TRAINING INTENSITY

If you want to improve your

swim performance times,
turn up the intensity and
turn down the volume
Its probably fair to say that most swimmers and swim coaches
believe that the number of hours spent in the pool is the main
ingredient of swimming success. Distances of 6 to 10km per day
are not uncommon in lite swimming circles. Is this really the
key to success, or is there an alternative approach that can
produce even better results? This article aims to stir up debate
by suggesting that the traditional high-volume model of training
will not optimise performance, especially for 100m and 200m
swimmers.
The following ideas are not written from a swimming coachs
view-point. Instead, they stem from published research into
swim training, a scientific analysis of the demands of
competitive swimming, and proven methods from running
training that optimise performance. Swimmers need to read
this piece with an open mind and then they may wish to apply
some of the ideas to their own swim programmes.

The swim training research

Research into the effects of high-volume swim training on
performance suggests that there is no advantage gained in
increasing the metres per day. The legendary US physiologist
Dave Costill has undertaken a great deal of research into swim
training over the past three decades. In one study, his team of
scientists looked at two groups of swimmers over a 25-week
training period. Both groups began with once-a-day training,
but group 2 increased their training to twice-a-day for a sixPAGE 19

PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

Over the
whole season
the swimmers
who made the
biggest
improvements
were those
who
performed
more of their
training at
higher paces.
The volume
of training
had no
influence on
swim
performance.

PAGE 20

week period for weeks 10-15. After this increase both groups
continued on the same once-a-day regime. At no stage in the
25-week training period did group 2 show increased
performance or increased aerobic capacity as a result of the
extra training session for six weeks. What does this mean?
Basically, the twice-a-day regime was a waste of time.
In another study, Costill tracked the performance of
competitive swimmers over a four-year period. He compared a
group that averaged 10km per day with a group that averaged
5km per day on changes in competitive performance times over
100, 200, 500 and 1600 yard distances. The improvement in swim
times was identical for both groups, around 0.8% per year for all
events. Again, even though one group did twice as much training,
both groups benefited by the same amount in the long term.
Quoting Costill directly, Most competitive swimming events
last less than two minutes. How can training for three to four
hours per day at speeds that are markedly slower than
competitive pace prepare the swimmer for the maximal efforts
of competition?

The French scientists agree

Research from France supports Costills research and his
conclusions. A team of scientists analysed the training and
performance of competitive 100m and 200m swimmers over a
44-week period. The findings were as follows. Most swimmers
completed two training sessions per day. Swimmers trained at
five specific intensities: these were swim speeds equivalent to
2 mmol/l blood lactate concentration, 4 mmol/l blood lactate
concentration, 6 mmol/l blood lactate concentration pace, a
high 10 mmol/l blood lactate concentration pace and finally,
maximal sprint swimming. Over the whole season the swimmers
who made the biggest improvements were those who
performed more of their training at higher paces. The volume
of training had no influence on swim performance.
The irresistible conclusion from this research is that faster
and not longer training is the key to swimming success. Yet in
spite of such research, the high-volume, low-intensity model of

PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

training probably remains the most common practice amongst

lite swimmers. Even sprint swimmers competing in 100m and
200m events favour clocking up the kilometres rather than
focusing on more race-pace-specific training.

The feel of the stroke

One reason for this high-volume bias may be that swimmers and
swim coaches believe that swim technique, efficiency through
the water and feel of the stroke is optimised by spending many
hours in the pool. I have heard swimmers say they do not feel
comfortable in the water and confident about their technique
unless they complete high doses of training. This is undoubtedly
true on a subjective basis, but nevertheless the argument that
high volume training equates to superior race technique has no
logical basis. If you were a running coach and you
recommended to a 100m sprinter that to optimise his sprint
technique at maximum speed the best training plan would be
to complete many miles a week at 10km pace, you would be
laughed off the track! The track sprinter focuses only on
workouts and technical drills at a high intensity. In fact, he or
she positively avoids any low-intensity / high-volume training
as this inhibits power development.
The same applies to swimming to a large extent. If a swimmer
wants to increase his/her stroke efficiency and technique during
a competition, then surely the best way to do this is to practise
swimming at target race pace during training. The more
training time spent at target race pace the more comfortable it
will feel in competition. To quote Dave Costill again, A large
training volume prepares the athlete to tolerate a high volume
of training but likely does little to benefit actual performance.
When swimmers talk of feeling comfortable in the water, they
may only be referring to the sub-maximal speeds they perform
in training and not the maximal efforts required in competition.

