Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fisheries and
Aquaculture Department
I. Identity
a. Biological Features
b. Images Gallery
II. Profile
a. Historical Background
b. Main Producer Countries
c. Habitat And Biology
VII. References
a. Related Links
III. Production
a. Production Cycle
b. Production Systems
c. Diseases And Control Measures
IV. Statistics
a. Production Statistics
b. Market And Trade
Identity
Artemia spp Leach, 1819
[Artemiidae]
FAO Names: En - Brine shrimps nei, Fr - Crevettes de salines nca, Es - Artemias nep
Biological features
Artemia is a primitive arthropod with a segmented body to which are attached broad leaf-like appendages
named thoracopodes, which greatly increase apparent size. Their adult length is ~8-10 mm for males and ~1012 mm for females but the width of both sexes, including the legs, is ~4 mm. The body is divided into head,
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
thorax, and abdomen. The head consists of one prostomial and five metameric segments which bear in order
the median and compound eyes and labrum, first antennae, second antennae, mandibles, first maxillae or
maxillulae, and second maxillae or maxillulae. The thorax is constructed of eleven segments, each provided
with a pair of thoracopodes, while the abdomen is composed of eight segments. The anterior two abdominal
segments are often referred to as the genital segments and of these the first bears the gonopods, either the egg
sac of the female or the paired penes of the male. Abdominal segments 2-7 lack appendages. The final
abdominal segment possesses the cercopods, also called the furca or telson. The entire body is covered with a
thin, flexible exoskeleton of chitin to which muscles are attached internally. The exoskeleton is shed
periodically and in females a moult precedes every ovulation, while in the male a correlation between moulting
and reproduction has not been observed.
The genus Artemia comprises a number of sexually reproducing species (bisexual species) and a number of
parthenogenetically reproducing populations. There are very few macroscopically visible morphological
differences between the various species of the genus. The identification of bisexual Artemia species has
therefore been established by cross-breeding tests, morphological and morphometrical differentiation,
cytogenetics and allozyme studies; presently, increasing importance is being given to nuclear and mitochondrial
DNA analysis, including sequencing. With the exception of cross-mating, all these techniques have also
contributed to identifying the parthenogenetic types described as A. parthenogenetica Barigozzi (1974). The
phylogenetic relationship of populations and/or species within the genus is still a matter of discussion and the
need for a multi-trait approach to identify species is generally recognized as essential. The name A. salina has
caused considerable confusion worldwide as authors have often named (and continue to name) all brine shrimp
A. salina, whereas this species name should be restricted to one of the bisexual species, which is specifically
found in the Mediterranean area.
The differentiation of 7 bisexual species, defined primarily by the criterion of reproductive isolation as found in
laboratory tests, and of many parthenogenetic populations is currently acknowledged. Endemic to Europe,
Africa and Asia (and also found in Australia) are the parthenogenetic populations (with different levels of
ploidy). On these continents are also found the bisexuals A. salina, Leach 1819 (Mediterranean area), A.
urmiana (Gnther, 1890) (Lake Urmia, Islamic Republic of Iran and one Crimean site, Ukraine), A. sinica
(Cai, 1989) (inland China and Mongolia), Artemia sp. (Pilla & Beardmore, 1994) (non-defined lake in
Kazakhstan), and A. tibetiana (Abatzopoulos et al. 1998) (Tibet). Endemic to the Americas are A. persimilis
(Piccinelli & Prosdocini, 1968) (southern South America) and A. franciscana (Kellogg, 1906) (North, Central
and South America), with A. franciscana monica being a special case of a population described for an
ecologically unique habitat (Mono lake, California, United States of America).
