.
A.
139.
Farmers'
Bulletins
Emmer
and
Sixty-day
420.
Oats
Distribution
424.
Oats
Growing
427.
Barley
436.
Winter
443.
Barley
466.
Winter
Emmer.
518.
Winter
Barley.
Culture
Oats
for
the
Kherson
395.
Grain
Uses.
Crop.
in the
for the
Growing
Regions.
Oats.
and
the
Semi-arid
the
Southern
South.
Crop.
States.
485^94,
CHAPTER
PO
the
Of
which
labor
that
these
farmed.
machines
that
of
methods
have
is
promise
culture.
much
done
shown
243.
Field
Figs.
in
Origin.
62
valleys of Peru
and
these
about
countries
found
in
plant
made
to
In
neighborhood
they
used
it had
to
its
growth
by
that
and
it
the
the
it generally.
spread
into
gained
kind
in
of potato
time
to
the
became
soon
Indians
first
of
the
the
By
parts
larger and
224
and
gradually
was
This
useful
be
carried
in
the
1586.
pal
princi-
whites
increased
Europe
of
in
their
eighteenth
middle
of
the
first visited
Raleigh's expedition
Virginia
it until, by
on
hausting
ex-
in
wild
Colorado.
Virginia
well
of
and
potato-growing
Spaniards
Another
Meantime,
crop.
dependence
into
so
the
southern
Ireland
it did
slow
growing
was
when
1542.
and
and
Ireland
potato
Chile
its way
England
food
the
Mexico
in
modify
diggers
and
of
conditions
will
65.
to
The
"
that
farmer
of
single day,
cultivators,
the
tensivel
in-
areas
absence
in
acres
implements
relieve
hand-labor.
are
of
Planters,
to
noticeable
forty
to
attention,
small
on
hand-
on
constant
handled
is
ten
cover
there
although
There
and
methods
much
depending
be
crops
The
important.
most
and
crops," potatoes
root
fertihzers
requiring
and
"
as
produced,
are
tuberosum)
{Solanum
by far the
are
they
demand
TOES
designated
crops
sugar-beets
by
TA
XIX
the
tury,
cen-
tury,
cen-
favorable
larger footholds
on
Principlesof Agronomy
The
226
depth
various placeson this stem, new
branches,
bearing tubers
horizontally outward
planting. At
stolons,
or
end.
at the
the
grow
Meanwhile, from
upright stem
just at
depends
stem
two
to
the base
four roots
Fig.
eightinches
or
63.
"
Constant
and
have
cultivation
six
extended
is necessary
grow
from
of tuber-bearing stolons.
the
on
roots
have
or
five feet
potato
yields.
four
for good
well-drained.
spread
Tubers
from
preferred.
The angular stem, from one
to five feet in length,usually
about two or two and a half feet high, stands upright or
the open
droops across
depending on the variety
space,
with
and
The
leaves are
soil conditions.
compound
small leaflets growing in the axil and scattered irregularly
or
seven
potatoes
as
largeas
the double-fist
are
Potatoes
between
the
from
to three inches
227
which
thick, pointed, oval leaf-parts,
are
long.
Buds
borne sparselyat the stem
end and
or
eyes are
close together at the bud end.
A stringpassed round
the tuber and held in position with a pin in each eye
the
shows
of eyes.
spiralarrangement
Cross-section^
of a tuber show three nearly concentric,and one
irregular
one
part.
The
starch and
outermost,
so
peeling. Then
called
the
thin
comes
internal
as
the
external
cortical,is
poor
in
be almost
in
entirelyremoved
thicker
a
layer, rich in starch,
cortical, surrounding the external
to
The
228
Principlesof Agronomy
The
from
comes
hill. Often
sell them.
to
be
confusion
Some
avoided, but
possible.
Bliss Triumph,
Early Rose
are
given
should
variation
bud
found
was
are
new
in
seed-sown
in order
names
in different sections
be
not
can-
nearly eliminated
as
of
as
common
Distribution
without
containingmedium
and
severe
adaptation.
frost, and
moisture
A cool,even
"
ing-season
grow-
soil
loose, warm
throughout
the
season,
are
potato-growing. Ideal
conditions in Scotland, Germany,
and Russia
produce
almost
unbelievable
bushels
yields. Eighteen hundred
the seed-farm of Lord Rosebery
to the acre
was
on
grown
also has a good climate
near
Edinburgh. Scandinavia
for potato production.
The large countries that lie in this section of Europe
all heavy producers, ranking as follows in total proare
duction
:
(1) Germany, (2) Russia, (3) Austria-Hungary,
the conditions
and
most
favorable
to
States fifth,and
Great
Britain sixth.
Out
about
and
seven-tenths
billions,while
the
grows
United
States
States.
Maine
leads
Potatoes
229
Principlesof Agronomy
The
230
170;
except Maine
the states
only Maine
district.
irrigated
rank
(1) New
averaging
more
65.
while
"
total producers,
ninety-two bushels.
bushels is a good acre-yield,
than
potato-producing section,
Aroostook
County,
Maine.
to
hundred
eight
irrigateddistrict seven
bushels are
produced occasionally,and one
favorable conditions.
bushels under especially
thousand
farmers
may
bushels
hundred
248.
As
All
145.
in the
hundred
Good
Great
Idaho,
ington,
bushels; Wash-
in the
:
are
Wyoming,
Maine,
Fig.
and
Colorado, 160;
are
other leaders
Utah, 180
and
bushels; Montana
200
Some
an
Preparation
expect from
three
hundred
to
five
acre.
of land.
"
Farmers
can
well afford
spend
extra
time
and
labor
Potatoes
231
The
drying,which is detrimental.
high water-holding
ally.
capacityof soils due to manuring increases yieldsmateribe
To serve
the organic matter
must
efficiently
thoroughlymixed with the soil. Old decomposed manure
does this very
does
sometimes
well, but fresh manure
harm
than
coarse
more
good. Moreover, too much
in limy soils aggravates
organic matter
potato scab.
fertilizers are used, potatoes respond
Where
commercial
readilyto potash.
bed
is essential in looseningthe seedDeep fall-plowing
A rough
and in holding water
for the next season.
surface left over
winter prevents any run-off and gives
clods and liberate
frost an
opportunity to disintegrate
plant-food. A disk completes the fining process long
This hastens the warming
before a plow could be used.
of the soil and reduces the enormous
evaporationof early
Another
disking,
spring by the formation of a mulch.
two
or
one
or
harrowings to keep the mulch loose, will
leave a deep, mellow, moist seed-bed ready for planting.
varieties have much
249.
Seed.
Some
higher yielding
than do others; therefore, the variety
possibilities
chosen is important. One disturbingfactor in choosing
districts cannot
use
home-grown
potato seed is that some
all the
seed.
The North
ships to the South practically
In
seed used there.
Arizona also imports seed potatoes.
leys
valthe West, some
have small farms in mountain
growers
which furnish seed for their large farms in the lower
valley. In most cases selected home-grown seed is best.
After a good varietyis chosen, the next most
important
thing to consider is disease,which may reduce the yield
"
from
5 to
be detected
from
50,
or
even
100
per
cent.
Most
diseases
Absolute
can
freedom
is desired.
disease,if possible,
Sometimes
varieties deteriorate,
or
"
run
out."
This
The
232
need
is
Principlesof Agronomy
happen if proper
tendency to use or
leaving the small ones
thus
practiced. There
selection is
not
sell the
marketable
for seed.
potatoes,
It has been
found
that potato hills vary a great deal not only in the ntunber
of potatoes they produce, but also in the kind.
Some
hillshave
from
four to
undesirable
are
of medium-sized
from
set
tubers
most
are
fair
desirable.
any
produce
to
is not
seems
other and
the
on
if such
small
Seed
is true, there is
from
potatoes
hill. A
bin
or
selection is
patch
fork he
desirable
pit are
objectionto using
hills. If, however,
used, most
so
simple that
farmer
every
low
fol-
can
which
part
can
may
When
will
has
farmer
will know
of them
hills.
poor
it successfully.The
of the
no
seed
peg
can
For
easilyselect
more
cal
techni-
be driven
close to the
The
234
to
by
Principlesof Agronomy
who
man,
fillsempty
notches
or
removes
is watched
set if two
are
acres
one
or
more.
There
is
no
planting. From
two
Light,
to
common.
warm
be
the surface
sunlight,
which will injurethem by causing chlorophyll
to develop.
and late
Early potatoes are planted as soon as possible,
ones
districts,
early June
usuallyin May, though in some
In the South, January to April is the
is the best time.
districts in July
time; a second crop is planted in some
varies
or
August. The distance between hills and rows
yet not be
so
from
twelve
will
plant an
251.
liear
to
Treatment
The
or
inches.
twenty
the
potatoes
two
weeks
two
to
fifteen bushels
to
"
are
If the
up
ground crusts,
help them
may
the
vines
are
harrowing is advisable.
in another
week
of the space
be applied. This
or
two,
the middle
between
is to
prepares
furrow.
From
may
any
later when
Ten
during growth.
to expose
acre.
harrowing before
through. About
three
as
five to
twenty-fiveinches
appliedin one
weeks, or so soon
be
to
as
of
irrigationwater
five or six applications. Every
or
possibleafter each irrigation
Potatoes
235
graduallyleaving a wider
untouched
space
to
the vines
as
increase in size.
This may
be continued until the
be injuredby the horse or cultivator. Then
would
Harvesting and
harvested
as
the market
soon
Early potatoes
largeenough to be put
are
cient
suffi-
is necessary.
marketing.
they
as
plants
are
on
long as is consistent
with
maturity, in order to gain
or
all possibleadvantage from the cool, autumn
growingSmall patches are
season.
frequentlydug with forks
turned out with the plow; but diggers are gainingin
or
for largefields. A shovel blade
importance,particularly
;
under
passes
upward
also sort
some
time
same
have rotatingarms
machines
the tubers.
that throw
The
potatoes
or
The
stored in
pitsor
potatoes
that
directly,or
as
at
is left
"
or
to
out
are
the vines;
picked up
digger, and
be hauled
sacked,
away
cellars.
are
sold
go
either to
consumers
to
to
and
sell at harvest
or
to
store
to
to
and
Because
of its perishability,
the
spring markets.
in spring if it cannot
be disposed of. Some
crop is waste
sellhalf and store half ; others belong to cooperagrowers
tive
associations that assist in marketing. Wherever
ping
shipis practiced,carload lots of singlevarieties sell to
the best advantage. Careful sorting and grading also
help sales and prices. Both boxes and sacks are used
for shipping.
253.
goes
Storage.
into
"
The
pits loose
or
part of the
crop
that
is stored
in
The
236
Pits cost
boxes.
consist of
rick
and
Principlesof Agronomy
less than
trench
few
heaped-up with
earth.
straw
more
to
do
They ordinarily
cellars.
inches
deep in which
and
potatoes
covered
is set
with
straw
aid in ventilation
closed
be
may
with
cloth
in
Pits should
be emptied when
once
freezing weather.
to a cellar.
opened, the potatoes being sold or removed
The
important points in storage are : (1) to keep the
temperature
freezing,but
above
not
over
F. ; (2)
for disease and
40"
to
Weeds
and
insects.
potato
should
In these
better than
are
sacks;
254.
veniently
con-
are
All
"
that
none
weeds
common
control
demanded
Of
weed.
any
troublesome
are
intensive culture
The
trouble
by the
insects, the
the
or
Colorado
the time
potato
Arsenate
to
of
leaves
lead
aids
beetle, which
the
eats
leaves
of bloom.
Diseases.
"
rotation.
Potatoes
organisms, which
from
often
are
cause
attacked
a
readilyby
loss in
asitic
par-
district of
Potatoes
237
scab
are
found
in
Late
blight(Phytophthora
infestans)
,alihough.iiot
prevalent in the West, is the most
serious disease in the East.
It caused the Irish famine of the
forties,"during one
of which
300,000 people perished and thousands
year
The
disease attacks
the vines
emigrated to America.
and tubers causing the tubers to rot.
weather
Damp
"
Fig.
66.
"
Potatoes
killed
by Fusarium
wilt.
to
water
and
encourage
it.
mixing the
two
solutions.
There
should
be
burning.
Early blight {Alternariasolani) does its damage earlier
than late blight. It attacks the vines, turnin the season
sufficient lime to prevent
The
238
reducing
and
yellow
ing them
mixture
Principlesof Agronomy
yield. Bordeaux
the
spray
tacks
(Fusarium oxysporum) is widespread. It atthe stems, causes
wiltingby cloggingthe tracheal
into the tuber,forming a dark
tubes, and grows downward
Dry
rot
ring which
in
shows
end.
infection
showing
All seed
discarded.
be
ground, rotation
Since
is essential to its
control.
Rosette,
and
attacks the
by black
noted
be
may
rosettes
of leaves and
tubers in
1000
infected
mercuric
are
bichloride
the remedies
in the
lives several years
farming and rotations are
and
soil
or
on
is soakingtwo
gallonsof
are
beneficial.
hours in formalin
water.
Fresh
on
the
1 part to
the disease
plants, clean
necessary.
soak
to
other
causes
form
to
Because
Scab
the
This
(HgCla) solution
used.
It
through the
eats
seed
common
potatoes.
tubers
small worthless
discard
To
of water
the
on
thus
vines.
spots
from
stems
phloem,
the
{Corticiumvagum), is
Rhizoctonia
or
manure
tuber
As
The
solution
it survives
seed
in
treatment
pint to thirty
one
and lime
causing
to
seem
age
encour-
the disease.
Seed
means
of control.
hopeful
to
cause
Second
seed
treatment
are
the
most
means
growth
is the production of
new
tubers when
Potatoes
239
is
drouth
in
some
cases.
are
during tuber formation
very
sensitive to sudden
changes of temperature. Heavy
and irrigation,
abnormal
conditions
at times, cause
storms
that are not easilyexplained.
value.
The
of
256. Use
and
most
important use
food.
Large parts of Ireland,
potatoes is for human
Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, and Russia are
dependent on the potato as the principalfood product.
A generalcrop failure would probably cause
famine in
a
districts. The
some
per capita consumption is twenty
bushels in Germany, as against five and one-half in the
Growing potatoes
"
United
States.
in tropical and
toasted
used
to
some
make
Desiccated
potatoes
frigidzones.
potato chips.
for stock-feed
and
valuable
are
Potatoes
are
foods
sliced and
In addition, potatoes
for the
dextrin.
manufacture
They
are
are
of
sometimes
for
exceeds
any
one
of them.
SUPPLEMENTARY
The
Potato, Samuel
The Potato, Grubb
READING
Fraser.
and
Guilford.
The
240
The
Industry
Potato
and
of
No.
D.
Agronomy
Colo.
Colorado,
American
Bui.
No.
A.
Farmers'
91.
Potato
W.
Farming,
Bulletins
175,
Fitch,
and
Potatoes
and
320.
Potato
Spraying.
365.
Potato
Growing
386.
Potato
Culture
407.
The
410.
Potato
533.
Good
Potato
Culls
Seed
Potato-tuber
H.
the
Olin,
pp.
519-529.
170"188.
pp.
Treatment.
Crops
Root
in
Irrigated
Truck
as
Diseases.
Food.
Farms
of
the
West.
Crop.
Source
Potatoes
as
Sections.
Northern
on
as
II,
Diseases
295.
544.
Vol.
Agriculture,
Irrigation
American
S.
of
of
Johnson.
Cyclopedia
U.
Principles
and
of
Industrial
How
to
Produce
Alcohol.
Them.
Bennett,
TJw
242
from
Principlesof Agronomy
of his pupils,Achard,
one
Fig.
67.
"
Thinning
sugar-beets, Germany.
how
1835, the Germans, realizing
gained both
from
the
industry and
the German
tons.
Soon
since.
Beet-culture
of Europe
about
produced 40,000
and
1830, but
the French
much
tons
improved
of sugar
output
and
led, as
culture
scale.
commercial
had
In
Germany
it has done
finallyextended
it did not
become
to
the
United
States
1879, when
Root
Crops
243
extent
to such
grown
an
is beet
Europe
"
below
the
from
crown
which
about
in thick
clusters.
These
inches to two
feet,and
in width
out
dozen
in
vary
from
leaves grow
length from six
two
to
six inches.
On
ples,
oppositesides of the root are two depressionsor dimthe dimples
usually slightlyspiralin shape. From
and from the central tap-root of the beet, fibrous feeding
branch
roots
off, gathering food and moisture from a
rather largearea, sometimes
to a depth of five or six feet.
Cross-sections
of
beet
show
series of concentric
contains
the
sugar.
The
root
should
taper
that
should
weigh
from
one
the demands
year,
second
to
one
and
of factory
seed-stalks,from
four feet tall and considerablybranched, bear
two
to
from one-fifth to two
pounds of seed for each mother
beet.
259.
Adaptation
and
distribution.
do best in cool,moist
seasons.
They
are
not
"
long growing
frost,being grown
244
The
Fig.
68.
"
Principlesof Agronomy
Sugar-beets
require
vigorous
leaf growth.
Root
Crops
245
Well-drained
extensivelyin climates too cool for corn.
soils,varying through sands and loams to clay loams,
used ; soils containingsmall quantitiesof alkali also
are
Salt, however, causes
yield satisfactorycrops.
some
of sugar.
Abundant
difficultyin the extraction
shine
sunis necessary
which is entirely
to build up the sugar
carbohydrate and, therefore,the result of photosynthesis.
be drained, where moisWhere
the soils are deep and can
ture
is suppliedby rainfall or irrigation,
and where sunshine
is abundant, sugar-beet
portant
growing can become an imindustry.
Northern
United
States from Virginia to Canada
is
though but small
adapted to the culture of sugar-beets,
The
produce them.
following
parts of the section now
in the order
of their sugar
named
states
production
excel the others in this industry: Colorado, California,
These
Michigan, Utah, Idaho, and Wisconsin.
states, in
1913 contained four-fifths of the factories. The industry
is capable of almost indefinite expansion.
In Europe, the beet-growing nations are the same
that
lead in potato production, namely, (1) Germany, (2)
Russia, (3) Austria-Hungary, and (4) France, and their
rank is the order named.
Nearly every nation grows
some.
"
The
246
mellows
fall-plowing
Principlesof Agronomy
the seed-bed
and
permitswinter
and
spring rainfall to penetrate deeply. Two or three doublediskingsin the spring will firm the seed-bed and conserve
Fig.
69.
"
Sugar-beets
require
large
amount
of hand
labor.
for six
or
seven
years
to insure
high
sugar
content.
If
Root
Crops
247
person
is a variable
sugar
about
costs
is sown
at the rate
result in
fifteen cents
of ten to twenty
in
From
team.
261.
usually
with
four-row
in
rows
Treatment
"
cultivated
show
between
the
beets
boll.
rows
The
blocks
place. Four
This
and
or
the
and
six to ten
every
are
thinned
five sprouts
thick
with
four-row
rows
removed
are
blocked
are
hoes.
beet in
or
done
to
acre,
localitiesand later
some
one
an
"
"
short
pounds
and
depth of planting
grains
The
few years.
pound in America
a
by
come
means
hand
from
to
one
planting to insure
of
one
seed
good
stands make
follows
lessens
evaporation,and
the
greater
does
compact
soil. Not
many
cultivations
can
be
The
248
Principlesof Agronomy
the
as
given after irrigation,
injured. Some
times early in
be
as
to
or
seven
262.
Diseases.
should be
The
in
farmers
the
to
as
some
on
so
large
harrowing six
season.
for
necessary
well under
keep weeds
selection of beets
causing widespread
a
become
soon
count
Cultivation
intensive
constant
from
and
so
"
leaves
beets
control.
prevented diseases
Heart-rot, leaf-spot,
has
losses.
with
pigweed, Russian
Heart-rot
disease
and
blight (Phoma
of beets, is the
betce),a
hindrance
worst
to
distinctive
sugar-beet
of seed
treatment
with
Bordeaux
mixture
prevents
dry.
The
crown
sends
out
new
mixture.
Beet
about
leaves
which
also attacked
littleis known.
into the
roots
Rotation
and
advocated.
are
The
by
bacterial
disease makes
disease
its way
of sugar.
of control
The
250
beets
of
sort
loosened
are
diggeror
The
Principlesof Agronomy
positionby
puller,and then topped by hand.
and
raised from
of the beet
crown
far
their
some
as
as
the beets
usually hauled
company
ton
or
"
is,on
the farmer
pays
according to
slidingscale.
Use
265.
and
sugar-beetsis
have
either
sugar
value.
"
feed
The
so
"
much
purity,
"
that
of
important use
of sugar, though they
most
The
value.
tops
are
valuable
tain
ground because they conof the mineral
elements
of fertility.
The
most
pulp,a by-product from the sugar industry,is a valuable
stock-feed,being highly succulent.
facturing
Beet-sugar manufarm operationbecause it
become
can
never
a
requires much
expensive machinery and many
cated
complioperations.
and
are
often pastured
and
content
in the manufacture
considerable
flat rate
has
Beet-culture
the cash
and
and
returns.
the
decided value
The
on
the farm
aside from
ture,
deep plowing, the intensive cul-
fertilization necessary
in successful production
of beets improve farming methods
materially
the
increase
controlled
yields of other
and
The
are
on
mutually
business
crops.
methods
introduced
Weeds
cases.
the
sugar
are
also
into agriculture
company
Root
266.
Manufacture
removed.
The
Crops
251
When
the
stream
of water
factory is
ready to use the beets in a bin, the end is opened and a
section of the floor in the bottom
of the V-shaped bin
carries them
washed
are
of
sugar.
beets tumble
to
and
"
into
An
steamed
The
juice,or
gar, is mixed
whereas
the
under
pressure
to
dissolve out
with lime
they
to
which
to
the sugar.
ties,
impuriprecipitate
MANGEL-WURZELS
267.
Mangel-wurzels,or mangolds, as
Description.
in that
variouslycalled,differ from sugar-beets,
"
they are
they are usuallymuch larger,weighing from four to six
pounds. Generally they grow partlyout of the ground,
and are
in shape, being largestsome
disirregular
very
The
252
below
tance
Principlesof Agronomy
the crown;
they
reddish
are
in color,with
"
of water
tons
dry
and
on
must
be handled.
The
food
value
of the
matter
account
is
of the
excess
prepared as it is
for sugar-beets. Seeding is done
with
one-row
drills,
with four-row drills,
or
by hand on small areas.
They
are
planted at the rate of six to fifteen pounds to the acre
and at a depth of one
inches.
to two
Plantingis usually
The
done in April or May.
small plants grow
slowly
and
it requirescare
in the first cultivation to prevent
tion
attencoveringup the rows.
Mangels require the same
in regardto thinning,
as
sugar-beets
except that they
left farther apart. As to cultivation and irrigation,
are
the same
methods
apply.
When
frost kills the outer
leaves,thereby stopping
growth, mangels are ready to harvest. They are sometimes
pulled by hand or by plowing a furrow close to the
Beet diggers are
also used to loosen the roots.
row.
269.
Culture.
"
The
of water.
land
should
be
Root
in baked
Mangels
from
vary
About
ten
to
under
removed, the
dig.
to
favorable
be expected under
may
are
253
hard
especially
forty tons
thirty tons
soils are
Crops
conditions.
irrigation.
should
roots
Yields
temperature
be stored
just above
be maintained.
freezingcan
TURNIPS
AND
to
is
RUTABAGAS
tabagas
Turnips (Brassica rapa) and ru(Brassica campestris) belong to the mustard
include
family (Cruciferse),which
cabbage, kohlrabi,
and rape in addition to several garden vegetablessuch as
radish and cauliflower.
smaller than
Turnips are much
much
a
more
rutabagas. They have
regular shape ;
and white rather than yellowishor orange
flesh. They
have a much
shorter growing season,
and since they are
more
watery they are a less valuable feed. They have
while rurough foliageattached to a short, flat crown,
tabaga
270.
Description.
"
leaves
take
on
bluish
Both
free from
borne
are
color.
have
the flesh.
on
neck, become
smooth, and
The
regula
rutabaga is long and irdistinct outer
layer that peels
The
of both
root-systems
are
paratively
com-
small.
271.
Culture.
"
fine seed-bed
is required on
account
of the root-system.
best, and a moist,
Sandy soils seem
cool climate is essential to best development. The seeds
less
are
should
thinned
may
be
be
to
about
six
or
as
far apart
beets
as
planted for
winter
use
as
and
in the
late
as
rows
should
row.
July, as
be
Turnips
a
catch-
The
254
Principlesof Agronomy
should
be
twice
sown
or
acre
thick and
as
between
of
rows
corn.
used ; rutabagas
usually planted in
are
are
in Canada
grown
in the United
food.
Turnips are used also for human
As feed, rutabagas rank high, enabling the farmer to
greatly reduce grain rations. Five to fifteen tons of
turnips and ten to twenty tons of rutabagas are good
for beef cattle,
valuable
acre-yields.Rutabagas are
hogs, and sheep. Because they keep well into spring,
well for this purpose,
particularlywhere silos
they serve
used.
not
are
They are easy to feed, since only slicing
is not
extensive.
is necessary,
and
this
able
saving of time givesthem consideradditional value.
Turnips are used for sheep and
hog pasture. They pull up easilyand the use of leaves
well as roots is possible.
as
(Daucus carota)
CARROTS
273.
Description.
"
The
root
short and
cylindrical,
or
reddish
yellow, orange,
or
breaks away
and
more
outward
from
an
of carrots
thick; they
in
color.
may
be tapering,
may
be white,
An
outer
layer
watery
palatable. A medium-sized
root-system spreads
finely divided ; white flowers
; the leaves are
are
borne
are
cup-shaped.
the second
year
the seeds
Root
274.
Culture
well-rotted
mellow
and
farm
use.
seed-bed.
255
"
is
manure
Crops
incorporated,make
warm,
should
be about
of cultivators; the
four
inches
apart.
requiresshallow planting.
thirtyinches apart to permit use
should
carrots
stand
from
If thicker,they should
be
two
to
thinned.
SUPPLEMENTARY
READING
The
U. S. D. A. Yearbook
Harris, Utah
American
Bui. No.
Irrigation
Farming, W.
U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.
136.
52.
392.
548.
567.
568.
615.
Bulletins
H.
Sugar-beet.
of Sugar Beets.
Irrigation
Storingand Marketing Sweet Potatoes.
Sugar-Beet Growing under Irrigation.
Conditions.
Sugar-Beet Growing under Humid
Leaf Spot, a Disease of the Sugar-beet.
F.
S.
XXI
CHAPTER
(Medicago
ALFALFA
agriculture
Permanent
there
must
raising
be
must
accompany
valuable
are
In
have
this
the
successful
alfalfa
is
unexcelled.
and
hay
the
could
lands
fact, it made
An
be
used
alfalfa
has
its
adaptability
spread.
States
Methods
of
which
the
on
in winter
been
of
stock.
livethat
been
cent
of
is
produced
in
arid
duced
pro-
value.
West.
the
soils
effect
alfalfa
of
alfalfa
the
they
the
west
when
inestimable
of
the
farm.
West
when
or
and
and
the
settlement
has
per
and
alfalfa
largely
is
the
of
all these
of
crop
the
Mississippi.
in
shown
are
crop
promoted
72.
Name
Alfalfa
hogs
regions
ranch
of
pastures
climates
95
handling
to
"
world
arid
to
that
United
275.
In
yields of delicious
marked
So
influences
Figs. 70
are
hay
production
both
on
possible pioneer
and
"
native
not
little feed,
In
essential
are
supplementing
range
Horses
poor
Pasturage
In
in
factor
important
an
livestock-
Good
meat-producers.
or
only
burden;
milk-
as
production.
crop
of
beasts
as
necessary
Not
in rotation, but
of crops
variety
diversified.
be
must
sativa)
is,
origin.
alfalfa
"
seems
account
has
or
"
to
and
be
of the
Of
"
been,
"
thirty
known
lucern
gaining
adoption
256
forty
or
in
"
are
various
rapidly
of that
name
parts
widely
most
in
by
names
of
used.
popularity,
in treatises
The
258
fifteen years
to
extent.
some
into
ago.
from
it
Practicallyevery state now
grows
Although alfalfa had been introduced
California
southern
York
Principlesof Agronomy
the favorable
start
were
was
and
New
the
Chile
no
widespread cultivation.
haps
Per-
Mexico,
and
before
century
conditions
necessary
of farmer
into
nearly
Europe
introduction, there
from
ranchman.
