Experiment -1

Aim: To study the fundamental and block diagram of Electrical drive.

Apparatus: Ac Voltage Source, PEM, Electric motor, Controller, Load, Driver, Feed forward
and Feedback components.
Theory:
For study of block diagram of power electronics drives it require to know the basic definitions of
electronics and power electronics and what is drive?
1. Electronics: It is the branch of science, engineering and technology which is deal with
electronics devices in which conduction take place due to motion of electrons under the influence
of externally applied electrical or magnetic field in vacuum, gas & semiconductor and its
utilization.
2. Power Electronics: It is defined as field of science, engineering and technology which deal
with the power electronics modulator (PEM) in which efficient, conversion, conditioning,
processing, controlling and modulating the flow of large electrical power using solid state power
semiconductor devices in order to supply high quality power to the load and causing minimum
pollution of environment with regulating stability and response characteristics of the closed loop
system and its apps.
3. Motor Drive: An electric motor together with its electronic control equipment and energy
transmitting devices forms an electrical motor drive.
The bock diagram of electrical motor drive is as shown in figure.it is closed loop in nature.so it
has two path,
Path-1 Forward path which is shown by straight line arrows.
Path-2 Feedback path which is shown as dashes lines arrows.
The forward path consist of different blocks like as
Input source, input filter, PEM, output filter, motor and load
The feedback path consists of Electrical or non-electrical variable feedback, controller and
driver.
The motor and load is connected through energy transmitting link which is shown in block
diagram.

Energy
transmitting
link
Input
Filter

Source

PEM

Output
filter

Motor

Load

Electrical
Variable
Feedback

Non Electrical
Variable
Feedback

Driver

Feed forward component

Controller

Command

Fig: Block diagram of Power Electronics Motor drives

Description of each block:

1) Input source:
Very low power drives are generally fed from single-phase sources; low and medium power
motors are fed from three-phase 400 V supply, large motors may be rated at 3.3 kv, 6.6 kv and
11 kv.
Some drives are powered from a battery voltage may be 24 V, 48 V or 110 V dc.
Application 500 To 759 KV DC supply is utilized. 115 V, 400 HZ supply is used for the aircraft
and space application. For line traction application 65 KV, 50 HZ supply used and for
underground traction
2) Input and Output filters:
The electronic filters are circuit which is performing signal processing functions, specifically to
remove unwanted frequency component from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.

3) Power Electronics Modulators (PEM):

A Power Electronics is a heart of Power Electronics System which modulates the power
available from the source as required by the load with the command input given by controller.
The power modulator performs the following functions:
i.
ii.

iii.
iv.

It modulates the flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor
is imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load.
A Power Electronics is a heart of Power Electronics System which modulates the power
available from the source as required by the load with the command input given by
controller.
The power modulator performs the following functions :
It modulates the flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor
is imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load.

4) Controller:
The controls for a power modulator are provides in the control unit.
The nature of the control unit for a particular drive depends on the power modulator that used.
When semiconductor converters are used, the control unit consists of firing circuits which
employ linear and Digital Integrated Circuits, transistors and microprocessor are used when
sophisticated control is required.
Control for power electronics modulator is built in control unit which usually operates at much
lower voltage and power levels.
In addition to operating the power electronics modulator it may also generate commands for the
protection of power electronic modulators and motors.
Input command signal which adjusting the operating point of the drive by analyzing the feedback
single in the controller.
The controller is realized with analog and integrated circuits. The present trend is to use
microprocessors, single chip modulators, Digital Signal Processors (DSP), VLSI and special
custom chips known as Application Specifics ICs (ASIC) to embody a set of functions in the
controller.
5) Sensors:
Speed sensing is required for implementation of closed loop speed control schemes. Speed is
usually sensed by using tachometers are used.
Two commonly used methods of sensing the current are: (i) using current sensors employing
Hall Effect, and (ii) Using a non-inductive resistance shunt in conjunction with an isolation
amplifier, which has an arrangement for amplification and isolation between the power and
control circuits.

6) Energy transmitting link:

The energy transmitting link is placed between motor / equipment and load.
There are basically four different methods for energy transmitting links like as
i.
ii.
iii.

Direct coupling method

Using chain
Using belt coupling

Conclusion:___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 2
Aim: To study different method for speed control of DC motor.
Apparatus: DC Motor, External Field, Connecting Wires, 1Phase Varaic
Theory:
DC motors are used extensively in adjustable-speed drives and position control applications.
Their speeds below the base speed can be controlled by armature-voltage control. Speeds above
the base speed are obtained by field-flux control. As speed control method for DC motors are
simpler and less expensive than those for the AC motors, DC motors are preferred where wide
speed range control is required. DC choppers also provide variable dc output voltage from a
fixed dc input voltage.
The Chopper circuit used can operate in all the four quadrants of the V-I plane. The
output voltage and current can be controlled both in magnitude as well as in direction so the
power flow can be in either direction. The four-quadrant chopper is widely used in reversible dc
motor drives. By applying chopper it is possible to implement regeneration and dynamic braking
for dc motors.
METHOD OF SPEED CONTROL
DC motor can be generally control by two method given below.
1.
2.
3.
4.