Images gallery
Profile
Historical background
The status of Artemia as an economic commodity began in the 1930s when some investigators adopted it as a
convenient replacement for the natural plankton diet for fish larvae thus realizing the first break-through in the
culture of commercially important fish species. In the 1950s Artemia cysts were still predominantly marketed
for the aquarium and pet trade at prices as low as USD 10/kg. There were only two commercial sources: the
coastal salt works in the San Francisco Bay (California, United States of America) and the Great Salt Lake
(Utah, United States of America). With fish and shrimp operations emerging from the early 1960s onwards,
new marketing opportunities were created for Artemia cysts. However, by the mid 1970s increased demand,
declining harvests from the Great Salt Lake, high import taxes in certain developing countries and possibly
artificial cyst shortages created by certain companies resulted in a severe price rise for Artemia cysts (up to
USD 50-100/kg). The dramatic impact of the cyst shortage on the expanding aquaculture industry invigorated
research on the rationalization of the use of Artemia and the exploration of new cyst resources. The cyst
shortage simultaneously invigorated the search for alternatives for Artemia in an attempt to abandon its use as
live food in larval nutrition; a process that continues till today with slow but steady successes.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
behaviour of brine shrimp and use them as a vehicle for administration of selected fatty acids, vitamins,
essential nutrients and therapeutics to fish and shrimp larvae. This and other developments, such as cyst
decapsulation and nauplius cold storage techniques, have contributed to the fast expansion of the industrial
farming of an increasing number of aquaculture species globally. Finally, although Artemia is mostly used in
the form of freshly hatched nauplii, more and more use is made of juvenile and adult Artemia (known as
biomass) in shrimp nursery and maturation facilities.
Main producer countries
In nature, cysts may be produced in massive numbers, and the alveolar structure of the chorion ensures that
large quantities float on the water surface, or may eventually be blown ashore by wind and waves. Upon
dehydration, often in combination with other environmental cues, cyst diapause is deactivated, giving quiescent
embryos with the ability to resume further embryonic development when hydrated in optimal hatching
conditions. Once harvested and properly processed, the cysts can be stored for several years while the dried
embryos stay in a state of arrested metabolism. When quiescent cysts are immersed in lower salinity water, the
biconcave cysts hydrate, becoming spherical and the shelled embryo resumes its interrupted metabolism. After
a few more hours (depending on ambient conditions and strain) the cyst outer membrane breaks and the
embryo appears, surrounded by a hatching membrane. At this point (umbrella stage) the embryo hangs
underneath the empty shell, the development of the nauplius is completed and, within a short period of time,
the hatching membrane ruptures (hatching) and the free-swimming instar I nauplius is born. This larva can be
used as it is or, following a specific enrichment procedure to enhance its nutritional properties, as a convenient
substitute for the natural plankton diet of fish and shrimp larvae. Under favourable ecological conditions,
Artemia can live for several months, growing from nauplius to adult in only eight days and reproducing at up
to 300 nauplii or cysts every four days.
The bulk of the Artemia product reaching the world market is A. franciscana from the Great Salt Lake; product
from continental Asia consists of a variety of parthenogenetic strains and A. sinica. Harvests resulting from
seasonal production in solar saltworks (such as in Viet Nam) generally belong to the San Francisco Bay-type
A. franciscana, as this strain has been used for the original inoculation material. Depending on climatological
conditions, an allochthonous strain may establish itself following deliberate or non-deliberate introduction by
man. Recently the gradual dispersion of A. franciscana into new environments competing with and eventually
out-competing local populations is becoming an increasingly common pattern in various parts of the world. Its
fast growth and reproduction and its high temperature and salinity resistance, combined with its attractiveness
for aquaculture applications (e.g. small cyst size and simple diapause termination procedures in the case of San
Francisco Bay A. franciscana) explain its popularity as an inoculation strain in saltworks. Moreover, A.
franciscana from the Great Salt Lake is the dominant strain used in hatcheries worldwide. Unhatched cysts and
un-consumed nauplii may be drained into the wider environment together with hatchery effluents. A growing
number of field observations worldwide (Mediterranean area, India, East Africa, Australia, coastal China, etc.)
hint at the emergence of A. franciscana in new coastal environments, thus contributing to the complexity of the
species status of cyst product originating from these areas. Product harvested from the Bohai Bay area, China,
for example, may thus consist of variable mixtures of parthenogenetic strains (the autochthonous coastal
populations), originally inland Chinese A. sinica (dispersed coastally following its use in local aquaculture
farms) and allochthonous A. franciscana (deliberately introduced; non-deliberately dispersed following its use
in local aquaculture farms).