Relationships.
"
Alfalfa
In the genus
states.
Medi-
fiftyspeciesare found.
The
legume family is easily distinguished by peashaped flowers, by pods that break open
along both
ment
sutures, by the compound leaves,and by the tiny enlargecago,
about
on
the roots
called nodules,
feed upon
tubercles.
or
In these
gen
plant taking free nitrofrom the air,and assisting
greatlyin the maintenance
In the valleys and
the hills of the
of soil fertility.
on
West, there are fiftyor more
speciesof native legumes
the great
which
have probably had much
to do with
of virgin lands.
fertility
277. Roots.
Young alfalfa plants send down
portionat
prolong tap-roots bearing fine branching roots.
The first stem
is single,
and lacks the crown
that develops
with age.
The plant is decidedly perennial livingfrom
four to fiftyor sixtyyears depending on the favorableness
the
"
long as
root-systems.
common
cave
continue
to
grow
This
fifteen to twenty
in well-drained
results in immense
feet in length
in
roots
are
root
Alfalfa
feet long,while Coburn
fifty-six
the roof of
feet below
tunnel
hundred
one
the surface of
259
and
trated
pene-
twenty-nine
an
limit
than
depth because roots will not penetrate more
six or eight inches into a soil devoid of air.
Though they are nearly always singletap-roots, three
four large roots
sometimes
or
displace the singleone.
About
The
half
an
network
they
the
there
are
most
al-
that do the
feedingform
form
sod because
not
are
broken,
fine roots
nodules
crown.
they do
stoloniferous.
plantdies,since
The
fine roots
in the soil,but
not
are
These
the
below
which
are
no
either
are
separate
which
vary
masses
ments
enlarge-
or
in size from
small
These
be found
pin-head to that of a pea.
by
may
carefullydigging into the root-system of almost any
alfalfa plant. Some
plants, however, bear only a few.
Stems
278.
for
near
crown
are
crops
six inches
and
hay,
the
or
crown
When
"
shoots
new
come
out
cut, the
Some
the
stems
from
As
are
make
into
vested
har-
the thickened
and
more
crowns
becoming divided
across,
distinct parts.
four
leaves.
two
some
or
more
are
three
the land
rough by standing
five inches above the surface.
If a harrow
splits
without cuttingthe roots, separate plants may
form.
the ground
develop as soon
as
These
is warm.
steadily until blossoms appear,
grow
when
they stop increasingin size in order to develop
from six to sixty
seed. At this time, the stem
may
vary
In
inches
spring,young
in
stems
length
1
and
The
from
Book
one-sixteenth
of Alfalfa,p. 6.
to
one-fourth
The
260
of
in
inch
an
Principlesof Agronomy
and
stems,
containingmore
than
much
coarser
A
succeeding crops.
longer period of
than by
used by the first crop, in most
cases,
of
those
growth
is
later crops.
leaves
Pinnately-compound
from
the main
with
bracts
Three
middle
The
usually arise
larger than the
the
of
presence
central
vein
of the
any
form
to
leaves
much
one
indicate
leaves.
and
stem
the other.
on
and
at
slightlysaw-toothed
sends out parallelside veins
the upper
of which
is
the
which
much
then
axis,
one
side ones;
two
still other
rudimentary
compound
leaf may,
stems,
of the leaflets,
which
the midrib
from
out
simply divide
oval-shaped,
are
end.
outer
show
darker
or
on
green
at
The
both
and
midrib
surfaces,
the lower
slightlyhairy.
279.
branch
Flowers
and
and
seed.
the main
bear
stem
least
cluster of
one
alfalfa,
purple in common
varieties bear yellow and others greenish
flowers.
The calyx is five-parted,
compound at the base
and sharply pointed at the singletips. Separate petals,
pea-shaped
though some
nine
stamens
flowers
in
that
At
"
are
bundle,
one
alone, and
compound
that
Alfalfa
261
urally
greenish-yellow,or brown.
Though alfalfa seed is natkidney-shaped, a large percentage of it is angular
in various
other
due
they
as
to lack
the
on
Peas
grow.
of
room
usually slow
touching each
flattened on
are
opposite sides
curlingin the pod exerts pressure
than
with
tough
the
on
properly leaves
brown
are
but
of the seeds
rather
corners,
Failure to mature
others
account
on
ways,
sides
ends.
or
shrunken
some
seed-coats.
seeds;
These
are
"
and
in
number
of strains have
which
they have
become
adapted
section.
These
Turkestan,
and
to
grown
to the
for
regionsin
long enough to
from
taken
time
strains
are
(3) Arabian,
(6) Grimm.
given rise
been
been
Half
so-called
(1)
"
use
of that
common,"
(4) Peruvian,
(2)
(5) variegated,
dry-farm has
dry-land alfalfa,which probably
century
on
the
strain. None
of
slightlyfrom the common
these are of specialimportance save
Grimm, which resists
winter-killingto a remarkable
degree. Variegated, a
with Siberian,has variouslycolored flowers.
cross
differs but
Perhaps
we
may
them
As
The
262
Principlesof Agronomy
of
our
crop
continues
be
to
"
"
common
alfalfa.
Distribution
United
adaptation. Western
States, Argentina, Chile, Peru, southern Europe, North
central Asia
Africa, South Africa, Australia, and western
281.
"
and
"
are
semi-
rigorous
else snow-covered.
The greatest production by
or
states in the United States is as follows : (1) Kansas, (2)
Nebraska, (3) Colorado, (4) California, (5) Idaho, (6)
and
Utah, (7) Montana,
(8) Oklahoma,
(9) Wyoming,
Mexico.
(10) New
A deep, fertile,
well-drained soil permits the greatest
development of the crop, especiallywhen lime is present
in liberal quantities,
it is likelyto be where no leaching
as
has occurred.
The
then supply
deep-feeding roots can
food and moisture abundantly. The rightkind of bacteria
must
also be
plants grow
soil from
only
an
seed-bed.
few
it if the
new
necessary
Porous
over
bacteria
sub-soils
are
then
not
the
die.
Some
patch
the
new
are
lacking
desirable
young
oculate
in-
in the
for root
and
responds readily to manuring, irrigation,
cultivation by increased returns; it also produces much
forage on
dry-farms. Then, too, it yields best when
only five or six years on one piece of ground, but
grown
Alfalfa
will continue
to
263
when
conditions
favorable.
even
That
such
twenty
years
crop
are
most
Preparation
282.
of
the
land
seed
cannot
at hand.
are
manure
warm
get
hold
and
seeding.
allows
rainfall to
Fallenter
unless food
and
"
increase the
moisture
farmyard
available
water
and
Treatment
with
during growth.
"
Some
or
spike-tooth,spring-tooth,
farmers
disk
harrows
row
harin
Principlesof Agronomy
The
264
fall.
springor
Insects,disease,or weeds
Light applications of
all soils in
on
irrigation
special attention.
on
pay
and
some,
Irrigationwater
From
returns.
leading
coveringlargeareas
in
or
small
"
made
aid in
Over-irrigationmenaces
than one
since floodingfor more
day
with
"
difficult patches
over
arid sections.
which
manure
are
applications
ten
to
one
farm
creased
forty inches brings in-
about
to
up
necessitate
may
streams.
tricts,
dis-
some
at
time may
considerable
a
the
Conservation
of rainfall is
fundamental
in
economy
time
Harvesting.
Under
"
may
the crop
follow the mower
to
normal
cut
almost
immediately
Rakes
directlyon
"
can
save
the
leaves
than
valuable
more
swath-cured
hay suffers
piles.
moreover,
When
and
bull-rakes
on
are
used, hay
kinds
unload
of forks
and
the wagons,
which
entirely,though loaders
dry-farms, a ton to the
and
for the
six to
one-half
season
eight are
conditions.
tons
is
nets
are
acre
are
good
harvested
used
from
one
under
an
by
wagons.
acre
hand
almost
sections.
some
frequent.
return
on
in
pays;
pact
com-
in heavy windrows
loaded
are
in
than
being loaded
and
the hay
rainy weather,
swath
cures
Various
two
in the
more
In
hay.
makes
and
Four
one-half
or
On
to
five tons
irrigation,
though
under
favorable
skill. Sheds
requiresmuch
not
of Agronomy
Principles
The
266
necessary
to stack
preferable,since it is
are
carefullyunder
cover.
loose in the
hay is fed on the farm or marketed
pressed
shipments are made, the hay is comvicinity.When
into bales weighing from 50 to 150 pounds. Baled
for market,
and loose hay are usually weighed on wagons
often measured.
Inaccuracy in
although stacks are
Most
Fig.
72.
"
Hay
should
be
fed
on
the
farm.
Alfalfa
267
beef cattle,and
because
Ground
of
hay is used
It wastes
in mixed
not
feeds
as
been
ful
success-
alfalfa meal.
less and
eaten
stoloniferous and
not
287.
Mixtures
forms
no
true
sod.
generally detrimental
are
in that
they
of
maturing at a different
qualityof the hay by introducing
account
urally,
purposely or creep in natconsidered
but they are
and are
unsatisfactory
foxtail {Hordeum
weeds.
as
locallyknown
Squirrel-tail,
jubatum), dodder, sweet clover, yellow trefoil,
June-grass
trouble.' Thorough
quack-grass,and crab-grassall cause
harrowing and occasional plowing are the remedies for
are
grass
almost
288.
mixed
all weeds
Enemies.
leaf-spot,and
to
the
with
crop.
alfalfa
in alfalfa.
"
Besides
several minor
Rotation
and
Stem-blight, which
of the first crop only, can
them.
soon
as
varying damage
largelycontrol
The
268
No
widespread
may
farming
are
Principlesof Agronomy
insect
does
Various
The
damage.
hoppers
Grass-
Dodder
Swarms
constant
from
waste
lands
on
plants.
occasionally cause
alfalfa
have
been
much
trouble.
devised.
seed
injuryin
Alfalfa
the West.
seed, and
It enters
269
the ovary
at bloom, lives inside the
by a small clear-cut hole in the pod
bores out
blooming time.
at
In
1905, the
appeared
in
the
over
Utah
and
and
state
has
into
posticus)
and
Idaho
widely
western
south-
Small
larvae feed on
the
Wyoming.
green
growing buds, usually of the first crop, thus delaying
the second
and causing the third cutting to be
crop
small or lacking. If the first crop
is cut as soon
as
the
larvae appear
in numbers
sufRcient to do marked
injury,and if the land is thoroughly spring-toothed
followed
has
for
the
by
of
rest
cultivation does
moisture
the
in
289.
Seed
destroyingweeds
by forming
Besides
season.
cannot
the
and
good
insects,it
mulch.
Contrary
the
insect into
carry
production is confined
which
almost
to
new
serves
con-
public
tricts.
dis-
entirely to
the
moisture
dry regions because constant
encourages
lessen seed bearing. Half
shoots which
growth of new
the seed produced is on irrigated
lands where
water
can
be
withheld.
of the rest.
Dry-farms produce most
in
of the seed.
Even
Second-crop alfalfa bears most
arid regions,
seed-producing sections are isolated valleys
Row
cultivation has given the best yields of
or
areas.
seed
on
Seed
arid farms.
some
alfalfa
or
binders
cut
the
seed
from
stand
and
the seed.
sown.
self-
threshers
The
straw
The
270
chaff
and
from
for
used
are
from
weighing
Principles
of
From
feed.
sixty
Agronomy
READING
SUPPLEMENTARY
Book
of
Forage
Plants,
Forage
and
Alfalfa
in
Fiber
the
D.
Piper,
Livingston,
G.
Farmers'
194.
AUalfa
339.
Alfalfa.
373.
Irrigation
495.
Alfalfa
637.
The
F.
Hunt,
W.
Vol.
Bulletins
H.
pp.
Ariz.
Freeman,
Agriculture,
Farming,
A.
F.
278-293.
pp.
T.
America,
in
American
305-360.
pp.
G.
Crops
Irrigation
American
Coburn.
Wing.
Southwest,
of
Cyclopedia
No.
V.
Production,
Crop
S.
C.
D.
E.
J.
America,
in
U.
P.
Alfalfa,
Alfalfa
Field
harvested
are
acre.
an
The
bushels
twenty
pounds
seventy
to
to
one
II,
Olin,
pp.
Bui.
pp.
170-199.
No.
192-197.
141-169.
Seed.
of
Seed
Alfalfa.
Production.
Grasshopper
Problem
and
Alfalfa
Culture.
73.
'
CHAPTER
THE
CLOVERS
AND
is
important
Alfalfa
Ohio
and
The
fix
the
other
as
result
of
clover
in the
for
of red
old
on
first
clover
due
1909
is the
United
farms.
abnormal
an
remedied
It
it to
crop
important
As
place
leaving
have
forage.
able
are
to
high-feeding
leguminous
forage, it and
alfalfa
about
40
crop
timothy
third.
The
Some
attribute
this
little
"
to
clover
understood
pete
com-
acreage
from
cent
per
grown
1899
Greeks
century
the
end
cultivated
it
Massachusetts,
in
most
States.
and
near
Europe
all
cow-
{TrijoUum, pratense)
condition
thirteenth
was
also
North,
legume
hay, and
They
What
to
stands
sickness,"
but
partly
by long rotations.
Romans
the
important
or
it has
forage.
the
to
of
high protein.
diminished
the
to
the
clover
the
north
that
save
furnishing
red
CLOVER
RED
Red
Mississippi,
nitrogen.
atmospheric
value
the
yield seed
legumes
of
west
crop
is similarly important
and
South
LEGUMES
forage
in
West,
the
to
of
OTHER
teammate
is to
are
peas
clover
east
for
timothy
alfalfa
the
Red
Mississippi.
the
XXII
never
saw
red
clover.
is there
record
of
eighteenth
the
extensively.
where
mention
1750.
271
of its
Early
was
use
as
century
colonists
made
until
Not
of
forage.
before
carried
it
as
The
272
290.
Principlesof Agronomy
Description.
The
"
itself
confines
root-system
largelywithin
the
fine hair.
to seed production.
seems
Cross-pollination
necessary
Bees aid greatlyin carrying pollen from plant to plant.
When
to
twenty
hollow
in
clover
solid stems.
time
as
earlier.
weeks
clover.
named
from
the strains
291.
in most
are
as
largersecond
alfalfa,red
clover
the
sections that
grow
and
in the United
clover blooms
with timothy
the states
as
the
at
In
use
blooms
crop
is sent
has
many
them.
"
States.
with
clover is
mammoth
Red
New
In
by
up
general
home.
is
clover
Zealand
all northeastern
leadingforage.
two
strains
Distribution
it ranks
height
clover,which
red
Like
much
From
is better,therefore,to
and
than
much
as
adaptation.
widely cultivated in Europe, Chile, and
well
heart-
cases
in
foot
Mammoth
timothy
timothy mixture
is about
variety known
has
same
red
red
stems;
large and
are
one
Ordinary
seeds, which
from
shaped, vary
the
the
mature,
as
states,
In acreage,
in the
-r-
Missouri
rivers and
east
of the
arid section.
This
area
The
274
Principlesof Agronomy
cattle.
"
OTHER
294.
much
Alsike
(Trifolium hybridum).
clover
CLOVERS
that
save
it is smooth,
water-loggingwith
"
where
295.
clover sickness
White
is common
habit
clover
in lawns
Alsike
"
"
much
and
brown
less
kill red
clover.
White
clover
"
pastures.
can
injury. It succeeds
{Trifolium repens).
and
cold-
more
seed, and
lands
wet
is
Because
of its creeping
of
grows
exist,and
296.
Canada
Sweet
coarse
Cumarin
Mexico
where
these conditions
biennial, having
and
to
stems
an
(Melilotus alba) is
abundance
which
become
of
small
woody
taste
and
rank-growing
white
after
a
flowers
blooming.
characteristic
The
Clovers and
Other Legumes
275
gen.
Being a legume, it is rich in nitroplant is deep-rooted,resists drouth, but can
The
cold
both
heat
marked
soil,
on
degree. It grows
any
land
thrivingon roadsides,ditch banks, and on irrigated
cultivated.
In some
the
not
sections,it covers
carefully
mountain
to
sides.
Stock feed
are
on
it in waste
Stock
like the
green
whence
South
in the
middle
cover-crop,
its
name.
Atlantic
bears
This
Southern
and
States
for
clover is
winter
annual
in the
sionally
springannual in the North, where it is occafound.
of the valuable
As a hay crop, it lacks some
hairs
propertiesof other clovers. It bears many
which, in the intestines of horses, occasionallyform balls
Dagger of bloat also
causing death to the animal.
accompanies its use
as
desirable
a
pasture. Despite these unit is widely used as feed; for green
qualities,
manure
or
and
and
rotation it is valuable.
FIELD-PEAS
298.
known
{Pisum arvense)
often
Descriptionand adaptation. The field-pea,
the Canada field-pea,
resembles the garden pea
as
"
276
The
that it is
Principlesof Agronomy
more
in another.
climates
and
adapted to
the
sam,e
them.
heavy loam
on
the
soils. On
conditions
same
sections,often in the
Southern
Canada
oats,
as
of
the
being
field-peas
grow
fields mixed
same
and
account
Northern
in
with
States
"
frosts
are
over
and
as
soon
as
the condition
of the land
permits.
Farmers
three and
commonly
plant from
one-half bushels
an
acre
one
and
one-half
when
peas
are
to
planted
Clovers and
The
alone.
If
usually from
half to
with
sown
and
one
to
one
of oats
some
and
Culture
and
contact
not
come
one-
On
sown.
bushel
one
time, but
ing.
broadcast-
even
the
peas
are
in rows,
Three to
grown
up.
irrigation
water, where
intervals of from
at
are
Since
"
from
of peas and
drilled at the same
harvesting.
for hay,
are
bushels
are
mechanical
sensitive to
277
and
persons
300.
of peas
of oats
bushels
two
Both
they often
as
bushels
one-half
used.
are
oats,
two
land, about
irrigated
Other Legumes
to
one
the swath
aside
shell out
the peas.
from
the
concaves
pods
and
301.
so
Grain
nutritious.
Dairy
the peas.
When
cows,
beef
rapid growth
protein which
it because
on
it contains.
it is mixed
Then,
"
annual
will not
to
vines from
Use.
machine
with
well
vines
more
are
Horses
oats
on
or
use
hogs
dant
of the abunit advantageously.
beardless barley,
necessity of
for hay.
general use
good for soiling,while
it.
The
The
278
hogs and
a
animals
pasture
it to
advantage.
The
it valuable
the green vines makes
Refuse vines and pods from factories
palatabihtyof
extreme
in
other
Principlesof Agronomy
mixed
ration.
can
{Phaseolusspecies)(Fig.74)
BEANS
302.
as
peas,
Beans
Description.
"
and
though there
are
belong to
the
several genera
same
most
family
of them
be
Loose,
warm,
displacedby
well-drained
poorer
ones,
though
at
cost
of
high
yield.
303.
Culture.
seed-bed
"
that
Fall-plowingprepares
is best for beans.
the warm,
Fine manure
low
melalso
The
Clovers and
Other
Legumes
279
and
Fig.
74.
"
good
crop
of field beans.
The
280
Principlesof Agronomy
soil and
weeds, and
kill
in order
to
loosen the
continue
at
it should
large that
so
may
used
quantitiesfrom
in moderate
to
one
five
six times.
or
As
soon
the
as
beans
are
enough
mature
to
prevent
Use.
canned.
"
They
grain when
as
seem
have
to
the
green
Beans
sell well
have
considerable
ground
a
and
laxative
mixed
the
use
some
cured
market, dried
feedingvalue
with
effect when
plants are
pastured. To whatever
they always fix
on
or
for stock
other
feeds ; they
times
Somefed alone.
for hay
or
they
may
be
the
vest,
plants are put after harnitrogen in the soil during
growth.
COWPEAS
(Vigna Sinensis
V. Cat.
jarg)(Fig.75.)
Description.
and
"
'
The
282
Principlesof Agronomy
are
peas
much
in
what
South
importance.
alfalfa
What
cow-
high
rotation
value.
Cotton
lands
feeding, pasture, and
need
rotation badly and such a one
will support
a
as
livestock.
In this,cowpeas
excel, for they furnish large
yields,good pasture, and abundant organicmatter whether
fed
or
used
numbers
as
of livestock, so
depend largelyon
306.
not
Culture.
alone, or mixed
and
of greater
for the
necessary
Well-worked
"
essential.
an
acre
with
South, will
or
and
to three
drilled ; planted
or
Johnson-grass,millet,
is for forage it is cut
corn,
in the field
cured
seed-beds, warm
From
two pecks
broadcasted
are
sorghum,
soybeans. Since
green
maintenance
this crop.
water-logged,are
bushels of seed
or
The
manure.
green
racks
on
the weather
as
or
threshed
from
the vines.
Fig. 79.
hogged-off." Note
"
(Soja max)
SOYBEANS
307.
in
Description.
but they
general,
hairy. The
tap-root
flat,and
In
"
side
branches.
few
white
to
height, the
seed
most
tawny;
two
purple;
plant
to
the
is
feet
fields present
of
beans
and
more
well-developed
Blossoms
vary
in
usually short,
flat,smooth, and oily.
pods
varies from
three
other
woody,
erect, more
more
consists
height, the
feet, but
are
resemble
root-system
with
color from
Soybeans
"
are
six inches
is most
compact
common.
appearance
to
several
At
on
this
ac-
The
Clovers and
Other
of
count
entire
prolific
branching.
plant dies, since it is an
Both
the
climatic
and
Legumes
When
the
283
ripens,the
seed
annual.
soil
requirementsfor soybeans
rather closely,except that
approximate those for corn
frosts are
not
nearly so injurious.Warm,
moderately
moist growing-seasonsand warm,
loose, soils rich in lime
best. Like all other legumes, the right kind of bacteria
are
be in the soil to secure
luxuriant growth.
must
308. Culture.
ally
Well-prepared seed-beds aid materiin early germination. Seed is commonly
planted
during May at the rate of twenty to thirty pounds an
"
in drilled
acre
favorable
most
as
soon
depth.
the
as
From
rows.
Shallow
show
rows
two
to
four inches
cultivation
plainly,and
seems
may
continue
the
begin
until
vator.
plants prevents the use of horse and cultiWeeds
fore,
injurethe crop seriouslyand must, therebe kept out.
The
plan of irrigationfor cowpeas
the same
that for field beans.
is practically
as
When
used for hay the time to cut is just as pods form.
The rake ought to follow the mower
closelyin order to
drying too quickly. Curing
prevent the leaves from
is best done
get too
in the
hard
and
hogs,for
the
stems
as
cock, because
the
nor
the
stems
leaves over-brittle.
do
not
then
Cattle, sheep,
which
increase
the
yield,
but not
is naturally high. Hogs,
the quality,which
do well on
soybean pastures. For seed,
particularly,
cowpeas,
the crop
is handled
as
are
MISCELLANEOUS
309.
field beans.
LEGUMES
Of the many
kinds of vetches,
(Vicia)
vetch and hairy, or winter,vetch are
fremost
Vetch
"
common
grass
284
The
quently grown
winter
Principlesof Agronomy
plants are
annuals
and
annuals,
respectively. The
are
root-systems
branching and only moderately deep ; the stems are long
leaves are
vines; the numerous
finely divided ending
in tendrils.
on
are
flowers
Purple
in compact
borne
are
masses
velvet-like hairs.
vetch
Common
do not
does
cold.
in cool, moist
well
climates
that
Pacific Coast
regionsare favorable.
Hairy vetch does well in temperate regions that favor
soft winter
wheats.
It seems
adapted to these regions
of being fairlydrouth-resistant.
account
on
From
forty to sixty pounds of seed will sow
an
acre
get very
drilled
whether
which
grass,
help
recommended
broadcasted.
or
support the
to
for
pasture
and
account
on
it is good.
the
than
Farmers
cut.
of
expense
310.
Other
South
may
For
soilingand silage
planting and mediocre yields make
for only one
full crop can
be
alfalfa,
Annual
it less valuable
softness.
their
grow
own
seed, thus
reducing
planting.
legumes.
"
Peanuts
are
grown
in
the
for
beans, moth
kudju,
grasspeas
and
the
legumes
bird's-foot
are
Old
and
used
guar,
sanfoin,
World
valuable
for hay
as
States
pasture.
The
but
they
clovers,
be
for
urged
of
are
and
in
growing
the
and
Other
secondary
beans,
peas,
to
seem
Clovers
importance
Plants,
Field
Crops,
Field
Crop
Forage
and
285
importance
and
alfalfa, the
to
Vetch
cowpeas.
and
soybeans
much
are
cowpeas
South.
SUPPLEMENTARY
Forage
Legumes
C.
V.
Piper,
Wilson
and
361-570.
pp.
Warburton,
G.
Production,
Fiber
READING
Crops
Livingston,
in
294-322.
253-277,
pp.
T.
America,
390-412.
355-374,
pp.
F.
Hunt,
pp.
140-173,
201-
374.
Forage
Crops,
Cyclopedia
260-267,
U.
S. D.
No.
A.
E.
B.
Voorhees,
of American
Agriculture,
467-469,
510-514,
Farmers'
Bulletins
224.
Canadian
Field
237.
Lime
260.
Seed
289.
Beans.
318.
Cowpeas.
323.
Clover
441.
Lespedeza
455.
Red
485.
Sweet
515.
Vetches.
529.
Vetch
550.
Crimson
561.
Bean
of
Farming
235-349,
on
5-7.
pp.
and
the
its
Impurities.
Jack
Sandy
Lands
of the
North.
Clover.
Clover.
Clover.
Growing
Clover
Growing
Northern
579.
206-212,
pp.
658-660.
Japan
or
II,
Peas.
Clover
Red
Vol.
582-586,
Clover,
and
231-274.
167-208,
pp.
Crimson
in the
:
in
Idaho.
Clover.
South
Growing
Eastern
Atlantic
the
States.
Crop.
Washington,
Oregon
and
XXIII
CHAPTER
GRASSES
To
the
grass
in
structure
as
to
76.
great
to
The
"
size
this
useful
valuable
in
as
wide
family.
light
Among
In
fact, the
plants, since
and
with
them
are
of
them
286
are
the
reach
hay
crop.
species belong
of
probably
classed
larger
which
handling
many
are
grasses
with
filled
Thousands
gigantic,
and
corn,
in
machinery
usefulness
and
grass
partly
sorghums,
of
use
size
in
similar
plants
of
host
lawn
gap
climates.
some
plants.
widely
so
timothy,
effective
Between
is
bamboo
such
grasses
varying
unrelated.
seem
tree-like
Fig.
yet
belongs
family
our
our
all the
most
most
cereal
Grasses
of the
most
crops,
few
legumes, and
In addition, some
plants, as
furniture and
forage and
287
of the range
most
prairieplants.
and
other breakable
commodities.
Some
Fig.
77.
"
covered
haystack
in the
humid
Graminese,
or
be
treated
here.
the
are
are
fundamental
fibrous
stems
hollow
leaves
of the
section.
The
all grasses
hay crops
prosperity. Methods of
shown in Figs. 76 to 78.
to the nation's
crops
well
are
root-system
composed of
or
pasture
grass
handling these
A
nodes
filled with
claspingthe culm
with
or
without
and
internodes
porous
pith
for
save
distance
which
at
above
rootstocks;
are
the
either
nodes;
the node
The
288
from
which
veined
Principlesof Agronomy
blades;
branched
in narrow,
parallelbearing seed with a
terminate
head
FiG.
grasses,
78.