ARMATURE OR RHEOSTATIC CONTROL

ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL
FIELD FLUX CONTROL
POWER ELECTRONICS CONVERTERS

Armature or Rheostatic control is preferred by because of high efficiency, good transient

response and good speed regulation. But it can provide speed control only below base speed,
because the armature voltage can allow to exceed rated value. For speed control above the base
speed, field flux control is employed. In a normally design motor, the maximum speed can be
allow up to twice rated speed and in specially designed machine it can be six times rated speed.
This two type of method of the speed control of DC motor is not efficient and also causes more
power loss. So for the fully control of the motor in wide range third method power electronics
converter is generally used now a day.
SPPED EQUATION FOR DC MOTOR
= +
=
But here the back EMF is given as below,

60

So,

=
60

60

. . .

Now
=
So,
=

60

. . .

It show that speed is directly proportional to the back EMF and inversely proportional to the

flux on .

1. ARMATURE OR RHEOSTATIC CONTROL

Fig. Armature control method

Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the back EMF Eb and Eb= V Ia Ra . That is
when supply voltage V and armature resistance Ra are kept constant, speed is directly
proportional to armature current Ia. Thus if we add resistance in series with armature, Ia decrease
and hence speed decreases. Greater the resistance in series with armature, greater the decrease in
speed.

2. ARMATURE VOLTAGE CONTROL

There is a two type of the armature voltage control method
A. Multiple voltage control
In this system, the shunt field of the motor is connected permanently to a fixed excited
voltage, but the armature is supplied with different voltage by connecting it across one of the
several different voltages by mean f suitable switch gear. The armature speed will be
approximately proportional to this different voltages. The intermediate speeds can be obtain by
adjust the shunt filed regulator. The method is not much use.

B. Ward-Leonard system
This system is used where an usually wide up to 10:1 an very sensitive speed control is
required for colliery winders, electric excavator, elevator and the main drive in steel mills and
blooming and paper mill.
The arrangement is illustrated in the figure. M2 is the main motor whose speed control is
required the filed of this motor is permanently connected across the DC supply lines. By
applying a variable voltage across its armature, any desired speed can be obtain. This variable
voltage is supplied by a motor generator set which consist of either a DC or an AC motor M1
directly coupled to generator G.

The motor M1 run at an approximately constant speed. The output voltage of G is

directly fed to the main motor M2. The voltage of generator can be varied from zero up to its
maximum value. By mean of its field regulator. By reversing the direction of field current of G
by mean of the reversing switch Rs, generated voltage can be reverse and hence the direction of
rotation of M2. It should be remember that motor generator set always run in a same direction.
Advantages of Ward Leonard System:
1. It is a very smooth speed control system over a very wide range (from zero to normal speed
of the motor).
2. The speed can be controlled in both the direction of rotation of the motor easily.
3. The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
4. Speed regulation of DC motor in this ward Leonard system is very good.
Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System:
1. The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator set) are required.
2. Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient especially it is lightly loaded.
Application of Ward Leonard System
This Ward Leonard method of speed control system is used where a very wide and very sensitive
speed control is of a DC motor in both the direction of rotation is required. This speed control
system is mainly used in colliery winders, cranes, electric excavators, mine hoists, elevators,
steel rolling mills and paper machines etc.

3. FIELD FLUX CONTROL

Fig. Field flux control

It is seen from that the speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the flux. Thus by
the reducing the flux speed can be increased and via versa. To control the flux, a rheostat is

added in series with the field winding, as shown in the diagram. Adding more resistance in
series with field winding will increase the speed, as it will decrease the flux. Field current is
relatively small and hence I2R losses is small, hence this method is quiet efficient. Though
speed can be increased by the reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to the maximum
speed as weakening of flux beyond the limit will adversely affect the communication.
4. POWER ELECTRONICS CONVERTERS
By the using of the power electronics converter the armature terminal voltage of the DC
motor can be control from the zero to maximum. This method is known as the supply voltage
control of the DC motor. The speed of the motor can be controlled by the single phase or three
phase controller. Depending upon the type of power electronics converter used in the armature
circuit, single phase Dc drive may be subdivided as under.
SINGLE-PHASE DRIVES
1.
2.
3.
4.

Single-phase half-wave converter drives.

Single-phase semi-converter drives.
Single-phase full-converter drives.
Single-phase dual converter drives.

