PHYSICS

Marcelo Alonso

Florida Institute of Technology

Edward J . Finn
Georgetown University

PEARSON
Prentice
Hall
Harlow, England " London " New York " Boston " San Francisco -Toronto
Sydney " Tokyo " Singapore " Hong Kong " Seoul " Taipei " New Delhi
Cape Town " Madrid " Mexico City " Amsterdam " Munich " Paris " Milan

Contents

Preface

3.8

Introduction

3.9

What is physics?
The relation of physics to other sciences
The experimental method

1
2
4

4 Curvilinear motion

57

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

57
58
60

1 The structure of matter

1.1
1 .2
1.3
1 .4
1.5
1.6
1.7

Introduction
Particles
Atoms
Molecules
Matter in bulk
Living systems
Interactions

2 Measurement and units

5
5
5
7
9
12
15
16

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Measurement
2.3 Fundamental quantities
2.4 Fundamental units
2.5 Derived units and dimensions

18
18
19
20
21
24

3 Rectilinear motion

29

3 .1
3 .2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3 .6

29
30
31
37
41

3.7

Mechanics
Frames of reference
Rectilinear motion : velocity
Rectilinear motion: acceleration
Some special motions
Free vertical motion under the
action of gravity
Vector representation ofvelocity
and acceleration in rectilinear
motion

44
47

4.5
4 .6

Composition of velocities and

accelerations
Relative motion

Introduction
Curvilinear motion : velocity
Curvilinear motion : acceleration
Tangential and normal
acceleration
Curvilinear motion with constant
acceleration
Relative translational motion :
the Galilean transformation

48
50

62
64
69

5 Circular motion

77

5.1
5.2
5.3

77
77

5.4
5.5
5.6

Introduction
Circular motion: angular velocity
Circular motion : angular
acceleration
Vector relations in circular motion
Relative rotational motion
Motion relative to the Earth

6 Force and momentum

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7

Introduction
The law of inertia
Mass
Linear momentum
Principle of conservation of
momentum
Newton's second and third laws
Relationship between force and
acceleration

81
82
85
87
93
93
95
96
99
100
106
108

viii

Contents

6.8
6.9

Units of force
Classical principle of relativity

110
112

7 Applications of the laws of

motion

120

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Motion under a constant force
7.3 Resultant force
7.4 Equilibrium of a particle
7.5 Frictional forces
7.6 Frictional forces in fluids
7.7 Systems with variable mass

120
120
121
125
127
130
133

8 Torque and angular momentum

141

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Curvilinear motion
8.3 Torque
8.4 Angular momentum
8.5 Central forces

141
141
145
146
148

9 Work and energy

157

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9

157
158
161
161
164
167
168
169

Introduction
Work
Power
Units of work and power
Kinetic energy
Units of energy
Work of a constant force
Potential energy
Relation between force and
potential energy
9.10 Conservation of energy of a
particle
9.11 Discussion of potential energy
curves
9.12 Non-conservative forces and
energy dissipation
10 Oscillatory motion
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

Introduction
Kinematics of simple harmonic
motion
Rotating vectors or phasors
Force and energy in simple
harmonic motion

171
174
177
184
190
190
191
192
194

10.5
10.6
10.7
10 .8
10 .9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10 .13
10.14

Basic equation of simple

harmonic motion
The simple pendulum
Superposition of two SHMs in
the same direction and frequency
Superposition of two SHMs with
the same direction but different
frequency
Superposition of two SHMs in
perpendicular directions
Coupled oscillators
Molecular vibrations
Anharmonic oscillations
Damped oscillations
Forced oscillations

196
197
200
203
205
208
210
212
213
216

11 Gravitational interaction

239

11 .1
11 .2
11 .3

Introduction
The law of gravitation
Newton's derivation of the law
of force
11 .4 Inertial and gravitational mass
11.5 Gravitational potential energy
11.6 Relation between energy and
orbital motion
11.7 Gravitational field
11 .8 Gravitational potential
11 .9 Gravitational field of a spherical
body
.10
11
The principle of equivalence
11 .11 Gravitation and molecular forces