"
good
meadow-foxtail, and
mentioned
are
much
more
of forage well
supply
few
stacked.
others.
important
than
The
the
first five
others.
(Phleum pratense)
TIMOTHY
The
290
having
crop
Principlesof Agronomy
increases
matter
seed.
small
very
both
Well-decayed organic
Fallfertility.
and
moisture
United
About
is
States
nurse
sown
In this
crop.
in
case
seed attacliment
grass
would
be
better.
The
seeds
touch
must
should
be
moist
planted
from
soil in
a
half
and
depth depending on the season
soil. Seed may
also be planted in the fallwithout a nurse
and
in spring with, or
without, a ntirse crop.
crop,
of the wheelbarrow
Broadcastingboth by hand and by means
seeder is much
practiced. Irrespectiveof the
used in planting,the farmer should sow
method
about
fifteen pounds of seed to the acre.
In some
sections,corn
or
potato land is prepared by a
thorough harrowing without previous plowing. In most
sections, however, fall-plowing,
spring-harrowing, and
inch
to
inch
one
in
quent
Fredrill-sowinggive the most
satisfactorystands.
lands that have good drainage.
on
irrigations
pay
ble
to the stubHeavy applicationsof farmyard manure
Where
pay.
make
manures
mixtures
but it does
deteriorate
not
the soft
later
The
same
dough stage.
harvestingseason
hay
day
Clover
profitablereturns.
most
this purpose.
ought to be cut
used, nitrogenous
serve
Timothy
fertilizers are
commercial
cures
This
as
'
as
the blossoms
rapidly-until the
than
for any
cases
many
In humid
other
fall,
seed reaches
readily,being in
that it is cut.
soon
to
utilize
foragecrop.
hauled
on
the
sections,tedders,sidep.
130.
Grasses
291
The
tracks to fillbarns.
most
seed.
Grain
crop,
which
is threshed
firstcrop bears
binders
specialsieves.
of
important use
timothy is for hay, since the pastures yieldbut littlefeed
under tramping. As a silageor a
and the sod weakens
soilingcrop it is littleused. Though the standard hay
crop of America, its intrinsic feed value is less than that
of its lackingthe high
of the clovers or alfalfa on account
314.
Use
and
3.
Acreage
Table
value.
"
The
Yields
and
States.
United
most
of
Foeage
(From
Crops
in
the
Piper.)
Per
Crop
Cent
Timothy (alone)
....
clover
Red
(alone)
Timothy
clover
and
(mixed) '
Timothy (total)
Red clover (total)
.
31.2
....
15.9
.
12.2
Alfalfa
tame
5.5
....
grasses
4.3
.
Sorghums
3.2
Millet
1.6
Cowpeas
1.1
Canada
.3
peas
Kentucky blue-grass
Brome-grass
All other tame
Wild
.8
.
.1
.6
grasses
18.9
grasses
Taken
as
half timothy
when
grown
in mixture.
The
292
Principlesof Agronomy
of legimies. Common
protein content
little
vary
grasses
of curease
ing,
digestibility.
Palatability,
seed production,healthfulness,and
ing
yieldprolific
determine what grass is most
to grow.
profitable
power
Timothy excels other grasses in these qualities.Market
demands
influence price; the prejudice of farmers and
stockmen
also plays a part, often not
an
insignificant
one.
Timothy has an advantage also in that it is the
standard
market
stockmen
hay, and that many
prefer
in food
value
or
insect injury;
greatest harm,
to
be
thin
so
"
however,
long without
too
sown
some
Bill-bugsand joint-worms cause
infest the plant. The
rust and
smut
a
Enemies.
as
rotation.
to reduce
Redtop
"
is more
the stand
causes
(Agrostisalba)
Description.
reddish
This
leaving meadows
yieldsmaterially.
REDTOP
316.
from
comes
of
appearance
is
a
so
called from
the distinctly
field of it in bloom.
are
It
slender
more
but
but
tougher, its leaves finer,its sod more
compact
more
shallow,and its paniclemuch more
spreading. The
seeds are small, light,
triangularin shape, and generally
grayish-brownin
roots
317.
wet
from
sod
compact
of decumbent
is
result of
stems
sending
the nodes.
As
redtop withstands
ging
water-logmarked
to
a
degree, it replacestimothy on very
land, sometimes
growing in sloughs or bottom-lands
Adaptation.
"
in which
much
The
rootstocks,and
numerous
out
color.
water
cold
as
stands
part of the
timothy and
States
heat.
more
and
year.
as
It resists as
It grows
far north
as
in all
Alaska.
Grasses
It has
293
it resists considerable
318.
Culture.
"
Pastures
fiftypounds
in
planted,from
in mixtures.
common
does it form
drouth.
Much
fields grown
red-
by
from two
to
viability,
to ten
pounds being
two
of it
on
land
wet
is started
On
the market
it is considered
the
no
price of which it
particularobjectioncan
KENTUCKY
an
adulterant
lessens.
As
be made
to
BLUE-GRASS
the
thy,
of timo-
yield is fair,
it.
{Poa pratensis)
Kentucky
blue-grass is marked
by its smooth, firm sod, fine stems, and blue-colored
leaves,which end without a distinct point. The panicle
320.
Description.
"
eral
maturity. There are sevis
but the only other common
one
blue-grasses,
be told
Canada
blue-grass(Poa compressa), which may
by its sparsity of leaves,tough stem, and compressed
being
panicle. It yields less than Kentucky blue-grass,
is loose and
turns
considered
weed
whitish
on
at
that account.
The
294
321.
Principlesof Agronomy
Apparently
Adaptation.
"
no
degree of
cold
even
adapted
to
wherever
that
sufficient moisture
rich in lime.
are
It
can
falls
on
endure
well-drained
neither
soils
aciditynor
best.
are
The
seed is 'most
Better
them
with
crops
may
on
323.
stands may
straw,
or
may
soil and
Use
and
or
often broadcasted
be had
on
lawns
and
rowed.
har-
by covering
Nurse
by shading in another way.
not
pends
help in field culture. This de-
climatic conditions.
Blue-grassyieldslittle forage
that may
be gathered for hay. As a pasture plant, it is
is most
king in America, though meadow-foxtail
popular
in England. Mixed
with white clover, Kentucky bluegrass
forms
value.
"
the
Grasses
is much
295
less desirable,however.
In
fresh
palatability,
blue-grassexcels all others, with the possibleexception
of smooth
of its aggressiveness,
brome-grass. On account
it is a bad weed in clover and alfalfa fields. The legumes
yield much
more
heavily, and suffer when
blue-grass
in, since it eventually crowds them out, unless
creeps
frequentharrowings or occasional rotations follow.
(DactyKs glomerata)
ORCHAKD-GRASS
324.
rather
of the
known
devoid
Orchard-grass is a deep-rooted,
The shape
rank-growing,bunchy, yet leafygrass.
it is
paniclesuggests a cock's foot,by which name
in England. Bunching is due to vigorous roots
Description.
of stolons.
"
Tufts sometimes
two
feet
across
cause
places. These
decidedly rough surface, bare in many
tufts are stronglynetted by means
of many
tough, fibrous
roots.
Undoubtedly, the plant roots three or four feet
deep in favorable soil.
Heat
325. Adaptation.
injures orchard-grass less
than it does timothy or blue-grass,
but cold hurts it much
more
seriously.The natural place for its cultivation
is just south of the timothy belt. It is to be regretted
that timothy has gained such a hold that other useful
oat-grass, and brome-grass,
grasses, such as orchard-grass,
tried in regionstoo warm
not
too
were
or
dry for the
greatest development of timothy. Porous, well-drained,
fertile soils permit orchard-grassto make
best growth.
considerable
moisture
to
The plant uses
advantage,
it can, with the help of deep
though, when necessary,
"
roots, endure
injurethe
326.
land
crop
rather
to
Cultiu"e.
for
"
sowing,
severe
drouths.
As
shade
does
not
and
care
method
preparation of the
of scatteringthe seed,
as
to
296
The
should be observed
Principlesof Agronomy
in that
as
orchard-grass
Both springand fall plantingsucof the other grasses.
ceed.
Fall planting should take place early enough to
growth before winter; springplantinggives
permit some
but is
the ground has become
best results when
warm
stilldamp.
alone for hay, from twenty-five to forty
When
sown
commonly, from four
pounds of seed are used. More
Patches grown
to ten pounds are
planted in mixtures.
for seed requirea stand only half as thick as hayfields.
Orchard-grassmakes the best hay when cut in early
woody very rapidly,thus
bloom, as the stems become
this grass
matures
decreasing palatability.Because
other grasses,
mixtures
several days before most
are
of the variation
usually unsatisfactoryfor hay on account
in time of cutting. Harrowing and
manuring help
and to prevent the growth of excessively
to keep up yields
water
to
large bunches.
Applicationsof irrigation
up
thirty or forty inches pay in the West, though smaller
in proportionto the water
used.
quantitiesyield more
and use.
327. Value
Orchard-grass yields about as
much
second growth, which
hay as timothy and more
consists largelyof leaves,making it valuable for fall pasturage.
Since it beginsgrowth early,it also affords considerable
and continuous
springpasturage. Where severe
tramping injuresthe roots, bare spots appear at intervals.
Other grasses are needed to keep a good sod in pastures.
is coarse
and woody ;
Hay from over-ripeorchard-grass
unless very
of
carefullycured it lacks the palatability
shortness
of the
timothy or blue-grass.The
period
during which it may be cut and stillmake good hay is
drawback.
a decided
Early maturity, on the other hand,
aids in keeping down
in the crop
weeds
and permits
pasturingof the fields.
in the
"
case
of
The
298
Principlesof Agronomy
satisfactory.From
are
ten to twenty pounds an
acre
plantedfor hay and from
Because the seed clogs the drill
four to ten for pasture.
holes,farmers usuallybroadcast and cross harrow it.
When
it is once
established,
harrowing improves
severe
wheat, is,however, probably
more
"
and
cured
leaves makes
is alfalfa.
as
curing
abundance
difficult than
is the
regionsin which it is
this objectionin part by offering
largelygrown overcome
where
bright haying weather.
Brome-grass will cure
alfalfa does.
The
high percentage of leaves to stems
gives the forage an invitinglook and a desirable softness.
The grass is probably more
nutritious and a higheryielder
than other common
Its great palatability
causes
grasses.
stock to relish it highly.
Pastures of brome-grass wear
well, furnish much
feed,
and grow
early as well as late. Some investigations
suggest
case
with
other grasses.
that
it be
alfalfa is used
done,
In
as
grasses
The
more
The
arid
mixed
with
Where
for hay
and
not
be
ered.
yieldless and the value of alfalfa is low-
spite of the
of brome-grass,it
good qualities
Not
undesirable.
about it
enough is known
may
prove
it advisable to plant great areas
to make
with impunity.
ers
However, it promises so well as to deserve a trial. Farmmany
Grasses
borhood
299
before
success
new
crop.
OTHER
332.
Tall meadow
GRASSES
is
oat-grass {Arrhenatherum elatius)
an
under
the
that
grass
thrives
stands
orchard-grass.It withmore
heat, more
drouth, but lessfrost than timothy.
in American
It does not
for much
count
agriculture
and other parts of
at present, but ranks high in France
Europe, where it is grown for hay. When
heavily pastured,
it weakens
cupied
rapidlybecause of inabilityto fillunocsoil,due to its lack of rootstocks. Its long life
increases its value to some
extent.
Perhaps, it may find
for timothy and brome-grass,
some
regions too warm
too gravellyand
too dry for other common
grasses where
farmers need such a crop-plant.
in either fall or
Oat-grass is sown
spring without a
nurse
crop
same
conditions
because
it cannot
as
endure
shade
on
degree. Heavy seeding is necessary
low viabilityof seed.
Eighty pounds
used
when
the crop
is grown
alone.
in mixtures
twenty pounds are sown
with alsike clover,or with both.
bitter taste
lessens the
to
account
are
More
with
any
marked
of the
frequently
often about
orchard-grass,
palatabilityconsiderably.
If cutting is delayed till after bloom, the culms
get
A yieldslightly
higherthan that of the ordinary
woody.
its poor quality.
grasses partly counterbalances
in
333. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon Dactylon)is valuable
lawn
and pasture in the South.
It is an
exceedingly
The
300
strong sod-former
Principlesof Agronomy
often serving effectively
in
preventing
on
firm, moist
seed-bed.
diskingopens
When
used
one
become
be
two
to
three feet
up
fields have
when
should
These
Heavy
vigorousgrowth
more
sod-bound.
growths
make
a
however, successful
high total yield. In many
cases,
hay crops are not produced. In feeding value,
of its aggressive
it is very similar to timothy. Because
fields.
underground stems, it is a bad weed in many
fertile soil and
warm,
eradicate it,men
To
frost.
or
growing
have
Smothering it with
crop
climate, several
shallow
who
moist
is sometimes
studied
cowpeas
or
some
other rank-
successful.
Johnson-grass
the fact that it is probably the best hay grass in the South,
If
five tons
as
frequentlyyielding as much
a
year.
cut
young,
the
are
Grasses
only medium
when
because
the
301
succulent
rootstocks
weaken
occasionallybeen
fatallypoisoned as they are sometimes by sorghum.
Freezing of the soil below six inches in depth kills the
plant. Where
growth is vigorous, eradication is best
accomplishedby plowing before frost or drouth and then
plantingthe
such
pest, such
335.
soil to
oats
that is to be intenselycultivated,
crop
cotton,
as
as
to
or
and
crop
the
vetch.
Miscellaneous
grasses,
small
Two
"
fescues,meadow-grass, and
cultivated in various
have
rj'c-grasses,
eral
sev-
slender wheat-grass
throughout broad
regions in scattered patches. Western
wheat-grass and
slender wheat-grassgrow in bunches throughout the mountain
region. Many sedges [Carex sp.) and rushes Juncus
In sloughs
sp.) are erroneously regarded as grasses.
and wet
bottom-lands, they furnish much
low-gradehay
and rough pasture.
On salt lands, salt-grass{Distichlis
spicata)makes a small growth of medium
quality. These
last
are
cultivated, but
not
meadows
districts
are
are
over
Grasses
Meadows
and
Textbook
of
of the United
wish
coarse
Grasses
age
rough-
READING
States,W.
Pastures, J. E.
J.
Spillman.
Wing.
Grasses,A. S. Hitchcock.
native
winter.
SUPPLEMENTARY
Farm
from
harvested
to feed cattle
or
1-99.
of
U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.
402.
Canada
502.
Timothy
Bulletins
Blue
Grass.
Production
Its Culture
on
and
IrrigatedLand
Uses.
west.
in the North-
CHAPTER
PASTURES,
XXIV
AND
MEADOWS,
SOILING
SYSTEMS
The
the
was
flocks
and
with
their
wherever
to-day,
burden.
from
Definition.
land
from
opposed
as
plants,
green
of
makes
difference
no
whether
or
of
nature
used
the
whether
plants
grown
"
pasture
and
areas
does
may
be,
of
pastures
which
sists
con-
feeding.
It
man-made
are
long
the
feeding
it matter
so
is meant
for themselves,
it before
nor
Thus
ranges.
"
the
natural,
are
crops
beasts
from
hay-making,
to
were
what
as
the
they
are
for feed.
337.
Kinds
with
for
they
called
by drying
crop
feed
is cutting
opposed
as
the
curing
their
gather feed
which
and
cattle
term
livestock
soiling,
or
the
By
"
which
to
of
part
when
still necessary.
has
an
divided
Lot
Later,
were
public lands,
unoccupied
336.
any
get
cattle
and
purpose.
lives, he
man
These
this
tending
to. have
whose
to
tion
civiliza-
to
profitable
as
steppes
As
took
Abraham
areas.
livestock
important,
it
neighbor
for
pasture-lands
became
or
his
and
hunting
found
he
particular
on
graze
Soon
herds.
plains and
grassy
of agriculture.
left off
man
understanding
on
form
primeval
most
increased,
to
of livestock
pasturing
the
of
pasture.
pasture
grazing
permanent.
crops,
of
These
If the
"
or
if the
livestock,
permanent
302
the
area
land
is naturally
is'continuously
pastures
pastures
are
are
said
either
ered
cov-
used
to
be
range
Pastures, Meadows,
land, meadows,
and
sloughs.
or
SoilingSystems
part
of
the
303
extensive
The
meadows
and
"
irregularly
or
temporary
are
"
one
or
two
grains and
speaking,are
of
they
338.
not
as
checked
but
for
crop
number
of years or
sections the stubble
is
is, the primary use
harvests.
Nevertheless,
importance.
be
covered
many
pastures, that
not
They
pastures.
forage crops
of economic
are
In
seasons.
for pasture
not
for
with
to
larly
regu-
nature
nor
be
in its
"
Importance.
More
"
one-third
than
of
all the
is in temporary
"
Much
pasture.
be
classed
as
western
land
is
so
droves
still furnish
The
animals, taken
turned
the
of
pasturage
from
for
numerous
animals.
In
some
The
304
meadows
on
The
Principlesof Agronomy
supplemented
of
convenience
Much
partialration
pasture in which
during haying
especially
value.
with
turn
to
harvesting,is
and
of
hay.
animals,
of considerable
together with
rushes
and
sedges,
The
sedges (often
largelycomprises these meadows.
and broad,
called broad-leaf),
with three-cornered
stems
bunched
leaves,and the rushes (wire-grassand bulrushes),
with round, hollow, stemlike leaves, grow
abundantly
and sloughs. These
in the wet
supply
valley bottoms
340.
Native
considerable
grass,
second-class
feed
on
the
lands that
wet
are
alkali.
"
tall meadow
clovers
and
all used
are
of them
some
oat-grass, and
in permanent
for
hay.
and
In addition
to
pastures,
these, alfalfa,
the
fairlyrich
in lime.
I^ime
and
much
moisture.
:
help in many
ways
(1) They usually insure a continuous
to late fall.
early springthrough summer
342.
Mixtures
growth
from
The
306
lands such
Principlesof Agronomy
as
sloughs:
rye-grass
Redtop
Rhode
Island bent-grass
Meadow
fescue
pounds
10
pounds
pounds
pounds
Alsike
clover
White
clover
mixture
East is as
with
used
follows
success
on
Timothy
Red
pounds
pounds
clover
10
pounds
Alsike clover
pounds
pounds
White
pounds
Kentucky blue-grass
pounds
Tall meadow
pounds
pounds
clover
.......
fescue
Orchard-grass
For
land
poor
often used
in the
because
Timothy
Redtop
humid
it is cheap
sections,the followingis
:
pounds
pounds
Alsike clover
White
pounds
pounds
clover
Pastures,Meadows,
SoilingSystems
used
first or
second
when
particularly
promises to be too small
crop
cutting. Many
gather remnants
farmers
which
Pastures
away.
343.
For
best
get
for
pay
stubble
to
"
exercise.
as
to
rather
do
so
of alfalfa.
other animals,
some
bloat
large
feed
not
root-crowns
than
horses
why
reason
They
injurethe
on
to
ing
dry up and be lost by blowable
suitto be more
dry-farms seem
promote
either the
on
on
can
animals
307
would
different animals.
fields which
They
the
turn
on
do
and
as
do cattle and
sheep.
Cattle
need
than horses
succulent
more
therefore,green
feed, and
pastures
are
water,
more
valuable,
rapidly,
more
grasses.
be sheds
to
are
provide shade.
like coolness
Hogs
no
and
water.
They
do
Shade
and
area;
this, however,
be
scarce.
water
Hull-less
feed
does
lot compensate
not
barley and
well
as
one
corn
time.
for small
on
and
should
rape,
feed.
rape,
Grains and
alfalfa are
used most.
The
308
Condition
344.
Principlesof Agronomy
of pastures.
utilize land
to
It is
"
easily handled
not
common
in
tice
prac-
tlie regular
ever
whatat will over
His livestock may
roam
A number
is unreserved.
part of the public domain
he has.
of serious faults
farmers
many
get
hold in
part,
here
are
when
or
other parts
Finally, many
pastures
of a
capacity on account
345.
areas
not
are
covered
parts may
with water.
not
are
poor
Improving pastures.
will,for a long time at least,be left in pastures,
"
much
else
is rather
can
be
done
with
them.
Removing
as
many
expensive.
that are too wet
Draining will much improve meadows
either in the spring or throughout the season.
Land that
is water-loggedin the spring is likelyto suffer for water
later in the summer
because the water-holdingcapacity
is lowered
by puddling, and because a shallow rootof
A combination
water.
system is produced by excess
will remedy this condition.
drainageand irrigation
Brush-lands
generally need partial or entire clearing
before they become
good pastures. Firing, grubbing,
and sheep or goat pasturinghelp to clear brushy districts.
and sedges tend to give way
Rushes
slowly to the more
valuable grasses
after lands are
drained.
Plowing and
substitute this slow method.
The farms
resowing may
rocks
Pastures, Meadows,
that
yet unimproved
are
the
development
grazing lands will
of
the
be made
and
will
SoilingSystems
309
gradually disappear
country,
and
the
with
permanent
its odor.
cause
Thin
harrowing
and
close
too
by sowing extra seed. Overstocking causes
grazing,which injuresthe pasture as well as the animals.
The remedy is manifestly one
of prevention.
increase the
Fertilizers,particularlyfarm
manure,
yield if they are well scattered. Finally, constant
use,
is bad.
ternati
Alwhen
even
unaccompanied by overstocking,
three pastures will prevent this injury.
two
on
or
The pasture, which requiresbut
346. Overstocking.
little attention, is regarded by many
clear profit,
as
this idea is thrown
though the yieldis small. The sooner
veloped
aside, the sooner
truly successful pastures will be deA number
of points deserving attention have
already been indicated.
of
Overstockingis putting on the land a greater number
"
animals
go
than
the feed
can
maintain.
under
The
stress
animals
soon
of hunger eat
coarse,
ruined
some
cattlemen
Principlesof Agronomy
The
310
designated
ing
handle the situation by limitdistricts. Forest reserves
be pastured on the
of animals that may
the number
for
In excessive hunger during a snowstorm,
reserve.
example, a herd of range cattle ate at the oak brush,
the sheepmen
to
leaving no branches
Practically the
their appearance
animals
the
greedy
347.
over-grazed
then
bare
spots
in
is to
The
the pasture.
and
"
of animals
number
the
that
Of
spots.
good condition.
animals
the
in
except
Management.
determine
keep
both
on
gets poor
barren
and
cannot
loses
owner
in
tramped, rooted-up,
course
inch in diameter.
an
thing happens
same
meadows.
make
than
smaller
from
away
stocking
over-
must
pasture
may
close
will weak.
thy,
Timo-
should
an
emergency.
whether
is
a
Some
menace.
remain
of the
rotation.
pasture may
successful pastures
most
In
to
ten
to
years,
Horses
cattle in
and
be
should
are
the farmer.
it is usuallybetter to
use
only part
With
of it at
large field,
Pastures) Meadows,
the animals
should
not
if
be
the wallows
A
they
not
are
worried
of
and
be mingled.
to
by horses
311
Dairy
cows
be in contact
nor
with
hogs.
it needs
Soiling Systems
be allowed
to
go
unused
This
will not
grass
the
be eaten
should
mower
be
down.
run
To
fresh start,
encourage
over
hay when
In many
horses and cattle will pick up the
cut.
cases
clipped stems, although they avoid them while standing.
Sometimes, early in the spring, grass is not as palatable
later.
Waste
is often prevented
it is a few weeks
as
by waitingbefore turning the animals into the field. The
increase with age.
yieldand palatabilityof young
grass
In general, meadows
for the pro348. Meadows.
duction
attention as
about
the same
of- hay demand
land, irrigationof the
pastures. Drainage of the wet
a
Then
year.
the
make
stems
coarse
better
"
dry, the
use
of
superiorcrops,
reseedingof spots
rotation
is
that
all deserve
paid to harrowing
should
they
should
meadows
mature
are
killed, and
are
of weeds, the
removal
the
practice.
intelligent
and
at
mixtures.
crop
the
about
mature
the
For
hay, plants
in pastures
by
attention
Less
time, while
same
renewal
as
the
many
are.
The
natural
meadows,
as
river- and
being
other hay-
lake-bottoms, much
land
or
better
is
quality.
still bearing
Principlesof Agronomy
The
312
of the expense
account
on
in labor and
capital,
long time.
SOILING
349.
have
Use.
sections
In
"
feed
of
the
United
States
that
from
labor
hauled
cattle
them
to
after it is cut
soon
Succulence
and
before it has
is especiallyvaluable
for
Denmark,
of
animals
being allowed
land
to
made
produce
to
tracts
waste
about
way.
Fences
land
the
be
to
has unused
labor
much
as
as
available
not
are
are
to
both
fields instead
of these countries
is cheap.
Land
possible,because
the
must
be
extensive
farmers, consequently
cultivated.
Since
the
United
States
be pastured,soiling
and
that may
areas
In
pasture.
is high-priced and
in the
tethered
are
in
"
still
ing
tether-
practiced,
except locally. Some of the soiling
shown
in Figs.79 to 82.
crops are
350.
Value.
Disadvantages of soilingare :
1. Much
labor is requiredto mow
and feed the
more
each day than to pasture or cut
crop in small quantities
are
not
"
Haying
2.
and
each
is inconvenient
3. In
crops.
stormy
once.
day is
on
weather
that
hindrance
to
other farm
work
account.
it is very
to
disagreeable
handle
The
314
feed is
3. The
4.
green
and
more
heaps.
fed
comfortable when
be kept more
The cattle can
forage than when exposed to the hot sun or to wind
foulingfrom
no
Principlesof Agronomy
manure
in open
storms
pastures.
80.
Sorghums
"
"^~
'
'"
are
adapted
to
5. Manure
crop
6. In
consequence,
be kept
may
be preserved and
can
is greater
or
on
about
three times
given area
of land.
more
as
Their
even
many
cattle
gain in flesh
than
under
as
disadvantages off-set
to
cause
the
the
advantages in such
utilization of crops for soiling
to be
a
an
Fig.
81.
Sorghum
jieldsabundant
Kansas.
The
316
Principlesof Agronomy
question.
economic
practicein
It may
not be
United
States, but
the
as
profitable
general
dairy
it is in many
sections.
351.
Soiling
crops.
"
Any
one
crop
is not
ready for
A series of crops
needs to be carefullyarranged in order to keep green feed
soilingfor
than
more
one
or
two
weeks.
part
over
at
time
in the
is reached
of the
and
summer
best soilingcrop
It cannot
feed for
known,
its
yieldingpower,
be mowed
can
same
the remainder
the
because
of its
and
palatability,
be surpassed in districts where
it grows
successfully.
Green
fodder, grasses,
peas,
SUPPLEMENTARY
Meadows
and
READING
Pastures, J. E. Wing.
States,W. J. Spillman.
Field Crops, Wilson
and Warburton, pp. 379-390, 301-306.
Field Crop-Production, G. Livingston,
pp. 370-380.
Forage Crops, Voorhees, pp. 34-41, 311-327.
Farm
Pastures,
Cyclopedia
of
Reseeding
U.
S.
D.
Plants,
Forage
U.
of
S.
No.
D.
A.
American
Bulletin,
C.
V.
Farmers'
66.
Meadows
72.
Cattle
102.
Southern
147.
Winter
361.
Meadow
502.
Timothy
509.
Forage
Lands
No.
Piper,
Ranges
to
II,
pp.
Systems
317
569-574.
434-456,
Cultivated
Forage
Crops,
4.
pp.
67-113.
Bulletins
and
Soiling
Vol.
Agriculture,
Pasture
Range
A.
and
Meadows,
Pastures.
of
the
Southwest.
Plants.
Forage
Crops
Forage
for
the
South.
on
Irrigated
Fescue.
Production
Crops
for
the
Cotton
Region.
Land
in
the
west.