THREE-PHASE DRIVES
1. Three-phase half-wave drives
2. Three-phase semi-converter drives
3. Three-phase full-converter drives

Conclusion:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 3
Aim: To construct a single phase half controlled full wave bridge rectifier and observe waveform
with R-L load with free-wheeling diode.
Apparatus: 230V AC input, 30V output AC step down transformer, controlled rectifier module,
firing unit, loading rheostat, DC motor, patch chords.
Theory:
Rectifier converts AC supply to DC supply. Variable DC supply( 0V to maximum ) can be
obtained from a fixed AC source by triggering SCR by applying gate current to SCR at any
desired instant when SCR is applied with positive voltage to anode. For DC power requirements
such as in DC drives single phase full wave rectifier are used.
CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE:

Single phase half controlled bridge with free-wheeling diode:

When single phase semi converter is connected with R-L load a freewheeling diode must be
connected across the load. During positive half cycle diode D1 is forward biased and T1 is fired
at t=, load is connected to input supply through T1 and D1 during period . During
this period, input voltage is negative and freewheeling diode DF is forward biased. DF conducts to
provide continuity of current in inductive load. Load current is transferred from T1 and D1 to DF
and thyristor T1 and D1 are turned off at =. During negative half cycle of input voltage,
thyristor T2 is forward biased and firing of T2 at = + will reverse bias DF. The diode DF
is turned off and load connected to supply throughT2 and D2.
When load is inductive and T1 is triggered first, it will conduct with D1 to pass current through
load. When supply voltage is negative, load emf will drive current through T1D2. When new
negative half cycle begins, T1 is in conduction and is conducting with D1 as if triggered at =
0.To ensure proper operation at beginning of positive half cycle, T2 has to be turned off and
similarly T1 has to be turned off when negative half cycle begins. This is achieved by

freewheeling diode that applies negative voltage to T1 and T2 by bypassing load. For R-L load,
average output voltage is:

= = + + , < <

= 0 = + + , < < +
With a single phase semi converter in the armature circuit, the equation 1 & 2 gives the average
armature voltage,
=

(1 + cos )

The steady state speed equation is given by,

=

Where, =

(1+cos )

- ( )2

The no-load speed of the motor is given by,

NN-L = =

(1+cos )

DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE:

The armature current becomes discontinuous for large values of the firing angle, high speed and
low values of torque. The speed regulation will be significantly poor in the region of
discontinuous armature current. The motor performance deteriorates with discontinuous armature
current. The ratio of peak to average and RMS to average armature current increases. It is,
therefore, desirable to operate the motor in the continuous current mode. To achieve this, an
external armature circuit choke may be used which decreases the rate of current decay during the
freewheeling operation.
The voltage and current waveform for a semi converter with discontinuous current are shown in
waveform. For the period, < < , the motor is connected to the input supply through T
and D. Beyond , the motor terminal is shorted through the diode. The armature current decays
to zero at angle before the thyristor T2 is triggered at (+) thereby making the same as the
supply voltage e. However, during the motor current freewheels through DF and ea is zero.
In the internal < < + , the motor coasts and the motor terminal voltage ea is the same
as the back emf eb.

Conclusion:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 4
Aim: To study and simulate 1- full controlled converter of separately excited motor
Apparatus: 230V AC input, 30V output AC step down transformer, controlled rectifier
module, firing unit, loading rheostat, DC motor, patch chords
Theory:
A full converter is a two quadrant converter in which the voltage polarity of the output can
reverse, but the current remains unidirectional because of the unidirectional thyristors.

CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE:

The single phase fully controlled bridge converter is obtained by replacing all the diode of the
corresponding uncontrolled converter by thyristors. Thyristors T1 and T2 are fired together
while T3 and T4 are fired 180 after T1 and T2. From the circuit diagram of Fig 10.3(a) it is
clear that for any load current to flow at least one thyristor from the top group (T1, T3) and
one thyristor from the bottom group (T2, T4) must conduct. It can also be argued that neither
T1T3 nor T2T4 can conduct simultaneously. For example whenever T3 and T4 are in the
forward blocking state and a gate pulse is applied to them, they turn ON and at the same time
a negative voltage is applied across T1 and T2 commutating them immediately. Similar
argument holds for T1 and T2. For the same reason T1T4 or T2T3 can not conduct
simultaneously. Therefore, the only possible conduction modes when the current i0 can flow
are T1T2 and T3T4. Of coarse it is possible that at a given moment none of the thyristors
conduct. This situation will typically occur when the load current becomes zero in between
the firings of T1T2 and T3T4. Once the load current becomes zero all thyristors remain off.
In this mode the load current remains zero. Consequently the converter is said to be operating
in the discontinuous conduction mode. Under normal operating condition of the converter the
load current may or may not remain zero over some interval of the input voltage cycle. If i0 is
always greater than zero then the converter is said to be operating in the continuous

conduction mode. In this mode of operation of the converter T1T2 and T3T4 conducts for
alternate half cycle of the input supply.
Torque- speed characteristics: With a single phase, full converter in the armature circuit,
2

Ea=

sin for 0 from period

The steady state speed equation,

=

cos

- ()2

Where, Ia =
The no-load speed of the motor is given by,
NN-L =

2 cos

where, T=0

DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE:

SCR T1 and T3 are fired at and armature current flows from to . The motor armature is
connected to the supply from to . From period to (+), the motor coasts and the
armature voltage is the back emf of the motor. Again at (+), SCR T2 and T4 are triggered
and conduction continues upto (+). In the discontinuous current mode, the difficulty arise
in the calculation of the average motor terminal voltage Ea, because depends on the average
speed N, average armature current Ia and firing angle .