All Artemia product reaching the market is produced from feral strains (such as Great Salt Lake) or from feral
populations that have adapted following their introduction by man in a new environment (such as the
Vietnamese saltworks). So far no fully-fledged Artemia breeding or selection programmes have been launched,
though research work is being done on the heritability of commercially interesting characteristics (e.g.
synchronous hatching rate, small cyst size). Moreover, knowledge on genotype-phenotype relationships in
Artemia is steadily growing as it is increasingly and intensively being used as a model organism in aquaculture
breeding programmes, focusing e.g. on disease resistance and stress tolerance.
Production
Production cycle
Permanent solar salt operations typically consist of several interconnected evaporation ponds and crystallizers,
where ponds may each be a few to several hundred hectares with depths of 0.5 to 1.5 m. Seawater is pumped
into the first pond and flows through the successive evaporation ponds; meanwhile salinity levels gradually
build up as a result of evaporation. Due to their size and their quasi-permanent operation, this type of saltworks
often involves a higher degree of mechanisation compared to the small seasonal units.
Site selection
Site selection and pond design should meet a number of criteria. Ideal pond soils should be clayish and limit
seepage. As in fish ponds, Artemia production ponds are designed with water inlet and outlet canals that
facilitate filling and draining with high salinity water or freshwater. Salt ponds are modified for Artemia
production by deepening the ponds to 40-50 cm in regions with high temperatures, which may become
stressful for the Artemia. Deepening involves digging a peripheral ditch and using the excavated earth to
heighten the dikes. Screens should be installed to prevent predators from entering the culture ponds, while
wave breakers prevent foaming and also act as cyst barriers to facilitate cyst harvesting. Suitable Artemia
production ponds range in size from 0.05 to 0.5 ha.
Pond preparation and management
Pond preparation begins after the end of the rainy season when all ponds are drained and pond and canal
bottoms are scraped, followed by sun drying for about one week. Liming is applied for acidic soils. For optimal
productivity, proper pond management must be ensured by maintaining optimal salinity (80-100 per thousand)
and temperature (<33 C) through regulation of water supply and pond modification. Proper food supply
should ensure fast recruitment of the population and is yet another critical management aspect. Management
and feeding procedures should target the development of suitable phytoplankton and avoid proliferation of
benthic macroalgae mats. At the beginning of the production season all ponds are filled with seawater,
screened at the intake against predators. Water can be added (by tidal inflow, pumping or manually using
water-scoopers) to regulate water level and salinity. In a typical Artemia pond, greenwater (phytoplanktonrich water) is pumped every two days with water level increments of 2-5 cm compensating for seepage and
evaporation; this also provides the Artemia with food. Water levels are adjusted depending on turbidity, salinity
of culture and fertilisation ponds, but usually high water levels are maintained to avoid temperature peaks.
Under circumstances of insufficient natural food (or difficulty in producing sufficient amounts of greenwater),
inorganic fertilizers (e.g. urea and phosphates), micronized agro by-products and/or manure are provided as
food supplements through regular (e.g. weekly) rations. Regular physical disturbance (pond bottom raking) is
applied at both the pond bottom and the ditch to retard development of algal mats, known as lab-lab; this also
helps to re-suspend organic particles in the water column for Artemia feeding. Where pond bottoms are unraked, filamentous algal mats may develop and these will trap cysts, thus affecting Artemia populations (as they
are unable to feed on filamentous algae or to digest their thick cell walls, resulting in starvation).