North-
CHAPTER
XXV
AND
SORGHUMS
distinct
rather
in
United
in
growing
here
for
rapidly
Both
the
on
forage
alfalfa's
this, there
and
in
be
spread
replacing
now
districts.
offering possibilities
nial
Peren-
irrigation.
West
largely because
for annual
need
duced
intro-
millets
crops,
the
them
and
well-adapted.
extremely
so
to
few
under
even
favored
are
seems
World
are
dry-weather
dry-farm
being
in
The
found
The
sorghums
save
nature
crops
Old
notice
to
States.
Agriculture
the
and
new
come
United
of trial.
The
surely
by
are
of
worthy
time.
recently
the
of
regions
as
slowly but
them
of
Department
similar
them
of
sections
States
comparatively
have
of crop,
kind
semi-arid
the
millets,
and
sorghums
The
MILLETS
In
spite of
drouth-resistant
crops.
(Holcus,
SORGHUM
352.
Origin.
where
the
"
group
Some
point, but
origin in India.
wild
in
Africa
the
world.
and
82.
of
will
one
plants
evidence
other
domesticated
No
facts
Many
members
"
The
more,
Andropogon,
or
know
wild
the
in
fact, than
are
318
as
an
the
inated.
origstarting
independent
closely allied
grasses,
family,
in
shown
just
sorghums
as
indicate
of
sorghums
exactly
Africa
suggests
likewise
know
ever
we
Sorghum)
found
are
any
in
other
to
the
growing
part
Figs. 80,
of
81,
Sorghums
and
Millets
319
The
320
Principlesof Agronomy
of the crop
is brief.
word
have
the
as
we
United
varieties
grown.
1853
Chinese
sorgo
(whence the
In 1857,
brought from France.
States Department of Agriculture introduced
from
The
In
it)was
every
national
government
where
much
was
constant
spread and trial of these varieties. Rather
development has since followed in the regions adapted
of the family brought here,
to the particularmembers
Its
although the crop has not as yet become a major one.
are
possibilities
potentialrather than realized,that is,its
account
promises are extensive, but its records narrow,
on
of its having had but littlechance to prove
itself.
353.
Sorghums belong to the grass
Relationships.
family,being in many
respects closelyrelated to maize.
Johnson-grass (Holcus halepensis)is a bad weed in the
"
States.
Vigorous rootstocks
habits of this
are
largelyresponsiblefor the pestiferous
all Johnson-grass has rootstocks, since a
plant. Not
few varieties of it are
annuals, spreading only by seed.
Then comes
which resemble
Sudan-grassand Tunis-grass,
the sorghums. All of
Johnson-grass and vary toward
these are annuals, lackingrootstocks
which cause
nial
perento
rooting habits. Sudan-grass seems
a
occupy
place of intermediate improvement between Tunis-grass
and the cultivated sorghums.
is so
Corn
354. Description.
much
like sorghum
that by the ordinary person
they would be mistaken for
warmer
"
The
322
different purposes.
or
groups,
of Agronomy
Principles
Just
as
selves
them-
six
corn
accordingto the
purpose
for which
they developed.
355. Varieties.
Though other classificationsare often
made, the sorghums are commonly classified as (1) sweet
(3) broom-corn.
(2) grain sorghum, and
sorghum,
Particularlyadapted for sirup,grain,or whisk production,
each type is used for forage and grain. On account
of
the comparative infancy of the industry, sorghum production
has not become
nearly so specializedas cornor
in regard to selection of varieties for different
fruit-growing
yet, there is a general adaptationof varieties
purposes;
be ignored.
that cannot
Sweet, or saccharine, sorghum is grown
primarily for
For that purpose,
sirup and sugar.
sorgo, as it is called,
was
brought to the United States. The sudden growth
of the beet-sugar industry,however, offered a more
nomical
ecoof procuring sugar.
means
Shortly afterwards
sweet
sorghum proved the most valuable type for forage.
"
The
sweet
in other
groups.
abundant
than
distinct red
or
The
in other
dark
give it
to
seems
sap
stalks
brown
varieties ; Red
Those
are,
The
borne
more
in loose panicles.
the
are
most
sively-grown
exten-
type.
leaves
color and
Sumac
found
not
palatability
fine and
are
kinds.
they
are
if any,
little,
coarser
than
the
sweet
charine
sac-
clear-cut
Sorghums
earlier than
mature
days.
Not
seed
kafir
only
"
and
Millets
in about
323
ninety to
are
to some
extent
dred
hun-
one
for grain,but
for forage.
on
which
is borne
where
moderate
moisture
is available,but it
can
be
cessfully
suc-
degree of summer
the sorghums, but they are
says,
No
heat
seems
injuredboth
States.
too
in
Africa
Piper ^
intense
for
spring and in
lightfrosts."
in such short growGrain-sorghum varieties mature
ing-seasons
in South Dakota
that they are able to mature
sota
Some forage varieties do well in Minneand southward.
Ontario.
and
Rapid growth coupled with drouth
economical
resistance enables this crop to produce more
the Great Plains where
on
grain and forage than corn
has
rainfall is less than twenty-five inches, though corn
fall by
not
been
replacedto
1
any
marked
Forage Plants,
extent
p. 262.
where
the annual
The
324
Principlesof Agronomy
best area
for sorghum
exceeds this. The
precipitation
in America
begins in about the same
longitudeas does
that of dry-farm wheat.
The considerable resistance to
alkali that is manifested
by sorghums as a class should
also hasten the spread of the crop in arid regions.
Nearly all arid regionsof the Old World grow sorghum,
with Egypt, South Africa, Australia,India, and northern
China leadingin total production. The order of importance
be ascertained, since statistics
cannot
States, moreover,
to
details.
half
the
Colorado,
entire
and
Nebraska,
crop.
California
Utah
is used
the
unreliable when
are
able
unavail-
for
United
it
comes
Kansas
and
are
grow
perhaps
Oklahoma,
small
TeXas,
These
acreages.
others
have
large
land that could be made
to produce sortracts of new
ghum
cultivated sections,other
economically. In some
trials by
might be replaced profitably. Many
crops
farmers and Experiment Stations must
precede a definite
states
statement
as
to
"
where
the
some
crop
"
will succeed
or
fail.
the
mature
when
grown
of
in Florida
shows
how
essential
use
"
Sorghums
seed-bed
and
Millets
325
lessens the
be due to an
injury, which may
exhaustion
of readily-available
plant-food. Poor soils,
often used to grow
the sorghum crop, not that
too, are
the plant prefers naturally the difficult soils and
dry
Preparation of seed-bed
the
for
corn
best time
and
seed-bed, the
and
conditions.
seeding.
"
In
paring
pre-
precautionsare taken as
finer. The
except that soil ought to be made
for plantingis after all danger of frost has passed
same
Grain
always drilled
in
from
eighteen
often corn-planters
forty-eightinches apart. More
used with specialplatesor with holes partly stopped
the rate of seeding. Seed is dropped from six
govern
From
three to five pounds
ten inches apart in the row.
to
are
to
to
Forage
at
acre
Dwarf
this rate.
favorable
most
rows
are
crops
the rate
at
are
crops
will plant an
conditions
broom-corn
is
planted
an
bushels
two
three
broadcasted
or
feet
Under
acre.
are
planted.
between
rows
and
two
do
at
adverse
three-inch
intervals in the
row.
too
and
coarse
too
is
fine whisks
Uniformity of
highly desirable
are
less valuable
stand
since
than
the normal.
358.
sensitive
are
severely,and
than
tact
be
to
and
or
growth.
"
Because
moisture, weeds
seedlings
injure them
eontougher to mechanical
frequent and later cultivation may
more
is, indeed, required. Intertillagewith
are
cultivators
soil
since they
corn,
given,
one-row
during
Treatment
the
some
The
326
Principlesof Agronomy
shocks
Harvesting.
which
are
"
When
built wide
at
the bottom
to
keep the
The bundles
heavy-headed grain from fallingover.
either run
through thresher or the heads run in and
the
shocked
for
stover
withdrawn
and
or
stacked
until used
are
"
harvested
separately.
"Yields as high as seventy bushels an acre
though
occur,
and forty is good. In years so
common
twenty is more
dry that corn fails,sorghum has given twelve to twentybushel yields.
Forage is cut green, silagein the soft dough, and fodder
Corn-binders cut largeareas
more
just at bloom.
cheaply
than hand-labor.
casting
sometimes
Hay is made
by broadthick stands,cutting with a mower,
and curing
In this case
the stems ought not to exceed the
as
grass.
thickness of a penciland should be cut before blooming.
Acre-yieldsvarying from ten to forty tons of green
feed have
been reported. Fifteen to twenty
tons
are
taken off the land frequently. In cured hay or dried
fodder, the returns net from two to eighttons in from one
and
six cuttingsdepending on
the season
moisture
to
available.
The
whisk
the upper
In standard
at
of dwarf
node
and
broom-corn
removed
is pulledfrom
from
the
the stem
field at
once.
the stems
cut partly through
varieties,
are
two feet or so above
bent across
ground and two rows
each other making V-shaped platforms, or
"tables," of
The
crossed stalks.
"brush," as the whisk is called,is
Sorghums
and
Millets
"
off and
327
"
tables
After
to dry.
placed on the
into bales of 300 or
being cured in sheds, it is made
400 pounds.
Sometimes
seed is allowed to ripen,but
cut
now
value
then
withdrawn.
hundred
pounds
from
acre.
an
When
of cured
for
grown
field. While
than
more
of the whisk
threshers
cases
is thrust
From
two
it increases
remove
der
againstthe cylinhundred
to
seven
sirup,sweet
in the
sorghiunmatures
leaves are
strippedoff;
heavy rollers press the juice from the culms. Heat and
settling clarifythe juice of impurities.Warming in
shallow pans
the sirup to the desired conconcentrates
sistency
of 30
per
moisture.
cent
About
half
or
two-
thirds of the
ing
juicepresses out in a good mill,a ton yieldfrom 700 to 1200 pounds of juicewhich concentrates
from ten to thirtygallonsof sirup. From
five to fifteen
tons
of stems
grow
on
an
acre.
Unless
Use.
"
or
mixed
it escapes
dry
stems
and
leaves
of the
roughage. As silage,sorghum
as
hay it ranks about the same
binders.
or
It is cut for hay with mowers
Stock may
pas-
The
328
considerable
ture
suckers
and
use
favorable
since under
its
Principlesof Agronomy
After
pasture.
the leaves
few minutes.
several growths
Exactly what
excessive
poison,sometimes
will kill stock
This
stems.
or
by
stunted
being
develops in
fields,
freely. One
as
it makes
conditions
green
conditions
in
poisoning
is not clear,but it seems
that if the plant is kept growing,
there is no danger. The dried fodder does not injurestock.
Sirup manufacturing is not widely practiced. The
of brooms
for whisk suppliesfor the manufacture
demand
broom-corn
production. Illinois,Kansas,
encourages
Missouri,and New York produce 80 per cent of the whisk
a
cause
crop.
361.
Enemies.
Formalin
treated.
whole
the
has
heads.
Corn
ear-worms,
sorghum aphids
cultivation will largely control
diseases
362.
as
well
successfully
age
dam-
fall army-worms,
do
some
damage.
insects and
plant
weeds.
is marketed
corn
as
smut
Selection of resistant
chinch-bugs, and
Wise
been
not
can
In Texas, the
to
and
head
Blight may
varieties
smut
seed treatment
the
covers
Kernel
"
in
pound depending
number
"
The
brush from
of grades at
one
to
broomsix cents
length, uniformity,flexibility,
and color of the whisk.
Careful drying, sweating, and
baling are essential in curing for quality, since the high
moisture
content
renders
discoloration
molding and
likely. Grain, fodder, and silageare handled as is corn,
a
but
very
not
little gets to
Not
crop.
a
on
market
the
market.
It is
sirup,which is
product, gets far away.
even
the
primarily a local
farm
delicacyand
The
330
Principlesof Agronomy
districts where
to
ghums
sor-
cannot
clude
Relationship and description. The millets inThe
different speciesin five or more
ten
genera.
365.
most
"
valuable
common
{Setaria
German, Italian,and
italica). In this group are common,
millet,
Hungarian varieties. Other types are broom-corn
Japanese barnyard millet, and pearl millet. Foxtail
millet is closely related to the common
weed, green
foxtail (Setariaviridis). It
Chinese
records
mention
plants are
annual
grasses,
times.
The
four
to
one
long
inches
varieties
about
cultivated
was
are
the
from
366.
rather
heads
compact
Culture
and
value.
"
B.C.
leafy,growing from
from two to eight
are
spikes which in some
The
seed is yellowish,
in diameter, with
grain. Numerous
the spike.
2700
prehistoric
very
distinctlylobed.
millimeter
one
around
in
it about
in
the
hull boxed
ward
bristlyhairs project out-
From
two
to
four pecks of
millet
are
sown
to
the
acre,
grass,
but
is inferior to clover
Sorghums
and
alfalfa.
Horses
and
Millets
331
from
uous
contin-
Wisdom
well
as
horses
as
be fed mixed
the straw.
A smut
formalin
that is used
treatment
on
destroyedby the
be
seed wheat.
Chinch-
than
coarser
cure
readilyfor hay.
is
It is
other parts of
grown
not
heads, and
branched
Asia.
Broom-corn
seed than
Russia
millet
the
and
has
also to
extent
some
as
larger
and
cereal crop in
for forage. The Dakotas
It grows
type.
common
head
brush-like
Manitoba
is also used
is twice as
penicillaria,
largeas other millets,has a rather woody stem filledwith
head
dry pith, and bears seed in a compact cylindrical
Pearl
millet, sometimes
from
which
coarse
and
dry
for
hay.
In
the
It is rather
yieldsof
very
it has been
called
green
tons
to the
from
each
one
season
332
The
Principles
of
Agronomy
SUPPLEMENTARY
Corn
The
Field
Crops,
Cereals
Field
in
and
F.
Plants,
Forage
Crops,
Forage
and
C.
E.
V.
B.
Fiber
Field
Cyclopedia
of
Hunt,
G.
Production,
Forage
pp.
Piper,
Crops,
J.
American
336-347.
258-263,
pp.
382-399.
pp.
Livingston,
221-238.
pp.
260-304.
pp.
Voorhees,
Crops,
279-342.
Warburton,
T.
America,
Crop
Southern
Montgomery,
Wilson
Crops,
READING
pp.
T.
F.
F.
Duggar,
Hunt,
Agriculture,
37-131.
pp.
pp.
Vol.
111-120.
23I7247.
II,
pp.
384-388,
574-582.
U.
S.
No.
D.
A.
Farmers'
101.
Millets.
174.
Broom
288.
Kafir
322.
Milo.
448.
Better
458.
The
552.
Kafir
605.
Sudan
BiUletins
Com.
Corn.
Grain-sorghum
Best
as
Two
Grass.
Grain
Crops.
Sweet
Crop.
Sorghums
for
Forage.
469-474,
CHAPTER
FIBERS
AND
world
The
in
vary
is
so
for
grown
MISCELLANEOUS
wide;
so
soils
habits
varying
the
of
use
CROPS
are
so
there
respects;
many
plants with
XXVI
are
of
so
beast
kinds
many
that
growth
and
man
different; climates
the
almost
are
of
plants
without
number.
FIBERS
Both
which
used
are
cordage,
nets,
and
only
white
but
animal
and
bast
the
fibers
in the
inner
hemp,
and
important
for textiles
yield
fiber,
some
as
COTTON
368.
all
History.
people
such
wear
"
some
in
than
the
cloth
333
The
plant,
as
by
are
flax and
far
Leaves
fibers.
of
manila
more
also
hemp.
hirsutum)
is cheap
This
cotton.
curls.
such
of sisal and
case
fibers,
fibers
wood
the
of the
flesh.
deeper tissues
(Gossypium
Cotton
floral.
or
acteristic
char-
in the
cotton
as
and
usually
that
bast,
Bast
bundles.
odor
an
in the interior
wood
and
floral flbers
char
woody,
borne
are
bark,
fibro-vascular
crisp
be
may
flbers
bast
to
almost
of vegetable
burning
the
ropes,
sufficient
of hair
silk, but
and
after
burns
fiber
Vegetable
wood
of wool
have
burnt,
fibers
rugs,
consist
fibers
remains
ash
animal
while
to
fibers
Vegetable
bags.
nitrogen in them
A
furnish
kingdoms
entirely of cellulose,
not
animal
the
plant and
the
has
and
not
practically
always
been
Principlesof Agronomy
The
334
the
case.
century ago
the
common
and
wool
and
silk were
textiles.
had
Cotton
a
the New
other
parts of America.
the nineteenth
as
world
thrived
grown
for
shorter
and
been
until the
beginningof
crop.
and
Not
was
Introduced
cultivated
on
small
for much
States,it
scale before
the
Revolution.
Relationships.
"
Hollyhock is the
most
common
Some
tidewater
difference in the
Sea-island
is grown,
however,
in the
chief
Fibers and
Miscellaneous
Crops
335
Description.
"
Cotton
pistilwith
three
branches
to
three-lobed, and
broad,
are
in the upper
is solid,woody, considerably
stem
from
branched, and
deep-rootinghabit,
horizontal
numerous
leaves
has
are
a
palmately-veined,
ing
yellowish contain-
usually white or
divided stigma and
compact
group
pollen.Though naturally
bearing waxy
cross-fertilized by insects,
the flowers are capable of selffertilization. Small stems
arisingfrom the main branches
sub-branches
bear the flowers and later the boll,which
or
is a heavy pod containingthe lint and embedded
seed.
Under
lint shows a definite twisting,
a
microscope, mature
perhaps due to drying of the tubular fiber. This
twist roughens the surface of the lint strengtheningthe
gripone fiber gets on another when it is made into thread.
Each
fiber,a singlecell,is a product of the flower. It
of
stamens
surrounds
the
diameter.
before
absorbent
371.
cotton
inch
covers
before
is dyed
or
"
Cotton
will
grow
be
it is made
in
moved
re-
into
from
six to
States
seven
months
Because
as
these
nowhere
of the cotton
produces most
million 500-pound bales, the
in
most
soils;
well-drained, are
moisture
Moderate
one-fourth
cotton.
favorable.
seasons
is about
of oil that
coat
Adaptation.
clays and
most
seed, which
and
frost-free
in duration
conditions
encourage
exist in the
United
world.
Of
twenty
States produces 12
The
336
million,India
million bales
the
million,Egypt
the combined
are
1.3 million.
The
other 7
of Brazil, Peru,
harvest
China.
sissippi,
Texas, Georgia, MisTurkey, and
Alabama, South Carolina, Arkansas, Oklahoma,
Mexico,
North
Principlesof Agronomy
Carolina, and
American
Louisiana
and
crop
exclusivelydoes
Texas
produce
in the
rank
order
cent
per
named.
that 40
cotton
grow
96
So
cent
per
of
of
her
but unwise,
"
to
cotton
grow
stalks
by turning
three
one-half to
a
one-row
When
the
from
furrows
bushel
one
an
one
Seed
"
each
other
broken
remaining un-
the rate
at
of
acre
"
two
five cultivations
are
From
row.
one
to
toward
often
to
"
them
left
are
two
every
by
"
broken
are
made
are
The
field several years in succession.
Beds
and plowed under or burned.
a
on
are
abundant
near
done
the surface.
with
one-mule
vators,
cultiplows and poor machinery, but recently two-row
troduce
good harrows, and efficient plows have been ininto
without
many
rotation
sections.
Extensive
cultivation
and
and
without
commercial
fertilizers are
used
to
some
better culture
badly needed.
are
Boll-weevils and
cotton
crop
wilt and
bollworms
root
have
rot, both
considerably. Better
caused
much
damage
plant diseases,injurethe
farming methods
through
Principlesof Agronomy
The
338
in
necessary
organicmatter
practice,unless
insect or disease control, because they add
to the soil when
plowed under.
(Linum tisitatissimum)
(Fig. 83)
FLAX
has been
Flax
grown
from
Priests used
crop.
stalks is bad
Burning the
browsed.
and
as
for
fiber
wrapping
mummies,
the
"
branched
tap-root;
slender
from
stem
branched
three
to
one
accordingto whether
with
in thin
or
flat-oval,russet
ten
seeds
rich in
oil. The
bast
"
fiber,or
"
wheat.
States
Russia
Russia
country.
in
and
the
United
States
importance.
Culture.
is
is third
"
produced
Most
on
of the
flax crop
in the United
any
Fibers and
other crop is
and
two
inches
or
Fig.
three
83.
Crops
339
sown.
deep by
Miscellaneous
pecks
the
acre
planted one
or
two
means
"
to
good
crop
of flax seed.
Wisconsin.
harvest
is
The
340
thinlyon
the
for three
or
Principlesof Agronomy
This
to dew
or
water
is
378.
and
Use
value.
Linseed
"
in the
oil,used
facture
manu-
of
The
for stock-feed.
Well-cured
contains
bagging
coarse
straw
or
used
fibfermakes
for
ing
feed-
some
be made
can
packing in upholstery.
because
of its
not
wool
and
because
it takes
starch well.
For
these
sons,
rea-
apparel,and for
be of spotlesswhite.
OTHER
FIBERS
Hemp
"
best crops
are
Fibers and
kinds
A
of plants vary
tap
leaves
Oval
from
root-system,
ending in
seed, about
covered
with
cluster
three
Crops
341
feet in height.
twelve
to
and
deeply-serrated
characteristic of the plant.
strong stem,
are
one-eighth of
borne
hull,are
four to
From
Miscellaneous
inch in diameter
an
and
the top.
at
the acre,
Little cultivation is
are
just before
to
sown
corn-planting season.
weeds.
When
the plants usually smother
as
necessary,
and
ready for harvesting,the crop is cut with mowers
binders,or by hand if it is too largefor machinery. The
separationof fiber from the stem is similar to that of flax.
380.
Miscellaneous
fibers.
Manila
"
in the same
{Musa textilis),
genus
in the Philippine Islands
grown
which
hawsers
rope
twine
made.
are
The
hemp,
abaca
or
as
or
rainfall,
plant requiresabundant
machinery
useful
loosen
to
in marine
the
strands.
hard
salt
because
service
It is not
very
markedly
water
decomposes it.
A number
various
Mexico
and
Central
America
Mexico,
and
Texas;
and
jute
New
in India ;
istle in
Zealand
grown
maguey
Mexico,
hemp in
in
in
New
New
Zealand.
CROPS
MISCELLANEOUS
Many
other
purpose
man
plants are
grown
desires them.
wherever
He
cares
and
not
for whatever
what
family
make
some
plant,he
this makes
it as
grows
The
of them.
use
be harmful, but
kind of
what
in,nor
they are
can
Principlesof Agronomy
The
342
no
use
may
in
some
difference ; if he wants
cases
the
crop.
Cabbage
Fig.
84.
are
Cabbage
as
field crop.
Delaware.
in America, is
heads
"
an
as
cultivated,harvested, stored, and fed in the same
way
rutabagas; in yield and feeding value it is also very
similar to the rutabaga. Cabbages are
commonly sown
in hot houses and transplanted in May or June two
or
three feet apart in hills with rows
equally far apart.
For
feeding,the
crops
may
be seeded
Fibers and
the last frost and
Miscellanemis
thinned
later.
Crops
343
chief
Their
is for
use
human
of
forageto the
cows,
but
serves
both
is shown
Cabbage is valuable
acre.
is rather
difficult to
cattle and
sheep very
well.
forty
for milch
pasturage
as
cure;
grown
cabbage
it
field
in
Fig. 84.
382. Rape
from two
to four
(Brassica Napus) grows
feet tall sending out many
broad, succulent leaves in
early growth. Sown broadcast at the rate of three to
five pounds an acre, it will keep down
weeds; it yields
in
most
two
rows
in late spring or
it is
has ceased.
It may
be
either alone or
during earlysummer
grain. Sometimes
grain, leafingout
Sometimes
to
it is
planted two
abundantly when
between
sown
corn
for hog
variety.
with
three weeks
or
the
rows
It is valuable
sown
after
grain is
cut.
after cultivation
is not
cured
Dwarf
Essex
is the usual
or
exceeds
Kale
the
heavilyon
yield of
mineral
in considerable
and
384.
are
Since
all the
feed
mustards
quantities.Farm
in the
manure
fertilizers in the
commercial
World
rape.
East
and
West
in the
Old
Enemies.
easily control
"
the
Although
weeds,
some
to
easily eradicated.
The
culture
insects and
the
should
disease
family,are by no means
club-root {Plasmodiorpha hrassi-
the whole
club-root, common
intensive
The
344
Principlesof Agronomy
live in the
soil
near
the
riddles the
maggot
root
and
penetrates
to
the maggots.
of lead, used
as
for potato
bugs,
ling
plants,aids greatly in controlthe green cabbage worm
{Pieris rapes). Plowing as
also helps considerably.
the crop is removed
soon
as
The cabbage aphis {Aphis brassicce)
feeds on the leaves
and but for parasiticenemies
would
be decidedly injurious
all crucifers. It is best handled
to
"by thorough
spraying with tobacco solution (" black-leaf 40 ") one
of water.
Flea-beetles, cabbage
loopers, cabbage
webworms,
diamond-back
cabbage worms,
cross-striped
moths, and
The
cabbage curculios do damage in various ways.
method
of control is largelyone
of prevention by means
of culture and rotation.
cide
Any good manual gives insectitreatments.
TOBACCO
Some
(NicotianaTabacum)
plants have
with drugs
always supplied man
which he has chosen to use
for remedies, stimulants, or
narcotics.
used for a long time
Opium and cocaine were
to
the
soothe, stimulate, or
deaden
nervous
response.
became
the
After
chief
The
346
Principlesof Agronomy
ing
by cuttingthe whole plant. Curing requiressteady drythat keeps the leaves pliable. Large barns are filled
laths. Slow fires are
often
with the leaves hung over
curing in
used to hasten
On
brittle.
largerbundles
are
qualityand
is made
are
"
later made
are
into
sweat."
If warehouses
sold, but
if shipping is
is packed
leaves bring
carefully-graded
in
large hogsheads.
the
best
siderable
price,con-
care
388.
to
bundles
tobacco
are
These
allowed
loose
the
necessary,
Since
and
the
near,
damp
tied in bundles.
and
stem
When
not
weather.
wet
to
Sugar-cane.
from
About
"
grade in
package.
of the world
which is
{Saccharum officinarum)
countries.
produced only in tropical and semi-tropical
Fig.
sugar-cane
8S.
"
Planting
sugar-cane.
Louisiana.
Fibers and
United
347
Java, and
and Texas
States.
Crops
Miscellaneous
Alluvial
are
sissippi
Mis-
lower
moisture
and, therefore, prosupply abundant
duce
good yields.
has plume-liketassels,
Sugar-cane,which is a perennial,
bears
has buds
ears,
no
of stem,
in size, nature
buds
when
grow
at
the
leaves, and
stalks
resembles
The
root-system.
covered
are
corn
moist
with
analyses indicate
the
after cutting,the
soon
factory,usuallyon
squeezing out
the
Sweet
is
which
juice,
for harvest
highest.
The
the field,and
close
cut
the stalks,
rolls crush
is made
into sugar
by
much
of
Most
"
the
sweet
potato
States is grown
in.
Loose, friable soils favor best growth of the
the South.
enlargedroots
of the United
crop
which
tion
Cultiva-
are
"
"
Irish
similar to that given
is very
Shoots from the roots are transplantedfor a
harvested
is
cane
beet juice.
as
potatoes.
{Ipomaea Batatas)
(Fig.86).
by
Heavy
cars.
methods
same
389.
the
cane
time
potatoes.
new
crop
the plant is
Since frost injuresthe crop readily,
before cold weather sets in.
entirelyfor human
important
consmnption, forming in the South a more
article of diet than the common
potato (Fig.87). They
Sweet
are
for
potatoes
fed to hogs to
are
used
some
pasturinghogs, which
potatoes.
almost
extent
are
and
turned
in to
"
root
"
out
used
the
The
348
Fig.
Fig.
87.
86.