Conclusion:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 5
Aim :-To study control techniques used in dc chopper.
Apparatus :- CRO, Connecting Probes, Matlab
Theory :In DC-DC converters, the average output voltage is controlled by varying the alpha () value.
This is achieved by varying the Duty Cycle of the switching pulses. Duty cycle can be varied
usually in 2 ways:
1.

Time Ratio Control

2.

Current Limit Control

As we all know that Duty Cycle is the ratio of On Time to Time Period of a pulse.
1.Time Ratio Control :As the name suggest, here the time ratio (i.e. the duty cycle ratio Ton/T) is varied.
This kind of control can be achieved using 2 ways:

Constant frequency control

Variable frequency control

A.

Constant frequency control :-

In this technique, the time period is kept constant, but the On Time or the OFF Time is
varied. Using this, the duty cycle ratio can be varied. Since the ON time or the pulse width
is getting changed in this method, so it is popularly known as Pulse width modulation.

B.

Variable frequency control:-

In this control method, the Time Period is varied while keeping either of On Time or
OFF time as constant. In this method, since the time period gets changed, so the frequency
also changes accordingly, so this method is known as frequency modulation control.

2.Current Limit Control :

As is obvious from its name, in this control strategy, a specific limit is applied on the current
variation.
In this method, current is allowed to fluctuate or change only between 2 values i.e. maximum
current (I max) and minimum current (I min). When the current is at minimum value, the
chopper is switched ON. After this instance, the current starts increasing, and when it reaches
up to maximum value, the chopper is switched off allowing the current to fall back to
minimum value. This cycle continues again and again.

Current Limit Control

Conclusion :___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 6
Aim: To study control of DC motor for (a) Current Limit Control (b) Closed loop torque control
(c) Closed loop speed control.
Apparatus: DC Motor, PEM, Controller, Feedback Components, Connecting Wires
Theory:
We will see through different control configurations which are used in DC motor.
(a) Current Limit Control
During the starting, we know if precautionary measures are not taken there is a chance of
huge current flow through the motor circuit. The huge amount of current can damage motor, so it
is necessary to limit the current to safe limit. To limit the current and sense the current fed to the
motor, current limit control scheme is employed. The feedback loop does not effect the normal
operation of the drive but if the current exceeds the predetermined safe limit, the feedback loop
activates and the current is brought down below the safe limit. Once the current is brought down
below the safe limit the feedback loop again deactivates and in this way the control
of current takes place.

[Current limit control]

(b) Closed Loop Torque Control

This type of torque controller is seen mainly in battery operated vehicles like cars, trains etc. the
accelerator present in the vehicles is pressed by the driver to set the reference torque T. The
actual torque T follows the T* which is controlled by the driver via accelerator. By putting

appropriate pressure on the accelerator, driver adjusts the speed depending on traffic, road
condition, his liking, car condition and speed limit.

[Closed-loop torque control]

(c) Closed loop speed control of DC motor:
DC Motor is very extensively used machine where the speed control is desired. The
operation of DC motor in different steps is easy compared to AC motors. By the open loop
control the DC motor can be operated at any intermediate speed by changing the voltage,
armature current etc. But in open loop (Prediction based) control accuracy in speed cannot be
obtained i.e. the speed will not be constant for load variations on the motor. There will not be
any feedback to the controller to indicate the change in speed due to load. This disadvantage
restricts the use of open loop speed control DC motor in applications where constant speed is
essential.

[Closed loop speed control of DC motor]

To avoid this disadvantage a closed loop technique is implemented where the output measured
speed is fed back to the speed controller. In closed loop controller the speed can be maintained
by adjusting terminal voltage according the speed difference caused by the load torque, i.e. a fine
control of speed can be obtained using closed loop speed control. The below figure shows the
basic block diagram of closed loop speed control.

The measured speed at the motor shaft is fed back and compared with reference
speed. The difference speed error is applied to the speed controller to generate a control voltage
Vc which controls the power converter and produces the desired terminal Vt .This terminal
voltage controls the speed of the motor and thus the speed of the motor can maintained for any
variations in the load torque. For example if the load torque has been increased, due to this high
load the motor speed reduces momentarily from its desired value. Thus the speed error at the
output of the comparator increases which increases the control signal Vc. The speed controller
can be proportional(P) or proportional integral(PI) and it also takes care of the maximum speed
limit of the motor. This control signal decreases the firing angle of the thyristor if it is phase
controlled converter or it increases the duty cycle to increase the switching On time if it is a
chopper converter and thus the output terminal voltage will increase. This increased terminal
voltage (armature voltage) develops more torque to compensate the effect of load torque and to
maintain the constant speed. The same operation in the reverse way will be performed if the load
torque reduces. When the applied torque matches the load torque then the motor speed will be
constant. There will be small oscillations during this control which can be reduced by the perfect
controller time constant.