239
241

12 Space exploration

286

12.1
12 .2
12 .3
12 .4

286
287
292
294

Introduction
Earth satellites
Voyage to the Moon
Exploration of the solar system

13 Systems of particles I : Linear and

angular momentum
13.1
13 .2
13 .3

Introduction
Motion of the center of mass of
an isolated system of particles
Motion of the center of mass of
a system of particles subject to
external forces

245
247
249
251
264
267
268
274
277

301
301
302
307

Contents

Reduced mass
Angular momentum of a system
of particles
13.6 Internal and orbital angular
momentum
13.7 Angular momentum of a rigid
body
13.8 Equation of motion for rotation
of a rigid body
13.9 Oscillatory motion ofa rigid body
13.10 Gyroscopic motion
13 .11 Equilibrium of a body

314

14 Systems of particles 11 : Energy

348

14.1
14.2

Introduction
Kinetic energy of a system of
particles
14.3 Conservation of energy of a
system of particles
14.4 Total energy of a system of
particles subject to external forces
14.5 Internal energy of a system of
particles
14.6 Kinetic energy of rotation of a
rigid body
14.7 Rotational energy of molecules
14.8 Binding energy of a system of
particles
14 .9 Collisions
14.10 Fluid motion
15 Gases

378

13.4
13 .5

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7

Introduction
Temperature
The ideal gas temperature
Temperature and molecular
energy
Internal energy of an ideal gas
Real gases
Polyatomic gases

317
320
321
328
331
334
339

Many particle systems : energy

balance
16.6 Special processes
16.7 Heat capacity
16.8 Reversible and irreversible
processes
16 .9 Entropy and heat
16.10 Efficiency of a thermal engine
operating in a Carnot cycle
16 .11 The law of entropy

406
410
412
416
418
422
426

17 Statistical mechanics

433

348

17 .1
17.2
17.3

433
434

348

17.4

349

17.5

352

17.6

353
354
357
358
360
367
378
379
381
384
386
390
394

16 Thermodynamics

400

16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4

400
401
401
405

Introduction
Internal energy and work
Many particle systems : work
Many particle systems : heat

16.5

ix

17 .7
17.8
17 .9

Introduction
Statistical equilibrium
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law
Statistical definition of
temperature
Energy and velocity distribution
of the molecules in an ideal gas
Experimental verification of the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
law
Thermal equilibrium
Entropy
Law of increase of entropy

436
441
446
449
450
453
454

18 Transport phenomena

462

18 .1
18 .2
18 .3
18 .4

462
462
465

18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8

Introduction
Molecular diffusion : Fick's law
Steady diffusion
Thermal conduction : Fourier's
law
Steady thermal conduction
Viscosity
Mean free path and collision
frequency
Molecular theory of transport
phenomena

469
470
472
475
477

19 The principle of relativity

483

19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4

483
484
487

Introduction
The velocity of light
The Lorentz transformation
Lorentz transformation of
velocities and accelerations

490

Contents

Consequences of the Lorentz

transformation
19.6 Special principle of relativity
19.7 Momentum
19.8 Force
19.9 Energy
19.10 The general theory of relativity

492
495
496
498
500
505

20 High energy processes

518

20.1 Introduction
20.2 Energy and momentum
20.3 Systems of particles
20.4 High energy collisions
20.5 Particle decay

518
519
522
525
529

21 Electric interaction

539

21 .1
21.2
21.3
21 .4
21 .5
21 .6
21 .7

Introduction
Electric charge
Coulomb's law
Units of charge
Electric field
Electric field of a point charge
The quantization of electric
charge
21 .8 Principle of conservation of
charge
21 .9 Electric potential
21 .10 Relation between electric
potential and electric field
21 .11 Electric potential ofa point charge
21 .12 Energy relations in an electric
field

539
541
542
543
545
548

22 Magnetic interaction

569

22.1
22.2

569

19.5

22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6
22.7

Introduction
Magnetic force on a moving
charge
Motion of a charged particle in
a uniform magnetic field
Motion of a charged particle in a
non-uniform magnetic field
Examples of motion of charged
particles in a magnetic field
Magnetic field of a moving
charge
Magnetic dipoles

552
555
555

23 Electric structure of matter

23 .1 Introduction
23 .2 Electrolysis
23.3 The nuclear model of the atom
23.4 Bohr's theory of the atom
23.5
momentum
Effect of a magnetic field on
.6
23
electronic motion
23 .7 Electron spin
23 .9 Spin-orbit interaction
23.9 Electron shells in atoms
23.10 Electrons in solids
23 .11 Conductors, semiconductors and
insulators