"
"
In
Principlesof Agronomy
Sweet
the
potato
South
sweet
plants started
potatoes
are
in
an
plant-bed.
important
crop.
Fibers and
390.
Fruits.
Miscellaneous
Crops
349
to
391.
the
"
rows
Truck
crops.
cultivated
much
the tomatoes
neighborhood of canneries,
are
under
grown
is
crop
In the
of tomatoes
large acreages
This
"
are
as
picked by hand
and
contract.
hot-beds
season,
hauled
and
when
tory.
to the fac-
near
and
melons
crops
are
grown
are
near
also grown
under
peculiarlyfavorable
and
for
are
vated
usuallyplanted in hills five or six feet apart and cultithe vines die
as
long as the vines permit. When
from frost or from maturity, the squash and pumpkins
are
gatheredand stored under cover.
The
350
88.
Fig.
"Fig.
89.
"
"
Principlesof Agronomy
Greenhouse
good
crops
implement
with
are
in demand
which
to
near
cultivate
large cities.
on
large scale.
Fibers and
392.
Timber
crop.
Miscellaneous
With
"
the
Crops
depletion of
351
many
an
tent
ex-
it is
localities
profitablefor farmers in many
small patches of timber.
to grow
Hardwood
for repair
of various machines
and tools ought to be at hand at all
In some
times.
be grown
sections,a few trees may
for
this purpose
and kept free from low branches by pinching
off branch buds and by pruning wisely.
393. Other
Tea, coffee,nuts, tropicalfruits,
crops.
rubber trees,sugar maples, poppiesfor opium, hops, cacti,
and dye and medicinal plants are grown
to some
extent
in parts of the world.
Besides these,countless plants are
in small gardens for home
use.
Finally, the
grown
industryhas assumed importance(Fig.88).
flower-growing
and home-, roof-,and house-gardensabound
Greenhouses
with innumerable
plantsbearingbeautiful flowers,leaves,
"
or
stems.
SUPPLEMENTARY
Cotton, C. W.
READING
Burkett.
Hemp, Boyce.
Field Crops, Wilson
and Warburton, pp. 241-255, 363-386.
Field Crop Production, G. Livingston,
pp. 337-357.
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, T. F. Hunt, pp. 304-402.
Forage Crops, E. B. Voorhees, pp. 292-310.
Forage Plants, C. V. Piper,pp. 589-595.
Southern
Field Crops, J. F. Duggar, pp. 248-424, 484-547.
Vol. H, pp. 221-224, 226-229,
Agriculture,
Cyclopediaof American
247-258, 281-303, 377-380, 380-384, 388-391, 494r^l0, 530534, 554-559, 631-636, 639-656.
U. S. D. A. Farmers'
No.
Bulletins
27.
36.
Cotton
47.
Insects
48.
164.
Seed
and
and
Fiber.
its Products.
Affectingthe Cotton
The Manuring of Cotton.
Rape as a Forage Crop.
Plant.
The
352
209.
Principles
Boll
the
Controlling
of
Agronomy
Weevil
in
Cotton
and
Seed
at
Ginneries.
211.
The
Use
Boll
Paris
of
Green
Controlling
in
Cotton
the
Weevil.
217.
Essential
223.
Miscellaneous
226.
Building
274.
Flax
276.
The
Advantage
290.
The
Cotton
302.
Sea-Island
314.
in
Steps
Securing
Cotton
Insects
Run-down
up
Early
an
in
Crop
of
Cotton.
Texas.
Cotton
Plantation.
Culture.
of
Planting
Seed.
Cotton
Heavy
BoUworm.
Cotton.
Method
of
Cotton
Early
Breeding
to
Escape
Boll
Weevils.
333.
Cotton
Wilt.
344.
The
364.
433.
Cabbage.
500.
The
501.
Cotton
512.
The
519.
An
577.
Growing
601.
625.
Cotton
Boll
Problem.
WeevU
Profitable
Cotton
Control
of
Farm.
the
Boll
Under
Improvement
Boll
Weevil
Example
New
Conditions.
Weevil
Problem.
of
Intensive
Cotton
Egyptian
Method
Wilt
Weevil.
of
and
Cotton
Root-Knot.
Farming
in
Culture
Salt
in
the
River
and
Cotton
Valley,
its
Belt.
zona.
Ari-
Application.
The
354
whatever
yielders,
after
year.
Principlesof Agronomy
increase
this
would
Nor
might
came
bar
the
expectedyear
opportunityfor
be
improvement
Fig.
90.
"
Breeding
nursery
for
(Pennsylvania
timothy.
Station.
Experiment
potato in each
hill would
bushels
of potatoes.
portant
Perhaps the most imimprovement ?
thing in crop improvement is increase in yield.
Better quality also deserves attention in that it increases
the usefulness and market
price of the product. Clean,
394.
uniform
What
is
"
for
particularly
seed.
'
Cereals
disease
Growers
in
are
would
America,
pp.
much
pay
14^15.
sought after,
extra
for them.
Improvement of Crops
355
Fig.
91.
"
Hand
thresher
for work
in
plant-breeding.
of
by looking back to find the cause
One
the defect.
muddy tributary will discolor all the
if this is cleared,the whole
river below
its entrance;
lacks resistance to drouth,
is clear. If a crop
stream
to
or
to heat, to frost,to insects,to disease,to alkali,
be injured seriouslyany time by a single
water, it may
is most
often made
weakness, though
"
A chain is no
it has
strength in
link."
The
356
Principlesof Agronomy
variety of corn
growing-season be brought
Should
it could
one,
mature
not
soil and
to
and
whatever
its
long
shorter
possibilities
will
of
selection
better
continually testing
essential.
on
cultivation.
is also
methods
cultural
best
succeed
Potatoes
are
with
district with
into
much
not
respects,
Though
the
section
from it.
actually come
ability
climatic adaptation is paramount,
general suit-
in other
clean
from
adapted varieties is
Experiment stations
crops.
find
to
crops
under
the
strains
best
395.
sought.
advancement
of
he
how.
factors that
We
have
has in mind,
desires.
week
will
Nor
a
out
toward
so
nearly
to
grow
much
so
wrong
in
tools
effectively.
to
strike and
plant-breeding,but
be made
unless
Just
as
he
just what
he
works
to
building it.
;
if he has
must
not
he
be right,then
But
grass
are
the house
would
was
it.
about
given
build
where
right,provided he does
out
them
the ideal
must
he
knows
learn
always
must
person
while
come
and
so
best growth
an
sees
quality in
wield
can
he
to
all,no
had
architect
of house
much
knew
we
the breeder
an
determine
do only when
can
if
even
desired
some
plant-breeder who
the
This
toward
The
crop.
consists largely of
Improvement
"
we
of
impossible or
can
hardly hope
can
accomplish
be
stem.
The
ideal
and constantly
sought should be possible,
valuable,distinct,
striven for.
357
Improvement of Crops
METHODS
OF
IMPROVEMENT
last few
the
years,
farms
many
do
get cultivation
not
best
comes
up
to
the best
results cannot
without
come
principles.
397. Seed-testing.
attention
proper
to
these
"
broken
A
seed.
sure
to
contain
kernels,seed of other
mixture
advantage where
to
plants
get started.
into
the
crops,
say
the
or
to the farm
field.
Weed
These
nothing of the
pests.
are
dirt,chaff,and weed
Noxious
poor
cause
may
crop
stands,
affordingopportunity for
undesirable
seeds introduce
usually
of the harvest
in the desirability
yield,to
such
impurities,
some
kernels,dirt,and chaff
broken
Whether
as
extra
weeds
cause
well
as
a
a
decrease
decrease
labor entailed in
new
frequentlyintroduced
to
the
in
trolling
con-
district
into fields,
causing
The
358
Principlesof Agronomy
and
perhaps making impossible the
difficulty
Russian
profitableproduction of some
thistle,
crop.
bindweed, quack-grass, perennial sow-thistle, Canada
few weeds especially
hard to
thistle,and milkweed
are
a
be thoughtlessly
introduced in impure
eradicate that may
endless
seed.
In addition
strength to
to
to
power
send
know
contains,and
what
be
may
some
its relative
to
power
it is essential
grow,
test
(3) other
crop
By carefullyweighing
the
percentage
the
of
kernels,and
purity, and
weed
what
weeds
platehalf
of white
full of moist
next
mine
deter-
can
step is
is covered
the
find out
can
of the pure
sand
seed.
by comparing
collection,he
(5) weed
to
test
the
To
do
seed.
with
to
piece
or
Improvement of Crops
398.
359
plants seem
be
A perfect
primarilyfor this purpose.
flower consists of calyx,corolla,stamens, and pistil,
but
plants have only the last two parts, which are the
many
since from
them
the seed develops.
important ones,
Pollen from the stamens
alights on the stigma of the
pistiland under favorable conditions sends a long tube
down
the style to the ovule.
The union of the pollen
and
to
causes
ovary
union
of the
male
in the
gamete
are
in turn
called the
a
hull.
Since
each
plant may
produce. This varies from
some
of
crops
to
largeRussian
399.
seed
of
the
is capable of becoming
descendants
few
quarter of
million
thistles
tumbling mustard.
Variation.
^-
Mere
chance
in the
hundred
or
it
case
in the
more
would
parent
of seeds
number
or
ing
cover-
some
cause
can
of
case
of
the many
descendants
to differ from
others, but the law
of variation causes
each individual to differ from every
other.
Just
as
no
two
people are
alike, no
two
plants
flowering,
They differ in color,size,shape,rooting,
other ways.
Oats always bring forth
and in numerous
oats, but there are no two oat plants that do not differ.
are
One
alike.
among
several
surroundings.
and
thousand
It is upon
will do
best
in
particular
selection depend.
artificial
natural
The
360
Principlesof Agronomy
plant out
fitted to survive in its particular
is more
of thousands
most
vigorously.
surroundings,that one plant will grow
kind of plant grew,
Now, if all the seeds from any one
fillthe whole earth.
Therefore,
this plant would
soon
Natural
400.
many
Because
"
individuals
more
one
some
live next
can
year
do
than
only
selection.
die.
remaining ones
Thus
nature
constantly improves the wild plants by
unending, relentless selection. For countless ages, only
survive, those
most
fit of whole
the most
in turn
which
have
races
are
the
endured
culled out
by
to
ants,
descend-
rear
increasingly
ever
weakest
to
with
rigorous selection.
cope
in the
The
their enemies.
Old
World
All
our
bad
weeds
nated
origi-
of years,
cultivated
401.
have
been
Artificial selection.
"
Because
man
has
put
his
The
362
Variety
403.
Principlesof Agronomy
experimentalfarms
yieldingpower of the
the
find out
to
or
varieties of crops
numerous
best
adapted
in order
climate, soil,and
Since
out
of twenty
must
some
to
district.
of the
varieties
more
Much
"
one
cultural methods
is
being accomplished on
in plats the
or
by testingin rows
tests.
much.
United
The
broadened
to
men
this work
look
that
crops
States
for
new
or
crops
promise
United
States
with
red and
durum
wheats
in
well
do
to
similar
varieties of
new
section
some
soil and
common
climate.
of the
Turkey
exemplifysuch introductions.
At
Plains
areas.
Steps in breeding.
"
There
are
then
three steps
in breeding :
find but
to
their power
of
to progeny.
transmittingdesirable qualities
405. Crossing.
Besides changing the food, the moisture,
"
the heat,
induce
may
of
or
variation
plant in
plants, such as
one
others, such
crossing. In
person
with
the
of another.
Some
pistil
while
are
naturallycross-fertilized,
com,
oats, wheat, and barley, are
naturally
self-fertilized; but
of
crop,
by artificially
bringingthe pollen
contact
as
this makes
either
case
no
a
widely-variantprogeny
Improvement of Crops
will result in
pointsfor
starting
selection.
Mendel's
406.
363
If
"
appear
part is pure
corn
the
to
flint. The
is made
cross
has
be
to
flint,but
that is harvested
both
F represent the
gives
FD.
are
Next
and
pure
two
characters
is known
to go
seem
appears
the
and
the
gives
2 FD
1 DD.
is called combination
The
acter,
char-
FD
one-fourth,
is FD,
will
characters), and
"
break
union
or
brid
hy"
up
of the
and
segregation.Most
pairs behaving as F and
as
in
Half
true.
FF
and
FF,
corn,
will breed
the dent
cross-pollination.FxD
FDxFD
of
into I FF
year
of the
year
(contains two
next
the fallafter
is dominant
flint character, D
nature
One-fourth
1 DD.
DD,
the
one
recessive.
dent character
and
part,
only
in it but
characters
be flint,
that is,the flint character
Let
tell which
to
in the example
unit characters.
This
as
They are then known
two
be stated thus : When
law of breeding may
plants
of a pairof unit characters are crossed,
each having one
cited.
characters
the
two
are
present but
the recessive
the
out
in
the
form
in which
and
combination
in which
both
dominant
character
hides
the
hybrid, and
the
proportionsof
called Mendel's
generationthe
recessive used
1:2:
nant,
domi-
will segregate
1, respectively. It is
The
364
Principlesof Agronomy
law, breeders
tell something
can
rally,
likelyto be. Natuthis has helped much
in breeding work, but many
things not yet understood stand in the way of rapid progress.
to what
as
the
results of
of
these
One
these
are
is that
obstacles
by
cross
of
means
cases,
crossing is
though the
produce new
true
seed
is sometimes
of potatoes
not
few
animals
can
be
discarded
be set aside.
plant than
made
to
crossing.
variation by
407.
in
plants like
se"d but by buds.
some
Because
Since
be
one
or
plants do
bred.
Only a
of their great
account
on
save
"
two
out
of thousands
of this,greater rapidity
in
be expected. Why
animal-breedingmay
then
the poor
development of plant-breeding? First,
until recently; secondly,
sexualityin plantswas unknown
of history and
animal-breedingbegan with the dawn
plant-breedingonly two hundred years ago ; thirdly,the
male
animal
be
controlled, while
pollen of plants,
which blows everywhere, can
be controlled only with the
has been done, however, by
utmost
difficulty.Much
selection and variety-adaptationtests.
408.
Better
send
out
can
seed.
Plant-breeding farms
desirable
"
strains
of
some
crop.
ally
occasionFrost-
introduced
in districts
fruit-growing
it was
hitherto impossible; rust-resistant carnations,
cantaloupes, and small-grainsdecrease losses in
are
seasons
boons
to
allows
previouslybecame
winter-killed.
Improvement
By
the
farmers
and
methods
Careful
better
get
may
from
outHned
the
seed.
of
Assistance
each
from
should
seed-testing,seed
to
365
treatise
government
will hasten
treatment
in the
national
attention
of Crops
the
day
but
none-the-less
crop,
the
state
them.
help
selection, and
of better
seed
seed
better
and
crops.
"
It is
seed
good
how
well
much
time-worn
is essential
the
farmer
be
or
to
his
he
money
fails to
obliged
agriculture.
prepares
good
to
he
grow
reseed, thus
Plant
Breeding,
Domesticated
Cereals
in
America,
Forage Plants,
Corn
C.
Wheat
U.
S. D.
No.
V.
and
of Seed
Hunt,
pp.
Coburn,
Piper,
A.
E.
G.
Farmers'
The
428.
Testing
Davenport.
pp.
Shaw.
Bui.
California
Nebraska
Bui.
The
No.
No.
181.
125.
of
Seeds
Farm
85-93.
447-479.
pp.
Montgomery,
Bulletins
141-144.
53-69,
pp.
Forage-Plant
in
the
Seeds.
and
Home
School.
'Coburn,
46-65.
W.
G.
Adulteration
382.
labor."
27-43.
pp.
pp.
Crossley,
Wheat,
Breeding,
crop
14-24.
Crops, E. G. Montgomery,
Corn, Bowman
Selection
E.
Agriculture, Vol. H,
of American
and
poor
READING
Animals,
F.
Alfalfa, F. D.
of
The
T.
or
Vries.
and
Plants
Cyclopedia
Book
De
how
it, if much
have
losing time
matter
matter
no
on
will either
No
Gilbert.
and
Hugo
land,
spends
SUPPLEMENTARY
Plant-breeding, Bailey
saying that
true
Book
of Alfalfa,
p.
27.
in
the
Rural
XXVIII
CHAPTER
WEEDS
selection has
Natukal
plants
able
are
against
in
them
in
new
spite
of man's
surround
has
still
been
unfitted
in
This
few
and
more
indeed,
them,
overcome
weak
of
only
methods
face.
The
where
of
and
their
is his hope.
to
how
they
any
are
send
the
best
not
"
to
the
into
wanted,
"
crop
366
can
or
of
weed
to
weed
cannot
plants
the
piece of land.
new
sprays
prepared
of the
and
find
to
enemy
an
its weakest
nuisances
To
tools,
New
is not
simply
are
ways
nature
it
strike
Weeds
particular
weed
what
control;
ous,
Vari-
adopted.
application
against
know
must
Definition.
handling
learn
attack
farmer
is attempting
409.
first must
to
attempts
makes
themselves.
have
the
appear
dis-
of itself.
care
competition
they
armor
and
care
probably
methods
cultivation, and
whose
man
in their
place
methods
are
the
are
of
growth
crop-plants
take
maintain
fit to
more
left to
were
to
ground
constant
would
keenness
ever-increasing
weeds
if it
years,
their
hand,
by
example,
effort
cultivated
other
competition
for
Wheat,
protection.
in
other
survived
have
to
petitors.
com-
attacked
has
His
favorable
the
On
for
against
them.
relentless.
only
They
eradicate
to
natural
places.
new
some
against
not
conditions
with
the
more
have
effort
crops
made
in
that
long
so
by cultivation,
who,
man,
and
ways
ground
survived
have
Weeds
plants but
their
hold
to
operating
been
to
he
stand
with-
part.
growing
farmer
in
Alfalfa
Weeds
in potatoes and
weeds
the
as
volunteer wheat
the
are
that
farm
wheat
appear
thinned
to
the size
or
in beets
pigweeds
common
crop-plants themselves
land
367
Sometimes
the
thickly upon
other out by shading or by
Much
to drydamage comes
so
in this way,
which causes
first glance. Apples and
insure
distinctly
as
foxtail.
or
stand
are
largerlosses than
be
peaches must
one
apple limits
abominable
are
it is valuable
weeds
as
in its natural
instance, are
not
Canada
This
of
clearer statements
flowers which
of the
not
for
small-grains,
morning-glories
have
weeds,
worst
our
do
is usually the
definitions,but
commonly-used
regard
persons
all noticeable,while
at
Others
be weeds.
Some
have
flowers
thistle, two
showy flowers.
to
The
home.
attract
and
nuisances.
than
the
one
Below
case.
are
two
which
or
410.
classified
This
'
or
more
as
years.
the most
are
such
as
time
As
regards length
annuals, winter
to
whether
is,perhaps, the
of life,weeds
annuals, biennials,
they
most
Another
The
as
"
perennialsaccording
and
same
comparativelyso."
Classification.
be
may
the
upon
useful
grasses,
grouping is
mustards,
to
name
of eradication.
the
composites, and
is that
annuals
families,
legumes.
and
peren-
The
368
nials often
occur
Principlesof Agronomy
within
Both
perennialsuggests
systems of naming
family, and
tell whether
To
different treatment.
or
the
are
hence
weed
is an
demand
annual
of control.
general method
helpfuland should, therefore,
be used.
411.
Occurrence.
"
No
farmers
are
exempt
from
weed
in
even
everywhere; they grew
Ever
Eden.
since, they have been spreading far and
that they
and ingeniousmethods
wide by the numerous
transmitted
to the next
have
generation,or that they
So
have
since acquired in the strugglefor existence.
that no
done the work
spot has
thoroughly has nature
escaped.
At the doorstep, they creep out from the edge of the
of a crack ; along the pathway, they cover
out
stone
or
all ground not constantly trodden ; in waste
places,they
and struggle
the landscape; in crops, they crowd
mar
in the cemetery, they grow from
for supremacy
; and even
with a
It is only the livingman
the graves of the dead.
hoe or a plow that they respect ; only from him do they
hide their heads, and then, not until he uses
sharp edges.
Nor do they lack persistency
root,
; let him leave a single
and though they languish for a time, if he does not find
the solitary
root
by which they clingto the soil and to
have
life,they take a fresh hold and before he is aware,
tightenedthe grip until he realizes that he has lost his
opportunityof easy conquest.
Not only do they persistin the soil,but they feed on
other plants as parasites. The dodder twines about the
alfalfa,
on
sucking the sap ; the mistletoe does the same
Plant diseases are largelydue to plant parasites.
trees.
The first year that virgin land produces a crop, some
in. Soon they trespass in large numbers.
weeds
creep
In a forest regiondevoid of common
weeds, let a fire lay
pests.
They
occur
The
370
Principlesof Agronomy
sweet
the
the market
was
nuisances.
the
across
worth
less
Burdock
on
and
hoarhound
have
as
been
coaxed
herbs
from
Europe.
seed by
(10) Finally,a few weeds scatter their own
of miniature explosionsgenerallycaused by a pod
means
of the vetches.
The squirtingcubursting,as in some
accomplishesthe same
by the rind keeping
purpose
rigidand forcingthe seeds out.
413. Losses from weeds.
Exactly what are the losses
due to weeds, is usuallyextremely hard to estimate.
In
in others moisture
some
cases, they steal plant-foodand
from the crop-plants.In addition large weeds shade or
crowd
all of these
out the smaller useful plants. One
or
In the West, however,
result at any time.
injuriesmay
cimiber
"
the
loss of water
is the
most
moisture
the
South
Dakota
BuUetin, No.
150.
Weeds
valued
$150
at
to $200
could
371
not
be sold because
it
was
weeds
are
burs
Besides
other
plant diseases
of cotton
which
keep
or
the
of
troublesome
also attacks
numbers
fungus alive
attack cotton.
to
weeds
common
Alfalfa leaf-weevil
ease
dis-
tunity
oppor-
is sheltered
Here
The
most
is
labor
expended yearly.
performed no other
is
and
other purpose
of weeds, the loss would
the killing
If cultivation had
service than
is that
no
be
mous,
enor-
is one-third weeds
half.
Here
is
loss seldom
consideration.
Tumbleweeds,
numbers
and
even
catching
sufficient almost
moderate
winds
in wire
to
hide
exert
immense
pressure
Strong
on
this
Principlesof Agronomy
The
372
the
straining on
increased
wire,
moral
dollars due
to
damage
the harm
414.
phase
in the United
of crops
million
States
nually,
an-
is,indeed, astounding.
Prevention.
Let
"
eradication.
"
hundred
one
us
The
sources
structure
look well to
must
wisdom
in
hauling manure
seeds.
ships,or
food
should
fence lines
"
carry
nation
contami-
clean,water
roads and
then
cise
exer-
stickers."
of seed scatteringfrom
quire
products. These last,however, reof inspectionand legislation,
with the
Inspectionand education
the most
from which aid is expected.
are
hopefulavenues
In a largemeasure,
the problem of eradicatingweeds
be handled
must
by the community, that is, by the
farmers as a group
in a cooperative unit.
the
Under
direction of the county farm
demonstrator, the farmers
that are not alreadyorganized should cooperate to combat
to
minimum.
Weeds
373
weeds, especially
weeds which could be exterminated
new
rather easilyon account
of their small number.
Canada
thistle is spreadingthrough entire sections,
where it might
be held at bay. Then
everybody must be alive to nize
recogHere
is a field for county
new
menaces.
agents,"
"
teachers,students,and
agricultural
technical knowledge.
To
who
try
farmers
to
who
control
have
weeds,
some
law
are
Eradication.
"
culture
methods
is the
them
farmers
Meanwhile
crux
are
seed every
necessary.
of the
automatically,as
whole
soon
as
young,
later.
year,
To
matter.
all the
must
vate;
culti-
since they
To
minate
exter-
only reasonable
prevent
This
their seeding
eliminates
To
germinated, which, however, may not be for years.
gain control of biennials, two years instead of one are
Plowing
required,for the plant forms seed two seasons.
Winter
will kill them.
or
cutting below the crown
annuals, beginning growth in the fall,need attention
vation
and early spring. Ordinary cultiduring the autumn
destroys these three kinds of weeds.
is
difficulty
It is,however, with perennialsthat most
374
The
encountered.
Some
rootstocks
or
and
Leaves
years.
Principlesof Agronomy
each
grow
These
year.
from
up
parts
number
of
root-crowns
generally
are
delions
deep in the ground that they are hard to reach. Danand mallows
examples of plants propagated
are
so
by
Rootstocks
root-crowns.
buds,
with
both
out
into scales
dwindled
leaves have
and
stems
which
of
one
any
underground
are
ered
cov-
The
grow.
hiding buds
which
send
with
difficulty
thistle,quack-grass,
This
roots.
will
stems
is the
Canada
salt-grass,
morning-glories,
rushes, and sedges.
The roots will eventuallystarve
if they
are
fed.
not
The
will smother
that
crops
by shading, or
them
that
will
cultivation.
The
rootstocks ought to
permit constant
be plowed in the fall,thus giving frost a chance to
get
in a good lick."
Constancy alone can
prevent pests
gainingstrength; leaves above ground soon become green.
"
The
chlorophyllmakes
must
be exhausted.
lettingan
the
for
the
storehouse
that
When
then
food
strict blockade
is the time
to
the enemy,
In the control of weed pests,
strike.
is identical.
has weakened
easilykilled
immediately after they germinate, before they can
tablish
escourse
This
root-system.
root
Weeds
on
most
are
is the
life is
now
best time
weakest.
the plantletsand
out
to
attack
ing
Harrow-
to
begin growth.
It is
in the
lose
nearly as essential
soil
as
it is to
in time,
vitality
to
kill the
some
live
number
of years
in the
Weeds
soil.
Among
these
375
eocklebur, and
mustard,
are
other
hard-shelled seed.
If, for any reason, weeds are not attacked when only
few days old, cultivation should not be delayed longer
a
than
be weaker
As
to
some
plants seem
necessary.
be a good time for attack.
during blooming, this may
It is,in that seed has not yet formed.
Delay beyond
sequences,
blooming period is likelyto be fraught with serious confor some
weeds
seed very
mature
shortly
after the blossoms
disappear. Some flowers of a plant
show
may
seed.
the
at
The
blossom
416.
the
serve
begin to
soon
principles.
General
others contain
mature
signalhung
ripen.
out
that
should
warn
time
same
"
as
Clark
and
Fletcher
to
give
following:
"1.
There
by
is
weed
no
known
which
attention, if the
constant
cated
be eradi-
cannot
nature
of its growth
is understood.
"
ripenseeds.
"3. Cultivate
frequently,particularlyearly in the
to destroy seedlings.
so
as
season,
be induced
to germinate
weed
seeds can
4. Many
in autumn
by cultivating stubble immediately after
of these seedlings will be winter-killed
Most
harvest.
be easilydisposedof by plowing or cultivation in
or
can
2. Never
allow weeds
to
"
spring.
"
seeds should
bearing mature
5. All weeds
be burnt.
i
they be plowed under,
of ordinary
be destroyed by the use
6. All weeds can
implements of the farm, the plow, the cultivator, the
Under
no
circumstances
should
"
Be
Farm
Weeds,
pp.
to
prevent
15-17.
new
weeds
376
The
Principlesof Agronomy
sion
practiceof summer-fallowing land, to the excluwhatever
of all crops throughout the season,
may
be said againstit,affords the best opportunity to suppress
For lands foul with persistentgrowing
noxious
weeds.
perennials,a thorough summer-fallow will usually be the
"
most
The
"
give
crops,
short
intervals."
417.
have
Herbicides
been
in Europe, Canada,
of years
Some
interestingthings have
number
States.
with
experimented
and
the
been
for
United
discovered
Copper
concerning the spraying of weeds to kill them.
iron sulfate,common
sulfate (blue vitriol),
salt, sulfuric
acid, slaked lime, corrosive sublimate, and
have
compounds
given
some
several other
in different experiments.
success
is necessary
the crop
or
If a rainstorm
the weeds.
follows
Much
care
is
injured
after
soon
along with
off and
lose their effect.
spraying, the chemicals run
With more
knowledge of the effect of chemicals on plants
in their application,considerable
and
care
more
help
should
be derived
from
the
use
of herbicides.