Conclusion:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 7
Aim: - To study chopper control of D.C. Motor for Motoring and Generating Control.
Apparatus: - DC Motor, DC-DC Chopper Circuit, 1-phase AC Supply Voltage
Theory: When variable dc voltage is to be obtained from fixed dc voltage, dc chopper is the ideal
choice. Use of chopper in traction systems is now accepted all over the world. A chopper is inserted
in between a fixed voltage dc source and the dc motor armature for its speed control below base
speed. In addition, chopper is easily adaptable for regenerative braking of dc motors and thus
kinetic energy of the drive can be returned to the dc source. This results in overall energy saving
which is the most welcome feature in transportation systems requiring frequent stops, as for
example in rapid transit systems.
Though choppers can be used for dynamic braking and for combined regenerative and dynamic
control of dc drives, only the following two control modes are described in what follows:
1. Power control or motoring control
2. Regenerative-braking control

 Power control or motoring control

Figure 1
Fig. 1(a) shows basic arrangement of a dc chopper feeding power to a dc series motor. The chopper
is shown to consist of a force-commutated thyristor, it could equally well be a transistor switch. It
offers one-quadrant drive, Fig. 1 (b). Armature current is assumed continuous and ripple free. The
waveforms for the source voltage Vs, armature terminal voltage vt = vQ, armature current ia, dc
source current is and freewheeling-diode current ifd are sketched in Fig. 1(c). From these
waveforms, the following relations can be obtained:
Average motor voltage,
V0 = Vt = Vs = f.Ton. Vs
Where,
= duty cycle = Ton/T &,
f = chopping frequency = 1/T
Power delivered to motor = (Average motor voltage) (average motor current) = Vt.Ia = .Vs.Ia

Average source current = ( Ton / T ) Ia = .Ia

Input power to chopper = (average input voltage) (average source current) = Vs..Ia
For the motor armature circuit , Vt = .Vs = Ea + Ia (ra + rs) = Km.m + Ia (ra + rs)
or,

m = [ .Vs - Ia (ra + rs) ] / Km

It is seen that by varying the duty cycle of the chopper, armature terminal voltage can be
controlled and thus speed of the dc motor can be regulated.
So far, armature current ia has been assumed ripple free and accordingly, waveforms in Fig
1(c) are sketched. Actually, the motor armature current will rise during chopper on period and fall
during off period as shown in Fig. 2. By referring to this chopper, armature current ia(t) during on
period, is given by
Ia(t) = [Vs - Ea (1- e -Rt / L)] R + Imn. E -Rt / L
The armature current during the off-period is given by
Ia(t) = [ - Ea (1- e-Rt/L)] R + Imn.e -Rt / L
Here,
R = ra + rs & L = La + Ls
Under Steady State Operating Conditions,
Vt = .Vs = Ea + Ia.R

Figure 2

Figure 3

Regenerative-Braking Control
In regenerative-braking control, the motor acts as a generator and the kinetic energy of the
motor and connected load is returned to the supply.
During motoring mode, armature current, Ia = (Vt Ea)/ra, i.e. armature current is positive and the
motor consumes power. In case load drives the motor at a speed such that average value of motor
counter emf Ea ( = Km.m) exceeds Vt, Ia is reversed and power is delivered to the dc bus. The
motor is then working as a generator in the regenerative braking mode.
The principle of regenerative braking mode is explained with the help of Fig. 3, where a
separately-excited dc motor and a chopper are shown. For active loads, such as a train going down
the hill or a descending hoist, let it be assumed that motor counter emf Ea is more than the source
voltage Vs. When chopper CH is on, current through armature inductance La rises as the armature
terminals get short circuited through CH. Also, vt = 0 during Ton. When chopper is turned off, Ea
being more than source voltage Vs, diode D conducts and the energy stored in armature inductance
is transferred to the source. During Toff, vt = Vs. On the assumption of continuous and ripple free
armature current, the relevant voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 3 (b).
With respect to first quadrant operation as offered by motoring control of Fig. 3 (a),
regenerative braking control offers second quadrant operation as armature terminal voltage has the
same polarity but the direction of armature current is reversed, Figs. 3 (a) and (c). From the
waveforms of Fig. 3 (b), the following relations can be derived:

The average voltage across chopper (or armature terminals) is,

Vt = ( Toff / T).Vs = (1- ).Vs
Power generated by the motor = Vt Ia = (l - ).Vs.Ia
Motor emf generated, Ea = Km.m = Vt + Ia.ra
= (l - ).Vs + Ia.ra
Motor speed during regenerative braking, m = [ (1 ).Vs + Ia.ra ] / Km
With chopper on, La must store energy and current must rise, i.e. dia / dt must be positive
or ( Ea Ia.ra) 0
When chopper is off,

Ea - Ia . ra - La. ( dia / dt ) = Vs

Or
Vs ( Ea - Ia . ra ) = - La. ( dia / dt )
With chopper off, ( Ea - Ia . ra ) must be more than Vs for regeneration purposes and
therefore [Vs ( Ea - Ia . ra )] must be negative. This is possible only if current decreases during off
period, i.e., dia / dt in the above expression must be negative.
The conditions for the two voltages and their polarity for the regenerative braking control
of dc separately-excited motor is ,
0 ( Ea - Ia . ra ) Vs
Regenerative braking control is effective only when motor speed is less than mx and more
than mn. This can be expressed as,
mn < m < mx
(Ia . ra) / Km < m < (Vs + Ia . ra) / Km
DC series motors, however, offer unstable operating characteristics during regenerative braking.
As such, regenerative braking of chopper-controlled series motors is difficult.
Two-quadrant Chopper Drives
Motoring control circuit for the chopper drives offers only first-quadrant drive, because
armature voltage and armature current remains positive over the entire range of speed control. In
regenerative braking, second-quadrant drive is obtained as armature terminal voltage remains
positive but the direction of armature current is reversed. In the two-quadrant dc motor drive, both
motoring mode as well as regenerative braking mode are carried out by one chopper configuration.
One such circuit is shown in Fig. 4, which consists of two choppers CH1, CH2 and two diodes D1,
D2 and a separately motor.

Motoring Mode. When chopper CH1 is on, the supply voltage vs gets connected to
armature terminals and therefore armature current Ia rises. When Ch1 is turned off, Ia freewheels
through D1 and therefore Ia decays. This shows that with Ch1 and D1, motor control in first
Quadrant is obtained.
Regenerative Mode. When CH2 is turned on, the motor acts as a generator and the armature
current Ia, rises and therefore energy is stored in armature inductance La. When CH2 is turned off,
D2 gets turned on and therefore direction of Ia is reversed. Now the energy stored in La is returned
to dc source and second quadrant operation is obtained as shown in figure. In this figure, first
quadrant operation of dc motor is sometimes called forward-motoring mode and second-quadrant
operation as forward regenerative-braking mode.

Figure 4

Four-quadrant Chopper Drives

In four-quadrant dc chopper drives, a motor can be made to work in forward-motoring mode,

forward regenerative braking mode, reverse motoring mode and reverse regenerative-braking
mode. the circuit shown in figure, offers four-quadrant operation of a separately-excited dc motor.
This circuit consists of four choppers, four diodes and a separately-excited dc motor. Its operation
in the four quadrants can be explained as under:
Forward motoring mode. During this mode or first-quadrant operation, choppers CH2,
CH3 are kept off, CH4 is kept on whereas Ch1 is operated. When CH1, Ch4 are on, motor voltage
is positive and positive armature current rises. When CH1 is turned off, positive armature current
free-wheels and decreases as it flows through CH4, D2. In this manner, controlled motor operation
in first quadrant is obtained.

Forward regenerative-braking mode. A dc motor can work in the regenerative-braking

mode only if motor generated emf is made to exceed the dc source voltage. For obtaining this
mode, CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept off whereas Ch2 is operated. When Ch2 is turned on, negative
armature current rises through CH2, D4, Ea, La, ra. when Ch2 is turned off, diodes D1, D4 are
turned on and the motor acting as a generator returns energy to the dc source. This results in
forward regenerative-braking mode in the second-quadrant.
Reverse motoring mode. This operating mode is opposite to forward motoring mode.
Choppers CH1, CH4 are kept off, CH2 is kept on whereas CH3 is operated. When Ch3 and CH2
are on, armature gets connected to source voltage Vs so that both armature voltage Vt and armature
current Ia are negative. As armature current is reversed, motor torque is reversed and consequently
motoring mode in third quadrant is obtained. When Ch3 is turned off, negative armature current
freewheels through CH2, D4, Ea, La, ra; armature current decreases and thus speed control is
obtained in third quadrant. Note that during this mode, polarity of Ea must be opposite to that
shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5
Reverse regenerative-braking mode. As in forward braking mode, reverse regenerativebraking mode is feasible only if motor generated emf is made to exceed the dc source voltage. For
this operating mode, CH1, CH2 and CH3 are kept off whereas CH4 is operated. When CH4 is
turned on, positive armature current Ia rises through CH4, D2, La, Ea, ra. Note that in this mode
also, polarity of motor emf Ea must be opposite to that shown in figure. When CH4 is turned off,
diodes D2, D3 begin to conduct and motor acting as a generator energy to the dc source. This leads
to reverse regenerative-braking operation of the dc separately-excited motor in fourth quadrant.
note that in figure, the numbering of choppers is done to agree with the quadrants in which these
are operated. For example, CH1 is operated for first quadrant, , CH4 for fourth quadrant etc.