The downside of high volume

Having established from the research that increasing training
volume has no benefit on swim performance, lets now look at
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PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

the possible negative effects of high-volume training. Two

consequences of high-volume training are depletion of
glycogen muscle stores and fatigue of the fast-twitch muscle
fibres. Both of these consequences will reduce the effectiveness
of high-intensity race pace training sessions and will severely
compromise any competitive performance. It is proven by
research, with endurance athletes in general and particularly
with swimmers, that high-volume training depletes glycogen
stores. For example, Costill showed that 60 x 100 yard reps of
swimming, with one minute rest between reps emptied the
glycogen stores of both the slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibres.
Since glycogen is the only fuel available for sustained highintensity muscle contractions, it is essential for good swim
performance. If you want to optimise the quality of your
training, and achieve PBs in competition, then your glycogen
stores must be full. Continued high-volume training may
compromise this, reducing the quality of your important highintensity training workouts.
Research has also shown that periods of high-volume
training reduce the force production in the fast-twitch muscle
fibres. Fast-twitch muscle fibres are essential for the high
muscle power required to produce the fastest swim speeds. We
know from research that sprint swimmers have quite high
proportions of fast-twitch fibres, over 60% in the deltoid and
quadriceps muscles. High-volume training does nothing for
these fibres and, in fact, will dampen their force production by
reducing the shortening velocity of the muscle contraction. In
this way, high-volume training can change fast-twitch fibres into
more slow-twitch types.

The benefits of tapering

This is probably why tapering is so effective in improving
performance for swimmers, since the fast-twitch fibres can
recover during the period of low volume (see more on tapering
later in this Special Report). It has been shown that maximal
power increases after a tapering period of training, probably
because the fast-twitch fibres recover their high-velocity
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PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

contraction properties. The French research discussed above

analysed the effects of tapering on swim performance. In their
study group, the swimmers who used the most severe tapers
reductions of about half normal training volume produced
the biggest improvements in swim performance.
This begs the following questions. If such dramatic tapers in
training are required to optimise performance, probably to
allow the fast-twitch fibres to recover to maximise power, then
why are training volumes so high in the first place? Would it not
be better if swimmers were able to develop power in a positive
fashion during the training period?
If we examine the demands of the events, this will help
answer these questions.

The metabolic demands of swimming

The shorter the swim event, the greater demand on the
anaerobic energy systems. This applies especially to the 50m,
100m and 200m events which take from around 20 to 120
seconds.
The longer events, from 800m upwards, demand a larger
contribution from the aerobic energy system. Evidence for this
comes from the blood lactate concentrations following 100m
and 200m competition swims, which are a very high 16-20 mmol
/ L. The high level of lactate in the blood suggests that a great
deal of energy is derived from the anaerobic breakdown of
glycogen, which results in the byproduct, lactic acid. The lactate
ion half of the lactic acid diffuses into the blood stream; hence
the increased concentration of lactate ions in the blood. Values
of 16-20 mmol / L are among the highest levels seen in
competitive sport, suggesting that sprint swim events are
extremely anaerobic. This would support the argument for
more high-intensity paced training and reduced slow highvolume training.
Some athletes and coaches are mistaken in thinking that high
levels of blood lactate during sprint swimming mean that it is
best to train so as to reduce blood lactate concentrations. This
philosophy of training is based on the idea that high lactate is
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PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

bad and will have a negative impact on performance. This leads

to training programmes that focus on lactate threshold
training to improve the turnover of lactate and enhance the
ability of the aerobic systems to produce more of the energy
required for the event.