592
592
594
596

24 Electric currents

624

24 .1

Introduction

24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
24 .6
24 .7
24 .8

Electric current
Ohm's law
Conductivity
Electric power
Combination of resistors
Direct current circuits
Methods for calculating currents
in an electric network

624
625
625
627
628
632
634
636

part A: Electric currents and electric fields

556
558

Part B : Electric currents and magnetic fields

563

24.10

570
572
576
578
583
585

592

24.9

24 .11
24 .12
24.13
24.14

Magnetic force on an electric

current
Magnetic torque on an electric
current
Magnetic field produced by a
current
Magnetic field of a rectilinear
current
Magnetic field of a circular
current
Forces between electric currents

601
603
605
606
608
614
615

638
641
641
645
647
648
650
653

25 The electric field

661

25.1 Introduction
25 .2 Electromotive force
25 .3 Flux of the electric field

661
661
662

Contents

Gauss' law for the electric

field
25 .5 Properties of a conductor
placed in an electric field
25.6 Electric polarization of matter
25.7 The polarization vector
25.8 Electric displacement
25.9 Electric susceptibility and
permittivity
25.10 Electric capacitance: capacitors
25 .11 Energy of the electric field
25 .4

664
670
673
675
676
678
680
685

26 The magnetic field

690

26 .1
26 .2

690

26 .3
26 .4
26 .5
26 .6
26 .7
26 .8
26 .9

Introduction
Ampere's law for the magnetic
field
Magnetic flux
Magnetization of matter
The magnetization vector
The magnetizing field
Magnetic susceptibility and
permeability
Energy of the magnetic field
Summary of the laws for static
fields

690
696
697
699
704
706
708
711

27 The electromagnetic field

714

27 .1 Introduction
Part A: The laws of the electromagnetic field
27 .2 The Faraday-Henry law
27.3 Electromagnetic induction due
to the relative motion of a
conductor and a magnetic field
27.4 Electromagnetic induction and
the principle of relativity
27 .5 The principle of conservation of
electric charge
27 .6 The Ampere-Maxwell law
27 .7 Maxwell's equations
Part B : Application to electric circuits
27 .8 Self-induction
27.9 Free electrical oscillations
27.10 Forced electrical oscillations :
alternating current circuits

714
715
715
720
722

xi

27 .11 Energy of the electromagnetic

field
27.12 Coupled circuits

739
741

28 Wave motion

747

28 .1
28 .2
28 .3
28.4

747
748
749

28 .5
28 .6
28 .7
28 .8
28.9
28.10
28 .11
28 .12
28 .13
28 .14

Introduction
Waves
Description of wave motion
The general equation of wave
motion
Elastic waves
Pressure waves in a gas
Transverse waves on a string
Transverse elastic waves in a rod
Surface waves in a liquid
What propagates in wave motion?
Waves in two and three
dimensions
Spherical waves in a fluid
Group velocity
The Doppler effect

29 Electromagnetic waves
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
29.5
29 .6
29 .7
29 .8

Introduction
Plane electromagnetic waves
Energy and momentum of an
electromagnetic wave
Radiation from oscillatingdipoles
Radiation from an accelerated
charge
Propagation of electromagnetic
waves in matter; dispersion
The Doppler effect in
electromagnetic waves
The spectrum ofelectromagnetic
radiation

753
754
758
761
763
764
766
769
771
772
775
782
782
783
787
790
793
797
798
802

723
724
727
728
728
732

30 Interaction of electromagnetic radiation

with matter : photons
808

734

810

30 .1
30 .2
30 .3

Introduction
Emission of radiation by atoms,
molecules and nuclei
Absorption of electromagnetic
radiation by atoms, molecules
and nuclei

808
808

xii

Contents

Scattering of electromagnetic
waves by bound electrons
30.5 Scattering of electromagnetic
radiation by a free electron : the
Compton effect
30 .6 Photons
30.7 More about photons: the
photoelectric effect in metals

30 .4

811
813
816
820

31 Radiative transitions

824

31 .1
31 .2
31 .3

824
825

Introduction
Stationary states
Interaction of radiation with
matter
31.4 Atomic spectra
31.5 Molecular spectra
31 .6 Radiative transitions in solids
31 .7 Spontaneous and stimulated
radiative transitions
31 .8 Masers and lasers
31 .9 Blackbody radiation