Harvesting in solar saltworks
Cysts released by females float on the water surface and are normally prevented from washing onto the dykes
by wave breakers made from plastic sheets or bamboo. These wave breakers are placed at corners at the
leeward side of the pond and aid in cyst collection. Cysts floating in the corner are collected by dip nets of
appropriate mesh size (e.g. 150 m), normally every morning depending on production level. For collecting
adult Artemia a 1 mm mesh net is used after three weeks of culture, especially in the morning or afternoon
when most individuals are found near the water surface. Harvesting frequency may depend on need, as it can
be done daily or twice a week with biomass harvests of 25 to 50 kg ww/ha/day, with production levels as high
as 0.7 to 1 tonnes/month over a culture period of four to five months. Guidelines for proper biomass harvesting
periodicity and quantities have been developed, ensuring optimal biomass productivity over the entire
production season and compatibility with cyst production requirements.
Handling and processing
Depending on local conditions, the quality/quantity characteristics of harvests and the business structure of
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
harvesting companies, processing may be carried out partially on-site, and/or the product may be sent for
domestic or overseas transport for final or complete processing elsewhere. A number of consecutive processing
steps are carried out in order to obtain a clean, marketable product featuring acceptable hatching parameters
and shelf life. The processing steps aim firstly at purification of the raw material (i.e. eliminating as much as
possible all fractions which are not full cysts), and secondly dehydration in order to reduce water content to the
range 5-10 percent that is necessary for long-term storage. Processing generally implies sequential
combinations of mechanical sieving, brine washing/dehydration and drying, combined with one or more
storage periods in specific conditions of temperature and water content, in order to break diapause.
Organization, logistics and scale of the processing line may vary and are determined by the trade-off between
required final quality, processing quantities, specific strain/batch characteristics, local conditions (i.e. site
location, storage facilities, local equipment available) and financial imperatives. Throughout processing,
rigorous quality control is implemented in order to adjust or correct the techniques and to obtain a final product
of good and constant marketable quality.
Production costs
Because of the highly proprietary nature of Artemia production, no cost data is publicly available.
Diseases and control measures
In laboratory cultures of Artemia infestation with Leucothrix bacteria and the so-called black spot disease have
been observed. The latter disease has also occasionally been observed in Great Salt Lake adult Artemia, and is
generally linked with dietary deficiency caused by unusual phytoplankton abundances and species
composition, being the consequence of highly aberrant abiotic conditions. The pathogenicity of several Vibrio
species for A. franciscana has been demonstrated in laboratory cultures. Cestode parasitosis, with Artemia
being an intermediate host for water birds predating on them, has been studied in natural Mediterranean brine
shrimp populations. However, as Artemia production is essentially the harvest of a natural resource (albeit
sometimes in man-managed conditions such as in solar saltworks), information on overall incidence of
infestations is fragmentary at best, and issues such as the effect on population productivity and possible control
measures are highly speculative.
Statistics
Production statistics
Although the existence of aquaculture (farmed) production of Artemia in Australia, Bahamas, Madagascar and
Peru is recorded in FAO aquaculture production statistics, no quantitative data is currently available (up to
2009).
The following information refers to available statistics on certain specific capture fisheries for Artemia from
non-FAO sources. Reliable capture fisheries production statistics are only available for Great Salt Lake and for
production in the Mekong Delta, Viet Nam, where production is systematically monitored by local authorities
or scientific organizations. In the absence of such public monitoring bodies in other areas, data on production
lack completeness and/or reliability or are not openly accessible.
Production statistics from the Great Salt Lake
Source: State of Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Salt Lake Ecosystem Program
The graph reproduced above shows total weight (tonnes) of raw biomass harvested as reported by the
harvesting companies. Raw biomass includes cysts, empty shells, Artemia biomass, algae and other material.
The yield of dry processed cysts from the raw biomass varies annually, but is typically 30-35 percent.