Common
soil,kills
It is most
cording
goosefoot,ac-
startingand
where
the crop
can
be sacrificed to eradicate
the weed.
Carbolic
acid, mixed
one
part
to
four
of water, aids
The
378
Weeds,
U.
and
S.
No.
D.
A.
28.
Farm
Foes,
American
of
Cyclopedia
of
Agronomy
Shaw.
Thomas
Friends
Farm
Principles
Bulletins
Weeds,
Weeds
279.
306.
Dodder
368.
The
M.
Weed,
How
to
Used
in
Medicine.
of
in
II,
Kill
Them.
Johnson
Eradicating
Relation
Farm
to
Eradication
of
464.
The
Eradication
of
531.
Larkspur,
545.
Controlling
Canada
610.
Wild
660.
Weeds
"Poison
Onion
Bindweed,
and
Quack-Grass.
Weed."
Thistles.
Methods
Their
of
Control.
Grass.
Seeds.
Glory.
or
110-118.
pp.
and
Method
1-55.
pp.
Vol.
Agriculture,
Farmers'
188.
C.
Eradication.
or
Wild
Morning-
PART
IV
MANAGEMENT
FIELD
CHAPTER
XXIX
PLANNING
In order to make
of
THE
FARM
well-balanced
yieldingthe highestreturns,
farm
business capable
considerable
careful planning
is necessary.
Farmers
too
to
are
develop
prone
the farm enterprise
along lines of least resistance,arranging
the
fields in the
time
rather
than
planning
save
and
easiest way,
affairs without
The
fact that
work
definite scheme.
exactly how he
his farm to be arranged permanently should
wants
not
have to change them
prevent his making plans. He may
in later years,
somewhat
not
farmer
working
on
planning should
does
but
be done
this should
of
kind
some
plan
all the
but every
livestock
farmer
should
that
to
capable
have
no
reason
meantime.
for
All
in mind.
available
it is
plan
be
in the
know
not
some
It may
the
to place on
of
supporting;
stock
as
soon
should be planned to
farm
possible. Almost
every
from time to
this end.
to be added
Other
enterprises,
time, should be provided for in the plan. Some of the
ment
establishto a good farm
situations and appurtenances
as
are
419.
one
shown
Plan
in
should
Figs. 92
be
97.
to
stable.
"
Constant
with
every
changing from
shift in prices
The
382
is not
consistent
Principlesof Agronomy
with
good business
methods.
Every
more
or
less
regularrise and
fallin the
be foolish to continue in
It would, of course,
be made
under
could never
to pay
a type of farming that
finds himself; but
the farmer
the conditions in which
he should
not
be induced
to
change
on
account
of
reverses
depressionin prices.
A series of years with high pricesfor any farm product
of over-production.
is almost sure
to be followed by years
When
the price of potatoes is high, everybody plants
that the price will fall. A good
potatoes; this means
of
account
market
for hogs can
on
easily be overdone
the rapidity of their multiplicationand the short time
to maturity. It takes a longer
required for them to come
time to change the price of horses, cattle, and apples
than that,of hogs and potatoes ; but they too are subject
and
like wheat
that can
to changes. Staple crops
corn
be stored from one
year to another and transported great
distances are
much
less affected by rapid fluctuations
in pricethan the more
perishableor bulky products.
As a rule, it is safer to go into the raisingof potatoes
when pricesare low than when they are high,because only
few farmers
will plant potatoes during a depression.
The farmer who plantsabout the same
of each crop
area
gets the advantage of high pricesas well as
every
year
having to suffer from the low; he is usually better off
than
the farmer
who
changes his system every year.
The
unstable farmer is likelyto make
changes just at
that follow
the wrong
temporary
time.
Planning
420.
Number
of
the Farm
383
Each
enterprises.
"
farmer
should
maintain
is derived.
This
enables
the
farnier
branches
him
especiallywell and makes
able to compete
in them.
There
tions,
are
only a few condiin farming is
however, where high specialization
If a farm
desirable.
is located near
a
specialmarket,
if conditions are particularly
favorable to some
or
product,
it may
to
specialize;but on the ordinary farm,
pay
diversification with a number
of leadingproducts is much
to
safer.
421.
other
The
It should
of the farm
can
it is necessary
to
to
For
town.
located
so
that
and
of the farm
the
operations
on
the farmstead
is
This
the town.
nearest
home
same
farms
many
be
be carried
it should, at the
farm
buildingsconnected
activities.
On
including the
farmstead,
make
many
is located
on
the
corner
convenience
in
the
getting at
of the
farm
but
land, the
so
many
located next
to a
advantages go with having the home
public road that this is usually a better place to build.
Something
in the
of
land is owned
practiceto put
the
house, since
great, and
is not
ease
on
barns
the
danger
the arrangement
desirable.
for
passing vehicles is
and beauty
convenience
from
Principlesof Agronomy
The
384
422.
have
that
farms
been
of fields.
generationto
into fields
sub-divided
and
of the
Some
"
from
down
handed
divided
been
generationhave
number
and
Arrangement
A
machinery and modern methods.
sirable
great deal of time is wasted on irregularfields of undethe
of modern
use
sizes.
The
fields should
be
from
easily accessible
have
is to
them.
lane
annoyance.
on
the farmer
well
as
two
or
to
The
haul
rangement
ara
largeloads of
largeloads of
the
to
one
rotation.
desirable
situated in such
road
pasture
crops
time
saves
rotations
size in each
all be
rurming
Where
main
one
to the fields as
manure
farmstead.
the
that it is connected
way
so
in
are
and
operation
number
from
of fields should
same
not
423.
Size
and
factors.
For
shape
on
of
fields.
the crop
garden
crops,
"
The
grown
where
and
most
best
a
size for
number
of
of the work
The
386
land,
other
factors
of Agronomy
in
convenience
neatness,
of
Principles
handling
kept
be
must
water,
mind
in
and
in
ber
num-
planning
ditches.
425.
of
patches
of
their
rocks.
the
often
to
lot,
wood
Where
justify.
the
for
till these
to
more
land
for
Farm
Management,
G.
Farm
Development,
W.
Cornell
York,
useful
F.
Warren,
M.
pp.
Hays,
Bulletin
No.
pp.
that
it
is
for
does
295.
I,
Cyclopedia
of
American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
The
Farmer,
Management,
T.
F.
F.
W.
Hunt,
C.
Taylor,
S.
D.
A.
Yearbook
for
1892,
pp.
U.
S.
D.
A.
Yearbook
for
1912,
pp.
U.
S.
Farmers'
Bulletin
70-90,
pp.
U.
No.
pp.
pp.
142-161.
90-97.
9-26.
pp.
Card,
H.
Economics,
Profit.
case,
year
96-116.
Vol.
A.
each
365^01.
239-269,
Agriculture,
D.
of
READING
American
Agricultural
account
on
pasture,
purpose
of
Farm
the
permanent
Cyclopedia
Young
is
contain
presence
patches
this
other
some
the
or
SUPPLEMENTARY
New
cultivate
to
arrangement,
costs
use
or
difficult
are
farms
Many
"
cultivation.
require
not
that
returns
advisable
a
land
places.
waste
topography,
It
than
of
Use
pp.
198-207.
117-135.
343-364.
343-364.
370,
Replanning
Farm
for
CHAPTER
WHAT
Crops
form
CROPS
considerable
in livestock.
or
TO
The
GROW
farm, whether
every
crops
XXX
the farmer
income
may
of tically
pracis specializing
in
be derived
from
keeping of
feed
to
any
them.
kind
be
money
livestock
business.
possibleto raise
considerable
little additional
very
in
Men
ought, in addition
he
crops
but
find
may
it
hay
at
have
make
profitscertain,
stock products, to have some
to
Crop adaptation.
"
losses in
to
It is probable that
right crops
whether
in the
of extra
farmer
most
sell.
to
426.
amount
expense.
made
even
crops,
crops
to
as
from
raise
poor
crop,
year
culture
it is not
from
methods.
not
as
many
raisingthe
In deciding
sufiicient to know
that
farmers
are
satisfied to
387
The
388
In
and
Principlesof Agronomy
decidingwhat
the market
can
crops
to
crop
be taken
must
be made
to
grow
into consideration.
under
number
Most
of climatic
and it is
conditions,but they do best in a given zone;
working with a handicap to take them out of the zone in
in
Cotton might be made
to grow
which they do best.
parts of New
it could never
York
State
compete
or
with that
States.
in sand.
soil to which
each crop
is
to
ping
crop-
systems.
A
farm
be able to
not
the
may
grown.
Perishable
crops
must
be
raised
near
not
can-
the
railroad.
427.
Diversity of crops.
"
in
The
has
keeping'up fertility
advisable,however, to do as one
man
proposed after
reading of the benefits of rotation : plant all his farm to
alfalfa a few years, then plow it all up and plant to corn,
and the next
to wheat, raisingbut one
each
year
crop
While this procedure would give the soil the benefits
year.
of a rotation)it would
lack the diversitydemanded
by good farm practice.
A
on
and
nimiber
of crops
should
be raised at the
same
more
season,
time
man-
(3)
What
to
equipment
use
best
can
to Grow
389
more
distributed farm
raised will not
Crops
income.
It may
be
be raised in
better-
all the
that
crops
paying
and
largequantitiesas practical,
as
labor
but
the
one
otherwise
that would
be
"
well
so
crop
can
adapted
to
the
raisingof
oranges
Farmers
that
no
crop
are
other
this condition
under
Conditions
429.
well
farming,as
for
as
of conditions.
set
various
crops.
"
Each
type
of
a special
particular
crop, requires
each
Some
of the
factors that
determine
crops
can
be raised
fertilizers.
Oats
grow
best in
cool, moist
climate.
They
are
so
other
moisture
requirementswhich
than
are
the
are
same.
oats,
The
390
Wheat
grows
much
endure
Principlesof Agronomy
wide
over
of conditions,and
range
cold weather
more
than
It is also
corn.
can
conditions.
poor
produces
never
of conditions
very
and
farming.
All of these grain crops
from
be
to
may
be grown
at
great distances
sufScientlyconcentrated
with profit,raise some
can,
are
where it would
consumption even
not pay to raise it for shipment.
Potatoes require a rather cool climate,and do best in
mellow, deep soil. They need sufficient moisture to
a
insure a uniform, even
growth ; but their quality is
is present. Potatoes
water
are
injured if too much
perishable
; hence the price is likelyto be irregular.
Mangels, sugar-beets, and other root crops require
conditions similar to those required by potatoes.
Since
be shipped any
they cannot
great distance, the market
for sugar-beets is dependent on
to a
nearness
sugar
factory.
Alfalfa is one
of the most profitable
forage crops where
conditions favor its growth. It requiresa soil containing
lime, and prefersan open sub-soil. The grass crops require
cool,moist conditions for their best growth. Every
farm should produce some
forage. The kind of crop to
raise for this purpose
depends on a great many
conditions,
such as moisture, climate,soil,and the kind of livestock
kind
of
whose
grainfor
food
home
it is to
Cotton, sugar-cane,
and
be.
and
rice all
other specialconditions
comparativelysmall
areas.
requirea
which
warm
limit their
climate
growth
to
What
The
Crops
Orow
to
fruit-crops
usually pay
391
the
particularsoil,climatic,and
they demand.
should
From
the
experienceno
years
430.
Work
same
time.
work
for
be
crops
wasted
that
are
before
are
favorable,
mistake
available,one
is
should
any
in producing various
cropping system,
conflict with
that conditions
see
may
numerous
for almost
crops
Before
be exercised to
since many
discovered.
crops
each
other
As far
should
crops.
"
In
arranging
be selected which
by requiringattention
do not
at
the
and
as
horses.
READING
SUPPLEMENTARY
field crops.
Management, G. F. Warren,
Any book
Farm
New
on
York
pp.
42-103, 402-415.
Lands.
Bulletin
446, The
Choice
of
Crops
for Alkah
CHAPTER
XXXI
EQUIPMENT
Farming
by
the
from
is
the
with
of
and
by hand,
has
been
the
the
to
of
in
size of
that
The
now
does
of
all this
a
thing
The
as
could
be
To-day
grain-farming
well
as
the
In
as
ago
could
get
has
The
changed.
without
of
considerable
the
these
he
aid
of
various
knowledge
392
this
limited
slow
ods
meth-
with
had
modern
capital
agriculture,
of
little
machines,
farmer
devices
of
very
complicated
some
formations.
trans-
farmer
but
no
the
similar
The
"
every
machinery.
of
wrought
along
since
machinery,
was
only by
mechanic.
With
Before
with
branches
has
equipment
there
exists, since
done
now
other
were
possibilitiesof
by the
limit
be
can
farm
raised
be
the
done
was
however,
the
harvested
is limited
grain-farm
use
In
this, respect.
could
such
no
the
on
is
that
cows
increased.
greatly
that
farmer
in
grain harvester,
that
generations
knowledge
operation
an
of
century,
revolution
grain
of modern
use
largely
of machine.
used
last
of
is available.
431.
few
kind
some
the
very
use.
in
operation
the
were
quantity
hardly
milking
implements
the
amount
then
The
few
complete
agriculture
time
of
During
invention
the
aid
is
the
to
is conducted
the
simple.
very
of crops
the
early history
There
machinery.
FARM
that
industry
an
planting
done
not
now
of
use
THE
OF
but
hardly
chine.
ma-
requires skill
mechanism.
The
The
394
Some
machine
new
a
farmers
Principlesof Agronomy
to
go
and
the other
hundreds
and
extreme
on
buy
the' market.
of dollars' worth
every
As
of idle
sees
433.
many
that it will
earn
Machines
that
kinds
new
Fig.
of these
94.
"
money.
get
of machines
Cement
finds
out
are
many
of
date.
"
Every
uses
on
year
Some
the farm.
after
will be
few years
of trial. This
means
that there
Equipment of
395
the Farm
his money
in it. Standard
equipment such as wagons
and plows seldom gets out of date.
434. Machines
that
seldom
used.
Some
are
pieces
"
of equipment
almost
seem
are
a
that
few
acres
of
grain needs
yet it seems
and
waste
a
a
to
season.
The
fanning mill
have
the
on
necessary
farmer
to clean
this machine
farm
who
has
the seed,
idle except
few
This difficulty
be
days during each year.
can
in part by the cooperation of a number
of farmers
overcome
in the purchase and
of such machinery. Seed
use
grain can be cleaned almost any time during the year.
This makes
it possible for a dozen
or
twenty farmers
the same
for
to use
fanning mill, making the expense
each one
rule can
be appliedto
slight. The same
very
the ownership of grain drills,
harvesters, threshingmachines,
and numerous
other implements.
The
size of machinery
435. Size
of machinery.
be adapted to the. needs of the farmer.
On the
must
all the machinery
very large farm, it is desirable to have
labor
so
largethat it may be operated with as littleman
as
possible. Where fields are small, on the other hand,
be used to advantage on account
largemachines cannot
The traction
of the constant
turning that is necessary.
be
in tillageoperationsmay
of power
engine as a source
used under certain conditions,but it finds no place on the
In trying equipment of all kinds, the
ordinary farm.
for
"
farmer
should
his needs.
The
work
machines
not
so
should
be large enough to
in them.
amount
of
implement
during one
be very
do
season.
The
The
396
Principlesof Agronomy
it is used
FiG.
ing men
95.
"
and
four hours
in
Gasoline
engine used
teams,
if necessary,
be
run
twenty-
day
"
Equipment of
made.
The
Minnesota
397
the Farm
Experiment
Station
found
that
not
are
The sure
to waste
machinery.
way
the farm is to buy expensive machinery and
Caring
438.
on
money
for
Fig.
"
96.
"
but
Cheap
Some
houses
machine
are
as
built to protect.
water
expense,
many
It
and
and
sun
the
season
when
that they
machinery they
shed
neat
for itself in
desirable.
even
constructed
will pay
of the
so
are
rapidlyas
simple but
expensivemachines to
is a good idea to clean
the end
or
necessary,
sheds, however,
depreciateabout
out
not
Costly
of the year.
shelter.
effective
can
one
were
be built at
year
slight
if there
are
shelter.
and
it is put
away.
All
at
parts
398
The
likelyto
Principles of Agronomy
should
rust
the
when
of the
All machinery
as
good
other
time.
of repair,
state
the
depreciationand increases
much
of valuable
waste
great
be kept in
should
Mower
practiceof repairing
in the beginning
for use
out
The
use.
is taken
results in
season
If this is
be oiled.
efficiency.
more
439.
"
necessary,
farm.
part of the
for the farmer
be
may
well
as
considered
They
as
the non-productive
as
needed
are
protection
as
products, and
farming
to
the
criticize the
buildings. The
however,
will
There
in
money
farmer
now
no
of farm
great waste
of time.
cement
with
and
other
of expensive
conservative
in this
spect,
re-
ings
showing in build-
farm
proved
buildings could be imthat, with proper
planning, the
that
design, and
arrangement
likely
are
doubt
invested
ductive
pro-
nothing about
must
more
obtained
cripplehim
is
farmer
average
or
know
way
in the
could
have
buildings in
The
been
cases
many
modern
The
better spent.
results in
farmer, by the
use
of
available
struct
building materials, can conall necessary
pense.
buildingsat comparatively low exCare in planning enables him to do much
more
his money
than
buildingswithout
of convenience
overlooked
if he constructed
regard
and
in the past.
to
number
arrangement.
sanitation
have
The
also been
of small
tance
impor-
largely
Equipment
the
of
SUPPLEMENTARY
Farm
Structures,
Farm
Management,
of
Cyclopedia
K.
G.
of
Physics
Farm
Equipment,
S.
No.
D.
A.
W.
F.
W.
Ohio
Card,
H.
Farmers'
Hays,
Bui.
297.
Farm
Bulletins
Corn-Harvesting
347.
Repair
475.
Ice
481.
Concrete
574.
Poultry
589.
Home
of
Farm
I,
162-278.
pp.
40-47.
pp.
329-553.
223-254,
Davidson
Motors,
M.
303.
Vol.
pp.
King,
Minnesota
Producing
355-364.
pp.
Agriculture,
Farm
Development,
U.
Warren,
and
Farm
of
F.
F.
Machinery
Cost
Ekblaw.
Agriculture,
Farm
READING
T.
American
Management,
Farm
J.
399
Farm
and
Chase.
355-384.
pp.
Crops,
Minnesota
Bui.
Machinery.
Equipment.
Houses.
Construction
House
Made
Construction.
Silos.
on
the
Livestock
Farm.
117.
FACTORS
OF
of the most
One
maintain
proper
CHAPTER
XXXII
SUCCESS
IN
TION
PRODUC-
CROP
that
tendency to develop hobbies, which means
had a hobby
other phases will be neglected. A merchant
and
of keeping his store
neat
clean, claiming that an
He
attracted
trade.
was
so
orderly establishment
particularabout scrubbing and putting things in order,
in they were
that when
customers
came
neglected;
constant
customers
secondary
were
to
give
and
neatness, he lost
As
also lected
negand to other
his store
most
He
was
model
attention to
the others.
one
He
or
phases of
two
be
must
constantly on
organized,to
of his-
neglect
ing,
the capitalall work-
have
and
animals
in the
best
advantage. He
farming is made
up of
Size
of farm.
best way,
of
bankrupt.
became
The
440.
buying
to
of his business.
crops
cleanliness.
attention
proper
important parts
to
and
to
market
to
the
the
must
a
"
In
order
to
make
success
in
Principlesof Agronomy
The
402
If it does not
also to pay for itself in a very few years.
do this,they say there is nothing in farming. Every one
than
farm
in
small bank.
the
be successfully
produced without
cannot
investment
be
purchased or
suitable seed-bed
rented and
prepared. Seed must
a
be planted and the crop cared for during growth, then
of considerable
harvested
and
failures
is not
available.
to
442.
and
The
Proper type
followed
used.
occur
most
funds
marketed
Many
be
land must
The
money.
is
as
In every
of
fanning.
important
section
in the most
to
success
The
as
type
are
of
farming
the methods
some
"
efficient manner.
paying type is
one
of the chief
the land.
This has been discussed
on
problems of the man
more
fullyin Chapter XXX.
443. Good
Farming will not
management.
pay
under the most
favorable conditions without
intelligent
"
management.
that unless
There
are
so
many
chances
for
losses
Factors
method
conditions
to
of the industries,
the work
many
after year,
and
when
Farming, on
during
two
any
that each
Seasonal
day presents
same
variations
rienced.
expe-
the
never
are
In
year
is
difficulty
no
years.
they exist.
is exactlythe
learned
once
as
403
same
great
so
problems.
The economical use of horses and machinery
plowing,
planting,and harvesting at the right time and in the right
and marketing products to the best advantage,
way
both call for the highest type of executive ability.It is
new
"
"
enough
produced at
not
444.
some
business
are
records.
kind
of books
set
from
profitscame
phases of his
but
and where
in order
the losses
to
tell where
occur
of
set
eliminate
Profits
to
fanner
the farmer
high
of ten
dollars
than
farm
an
of ten
an
acre
the
simple
acre.
In
"
advanced
high acre-yields.
desirable, they are by no means
is to get
His
wants.
total income
to
it advisable
idea is sometimes
of the farmer
high yieldsare
all that
yields
vs.
the
discussing
crop production,
While
simple
farmers
will find
Few
givinggreatest returns.
to keep a complex set of accounts, but some
bookkeeping will certainlypay.
445.
his
is
accounts
able to
of
without
cannot,
farmer
without
farmer
The
"
be
most
primarilyto
farm
Keeping
keeping
The
be able to raise
to
for his
on
chief
year'swork.
farm
of 100
is to
concern
acres
net
earning
is more
earning of twenty-fivedollars
an
get
able
profit-
acre
on
acres.
High yieldsdo
not
always bring
high
net
profitfor
The
404
Principlesof Agronomy
acre.
446.
should
For
Profits from
not
he
money
The
"
profitsfrom
from the
Some
uses.
labor.
horse
all his
expect to make
the horses
and
man
farmers
men
seem
farmer
the land;
think
that
"
crops.
He
must
understand
corn
that
needs
alfalfa needs
soil
Factors
He
irrigation
water,
other
the
he
crops
which
the
and
raises
market
so
448.
they
Markets.
can
much
"
be sold at
better
markets
to
is useless
profit. The
than
market-time
extra
to
lose
he has made
dealer
He
or
He
increase yields,but
the
or
is
thinking
questionof
twice
year
"
The
season.
more
once
by
during the
farmer may,
ever,
howtranssingleunwise action
entire
farmer.
raise crops
unless
ordinary farmer is a
salesman.
attracts
than
be
must
To
It
producer
continuously how
quality of
able to produce crops
have the highest success,
an
observing naturalist.
be
demands.
therefore,the farmer
fertilizers,
as
405
through
season
available to
are
the
may
consumer
who
is best in all
cases.
local markets,
place of
Farmers
instead
of
too
are
to
investigatingevery
trust
to
possible
sale.
Considerable
loss
accompanies
to
the
storage
of
most
farm
and
prone
recommended.
more
than
age
Shrink-
the increase in
of months.
If
pricereceived after holding for a number
indications
low
harvest and
at
prices are particularly
The
farmer
pay to store.
point to a rise later,it may
markets
watch
closelyfrom one year to the next,
must
and investigateevery opportunityto market his products
profitably.
The
406
Success
doing
in
distinct
well
of
kinds
marketing,
other
neglects
short
of
or
of
business
of
phase
work.
his
the
work
in
that
attention
Management,
Rural
Economics,
G.
T.
F.
he
that
must
its
American
Agriculture,
Vol.
I,
Cyclopedia
of
American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
Cyclopedia
of
American
Agriculture,
Vol.
IV,
Agricultiu-al
The
Cooperation
U.
Economics,
in
Farmers'
Farm
Welfare,
Farmer,
Young
The
and
No.
D.
A.
F.
Business
G.
T.
C.
Taylor.
G.
454.
621.
Marketing
Fairchild.
H.
P.
Roberts.
Boss.
Bulletins
Successful
Powell.
I.
Handbook,
Andrew
Farmers'
pp.
Hunt.
Agriculture,
Management,
S.
H.
T.
importance
New
Farm
York
Products.
Farm.
162-202.
pp.
pp.
many
81-109.
215-276.
of
often
result
give
Carver.
N.
must
Warren.
of
Wealth
in
fad
way,
READING
Cyclopedia
Rural
as
farmer
is,
in
has
particular
and
successful
SUPPLEMENTARY
Farm
who
alone
judgment
good
factors,
balanced,
consist
not
farmer
crops
The
success.
for
The
raising
Agronomy
does
calls
it
important
well
of
production
crop
thing
one
Principles
keep
to
falls
his
each
fies.
justi-
Appendix
410
Nevada
New
Hampshire
New
Jersey
New
Mexico
Brunswick.
lege.
AgriculturalCol-
"
"
Dvirham.
"
New
"
Oklahoma
Oregon
Stillwater.
"
Corvallis.
"
Pennsylvania
York
New
Geneva.
"
nell
College of Agricultureand Cor-
Ithaca.
Carolina
North
College
"
Rhode
Island
South
Carolina
South
Dakota
Tennessee
"
Station
"
State
"
"
College.
Mayaguez.
Kingston.
"
Clemson
lege.
Col-
Station
Experiment
"
Rico
Porto
"
State Station
lumbus.
Co-
Agriculture
of
College
Reno.
"
Brookings.
"
Knoxville.
"
College Station.
Utah
Logan.
Vermont
Burlington.
Raleigh.
Agricultural Virginia Blacksburg.
leigh. Texas
Ra-
West
"
"
State
Station
"
"
Dakota
North
"
"
Washington
College.
Ohio
West
"
Station
Experiment
Woos-
"
The
United
D.C.
One
as
Bureau
Bureau.
Bureau
of Animal
Bureau
of Plant
Industry.
Industry.
Service.
"
of
Division
Madison.
Laramie.
Bureau
Chemistry.
of
Bureau
of Soils.
Bureau
of
BiologicalSurvey.
of Publications.
of Statistics.
Office of
Bureau
Dominion
"
Weather
Some
Wisconsin
Morgantown.
may
follows
Forest
"
States
of the Divisions
are
Virginia
Wyoming
ter.
Pullman.
"
Experiment
of Public
Office
Stations.
Roads
and
gineering
En-
Entomology.
of the most
important addresses
Department
Ottawa,
of
in Canada
Ontario
culture,
Agri-
Ontario.
are
Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ontario.
Agricultural College, Winnipeg,
Manitoba.
Appendix
41
APPENDIX
LABORATORY
Manual
A
of
Lessons
Soil,
on
The
Physical
Soil
Physics
Unit
in
E.
of
Laboratory
A.
Soils,
Manual,
D.
J.
Grading
Manual
Laboratory
L.
D.
E.
O.
Call
Barto.
and
E.
G.
Schafer.
Russell.
J.
Properties
and
Crops,
Agriculture,
of
Agriculture,
Examining
and
"
Manual
Laboratory
GUIDES
Soils
Agriculture
of
McCall.
G.
Mosier
and
A.
F.
Gustafson.
G.
Montgomery.
EUif.
Grain,
Farm
J.
G.
T.
L.
Lyon
Management,
and
G.
E.
F.
Warren
and
K.
Livermore.
Manual
Laboratory
and
Malon
of
Yoder.
Cereals
and
Forage
Crops,
Geo.
Livingston
C.
Appendix
412
APPENDIX
FERTILITY
Approximate
Maximum
IN
FARM
Amounts
PRODUCE
Removable
to
an
Acre
Annually
From
Hopkins'
Soil
Fertilityand
Permanent
Agriculture.