829
831
835
838

32.4
32 .5
32 .6
32 .7
32 .8

Introduction
Rays and wave surfaces
Reflection and refraction of plane
waves
Reflection and refraction of
spherical waves
Reflection and transmission of
transverse waves on a string
Reflection and refraction of
electromagnetic waves
Propagation of electromagnetic
waves in an anisotropic medium
Reflection and refraction at
metallic surfaces

34 Interference
34 .1
34.2
34 .3
34 .4
34 .5
34 .6
34.7
34.8

Introduction
Interference of waves produced
by two synchronous sources
Interference from several
synchronous sources
Standing waves in one dimension
Standing electromagnetic waves
Standing waves in two dimensions
Standing waves in three
dimensions ; resonant cavities
Waveguides

898
900
908
908
909
914
919
924
926
929
930
936

35.1
35 .2
35 .3

936
937

858

Introduction
Huygens' principle
Fraunhofer diffraction by a
rectangular slit
35 .4 Fraunhofer diffraction by a
circular aperture
35 .5 Fraunhofer diffraction by two
equal parallel slits
35.6 Diffraction gratings
35 .7 X-ray scattering by crystals

861

36 Quantum mechanics: fundamentals

955

36 .1
36 .2
36 .3

955
956

841
843
848

856
857

863
865
867

36.4
36 .5

872

33 Wave geometry

875

33 .1
33 .2
33.3
33 .4
33 .5
33 .6

875
876
882
885
891
897

Introduction
Reflection at a spherical surface
Refraction at a spherical surface
Lenses
Optical instruments
The prism

Dispersion
Chromatic aberration

35 Diffraction

32 Reflection, refraction and polarization 856

32.1
32.2
32.3

33.7
33.8

36 .6
36.7
36 .8
36 .9

Introduction
Particles and fields
Scattering of particles by
crystals
Particles and wave packets
Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle for position and
momentum
Illustrations of Heisenberg's
principle
The uncertainty relation for time
and energy
Stationary states and the matter
field
Wave function and probability
density

939
942
944
945
948

957
960
961
963
967
968
971

Contents

37 Quantum mechanics : applications

977

41 The ultimate structure of matter

977
978
979
980
981
985
988
991
993

41 .1
41 .2
41 .3
41 .4
41 .5
41 .6
41 .7
41 .8
41 .9

38 Atoms, molecules and solids

999

Notes

Introduction
Angular wavefunction under a
central force
38.3 Atoms with one electron
38.4 Atoms with two electrons
38.5 Atoms with many electrons
38.6 Diatomic molecules
38.7 Linear molecules
38.8 The geometry of molecules
38.9 Structure of solids
38 .10 Electrons in metals

999
999
1002
1006
1009
1012
1015
1017
1020
1023

39 Nuclear structure

1027

37.1
37.2
37.3
37.4
37.5
37.6
37.7
37.8
37 .9

Introduction
Schrodinger's equation
Free particle
Potential wall
Potential box
Potential well
Particles in a general potential
The simple harmonic oscillator
Potential barrier penetration

38 .1
38.2

39.1
39.2
39.3
39.4
39.5
39.6
39.7
39.8
39.9

Introduction
The nucleus
Properties of the nucleus
Nuclear binding energy
Nuclear forces
The deuteron
Neutron-proton scattering
The shell model
Nuclear radiative transitions

1027
1027
1028
1030
1031

1034
1035
1036
1038

40 Nuclear processes

1042

Introduction
Radioactive decay,
40.3 a-decay
40.4 /1-decay
40.5 Nuclear reactions
40.6 Nuclear fission
40.7 Fission chain reactions
40.8 Nuclear fusion

1042
1042
1045

40.1
40.2

1048

1052
1054
1056
1059

Introduction
The `fundamental' particles
Particles and antiparticles
Particle instability
The conservation laws
Symmetry and interactions
Resonances
The standard model
The evolution of the universe