Culture area, total production and yield of Artemia cysts (raw product) in the Vinh Chau and Bac Lieu
districts of the Mekong Delta, Viet Nam
Source: College of Aquaculture & Fisheries, Can Tho University, Viet Nam
culture season ends. It is expected that interest in this product will continue to increase (e.g. Artemia biomass
production as a form of extractive aquaculture to reduce nutrient loads in effluents) and culture procedures are
being developed that focus on maximal biomass production as an alternative to cysts.
Artemia cysts
Artemia cysts are generally marketed vacuum packed and dehydrated to 5-10 percent; these storage conditions
guarantee maximal viability. Cysts are offered on the market in a number of brands, corresponding with a
variety of quality criteria, amongst which hatching quality, cyst size (and hence naupliar biomass) and
nutritional composition (HUFAs, vitamins) are among the most important. These criteria, as well as practical
aspects related to their daily manipulation in the hatchery (decapsulation behaviour, ease of nauplii harvesting,
nauplius colour, enrichment kinetics, etc.) and microbiological aspects all contribute to the sale prices of each
brand. Most countries require cysts to be imported with a veterinary certificate, declaring absence of pathogens
such as Salmonella and Enterobacteriae.
Whereas there have been large fluctuations on the offer side over recent decades, there has been a steady
increase on the demand side due to the global increase of aquaculture activities. Cyst prices have fluctuated
considerably over the last few decades as a result of fluctuating Great Salt Lake harvests, and of the variable
market availability of cysts from alternative geographical locations. On the demand side, prognoses about the
future demand for Artemia cysts are speculative, because this is determined by divergent parameters such as:
The overall expansion and intensification of production of current aquaculture species.
The emergence of new aquaculture species.
Dietary and zootechnical improvements resulting in a more efficient use of Artemia nauplii.
The trend towards co-feeding, early weaning diets and Artemia substitutes.
Since 1990 cyst consumption has increased exponentially as a consequence of the booming shrimp and marine
fish farming industries. In 1997, some 6 000 hatcheries required over 1 500 tonnes of cysts annually. Some 80
to 85 percent of the total sales of Artemia went to shrimp hatcheries, mainly in China and South East Asia as
well as Ecuador and a few other Latin American countries. The remainder went to marine fish larviculture in
Europe, China and Japan as well as to aquarium fish producers.
On the other hand, rationalization of the use of Artemia in hatcheries has enabled a dramatic reduction in the
amount of cysts needed to produce each unit of fish or shrimp, and Artemia costs presently comprise ~15
percent of hatchery costs; this compares to 25-50 percent (depending on the species being fed) before
rationalization. For instance, in 1990 a typical Mediterranean seabass and seabream hatchery would have been
using some 600-700 kg of cysts to produce 1 million fry while in 2011, the required amount has been reduced
to <100 kg. In shrimp hatcheries a similar but less dramatic effect has occurred; the consumption of cysts fell
from 10 kg per million postlarvae to less than 5 kg. It is generally believed that this trend will continue for some
time until a point is reached (varying from one species and culture system to another) where the economic
benefit obtained from further reduction of Artemia cyst consumption will be outweighed by the loss created by
the low larval performance (in terms of survival, growth, stress resistance, incidence of deformities, etc.).
Reliable estimates of future supplies remain difficult to obtain due to the lack of information on the ecology of
new sites, the productivity of the local Artemia population, and on technical and economical studies related to
accessibility, sustainable quantities, characteristics of the resource relevant to larviculture, etc. Therefore, no
stable cyst provision can be guaranteed; diversification of resources remains a most important issue, along with
the further rationalization of the use of Artemia. As a net result of all the factors that impact the aquaculture
market, the global demand for cysts, 2 500-3 000 tonnes/year, is expected to increase further. China is the main
consumer (and will continue to be so) with an annual consumption of 1 500 tonnes, of which about one half is
imported from Russian Federation and Kazakhstan and the other half produced domestically (e.g. from the
Bohai Bay area, which has a relatively stable annual production of about 400 tonnes of raw product). Only a
small quantity (<50 tonnes of finished product annually) is imported from the United States of America; since
2006 there has also been a limited export of inland and Bohai Bay material.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
Main issues
The ubiquitous application of Artemia as a live food in hatcheries has raised a number of issues related to its
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
future use:
Replacement of Artemia by artificial diets. Almost as long as Artemia has been used as a primary live
food source in hatcheries, its full replacement by artificial diets has been predicted. However, this has
remained wishful thinking until now. Progressive rationalization of its use is continuously taking place
and replacement is sometimes possible to a large extent thanks to early weaning and co-feeding rearing
procedures, for example. However, it is generally expected that Artemia will remain an essential
economic commodity due to the continuous trend for species diversification in aquaculture (attempts to
culture larvae of new species are generally made with live food) and to the biological limitations
inherent in the reduction of live food during early marine fish and shrimp rearing.