Conclusion: ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 8
Aim :- To study D.C. Motor drive using PLL.
Apparatus :- D.C. Motor, Phase Detector, Low Pass Filter, Converter, Speed Encoder
Theory :The degree of speed control required in industrial drives depends on the application. In some applications,
open-loop regulation of the drive motor may be adequate. In others, closed-loop feedback control is
required for precise speed control and fast response.
Conventionally, this is achieved by an analog servo feedback system in which any change in speed is
sensed by a tachometer and compared with a fixed reference voltage to generate an error signal. These
analog devices for speed sensing and comparing signals are not ideal and the speed regulation is more than
0.2%. With a proportional-integral controller, when a torque is applied or changed, there is a transient
speed dip. In addition, the steady-state speed is reached after a certain time interval. This type of operation
may not be satisfactory in certain drives where high quality products are desired.
These shortcomings of analog feedback control system can be overcome by using a digital phase-locked
loop control system. In a PLL control system, the motor speed is converted to a digital pulse train, which
is synchronized with a reference digital pulse train. In this way, by locking onto a reference frequency
precise control of speed is achieved.

Figure 1 :- Block diagram of Motor speed control using PLL-technique

Figure 1 shows the block diagram of a converter-fed d.c. motor drive with phase-locked loop control and
the transfer function block diagram is shown in Figure 2. In this PLL system, speed encoder is used to
convert the motor speed to a digital pulse-train. The output of the encoder acts as the speed feedback signal
of frequency fo. The phase detector compares the reference pulse-train (or frequency). fr. with the feedback
frequency fo and provides a pulse-width modulated output voltage, Ee which is proportional to the
difference in phases and frequencies of the reference and feedback pulse trains. The phase detector (or
comparator) is available in integrated circuits. A low-pass loop filter converts pulse train, Ee to a
continuous d.c. Ievel Ec which varies the output of the power converter and, in tum, the motor speed.

Figure 2 :- Transfer function model of phase locked loop control system.

When the motor runs at the same speed as the reference pulse train, the two frequencies would be
synchronized (or locked) together with a phase difference. The output of the phase detector would be a
constant voltage proportional to the phase-difference and the steady-state motor speed would be
maintained at a fixed value irrespective of the load on the motor. Any disturbance contributing to the speed
change would result in a phase difference and the output of the phase detector would respond immediately
to vary the speed of the motor in such as direction and magnitude as to retain the locking of the reference
and feedback frequencies. The response of the phase detector is very fast.

As long as the two frequencies are locked, the speed regulation should ideally be zero. However, in
practice, the speed regulation is limited to 0.002% and this represents a significant improvement over the
analog speed control system.
PLL techniques have been used primarily in communication systems to synchronize signals. PLL are now
available as inexpensive digital integrated circuits. With the development of both integrated circuits and
solid-state power circuits, the use of PLL techniques in motor speed control has generated considerable
interest.

Conclusion :____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT 9
Aim:- To study solar and battery powered drives
Apparatus:-Solar panel, Battery, Chopper, Motor, Hard wire, Volt meter

Theory:

SOLAR PANELS BASED DRIVE

A solar cell convert sunlight into electricity. Single crystal, polycrystal and amorphous silicon cells
have been employed.
The mounting of solar cells in series and parallel combination is known as solar panel. Each
parallel branch is provided with a diode in order to avoid circulating currents. When a panel
consisting of cells in series is used to charge a battery, a diode is connected so that current never
flows from the battery to the solar cell.
The output of a solar panel depends on the isolation level and temperature.
The output P vs V curve is also shows in figure. At present solar cells have low efficiency. The
cost of solar panels is Rs 100 -150 per peak watt.

Voltage current characteristic of solar panels

EXAMPLE: - SOLAR POWERED PUMP DRIVES

Water pumps are two types: centrifugal and reciprocating. Their speed torque characteristics are
shows in figure. Centrifugal pump required only small torque to start whereas reciprocating
pump owing to station may require as much as three times at rated torque.

Here below in figure the solar pump drive employing the permanent magnet dc drive and its v/I
characteristics.

LOAD

SOLAR
-

MOTOR

A simple scheme of solar pump drive using a permanent magnet dc motor shows in figure. The
solar panel directly feeds the motor.one can connect the solar cell to form low voltage, high
current unit.
Noting that in a permanent magnet dc motor, the torque is directly proportional to armature
current and back emf proportional to speed torque characteristics
For different isolation level can be shows in figure.

Block diagram of solar pump drive

Solar
panel

Charge

Battery

Chopper

Motor

Pump

controller

BATTERY POWERD VEHICLE:Electrical vehicles are generally powered by lead acid batteries series and separately excited dc
motors, permeant magnet dc motor, brushless dc motor and induction motor have been used in
electric vehicles.