Historical basis for the

fundamental units
2.2 Space, time and matter
3.1 The age of the universe
5 .1 Radial and transverse velocity in
plane curvilinear motion
6.1 The forces we know
8.1 Scattering of a particle by a
central repulsive inverse square
force
9.1 Relation between force, torque
and potential energy in plane
curvilinear motion
9.2 Energy in plane curvilinear
motion
10.1 Impedance of an oscillator
10.2 Fourier analysis of periodic
motion
10.3 Representation of oscillatory
motion in phase space
10.4 Non-linear oscillations and
dynamical chaos
11.1 General motion under
gravitational attraction
.2
Gravitational energy of a
11
spherical body
11 .3 Critical density of the universe
11.4 Gravitation and the large-scale
structure of the universe
11.5 Gravitation and dynamical
chaos
13.1 Discussion of the interaction
between two systems of particles
13.2 Precession of a gyroscope
2.1

xiii
1070

1070

1071
1073
1077

1080

1081
1085
1087
1091

23
26
52
80
114
153
173
182
221
224
226
230
259
261
262
278
280

313

336

xiv

14.1
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
18.1
18.2
19.1
19.2
19.3
20 .1
20 .2
21 .1
22.1
23 .1
23.2
24.1
24 .2
24 .3

24 .4
25 .1
25 .2
26 .1
26 .2
26 .3

Contents

Invariance, symmetry and the

372
conservation laws
Probability of a partition in
439
Maxwell -Boltzmann statistics
Heat capacity of a crystalline
solid
445
Statistical analysis of work and
452
heat
Systems far from equilibrium
458
Relation between mean free path
475
and molecular dimensions
Convective and turbulent
transport
479
Analysis of the
485
Michelson-Morley experiment
Relativistic momentum
498
Estimation ofgeneral relativistic
effects
509
Lorentz transformation of
energy and momentum
520
Experimental techniques for
producing high energy particles
533
Analysis ofthe Millikan oil-drop
experiment
554
Van Allen radiation belts
588
Justification of relation
LZ 602
= l(1 + 1)h2
Origin of the spin-orbit
interaction
607
Calculation of the electric
conductivity
632
Electric currents in gases
639
Relation between the magnetic
field of a current and the
magnetic field of a moving
charge
648
Note on electromagnetic units
654
Charge and discharge of a
capacitor
683
Relation between the electric
field and the energy of the field
687
Magnetic confinement of a
plasma
695
Magnetization of diamagnetic
and paramagnetic substances
703
Energy of the magnetic field of
a slowly moving charge
710

27.1
27.2
28 .1
29 .1
30 .1
30 .2
31 .1
31 .2
33 .1
33.2
33.3
34 .1
35 .1
37 .1
40 .1
40 .2
40.3
40.4
41 .1
41 .2
41 .3
41 .4

The betatron
Application of the method of
rotating vectors to a.c. electric
circuits
Acoustics
Comparison of electric and
magnetic dipole radiation
Collisions involving a zero mass
particle
Experimental verification of
Einstein's equation
Tuning of a laser
Analysis of spontaneous and
stimulated transitions
New telescope technologies
The Hubble Space Telescope
(HST)
Non-imaging optics
Hertz's experiment
Holography
Energy states in a potential well
Discovery of the neutron
Nuclear fission reactors
Nuclear fusion reactors
The formation of the elements
The antiproton experiment
Parity violations in /3-decay
Experimental evidence of the
internal structure of protons
The cosmological fate

Appendices

A: Vectors
A.1 Concept of direction
A.2 Scalars and vectors
A.3 Addition and subtraction of
vectors
A.4 Components of a vector
A.5 Addition of several vectors
A.6 The scalar product
A.7 The vector product
A.8 Vector representation of an area
A.9 Gradient of a scalar function
A.10 The line integral of a vector :
Circulation
A.11 The surface integral of a vector :
Flux

719
737
778
792
816
821
847
851
895
902
904
925
952
987
1053
1057
1061
1062
1076
1084
1089
1093
1097
1097
1097
1098
1100
1101
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1105

Contents

B : Mathematical relations

B.1
B.2
B.3
B.4
B.5
B .6

Trigonometric functions
Logarithms
Power expansions
Plane and solid angles
Basic derivatives and integrals
Special integrals

1106
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1110

xv

B.7 Average value of a function

B.8 Conic sections
C : Calculation of the moment of inertia

1110
1111

Answers to selected problems

1114

Index

1124

1112