413
Appendix
APPENDIX
COMPOSITION,
AND
AMOUNT,
PRODUCED
BY
D
VALUE
DIFFERENT
MANURE
OF
KINDS
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
(Resultsof experimentsconducted
at Cornell
University Experiment
Station)
AMOUNT
MINIMUM
THE
REPLACE
THE
OF
BY
SOIL
GOOD
FROM
ABSTRACTED
ELEMENTS
ACREAGE
OF
DIFFERENT
CROPS
Wheat
5 tons
Barley
5 tons
Oats
5 tons
Corn
7 tons
Meadow
Red
hay
clover
TO
MANURE
FARMYARD
8 tons
12 tons
Beans
10 tons
Turnips
15 tons
Potatoes
10 tons
Cabbage
25 tons
Carrots
10 tons
Appendix
414
APPENDIX
WEIGHTS
E
MEASURES
AND
AvoirdupoisWeight
16
pounds
hundredweight (cwt.)
100
20
=1
.
=20
Ldnear
12 inches
(in.)
3 feet
5^ yards, or
I65 ft.
foot
=1
yard (yd.)
rod (rd.)
mile (mi.)
=1
=
rd.
320
1760
yd.
144 square
9 square
inches
5280
Square
square
yards
160
square
rods
1
1
36
1
1
feet
acres
Solid
1728
cubic inches
(cu.in.)
27 cubic feet
1 cubic
1 cubic
24j cubic
yard
yard
feet
12 in. X
or
ft.
63,360 in.
(sq.ft.)
yard (sq.yd.)
square
rod (sq.rd.)
square
acre
(A.)
mile (sq.mi.)
square
foot
1 in.
township (twp.)
acre
section
Cubic
nn..^
Measures
1 cubic
1 cubic
yard (cu.yd.)
32,000 oz.
1 section
sections
43,560 square
160
mile
1 square
(ft.)
1 square
(sq.in.)
feet
acres
lb.
Measures
30j
640
2000
=1
rods
1 mi.
cwt.
Measures
=
.
(T.)
1 ton
=
.
1 ton
320
pound (lb.)
hundredweight (cwt.)
=1
(oz.)
ounces
46,656
1 load
1 cord
1 board
cu.
in.
perch
foot
Appendix
Measures
Liquid
gills
2
4
3H
(gi.)
=1
pint
pints
=1
quart
quarts
=1
gallon
(gal.)
gallons
=1
barrel
(bbl.)
=1
cubic
7J
gallons
gallon
415
U.
S.
water
water
gallon
(pt.)
(qt.)
foot
pounds
8.3254
cubic
231
(approximately)
inches
.....
Dry
Measures
pints
=1
quart
quarts
=1
peck
pecks
=1
bushel
bushel
2150.42
(pk.)
(bu.)
cu.
in.
Appendix
416
APPENDIX
QUANTITY
OF
SEED
PLANTED
TO
THE
ACRE
Wheat
1-2
bushels
Oats
2-4
bushels
Barley
l2~2|
Rye
Peas
bushels
bushels
1-2
bushels
2j-35
Buckwheat
,
yj.
J oats
(peas
bushel
1 bushel
2
bushels
Flax
^-2
Com
15-20
pounds
Potatoes
10-18
bushels
Red
8-12
pounds
pounds
clover
Alsike
clover
6-10
White
clover
4-8
bushels
pounds
Timothy
10-15
pounds
Orchard-grass
15-20
pounds
Sugar-beets
12-16
pounds
Blue-grass
10-15
pounds
Alfalfa
10-20
pounds
Brome-grass
15-20
pounds
Bur
12
clover
Sweet
clover
pounds
10-25
pounds
Mangels
5-8
pounds
Redtop
6-8
pounds
Appendix
418
APPENDIX
RULES
MEASURING
Measuring
J
"
foot.
cubic
Measuring
make
to
hay.
Measuring
Some
packed.
the
more
of
five
ton.
is to
rods
160
and
The
"
long, or
that
foot, or
as
is four
all calculations
SQUARE
are
rods
crib, find
hard
is very
mow
acre,
A
as
and
long.
others;
calculate land
to
in decimals.
MEASURE
corn
.4.
or
than
acre.
one
surveyor'schain
ear
to
it will be
longer,it
Settled hay will usually weigh
400 cubic feet will weigh one
heavier
easiest way
rods
square
are
long,therefore,equals an
40 rods
A
so
figure 160
per
hay
cubic
about
capacity
the
hay in
it becomes.
compact
pounds
of
of
The
kinds
Measuring land.
quantity
The
"
find
To
multiply by f
feet and
accurately.
estimate
stands
shelled.
bushel
of
bushels
two
"
of cubic
number
the
multiply by y,
It requires about
com.
ear
one
the
determine
To
feet and
of cubic
bushe)
grain.
20
rods
and
stripfour rods
wide
rod
long, etc.
It is divided
Ten
measurements
wide
stripone
does
the
chains
EQUIVALENTS
into
100
square
links,
equal
Appendix
419
APPENDIX
RULES
A
for
FOR
number
L
the
stack
found
stack
on
from
other
the
other).
from
following formulas
(O +
the
W)
the
number
on
obtained
average
the
feet
over
overthrow
side to
one
of cubic
STACK
(a line is thrown
side and
bottom
Then
the
and
overthrow
the
THE
IN
taken
are
width, O
ground
the
over
HAY
measurements
the
to
distance
on
MEASURING
length, W
the
of
in the
is the
the
bottom
stack
be
may
multiplied by
itself and
this
product by
the
length
of
stack
ft.
cu.
(O times
W)
^.
c^
times
ft.
cu.
(O
For
small, low
ricks
W)
"
the formula
use
^W
times
ft.
cu.
For
round
"
or
bulge,"
the
from
ground
top of the
the
vertical
and
stack.
circumference
(C) at
height of the
height from
measured
average
the
Then
slant
the formula
use
or
above
the base
circumference
circumference
the
to
8 times
"
the
(height
.100
of the
base
When
the
the
number
by
There
or
but
30
cubic
ton.
feet
or
For
after
of stack
as
after
days.
well
year
stacks
round
30
ton
prairiehay
as
The
with
the
343
ton
number
the
time
this number
find how
to
that
as
feet
of
there
settled
has
closer.
be
used
5 to
are.
days
30
For
alfalfa
has
6 months
512
varies
settling.
or
with
more
the
tled
set-
422
usually accepted
are
usually contains
to
is divided
cubic
tons
many
considered
in different
When
ft.
cu.
feet is known,
feet in
used
are
days.
and
top)
feet
more
feet
feet in
cubic
343
422
of
of cubic
of cubic
cubic
422-512
height
slant
number
about
are
more,
as
cubic
depth
Appendix
420
APPENDIX
HARVEST
WHEAT
January.
and
February
April.
Australia, New
"
May.
Egypt,
Upper
India, Syria,
Central
Algeria,
California, Oregon,
"
South
Carolina,
Arkansas,
Utah,
Portugal,
South
July.
New
"
Argentine
Republic.
India.
Cyprus,
Persia, Asia
Colorado,
Missouri,
Minor,
Central
and
British
and
September
Turkey,
Southern
December.
"
"
North
Kansas,
Italy, Spain,
South
Northern
Columbia,
Central
"
South
Burmah,
Minnesota,
of
Indiana,
Nebraska,
South
of
England.
Minnesota,
Belgium,
Dakotas,
Holland,
Great
Manitoba,
Britain,
Russia.
October.
Peru,
Ohio,
Austria-Hungary,
Scotland,
Sweden,
Russia.
November.
Georgia,
Greece,
Pennsylvania,
Bulgaria,
Switzerland',
Poland,
Morocco.
Virginia, Kentucky,
York,
Wisconsin,
Roumania,
Canada,
Denmark,
New
England,
"
Japan,
France.
Germany,
August.
China,
Mississippi, Alabama,
Tennessee,
of
Canada,
Asia,
Carolina,
Illinois, Iowa,
Michigan,
Lower
Chile, and
Zealand,
"
Egypt,
Texas,
"
June.
Russia,
CALENDAR
Cuba.
Mexico,
Upper
March.
Lower
"
New
Africa.
South
Wales.
Norway,
North
of
Appendix
421
APPENDIX
PRICES
OF
WHEAT
Months
(CHICAGO
Lowest
of
Prices
Yearly
OF
August
.80
March
1.07
Months
of
1.12i December
@2.26
June
February
.77
@2.03
November
@2.85
May
1.55
December
January
July
.76i @
August
.73i @ 1.311 July
and Sept.
Feb. April,
.991 @ 1.32
1.01
@ 1.61
August
.89 @ 1.46
July
.81i @ 1.28
April
.831 @ 1.30i August
1.46
April
August
November
September
October
February
July
August
1.55
1.04i @2.20
Highest
Prices
.85
November
.83
January
August
1.26f
December
October
.86i @
1.32
January
January
.95f @ 1.43i
October
December
.911 @
1.40
.90
1.13i
June
October
.
.731@
.691 @
.661@
March
.
October
.
August
April
.
June
.741 @
.85
cash wheat.
Hutchinson
February
.9lf April
.84f January
.96
.94f
June
"7li@2.00
September
.75i@ 1.08f February
February
July
.691 @
December
Range
Prices
December
August
iNo.
1863-19101
MARKET)
1.081 August
1.16
April
The
ing day.
"
corner"
figures$1.04^ "LOSJ
the follow-
Appendix
422
(CHICAGO
WHEAT
OF
PRICES
MARKET)
1863-1910
(Continued)
Months
of
Yearly
Lowest
Range
Months
of
Highest
Years
Prices
.69j
October
1892
Prices
Prices
OP
.91|
February
"54|
.88
April
.50
.651
April
.48f
.83|
May
.531
.941
November
.64|
1.09
December
.62
1.85
May
.64
.79i
May
.61*
.871
June
"63i
.791
December
.67i
.95
September
.701
.93
September
.811
1.22
October
.771
1.24
February
July
1893
1894
September
1895
January
.
June
1896
April
1897
October
1898
1899
December
1900
January
.
July
1901
October
1902
March
1903
January
1904
August
1905
.94f
1906
Aug. -Sept.
.69i
1907
January
.71
.841
@1.11
.99i
1.60
June
.901
1.27*
February
1.05i
April
October
July
1908
August
1909
May
November
1910
by
The
Charles
Leiter
B.
"
"
corner
Murray,
figure.
editor
of
The
the
above
Cinoinnati
table
Price
was
compiled
Current.
Appendix
423
APPENDIX
CROP
STATISTICS
Calculated
Agriculture.
as
here
FOR
The
calculated
CONTINENTAL
Yearbook
from
average
are
the
yields
averages
UNITED
United'
per
acre
of the
States
and
ten
Department
value
yearly
STATES
per
of
bushel
averages.
Appendix
424
APPENDIX
PLOWING
AS
AFFECTED
BY
(8
inch
SHAPE
furrow)
OF
THE
FIELD
426
"
Appendix
APPENDIX
GLOSSARY
Alkaloid.
action,such
Ash.
as
Mineral
"
Awns.
matter
Beards
"
Substances
"
left after
seed-coats
on
burning ; ashes.
chaff.
on
or
Bacteria.
Bast.
Bracts.
the smallest
"
"
Leaflets
"
on
other
bers
mem-
plants or
The
"
nervous
the base
near
much
of true
reduced
leaf,or
rootstocks
on
any
in size.
normally
envelope of the flower ; if the parts are separate,
Calyx.
they are called sepals; if not wholly separate, they are lobes.
bark and wood.
It
Cambium.
Growing tissue usually between
leaves
Outer
"
"
between
hes
the
bundle, and
phloem
and
the
bundles, when
of the woody cylinder,the cambium
wood
and
of the
active,are
seems
to
fibrovascular
on
the outside
lie between
the
bark.
Capillarywater.
All water
"
without
Carbohydrates.
"
and
these
as
xylem
heating,if exposed
to
the air.
Substances
such
oxygen,
as
"
"
plants manufacture
Corolla.
their food.
The
petals,or
(usuallyshowy).
Cortex.
"
The
"
the
the trunk
Cortical.
or
inner
floral
envelope,in
bark.
epidermis;
the
in
the flower
the cambium
exterior
and
coveringof
branches.
"
Appendix
427
Current
meter.
An
"
lowered
apparatus
"
Plants
"
seeds in
stream
to
find how
flows.
Dicotyledons.
into
two
with
of nitrogen.
two
These
parts.
to
lay down
"
Endodermis.
Inner
"
Endosperm.
The
"
It
embryo.
white
of
contents
suppliesfood
for the
growing
the germ
or
It
is
the
seedling.
part of wheat.
Entomology.
Enzymes.
The
"
Chemical
"
reactions
An
"
it is cast off
outer
ing
cover-
breaking down
or
changing of compounds by
and
the
heating of manure
of alcohol from sugar by yeast.
Bundle
bundle.
or
body consistingof fibers,and of
Fibro-vascular
the
as
"
which
transport
down
squash vines
Grouping
"
water
up
They show
the stem.
and
in wood
Flocculation.
in
the transformation
as
reaction, such
formation
foods
trees
The
"
chemical
ducts
is often cortex.
of trees
Fermentation.
outer
by
within
of starch to sugar.
covering (from epi,outside,and dermis,skin);
changes,such
or
Epidermis.
substances
insects.
as
of the
the
in
corn
stems
and
elaborated
pith as strands,and
V-shaped bundles.
soil particles.
"
Solution
of
"
cells)instead of seeds.
Genus.
"
A group
generalname,
of
as
closely-related
speciesof plants,all bearing one
the clovers ; Populus,the poplars.
Trifolium,
Appendix
428
Gravitational water.
Water
"
in
of film water.
excess
It passes
ward
down-
"
Ldnt.
Cotton
"
lAnters.
fiber.
Short
"
fiber
The
Medullary.
"
seed.
cotton
on
inner
layersof
ish-green
yellow-
ring.
Medullary
bark
rays.
Ducts
"
Microorganisms.
Plants
"
without
seen
pithy
or
animals
extending radiallyfrom
areas
of stem.
center
to
or
small
so
that
they
be
cannot
microscope.
Plants
Monocotyledons.
or
having only one cotyledonor seed-leaf,
seed in one
part. They usually have parallel-veinedleaves,
and since they have no
cambium, do not lay down
ringsin
growth. They constitute one of three great divisions of higher
and orchids
plants. All grasses and cereal grains,palms, lilies,
are
examples. See Dicotyledons.
Natural
selection.
Selection or persistence
in nature
of those individual
fit to survive,out of the many
that begin life.
most
Nitrification. Changing less available nitrogento nitrates which
are
readily used by plants. Bacteria change ammonia, free
nitrogen,and nitrites to nitrates by oxidizingthem.
gen
Nitrogen-fixation.Making free nitrogeninto compounds of nitro"
"
"
"
that
Nodules.
are
solids
or
can
Enlargements
"
of bacteria
which
take
into solids
readily.
of
legumes containingcolonies
food made
on
by the plant,but which
air. Legumes are the only agricultural
on
live
be made
roots
nitrogenfrom the
plantsknown to bear nodules.
Nucleus.
The
of cell activity,
center
usually darker
"
other
cell contents.
Organism.
"
Osmosis.
"
the
than
Passage of water
to equalizethe
or
dissolved material
concentration
crobe.
animal, a mi-
plant,an
of the
through a
solution
on
brane
mem-
both
Ovary.
"
The
part of the
pistil
containingthe
ovule
or
ovules
seed-case.
Ovule.
"
The
body which,
after
becomes
fertilization,
the seed.
the
Appendix
429
Palisade cells.
leaves.
Elongated cells under the epidermisof some
Branching flower-cluster or seed-cluster,as in oats.
Plants or animals that subsist or feed on livingplants
"
Panicle.
"
Parasites.
"
animals.
or
Pathology.
The
"
science concerned
with
and
trol
con-
of disease.
Pericycle. Region of
"
Phloem.
Fibrous
"
the
the stem
tissue
cambium
; inner bark.
justoutside
plant-food passes
on
which
through
elaborated
downward.
of sugar
and
Photosynthesis. Manufacture
starchy foods bychlorophyllin the presence of sunlightfrom water and carbon
dioxide.
and synthesis,
to put together.)
(From photo,light,
of
of ovary,
Pistil.
flowers,consisting
style,
Ovule-bearingorgan
when
the
seed-case.
and stigma ;
ripeor mature,
membrane
Plasma
A thin,colorless membrane
coveringthe protoplasm.
"
"
"
Small
"
distinct bodies
of
"
carries within
Pollen
it the
male
this unites
When
element.
with
female
the
yellowishdust
Protein.
Plant
"
or
element
that
and
from
comes
animal
nitrogen
in the
and
tassels.
corn
taining
compounds comprising protoplasm,con-
sulfur,in addition
to
carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen.
"
"
Oxygen is used
given off.
Saprophytes. Organisms
"
that
carbon
secure
already combined.
foods
from
up,
dioxide
and heat
liberated,
These
foods
often
are
dead
tissue.
Fertilization
Self-fertilization.
"
pollenfertilizes the
ovule.
When
process
is called self-fertilization.
end walls.
pollenand
ovule of the same
plant,the
See Cross-fertilization.
the phloem through which
results from
of cells in
downward,
union
so-called
of
because
of sievelike
Appendix
430
that
ancestor,
alike
much
so
are
which
or
as
to
not
are
of
to be the progeny
seem
unUke
sufficiently
to
similar
one
the
warrant
to them.
botanical name
than one
givingof more
Spermatophytes. Plants that produce seeds, as all the so-called
higherplants.
Spike. Cluster when seeds or flowers are borne on short pedicels
close together,
branches
as in wheat.
or
bringing the spikelets
of large
tissue in leaf, so-called because
Loose
Sponge tissue.
"
"
"
Stamens.
cells.
between
spaces
The
"
of flowers
pollen-bearing
organs
is the anther
or
on
stalk
filament.
or
The
Stigma.
"
styleor stalk.
Stoloniferous. Spreadingby means
at the
top of
of
"
which
at
appear
or
the surface
near
rootingbranches, or stolons
; in grasses, sod-formingby
rootstocks.
Stomata.
Mouth-like
"
of carbon
intake
the
openings in
dioxide
When
and
plantswilt,two
closingthe opening.
pass
out.
leaves
of
allow
small
"
water
and
oxygen
to
of the
of the flower.
kind
of work
speciahzed
and
thick and
have
Translocation.
thin
Movement
"
placesin
their walls.
one
another.
to
in hot weather.
Vacuoles.
Weir.
"
Xylem.
"
"
sap
trees
Bodies
of
passes
upward.
is almost
It lies within
xylem.
entirely
the
cambium.
Wood
in
INDEX
Aeration
Absorption,
selective,
farm,
Accounts,
Acid
correction
how
of
Action
157.
103.
43,
enzymes,
of
Adaptability
plants
and
of
formation,
Agents
soil
Agriculture
defined,
Acre-foot
of
Age
of, 157.
detected,
crops,
advance
of
and
the
sciences,
2.
as
60.
12, 21.
as
an
as
business,
art,
1.
divisions
of,
barley,
389.
its scope,
1.
beets,
relation
243.
smooth,
social
distribution
240.
blue-grass,
Kentucky
294.
environment,
to
12,
21,
48,
and
390.
flower,
220,
390.
Grimm,
243,
wheat,
261.
264,
leaf-weevil,
leaves,
289.
mixtures,
173, 390.
431
269,
260.
marketing.
284.
262.
264.
irrigation,
345.
269.
257.
inoculation,
390.
390.
sugar-cane,
timothy,
260.
history,
283.
sugar-beets,
vetch,
262.
267.
harvesting,
323.
soybeans,
tobacco,
263.
sorghum,
kernel,
agriculture,
261.
enemies,
rice, 221,
rye,
41.
of, 86.
171.
262.
distribution,
293.
wheat
permanent
cultivation,
390.
273.
clover,
in
tissues,
256.
common,
228,
potatoes,
redtop,
soil, importance
adaptation,
295.
149.
red
4.
through
cells
Alfalfa,
389.
210,
the
Aleurone
orchard-grass,
plants
in
390.
mangels,
oats,
of,
Air:
flax, 337.
hemp,
of,
aspects
of, 4.
phases
276.
field-peas,
1,3.
definition
387.
21,
and
professions
educational
and
Agronomy
281.
12,
crops,
in, 3.
other
to
3'.
390.
335,
cowpeas,
1.
4.
industries,
297.
389.
198,
cotton,
of,
opportunities
brome-grass,
corn,
2.
science,
390.
216,
3.
civilization,
1.
alfalfa, 262,
278.
61.
74.
the
definition
beans,
103.
ing,
influenc-
usefulness,
and
of
Adaptation
irrigation,
soil, factors
86.
of, 157.
cause
the
of
46.
403.
soils
sour
or
furrow
of
Advantages
266.
276.
370.
256.
Index
432
Alfalfa:
256'.
name,
nodules, 259.
263.
crops,
nurse
267, 304.
pasture,
planting, 263.
relationships, 258.
258.
root-system,
seed,
260.
preparation, 263.
production, 269.
Siberian, 261.
stems, description, 259.
seed-bed
seed
storage, 265.
value, 266.
varieties, 261.
weeds, 267.
Alkali
reclamation
126.
Amendments,
Analysis of soils,120.
how
useful, 127.
in land valuation, 163.
use,
'
fiber, 333.
husbandry,
pathology,
its field,4.
4.
Animals;
as
in soil formation,
agents
79.
dependence
on
plants, 51.
Apatite, composition, 73.
Aphis, cabbage, 344.
and
real
specific gravity
Apparent
86.
compared,
Apples, 349.
and
soils compared,
Arid
humid
81,
120.
Ash:
in plants, 56.
uses
by plants and
Astragalus,
Atmosphere
animals, 56.
Benefits
251.
:
of drainage,
108.
of manure,
132.
of organic matter,
Bermuda-grass,
88.
299.
Berseem, 275.
358.
Bindweeds,
Bird's-foot
trefoil,284.
Blackleg of potato, 238.
of grass
Blade
leaf, 170.
Blight, early, 237.
Blowing of soils, treatment
for, 159,
160.
284.
in soil formation,
280.
amount
varieties,216.
219.
value, 219.
Basalt, 71.
Beans, 278, 349.
culture, 278.
description, 278.
harvesting, 280.
planting, 279.
clover, 274.
Aluminum
Animal
seeding, 217.
uses,
of sugar-beets, 245.
of its problems, 154.
resistance
Alsike
pests, 218.
standard
156.
some
Bacteria, 139.
action
organic matter, 141.
on
and soil nitrogen, 142.
classes of, 139.
description, 139, 140.
food and
growth, 140.
the farmer
how
assist, 144.
may
139.
in
number
soils,
of,
Barley, 215.
adaptation, 216.
alkali resistance, 216.
cultivation, 217.
description, 215.
distribution, 216.
enemies, 218.
harvesting, 217.
history, 215.
marketing, 218.
78.
Blue-grass, Kentucky,
304, 393.
Index
434
and
Clovers
other
legumes,
254, 271.
Cocaine,
value, 205.
with
of
with
198, 199.
Critical
points
Crop
production
in
moisture,
soil
191.
planting, 200.
seed-bed
preparation, 199,
selection
seed,
of, 200;
silage, 203.
soft or flour, 197.
standard
varieties, 197.
limited
by elements,
122.
Crops :
adaptation of, 12, 21, 387.
adapted to dry-farming, 115.
as
income, 387.
diversified,388.
knowledge
of, 404.
miscellaneous, 341.
relation
relationships, 191.
and
93.
pests, 204.
seed
clover, 275.
105.
flower, 194.
harvesting, 203.
history of, 191.
irrigation of, 202.
kernel described, 194.
leaves, 193.
marketing, 206.
root-system,
203.
corn,
Crimson
flint, 196.
196.
377.
Critical
194.
197.
for spray,
333.
Cotton,
enemies, 204.
factors in production,
pop,
203.
rape,
Cortex, 29.
Cost
of buildings, 398.
of drainage, 109.
Cost
122.
pod,
sublimate
Corrosive
71.
June-grass, 297.
moisture, 10, 18, 100-117.
mustard, 181.
plant-food, 10.
plant composition and j'ield,62.
Cork
cells,29, 32.
Corn, 191.
adaptation, 198.
culms, 193.
cultivation, 201.
dent, 195.
distribution, 197.
ear,
and
cowpeas
Corolla, 36.
204.
uses,
71.
pyroxene,
195.
types,
73.
hornblende,
mica, 71.
plants, 61,
protein, 56.
196.
sweet,
Coffee, 351.
of :
Composition
carbohydrates, 55.
fats and oils,56.
feldspars, 71.
gypsum,
producing, 197.
storage, 205.
375.
Cocklebur,
Corn:
states
344.
to
soil texture,
82.
staple, 382.
storage of, 405.
Cross-fertilization,362.
Crystalline rook, 71.
349.
Cucumbers,
Culms
of corn,
193.
of wheat, described, 170.
Index
Cultivation
and
manuring,
and
moisture
148, 149.
benefits
derived
improvement
from,
of
145.
soil structure
by,
145.
Cultivators, kinds
Culture
of
of, 161.
seeds,
297.
clover, 271.
alsike, 274.
crimson, 275.
red, 272.
336.
282.
field-peas, 277.
flax, 338.
341.
corn,
culms, 193.
flower, 194.
kernel, 194.
leaves, 193.
roots, 191.
293.
rice, 221.
rutabagas,
field-peas, 275.
flax, 338.
Kentucky
blue-grass, 293.
leaf, 34.
mangel-wurzels, 251.
millet, 330.
orchard-grass, 295.
potatoes,
corn,
Dependence
clover, 272.
redtop, 292.
rice, 221.
rutabagas, 253.
organic
matter,
of mineral, 70.
144.
196.
of
man
animals, 51,
on
53, 58.
225
red
141, 153.
Denitrification,
209.
oats,
rye,
of
287.
grass,
374.
Decomposition
Dent
280.
cowpeas,
254.
220.
Definition
335.
cotton,
sorghum, 325.
soybeans, 283.
Sudan-grass, 329,
sugar-beets, 245, 247.
timothy, 289.
tobacco, 346.
turnips, 253.
wheat, 175-178.
Curculios, cabbage, 344.
25.
Cytoplasm,
Dandelions,
194.
ear,
oats, 212.
rye,
274.
sweet,
white, 274.
mangels, 252.
millets, 330.
redtop,
254.
carrots,
201.
hemp,
259.
stems,
clover, 255.
cowpeas,
260.
barley, 215.
beans, 278.
Canada
blue-grass, 293.
brome-grass, smooth,
cotton,
Depreciation in machinery,
Depth of drains, 110.
Depth of soils,81.
Description of :
alfalfa,258.
flower, 260.
leaves, 260.
roots, 258.
alfalfa,263.
barley, 217.
beans, 278.
beets, 245.
corn,
435
plants
and
219.
smooth
brome-grass,
sorghum, 320.
soybeans, 282.
sugar-beets, 243.
timothy, 288.
turnips, 253.
vetch, 284.
297.
396.
Index
436
Description of:
wheat,
culm, 170.
kernel, 170.
Diversity
of
under
Division
Dolomite,
Domestication
Diabase, 71.
moths, 344.
plants, 35, 40.
Dicotyledonous
Diffusion
of salts,45.
Diorite, 71.
prevention,
Bordeaux
Drainage
and
ture,
mix-
204.
236, 238.
sugar-beets, 248.
wheat, 176, 179, 180, 181.
potatoes,
of the
U.
304.
orchard-grass, 295.
to, 113.
228.
red
clover, 272.
redtop, 293.
rice, 221.
E
Ear
323.
Sudan-grass,
sugar-cane,
329.
347.
sweet
clover, 275.
sweet
potatoes,
timothy, 289.
tobacco, 345.
wheat, 173.
white
clover,
Diversification
of
described, 194.
Early blight, 237.
Effect of manure
plants, 131.
on
Effect
of water
of
on
development
plants, 10.
Elements
limiting crop
production,
219, 220.
sorghum,
S., 112.