User-friendliness of commercial Artemia cyst products. As the use of Artemia cysts in hatcheries
requires a lot of labour, the manipulations needed to produce the live food from the cysts are a focal
R&D topic for the cyst producing companies. The fact that a product or method allows rationalization of
procedures such as hatching, nauplius harvesting, and nauplius storage, is generally used as an important
sales argument.
Microbiological aspects of the use of Artemia as live food in hatcheries. The increasing awareness of
the importance of the microbiological aspects of larviculture has resulted in a higher alertness to the role
of microbiological communities associated with the use of live food, such as algae, rotifers and Artemia.
This includes the enhancement of communities that have a positive impact on culture performance and
the reduction or elimination of communities that have a detrimental effect. Already in the 1980s the
technique of decapsulating cysts before hatching had been developed with the aim of reducing the
bacterial load in the hatching medium, and it has been widely adopted since. The research and
development of cyst products claimed to have a favourable effect on the microbiological live food
environment are highly proprietary. The role of Artemia as an external or internal carrier of pathogens
into larviculture tanks (and the procedures to minimize or neutralize this risk) is currently a focus of
intensive research.
Responsible aquaculture practices
Public environmental debate about Artemia production issues is limited to the Great Salt Lake operations,
where a balance is sought between the needs of the Artemia cyst production industry and the importance of the
Artemia resource for birds. Great Salt Lake is a key foraging site for migrating avifauna, and A. franciscana is
a key species upon which much of the rest of its ecosystem relies. Proper management and maintenance of the
brine shrimp resource is carried out through continuous monitoring of the population under the supervision of
the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources and the quota system imposed by the authorities ensures the
sustainability of the resource, in line with article 7 Fisheries Management of the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries.
With the exception of Urmia Lake, Islamic Republic of Iran, where harvest control was exercised by
environmental authorities but where the Artemia population has dwindled over the last few years due to
extremely high salinity (hence cyst harvesting has stopped), there is little information about the ecological
importance of other lakes (Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, China) where Artemia is commercially harvested.
Because governmental control on harvests at these sites may be insufficient or absent, it is unlikely that wildlife
conservation is considered an issue in those locations.
Environmental concern may also be raised by the reduced Artemia biodiversity due to the introduction of
allochthonous strains in coastal saltworks. Artemia pond production is generally practiced in existing manoperated hypersaline systems (coastal saltworks) so its production does not require extra space in an
environment that is already often subjected to the pressure of multiple uses (see article 10 Integration of
fisheries into coastal area management of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries). The
fertilization scheme in intensive Artemia pond production should be designed such that a phytoplankton boom
can be induced that can be grazed away by the brine shrimp population, thus limiting the risk of additional
eutrophication in line with article 9 Aquaculture development of the FAO Code of Conduct. However,
Artemia pond production often implies the inoculation of superiorly productive allochthonous strains (generally
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
Artemia pond production often implies the inoculation of superiorly productive allochthonous strains (generally
A. franciscana) in environments where local strain(s) is/are occurring. If a permanent A. franciscana population
can establish itself (which depends on climatological conditions), it tends to outcompete the local population(s),
as has been demonstrated, for example, in the Mediterranean and in the Bohai Bay area of China. Preservation
of the gene pool of the local population in cyst banks is therefore highly recommended.