What high levels of lactate mean

High levels
of lactate in
the blood in
itself are not
bad; they are
simply an
indicator that
a lot of
anaerobic
energy
production is
occurring

There are two problems with this model of training. The first is
the sometimes mistaken assumption that high lactate levels are
a bad thing. Remember, lactic acid is the by-product of anaerobic
breakdown of glycogen. Lactic acid splits into the H+ ion and
the lactate ion. It is the acidic H+ ion which is the bad guy,
interfering with force production in the muscles and reducing the
rate of glycolysis, thus slowing the athlete down. The lactate ion
simply diffuses through the muscle and into the blood stream.
There is no evidence to suggest lactate has any negative impact
on muscle function or energy production. In fact, the lactate ion
can be re-cycled in the energy production cycle and used
positively to help produce energy. So high levels of lactate in the
blood in itself are not bad; they are simply an indicator that a lot
of anaerobic energy production is occurring. The actual training
adaptation you want to take place is not a reduction in lactate
production, but instead an increase in the buffering of the H+
ion. Its the acid part and not the lactate part of lactic acid that
produces fatigue, and so the more easily this is cleared from the
body the better. By training at high intensities, where anaerobic
glycolysis is the dominant energy source, and actually generating
high levels of lactic acid, the body gets used to the increase in H+
in the muscles and is better able to buffer the acid.

High power means high anaerobic energy supply

The second problem is that in assuming you need to lower
lactate levels, you are placing greater emphasis on aerobic
energy production, like some sort of prejudice against the
anaerobic system. Swimmers and coaches must understand that
anaerobic glycolysis involves the fast breakdown of glycogen
into energy-giving phosphates and aerobic glycolysis involves
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PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

a much slower breakdown. This means that maximal power and

high speeds are impossible without the anaerobic energy
systems, as the muscles would not get a fast enough supply of
energy. Therefore, if you want high power you have to have high
levels of anaerobic energy supply. For sprint swimming,
anaerobic capacity is the plus factor and it needs to be
developed. If an event places great demands on the anaerobic
system, the athlete needs to become more anaerobic! This may
seem odd to those with traditional beliefs about training, but it
is true. By focusing on high-volume aerobic training to reduce
lactate levels you are in fact compromising your anaerobic
fitness, which is the most important aspect of fitness for
competitive success in sprint swimming.
With this new thinking in mind, the answer to the question
raised above, would it not be better for swimmers to develop
power in a positive fashion rather than compromise it with highvolume training, is almost certainly YES.

Dont worry about high levels of lactate

Worry about high lactate concentrations in exercise
performance misleads some athletes and coaches into
concentrating on reducing lactate levels regardless of the event.
For sprint swimmers, lactate threshold training with the aim of
improving the swimmers ability to keep lactate levels low is, I
would argue, irrelevant. For swim distances up to and including
200m, the fact that the swimmer develops high levels of lactate
does not matter; instead, its probably a good thing because it
shows the swimmer has a good anaerobic capacity. For
swimmers competing in longer events, 800m and 1500m, for
example, where the aerobic system is much more important,
lactate threshold training would be relevant, as these swimmers
need to be able to maintain an intensity level for much longer,
relying on the aerobic energy system to do this.

The race pace model of training

As Ive said, the research shows that higher volumes of training
have no benefit on competitive performance. In addition, most
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PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

There is
evidence to
show that the
difference
between
swimmers
who reach the
Olympics and
those who
dont is due to
the distance
achieved per
stroke

swim events last no longer than two minutes, and rely on a big
contribution of the anaerobic energy systems. Spending more
training time at high intensity levels, at race pace and above race
pace will have greater benefit than swimming lots of kilometres
per day at much slower than race speeds. This is also proved by
research and supported by the argument that, to improve highintensity performance, an athlete has to train at high intensity
and develop the anaerobic systems.
In the world of running, due to the influence of pioneering
physiologists and coaches such as Englands Frank Horwill,
Frances Veronique Billat and the Americans Jack Daniels and
Owen Anderson, the focus of training is on pace rather than
lactate levels or heart rates. By thinking in terms of pace to
monitor the intensity of training, the athlete is switching into a
performance mentality ensuring the training is specific to the
competitive event. For example, middle-distance running
coach Frank Horwill created a five-pace system of training.
Briefly, this involves performing regular, quality training
sessions at two paces higher than race pace, race pace itself and
two paces slower than race pace. For example, if you are a
1500m runner, you will complete interval workouts at 400m,
800m, 1500m, 5000m and 10000m distance race paces.
This race pace model of training breeds a training philosophy
that values high intensity ahead of high volume.