115.
sorghums
for, 319.
tillagein, 116.
Dry matter, cost of, 47.
Dry-rot of potatoes, 238.
Duty of machinery, 395.
Dye plants, 351.
rye,
advantages
dis-
in installing, 110.
procedure
soils suited
281.
grass,
and
110.
machinery
for, 117.
tillagemethods, 116.
:
Dry-farming
in relation to rainfall. 111.
of problem,
111.
scope
335, 336.
potatoes,
covered, 110.
depth to lay, 110.
ditches, advantages
open
crops,
mangels, 252.
millet, 329, 330.
native
108,
of, 108.
of, 109.
reduces
heaving, 109.
of
problem, 109.
scope
areas
197, 198.
cowpeas,
problem,
benefits
Dry-farm
barley, 216.
beans, 278.
beets, 245.
blue-grass, 294.
brome-grass, 394.
222.
buckwheat,
cotton,
alkali
Drouth-resistant
alfalfa,262.
corn,
the
Drains
of
animals,
cost
Distribution
of plants and
156.
alfalfa,267.
barley, 218.
beets, 248.
corn,
tance,
impor-
53, 54.
337.
of
and
composition
71.
Diamond-back
Diseases
of
of cells, 40.
root, 168.
Disease
advantage
crops,
irrigation, 106.
347.
corn
122.
Elevation
and
temperature,
of crops,
171.
383, 388.
Embryo
or
germ,
37.
16.
described,
Index
222.
Emmer,
Endodermis, 29,
Enemies
of
Farm
32.
manure
value
of corn,
of oats,
and
rape,
kale, 343.
Farmstead,
204.
4.
Environment
location
Fats
and
occurrence,
uses,
vegetation, 9.
modifications
9.
by man,
relation of plants to, 9.
of plants to, 4.
response
action of, 43, 60.
Enzymes,
Epidermis, 25.
393.
Equipment,
necessary,
56.
56.
57.
composition
Feldspars,
Fences
385.
385.
unnecessary,
troublesome,
of preventing,
Evaporation
from
tance,
impor-
neat,
158.
Fenu-greek, 284.
Ferns, 26.
Fertility of soil, importance
affecting, 158.
methods
and
71.
where
composition,
native
factors
of,
arrangement
of, 383.
oils
149.
conditions
in
383.
Entomology,
Erosion
383.
convenience
214.
adaptation
cabbage,
and
437
of
Fertilization, 259.
158.
soils, prevention
of, 95.
Executive
ability of farmer, 403.
Exhaustion
of soils by
removal
123.
plant-food,
Existence, struggle for, 50.
Fertilization
Fertilizers
of
of corn,
194.
130.
of home-mixing,
advantages
commonly
used, 126.
indirect, 126.
needed
in
applying,
judgment
127.
needed
Factors
in
production,
crop
12,
20.
plant growth
control, 10.
Families
of plants, 26.
Factors
Farm
of
and
Fescues,
403.
buUdings, 398.
good roads on,
planning,
384.
381.
Farmer,
executive
Farmer's
income,
:
Farming
machinery
management
ability, 400.
403.
for, 392.
of,
relation
of
sugar-beets to,
of, 402.
250.
301.
animal,
rearranging, 384.
of, 126.
Field-peas, 275.
adaptation, 276.
culture, 277.
description, 275.
harvesting, 277.
irrigation,277.
seeding, 276.
and value, 277.
use
Fields, size and shape of, 384.
Fiber
402.
types
their
136.
by different crops,
phosphorus, 128.
potassium, 129.
used
as
stimulants, 130.
used
for nitrogen, 127, 128.
value
used
in U. S., 126.
waste
accounts,
servation,
con-
68.
333.
miscellaneous, 341.
vegetable, 333.
Fibro-vascular
bundles, 32.
of nitrogen, 128, 142.
Fixation
Index
438
Flax:
338.
adaptation,
culture, 338.
description, 338.
fiber,339.
history of, 338.
seed, 339.
use
of, 340.
value
of, 340.
Flea-beetles, 344.
on
Genus,
Grain
Flower
in
Fluctuations
yield
due
to
climate,
13.
Food:
of bacteria, 140.
animals, 59,
in plants and
reserve
60.
by plants, 185.
storage
compared,
crops
grasses,
291.
for seed
of food, 49.
diseases, 238.
by plants, 43.
Formation
of cellulose
Formation
of humus,
Former
plants, products
Foxtail, 367.
Frost
of,
Greenhouses,
Green
hardy
effect
on
toward,
some
Grimm
13.
common
crops,
14.
factors
influencing,
14.
oxysponim,
Fusarium
wilt, 238.
238.
305.
water,
its importance,
91, 92.
52.
crops
for pasture,
native, 304.
relationships, 286.
Grasspeas, 284.
Gravitational
141.
under, 168.
288.
in transference
Formalin
189.
speculation, 189.
Graminese, plants included
described, 36.
parts of, 359.
Forces
loss in storage,
Forage
Forage
drilling,396.
handling on
Flour
42.
oxygen,
196.
corn,
and
soils, 78.
Glacial
beets, 249.
Florida
26.
Germination
Flint, 71.
Flint
roof, 351.
Gardens,
13,
Growth
351.
'
136.
manure,
alfalfa,261.
in higher plants, 39, 40.
Guar, 284.
Gypsum,
composition
and
tance,
impor-
73.
Handling
Hard
Harvest
134.
manure,
wheat
regions, 172.
by crop
control
62.
of, Harvesting of :
alfalfa,264, 269.
barley, 217.
beans, 280.
and
chinery,
ma-
Index
Harvesting
of:
Hygroscopic
water,
definition, 92.
importance, 93.
beets, 250.
brome-grass, smooth,
439
298.
93.
203.
corn,
337.
cotton,
field-peas,277.
mangels,
Ice
252.
oats, 213.
Implements
orchard-grass,
classes
295.
235.
potatoes,
to
red
clover, 273.
rice, 221.
soybeans, 283.
sugar-beets, 347, 349.
timothy, 290.
wheat, 178, 189.
Hay, oat,
208.
Heart-rot
of beets, 248.
'
Heat
and
cold
agents
as
Farmers',
Income,
from
qomposition
means
of,
machinery,
Humus
formation,
pests of
alfalfa, 267.
Insect
204.
oats,
214.
344.
236.
sugar-beets,
wheat, 180.
Iron minerals,
141.
silicates of magnesia,
corn,
potatoes,
120.
Injury :
of 46, 156.
by alkali, nature
of frost, 14.
to wheat
by chinch-bug, 180.
Inoculation
for alfalfa, 262.
cabbage,
397.
and
beets, 249.
351.
Humid
of lime, 72.
387.
and
71.
Hornstone,
its field,4.
Horticulture,
of alumina,
crops,
403.
in size of plants,
Indicators
Indirect
240.
71.
Hydrous
structure,
145.
371.
cultivation
of, 341.
Manila, 341.
New
Zealand, 341.
Herbicides, use of, 376.
Hessian
flies,injury to wheat, 180.
of fertilizers,130.
Home-mixing
Housing
308.
40.
240.
House-gardens,
148.
Increase
73.
Hops, 351.
Hornblende,
farm, 150.
kill weeds,
Income
adaptation,
on
pastures,
'
Heat:
Hemp,
77.
of crops,
353.
Improvement
by breeding of plants, 356.
of crops,
357.
by cultivation
by selection, 361.
defined, 354.
gains from, 353.
ideals of, 356.
methods
of, 353, 357.
in soil formation,
need
of, 353.
74.
Hematite,
Hemlock,
in soil formation,
Iron
72.
sulfate
for spray,
plants, 43.
by
Irrigation
use
249.
104.
by
377.
flooding, advantages,
Index
440
Irrigation of :
alfalfa,264.
Late
202.
corn,
orchard-grass, 349.
234.
potatoes,
Leaves
to
amount
use,
methods
104.
102.
measurement,
of applying,
103.
of supply, 100.
sources
of corn,
193.
271-285.
Legumes,
and
nitrogen fixation, 142.
description, 258.
Lespedeza or Japan clover, 284.
Life depends on
sunshine, 69.
rice, 221.
sugar-beets, 247.
Irrigation water
:
Jaokbeans, 284.
Japan clover, 284.
Jasper, 71.
Jethro
TuU, 44.
Johnson-grass, 300.
Judging value of land, 161.
June-grass, 297.
control
of, 181.
Jute, 341.
Lime:
a
fertilizer,129.
feldspars, 71.
for soil acidity, 157.
hydrous silicates of, 72.
sulfate of, 73.
Limestone, 72.
dissolved by carbon
dioxide, 72.
Limonite, 73.
133.
Liquid manure,
of, and wheat, 184.
Living, standard
as
of farmstead,
Location
Loco,
Loopers,
Loss
383.
371.
344.
cabbage,
in weight
of plants
by respiration,
42.
Losses
in farm
manure,
133.
Lupines, 284.
K
M
Kale, 343.
enemies
of, 343.
Kentucky
blue-grass, 293, 304.
adaptation, 294.
description, 293.
seeding, 294.
Machinery:
in
care
selecting,394.
effect of vegetation
of, 397.
cooperation, 395.
depreciation of, 396.
duty of, 395.
for dry-farming, 117.
for farming, 392.
housing, 397.
size, 395.
Maggot, cabbage-root, 344.
Magnesia
minerals, 71, 72.
used by plants, 43.
Magnesium
73.
Magnetite,
341.
Maguey,
Mallow, 374.
Malt
barley, 217.
judging
Man
value
and
Kernel
use,
294.
described, 194.
Kinds
of cultivators, 151.
of crops,
404.
Knowledge
342.
Kohlrabi,
Kudju, 284.
Labor
of
corn
of
man
and
Land:
value
waste,
care
on
plants and
386.
Larkspur, 371.
dependence
to
control
the
earth, 63.
animals,
442
Index
Movement
of capillary water,
Movements
of soil moisture,
92.
96.
beans, 284.
Mung
Mustard,
375.
of, 181.
tumbling, 359.
Ochrus,
grasses,
grass
304.
pastures, 304.
selection, 359, 360.
Natural
Negative
factors
in crop
production,
Zealand
hemp,
341.
Nitrification, 142.
Nitrogen,
and
45.
wheat
Nodules
of grasses,
170.
of alfalfa,259.
Nucleus,
Nurse
Nuts,
25.
crops
by plants, 43.
Opal, 71.
Opium, 344.
Opportunities in agriculture,3.
Oranges, seedless, 364.
Orchard-grass, 295-304.
adaptation, 295.
description, 295.
irrigation, 349.
seeding, 295.
value
quality, 182.
cycle, 143.
fertilizers,127, 128.
fixation, 128, 142.
its importance in soils,122.
of soil and
bacteria, 142.
restoration
by bacteria, 142.
of supply, 127.
sources
Nodes
for alfalfa,263.
351.
and
use,
seeding, 212.
spikelets of oats, 210.
uses,
296.
Orchard, soils,349.
cultivation, 349.
Organic matter
:
action on
soil,141.
arid and
humid
regions compared,
119.
beneficial effects on
soils,88.
decomposition, 141, 143.
how
maintained, 88.
plant-food content
of, 124.
sources
of, 88.
of the soil :
Organisms
bacteria, 139.
importance of, 138.
kinds, 138.
Organization of farming, 400.
Origin of branches, 37.
Origin of buds, 37.
Orthoclase
feldspar, 72.
Osmosis, 44, 46.
Over-irrigation, waste
accompanying
practice, 106.
Overstocking pastures, 309.
Ovule, 35.
Oxygen :
and life,10, 41, 42.
as
an
agent in soil formation,
liberation
by plants, 43.
limits growth, 49.
to plants, 42.
use
relationships,209.
213.
oils,56.
harvesting, 296.
12, 20.
New
of fats and
284.
Oil formation
Native
varieties, 212.
yields by states, 211.
Occurrence
control
Native
Oats:
Palisade
cells,34.
Panicle, 37.
78.
Index
Paris
green,
Parts
of
Pastures
Plant-food
344.
flower, 359.
:
308.
of, 310.
management
mixed
native
Plants
grass,
304.
grass,
304.
dry-farms, 306.
ordinary conditions,
Planning
Planning
Plant
and
rotation, important
in, 153.
the
and
affected
as
agents
pathology,
animal
development
useful
to
4.
of,
man,
productivity of soils,124.
availability of,
needed,
balance
121.
125.
ash
of,
content
control
by sunlight, 18.
in soil formation,
364.
54.
79.
56.
of carbohydrates,
of, by planting and
55.
pruning,
62.
difference
in
food
demands,
119,
136.
in relation
23.
Plasma
25.
membrane,
Plastids, 25, 34.
Plowing :
injury to wet land, 84.
objects of, 146, 148.
150.
Plows, compared,
Pod
corn,
197.
196.
Pop corn,
Poppies, 351.
Potash-containing
minerals, 71.
Potash
71.
feldspar,
Potassium,
43.
391.
compounds
Plant-food
tors
fac-
381.
farm,
Plant-breeding,
Plant
crops,
119, 136.
367.
work,
12, 21,
51.
Phosphorus-loving
Photosynthesis, 42.
environment,
as
309.
Pigweeds,
Pistil,36.
Planning
to
149.
48,
and
308.
302.
permanent,
adaptation
on
origin, 302.
overstocking,
of, 10.
in organic matter,
124.
in soils,120.
manufacture
of, 43.
method
of transferring, 48.
of the soil,old theories, 118.
removed
by crojis, 122.
of soil acidity, 157.
Plant
indicators
Plant
parts and their functions, 27.
control
improving,
443
cultural
requirements,
224.
Index
444
description, 225.
digger, 396.
diseases, 236, 238.
distribution, 228.
early crop, 233.
harvesting, 235.
history, 224.
insects, 236.
internal
brown
spot, 238.
marketing, 235.
pests, 236.
planting, 233.
relationships, 225.
second
growth, 238.
seed-bed, 230.
seed cutting, 233.
seed selection, 231.
storage,
uses,
Red
clover, 271.
adaptation,
"
271.
sickness."
compounds,
43.
56.
by animals, 59.
in plants, 56, 60.
occurrence
to animals, 56.
uses
Protoplasm, 24.
Pruning, 62.
Pteridophytes or ferns, 26.
349.
Pumpkins,
tance,
imporcomposition and
Pyroxene,
concentration
"
value, 273.
Redtop, 292, 304.
adaptation, 292.
culture, 293.
description, 292.
value
Regions
Relation
Relation
and
293.
use,
for hard
of
wheat,
to other
corn
of
plants
172.
cereals, 191.
their
to
ment,
environ-
9.
81.
composition,
273.
description, 272.
distribution, 272.
harvesting, 273.
history, 271.
importance, 271.
235.
239.
varieties, 227.
yield, 228.
Preventing erosion, 158.
Productivity in land valuation, 163.
and horse labor, 403, 404.
Profits, man
Properties of soils affected by texture,
Protein
Reclamation
Potato:
Relationship
Reproduction
Reserve
food
of
cereals, 168.
of plants, 359.
in
animals
and
plants,
59, 60.
to
peculiar
vironment,
en-
49.
Rhizoctonia, 238.
Rice, 221.
description, 221.
harvesting, 221.
history, 221.
production of world, 221.
uses,
221.
Rivers, their
importance
in
soil formation,
76.
Rock:
definition
of, 70.
soil-forming, 73.
71.
weathering agents, 74.
Rolling land, effect on moisture, 150.
Q
Roof-gardens, 351.
Quack-grass, 358.
Roots, 27.
Quality in wheat, 182.
adjustability of, 27.
and
climate, 183.
Quality of wheat
of, 28.
cap
of,
Quartz, proportion of earth made
plants included, 241.
crops,
71.
191.
of corn,
development
of wheat,
168.
R
development
general characteristics, 241.
Rape, 343.
growing section of, 28.
enemies
of, 343.
with
203.
hair, 27, 44, 46.
or
corn,
cowpeas
Real specificgravity, 86.
system, of alfalfa, 30, 258.
445
Index
Rootstocks
underground
or
stems,
37.
Rosette
of
Rotation
potatoes,
of
crops
definition, 359.
essentials of good, 365.
growth and description, 37.
231.
home-grown,
production of alfalfa,269.
238.
and
plant-food, 119.
from, 151.
principles to guide in, 153.
Rotation, planning a, 133,
Rubber, 351.
Russian
thistle,358, 359.
dispersion of, 181.
Rust
of wheat, 180.
253.
Rutabagas,
culture, 253.
description, 253.
seeding, 254.
and value, 254.
use
219.
Rye,
adaptation, 220.
description, 219.
distribution, 219, 220.
benefits
field treatment,
selection
175,
Selection
sodium,
Sampling
of
rate
of grass
leaf, 170.
alfalfa,261.
of, 45.
brome-grass,
304, 397.
culture, 297.
description, 297.
harvesting, 298.
120.
and
value
in
movement
301.
adaptation, 297.
155.
plants,
injurious, 155.
soils for analysis,
Smooth
376.
to
of
of
fields,384.
machinery, 395.
soil particles, 82.
Slender
wheat-grass,
Small-grains, 364.
plants,
Smut
use,
298.
stinking, 179.
or
description of, 179.
closed
238.
loose, 180.
crops
adaptability
profitableproduction, 13.
Seasonal
length
of, and
26.
defined.
soils, 79.
crop
and
for, 176.
treatment
Snow
as
an
agent
in
soil
formation,
76.
tion,
producSoda
12.
Sedentary
of fields,384.
Siderite, 73.
of
Second-foot
284.
Sieve
Scab, potatoes,
Schist, 72.
Seaweeds,
72.
Serradella,
Siberian
49.
Season,
361.
crops,
Sheath
220.
359, 360.
Serpentine,
Shape
71.
Sandstone,
Sanfoin, 284.
Sap,
of, 358.
natural,
injurious
methods
Sagebrush, 367.
Salt-grass, 301, 304.
for spray,
of,
199.
artificial,360.
301, 304.
diffusion
in, 60.
grain, preparation
for
Salts
of food
storage
Seed-bed
220.
Rye-grass,
for corn,
200.
for potatoes, 231.
selection
history, 219.
seeding, 220.
uses,
Seed:
103.
feldspars, 71.
Sodium
salts, injurious
plants, 155.
flour corn,
Soft
or
Soft
wheat
197.
regions, 171.
effects
on
Index
446
Soils:
SoU:
formed
exhaustion
by
named
and
and
texture
thickness
surface
and
cold, 74.
83.
area,
composition
in forming, 75.
advantages
of, 313.
favoring, 312.
for, 316.
management
crop
definition, 312.
disadvantages
of, 312.
conditions
SoUs:
active
in formation
of plant-food
in,
of, 74.
120.
leaching,
123.
determining
each
inexhaustible,
not
suited
one
evaporation
exhaustion
fertilizer needs
problem,
from,
of, 123.
154.
95.
for
125.
dry-farming,
113.
origin and
composition,
sedentary,
79.'
70, 81.
of, 127.
action
of water,
76.
Sorghum
:
adaptation, 323.
broom-corn, 323.
cultivation, 325.
description, 320.
distribution, 323.
enemies, 328.
grain, 322.
harvesting, 326.
history, 319.
marketing, 328.
planting, 325.
relationships, 320.
"
Soiling,302.
amount
ticles,
par-
correction
of, 67.
agent
as
of
sour
by
formation, by ice, 77.
formation, by plants, 79.
formation, by rivers, 76.
an
formation, snow
agent in, 76.
forming minerals, 70, 71.
forming rocks, 73.
need
of up-to-date
management,
methods
69.
in,
moisture
and
soil heat, 9, 18.
particles, size of, 82.
particles, tillage affected by, 81.
of, 68.
permanence
suited to dry-farming, 113.
agents
not
Solvent
heat
size
to
soils,157.
of, 157.
texture
of, 81.
123.
78.
water
according
161.
82.
effecting, 158.
crops,
174.
judging of,
162.
erosion, factors
by wind, 78.
for wheat,
sweet,
uses
322.
and
varieties
value, 327.
of classification,322.
yields, 326.
and millets, 318.
Sorghums
importance on dry-farms, 319.
Sow-thistle, Perennial, 358.
Soybeans, 282.
adaptation, 283.
culture, 283.
description, 282.
harvesting, 283.
value
as
feed, 283.
Specialization, 383.
Specialization of cells,26.
Specialization of functions in higher
plants, 39.
Specialties, 389.
Species defined, 26.
Specific gravity of soils,86.
seed plants, 26.
Spermatophytes
or
Spike, 37.
Spike of wheat described, 170.
Index
Sprays, 376.
carbolic
acid, 376.
copper
sulfate,376.
corrosive
Sugar-beets, 241.
adaptation, 243.
alkali resistance, 245.
sublimate,
blight, 248.
377.
iron sulfate,377.
cultivation,247.
salt, 376.
Squash, 349.
description, 243.
diseases, 248.
harvesting, 347, 349.
Stamens,
36.
Standard
of living and
Starch
wheat,
184.
manufacture
insect
by plants, 43.
produced
by sunlight, 19.
use
by plants, 60.
Stigma,
33.
relation
closed
or
farm,
on
Stomata,
smut,
179.
seed
34.
storing, 250.
thinning, 247.
170.
405.
by plants,
of grain from
of manure,
Structure
60.
pests, 185.
133.
235, 236.
potatoes,
:
and
Sweet
tilth, 84.
arid
compared,
and
humid
storage
251.
in plants, 61.
Sweet
potatoes,
196.
347.
347.
regions
farming, 406.
Sudan-grass, description, 329.
culture, 329.
Sugar :
346.
analysis of in sugar-cane,
43.
change to starch,
maimfacture,
corn,
use,
81.
Successful
of, 181.
Sweet
adaptation, 347.
distribution, 347.
of plant, 23.
Struggle for existence, 50.
Style, 36.
Sub-irrigation, 104.
of
clover, 274.
control
Structure
Sub-soil
value, 250.
weed
205.
crops,
and
use
alfalfa,265.
beets, 250.
food
to
and
seed-bed
381.
Stooling of wheat,
Storage :
corn,
pests, 249.
pests, 249.
36.
Stinking
241.
irrigating, 247.
leaf-spot, 248.
marketing, 250.
382.
crops,
Stem, 30,
Stock
history,
Stable
447
Talc, composition,
Tall
meadow
72.
284.
Tangier peas,
Tap-roots, 30.
Tea, 351.
:
Temperature
and
elevation,
16.
448
Index
Temporary
pastures, 303.
of
to
washing
Terracing
prevent
159.
soils,
Texture
of soil and
water
retention,
92, 93.
of soils, 81, 82.
Texture
Thallophytes, 26.
Theories
of plant-food, 118.
Turnips:
seeding, 253.
and value, 254.
use
of
Type
farming, 402.
of
195.
Types
corn,
U
Thistle
Underground
Canada,
Russian, 358, 359.
TiUage :
affected
as
by size,of soil particles,
358.
"
81.
and
structure,
crops,
84.
361.
Use
of
337.
Vacuoles,
Truck
Value
349.
277.
herbicides, 376.
lime for acid soil,157.
mangels, 252.
enemies, 292.
harvest, 290.
origin, 288.
planting, 290.
states
producing, 289.
value, 291.
Tissue, definition of, 25.
Tobacco, 344.
culture of, 346.
curing, 346.
distribution, 345.
marketing, 346.
in land valuation, 161.
Topography
Total
16.
heat,
Tracheal
tubes, 29, 30, 48.
Transferring plant-food, 48.
of food in plants, 38.
Translocation
Transpiration, 46.
within
plants, 48.
Transportation
soils,79.
Transported
Trefoil, bird's-foot, 284.
yellow, 275.
Tropical fruits, 351.
371.
Tumbleweed,
mustard,
Tumbling
Turnips :
culture, 253.
description, 253.
oils,57.
field peas,
fiax, 340.
description,288.
crops,
blue-grass, 294.
brome-grass, smooth, 298.
by plants, 55, 56.
carbohydrates
clover, 255.
cotton,
Timothy,
adaptation, 289.
culture, 289.
37.
alfalfa,266.
amendments
fats and
288, 304.
stems,
oats, 213.
orchard-grass, 296.
239.
potatoes,
animals, 56.
proteins
red clover, 273.
to
redtop,
293.
rice, 221.
rutabagas,
rye,
254.
220.
sugar-beets,
250.
potatoes,
sweet
347.
turnips, 254.
vetch, 284.
water
by plants, 47, 96.
wheat, 183, 280.
Useful
plants, 52.
products of former
of
25.
alfalfa,261, 266.
analysis of soil,127.
bacteria, 142.
barley, 219.
beans, 280.
brome-grass, smooth,
298.
450
Index
Weeds:
Wheat:
biennial, 367.
control, 372.
from,
methods
370.
of destruction, 375.
368.
occurrence,
of:
alfalfa, 267.
beets, 248.
potatoes,
236.
eradicate,
preparation,
176, 179, 180.
soils for, 174.
175.
smut,
speculation, 189.
spike described, 170.
storage of, 184, 185.
Turkey
red, 362.
and
use
value, 183.
varieties, 171.
weeds
injurious to, 181.
Wheat-grass,
301, 304.
When
to apply irrigation water,
105.
White
274.
clover,
Wind, action in soil formation, 78.
Wind
in relation
to plants, 19.
Wind
19.
regulates temperature,
Worms,
cabbage, 344.
376.
Xylem,
standard
amount
to
of living, 184.
sow,
176.
distribution, 173.
362.
Durum,
exchanged, 189.
factors
determining quality,
Yellow
Yield
183.
harvesting, 178.
history of cultivation, 167.
improved
varieties, 172.
insect pests of, 180.
181.
joint worm,
kernel described, 170.
loss by not grading, 189.
marketing, 187.
origin of word, 167.
pests, 180.
preparaing
trefoil,275.
of
alfalfa,262, 263.
alfalfa seed, 263.
barley, 216.
beans, 280.
300.
Bermuda-grass,
blue-grass, 294.
223.
buckwheat,
cabbage, 343.
carrots, 255.
corn,
cotton,
cowpeas,
crops
emmer,
335, 336.
282.
relation
to
222.
field-peas, 271.
flax, 338.
forage crops, 291.
Johnson-grass, 301.
kale, 343.
451
Index
Yield
of:
lessened
Yield
by weeds,
mangel-wurzels,
millet, 330, 331.
oat-grass,
252.
orchard-grass, 295,
pearl millet, 331.
penicillaria,331.
poor
rape,
354.
clover, 275.
sweet
potatoes,
tobacco,
349.
345.
254.
turnips,
vetch, 284.
white
clover, 274.
Zeolites, composition
219.
sweet
teosinte, 331.
timothy, 289, 290, 291.
296.
red
rye,
329.
245.
347.
sugar-cane,
299.
and
of:
Sudan-grass,
sugar-beets,
370.
72.
313, 314.
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1,50
GARDEN-MAKING
Bailey's Garden-Making
Bailey's Vegetable Gardening
French's
How
to Grow
Vegetables
1.50
ON
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THE
1.75
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1.50
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1.50
etc.
GROWING,
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Harper's Animal
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Jordan's The Feeding of Animals
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Lyon's How
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Phillips'sBeekeeping
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Watson's
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1.40
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ON
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WORK
Dairy Cattle
Eckles's
Sheldon's
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PLANT
and
Production
Milk
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the
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Wmg's
ON
i.oo
i.oo
its Products
1.50
DISEASES
of Cultivated
Plants
Injurious Insects
Slingerland and Crosby's Fruit
Stevens's
Fungi of Plant Disease
Insects
Massee's
Diseases
and
Trees
2.25
O'Kane's
ON
00
1.50
ECONOMICS
AND
Roberts's
Rural
The
THE
4,00
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1.25
Farmer
1.50
Hygiene
Farmer's
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CHICAGO
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COMPANY
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MACMILLAN
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BOSTON
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ORGANIZATION
Ogden's
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J. C.
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theil: mental
The
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Ill.f
^48 pages^ $
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