References
Bibliography
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biology. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 286 pp.
Baert, P., Anh, N.T.N., Quynh, V.D. & Hoa, N.V. 1997. Increasing cyst yields in Artemia culture ponds in
Viet Nam: the multi-cycle system. Aquaculture Research, 28:809-814.
Baert, P., Nguyen, T.N.A., Burch, A. & Sorgeloos, P. 2002. The use of Artemia biomass sampling to predict
cyst yields in culture ponds. Hydrobiologia 477:149-153.
De Wolf, T., Dhert, P., OBrien, E. & Candreva, P. 2001. Progress at production scale with various Artemia
substitutes and supplements for marine fish larvae. Oral presentation at Larvi 01, Proceedings of the 3rd Fish
and Shellfish Larviculture Symposium, Gent, Belgium. University of Gent, Belgium.
Green, A.J., Snchez, M.I., Amat, F., Figuerola, J., Hontoria, F., Ruiz, O. & Hortas, F. 2005. Dispersal of
invasive and native brine shrimps Artemia (Anostraca) via waterbirds. Limnology and Oceanography, 50:737742.
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Fisheries Technical Paper No. 361. FAO, Rome. 295 pp.
Lavens, P. & Sorgeloos, P. 2000. The history, present status and prospects of the availability of Artemia cysts
for aquaculture. Aquaculture 181:397-403
Lger, P. 2005. Producing Artemia for a growing aquaculture industry. The market & needs, Production
INVEs experience. Oral presentation at Artemia Seminar. Larvi 05, 4th Fish and Shellfish Larviculture
Symposium, Gent, Belgium. . University of Gent, Belgium.
Naessens, G. & Van Stappen, G. 2001. The need for more diversity in Artemia cyst resources: varying
characteristics, a handicap or an opportunity for the optimal use of Artemia in fish and shellfish larviculture.
Oral presentation at Larvi 01, 3rd Fish and Shellfish Larviculture Symposium, Gent, Belgium. University of
Gent, Belgium.
Nguyen Phu Son, 2010. Socio-economic efficiency and development potential of Artemia production on saltbased area in the Mekong Delta, Viet Nam. PhD thesis, University of Antwerp, Belgium, 227 pp.
Nguyen T.N.A. 2009. Optimisation of Artemia biomass production in salt ponds in Viet Nam and use as feed
ingredient in local aquaculture. PhD thesis, Ghent University, Belgium, 250 pp.
Nguyen, T.N.A, Nguyen, V.H., Van Stappen, G. & Sorgeloos, P. 2009. Effect of different supplemental feeds
on proximate composition and Artemia biomass production in salt ponds. Aquaculture 286:217-225.
Nguyen, V.H. 2002. Seasonal farming of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana in artisanal salt ponds in Viet
Nam: effects of temperature and salinity. PhD thesis, Ghent University, Belgium, 184 pp.
Stttrup, J.G. & McEvoy, L.A. (eds). 2003. Live feeds in marine aquaculture. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford,
UK, 318 pp.
Van Stappen, G., Yu, H., Wang, X., Hoffman, S., Cooreman, K. , Bossier, P. & Sorgeloos, P. 2007.
Occurrence of allochthonous Artemia species in the Bohai Bay area, PR China, as confirmed by RFLP
analysis and laboratory culture tests. Fundamental & Applied Limnology 170:21-28.
Van Stappen, G., Litvinenko, L.I., Litvinenko, A.I., Boyko, E.G., Marden, B. & Sorgeloos, P. 2009. A survey
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
of Artemia resources of Southwest Siberia (Russian Federation). Reviews in Fisheries Science, 17:117-148.
Related links
Artemia Reference Center
College of Aquaculture and Fisheries
FAO FishStatJ Universal software for fishery statistical time series
Great Salt Lake Artemia
Great Salt Lake Ecosystem Program
Salt Lake Brine Shrimp