A permanent magnet dc motor drive for a battery powered vehicles is shown in figure.

The drive employed chopper control with regenerative braking facility. LF and CF filter is
employed to filter out chopper control with regenerative braking facility. LF and CF filter is
employed to filter out the harmonic generated by the chopper. MS is a manual switch RS is
reversing switch. Inductance L is provided to assist regeneration and keep the ripple in motor
current low.
MOTORING OPERATION:
For motoring operation, MS is kept closed. Transistor switch t is operated at a constant frequency
with variable on time to obtain variable dc voltage for starting and speed control. When T is on,
the current flows through the source, LF,MS,L,R,Armature,S, and T. When T is off. The armature
cuttent freewheels S,D1,MS,L and R.

REGENERATIVE BRAKING:For regenerative braking operation, MS is kept open and motor armature is reversed with the help
of the reversing switch RS making B positive with respect to A. When T is on, armature current
builds up through the path consisting of T,D2 and L. When T is off, the armature current flow
against the battery voltage through the path consisting of D1,LF ,battery ,D2 and L and energy
feedback is use to charge the battery.

Conclusion: ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Experiment 10
Aim: To study about traction drives.
Apparatus:
Theory:
Electric traction means a locomotion in which the driving force is obtained from electric motors.
There are many advantages of electric traction over forms of locomotion. If the electric energy
could be generated cheaply and initial cost, which is enormous, could be born, then this system
of locomotion would replace steam locomotion entirely for electrification.
Principle of Traction Drive: A traction motor is an electric motor used for propulsion of a
vehicle, such as an electric locomotive or electric roadway vehicle.
Ideal traction system:
The most important requirements of the driving equipment for traction service are follows:
1. Maximum tractive effort should be exerted at starting in order that a rapid acceleration
may be attained.
2. The equipment should be capable of overloads for short periods.
3. The wear caused on the track should be minimum.
4. The locomotive or train unit should be self contained and able to run on any route
5. Braking should be possible without excessive wear on brake shoes and if possible the
braking energy should be regenerated and returned to the supply.
Electric traction is one of the major utilizes of electricity at present. Day by day, the
transportation is changing over to electric traction, for obvious advantages.
Advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It is the cheapest method of all the other methods of traction.

Smooth and rapid acceleration and braking.
It is free from smoke and flue gases.
Maintenance and cost of electric traction is 50% less than that of Steam traction.
It can be stared without any loss of time whereas steam traction requires minimum 2
hours before a steam locomotive can be put into operation.

Disadvantages:
1. Higher initial expenditure is involved in electric traction.
2. Failure of supply is a problem to be faced in electric traction.
3. The electrically operated vehicles have to move only on electrified track.

4. When A.C. Energy is utilized for traction then precautions are to be taken to prevent the
distribution network to interfere with the adjacent telegraph and telephone lines.
5. For the achievement of electric braking and control, additional equipment is required. In
case if dc series motor the regenerative braking cannot be easily.

Traction motors are used in electrically powered rail vehicles such as electric multiple units and
other electric vehicles such as electric milk floats, elevators, conveyors, and trolleybuses, as well
as vehicles with electrical transmission systems such as diesel-electric, electric hybrid vehicles,
and battery electric vehicles.
DC motors with series field windings were the oldest type of traction motors. These provided a
speed-torque characteristic useful for propulsion, providing high torque at lower speeds for
acceleration of the vehicle, and declining torque as speed increased. To achieve better operating
conditions, AC railways were often supplied with current at a lower frequency than the
commercial supply used for general lighting and power.
Transportation Applications:

Road vehicles: Traditionally, road vehicles (cars, buses and trucks) have used diesel and
petrol engines with a mechanical or hydraulic transmission system. In the latter part of the
20th century, vehicles with electrical transmission system began to be developedone
advantage of using electric motors is that specific types can regenerate energyproviding
braking as well as increasing overall efficiency.
Railways: Traditionally, these were series-wound brushed DC motors, usually running on
approximately 600 volts. The availability of high-powered semiconductors has now made
practical the use of much simpler, higher-reliability AC induction motors known as
asynchronous traction motors.

Conclusion:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Input Voltage

500

-500
Supply Current

100
50
0
-50
-100

Gate 1

6
4
2
0

Gate 2

6
4
2
0

Output Voltage

400
200
0
-200

Output Current

100
50
0
-50

Time offset: 0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1

SUPPLY VOLTAGE

100
50
0
-50
-100

SUPPLY CURRENT

100
50
0
-50
-100

G1,G2

10
5
0
-5
-10

G3,G4

10
5
0
-5
-10

OUPUT VOLTAGE

100
50
0
-50
-100

OUTPUT CURRENT

100
50
0
-50
-100

Time offset: 0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.1