A good model for competitive swimmers?

These coaches also recognise that different events need
different kinds of training. The 5km running event which takes
about 12-15 minutes demands a higher level of aerobic
training and 5km pace specific workouts, whereas 800m
runners who compete over two minutes need a high level of
anaerobic training and 800m pace workouts. I would argue that
this kind of training model would serve competitive swimmers
much better than the traditional high-volume approach.
There is evidence to show that the difference between
swimmers who reach the Olympics and those who dont is due
to the distance achieved per stroke, rather than the stroke
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PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

frequency during a competitive race. The way to increase your

distance per stroke is to increase the force generated by the
active muscles and by achieving an optimum position in the
water. This also supports the idea that high-intensity training,
with the aim of developing power in the water at race pace, is
the most important. 6-10km per day at slow speeds cannot be
the way to achieve this!

Enhancing power at race speeds

How can swimmers change their training to enhance power at
pace speeds? Perhaps again, the running world may provide the
answer to this question. The 100m swim takes about 50 seconds,
and so is similar to the 400m running race; the 200m swim takes
about 110 seconds, and so is similar to the 800m running race.
Thus, its more than possible that swimmers could imitate the
training of middle-distance and long-sprint track athletes to
improve their training.
For example, an international 800m runner will perform a
preparation period of aerobic-capacity training. This will
involve continuous running at 10k pace and slower plus interval
training at 5k pace. The 200m swimmers equivalent would be
the usual high-volume training programme.
This base-training phase will then be followed by a more
specific training phase which will continue with high-volume
aerobic training, with more 5k and 10k pace runs and include
some interval workouts for the anaerobic system, at 800m and
1500m paces, probably about three times a week. The 200m
swimmers equivalent could be to maintain a fairly high volume
but more above-lactate-threshold pace workouts and race pace
or close to race pace interval workouts three times a week. For
example 10 x 100 m at 400m race pace with 60 seconds rest.

The pre-competition phase

This phase is followed by a very intense pre-competition phase
of training. The goal of this training phase is to maximise the
anaerobic capacity of the athlete. Aerobic training is cut to a
minimum maintenance level and high intensity anaerobic
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PEAK PERFORMANCE SWIMMING SPECIAL REPORT

sessions at 400m, 800m, and 1500m paces will be performed

probably about five or six times a week. For the swimmer, this
would involve a morning swim at an easy lactate-threshold pace
or below and very high-quality race pace and faster than race
pace interval workouts in the evening. For example 8 x 50m at
200m race pace with 60 seconds rest.

And then, competition

The competition phase will simply maintain aerobic and
anaerobic fitness with maintenance training and plenty of
recovery between races. For the swimmer this could involve some
aerobic slow speed workouts and some race pace and sprint
workouts, probably only training five or six times in one week.
The best middle-distance runners will most likely perform a
maximal sprint workout once a week throughout the whole year,
to ensure speed is always being trained. Again, the swimmer
could also incorporate this into his/her programme, eg, 10 x turn
into 20m max sprint with three minutes rest once a week.
I stated at the beginning that my aim was to stir up the debate
and raise some questions about swim training and how to
optimise performance. I have argued, based on the research,
analysis of the energy system demands of swimming races and
successful models of training in comparable track running
events, that the best model of training for swimmers is to focus
on more high-intensity training and less high-volume training.
Specifically, swimmers would benefit from plenty of race-pace
training to develop power and efficiency in the water at the
speeds at which they wish to compete.
Raphael Brandon

References
Wilmore and Costill, 1994. Physiology of Exercise. Human
Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
Reilly, 1990. Swimming In Reilly et al, Physiology of Sports, E
& FN Spon, London.
Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, vol 20(4), pp 395-406,
1995.
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