Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
Dynamics is a key foundation of control
K. J. strm
1. Introduction
Mathematical foundations
3. State models
Differential equations
Laplace transforms and complex numbers
Linear algebra and matrices
State Models
Standard representations:
dx
= f ( x , u)
dt
y = g( x, u)
d( x x0 )
= A( x x0 ) + B (u u0 )
dt
y y0 = C( x x0 ) + D (u u0 )
Associated concepts
The Concepts
Algebraic Criteria
The system
dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx
dx
= Ax + Bu,
dt
is controllable if the matrix
y = Cx
Wc = ( B AB A2 B . . . An1 B )
CA2
Wo =
.
..
Observability: Can the state x be determined from observations of the output y over some time interval.
CAn1
Input-Output Models
dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx + Du
b1 s
+ b2 s
+ . . . + bns
n
n
1
s + b1 s
+ . . . + an s
n1
n2
Associated concepts
Frequency response G (i )
Bode plots and Nyquist curves
Poles, zeros and gain
e A( t s) Bu( s) ds
Z t
e A( t s) Bu( s) ds + Du( t)
y( t) = Ce At x(0) + C
x( t) = e At x(0) +
Coordinate Changes
Diagonal Form
1
1
0
2
2
dz
=
z
+
u
.
.
.
.
dt
.
.
0
n
n
y = 1 2 . . . n z + Du
z = Tx
x = T 1 z
dz
+
= Az
dt
+
y = Cz
Bu
Du
Transformed system has the same form but the matrices are
different
=D
A = T AT 1,
B = T B ,
C = CT 1 ,
D
Transfer function
G ( s) =
n
X
i i
+D
s i
i=1
and
(s) = C (sI A
)1 B = CT 1 (sI T AT 1)1 T B = C(sI A)1 B = G (s)
G
a1
1
a2
dz
..
.
dt
an1 0
an
0
y = 1 0 0...
a1 a2 . . . an1 an
1
1
0
0
0
0
dz
0
1
0
0
0
=
z
+
u
dt
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
0
1
0
0
y = b1 b2 . . . bn1 bn z + Du
0
1
0
0
...
0
b1
0
b2
..
z
+
bn1
0
bn
0 z + Du
Transfer function
Transfer function
b1 sn1 + b2 sn2 + . . . + bn
G ( s) = n
+D
s + a1 s n 1 + a2 s n 2 + . . . + a n
b1 sn1 + b2 sn2 + . . . + bn
G ( s) = n
+D
s + a1 s n 1 + a2 s n 2 + . . . + a n
Kalmans Decomposition
Partitioning of state space
Sco controllable and
observable
Sc o controllable not
observable
Soc
Soc
Soc-
-Soc
Transient response
State-space model
Zero/pole/gain model
Transfer function model
Set/modify properties
Help for LTI properties
Help on LTI models
step
impulse
lsim
gensig
stepfun
Transforming systems
ss - Conversion to state space
zpk - Conversion to zero/pole/gain
tf - Conversion to transfer function
Step response
Impulse response
Simulates an LTI system with given input
Generate input signal for LSIM.
Generate unit-step input.
Frequency response
Investigating an LTI
ltiview
bode
nyquist
margin
freqresp
evalfr
Bode plot
Nyquist plot
Gain and phase margins.
Frequency response over a frequency grid
Evaluate frequency response at a frequency
4
Examples
Examples
ICTools
Commentary on Computations
ICTools is developed by Mikael Johansson and Magnus Gfvert, who are Ph.D. students at the
Department of Automatic Control, Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden.
Input-Output Models
Strong simplification for linear time invariant systems with zero initial
conditions!
Z t
At
y(t) = Ce x(0) + C
eA(ts) Bu(s)ds + Du(t)
0
Y ( s)
b1 sn1 + b2 sn2 + . . . + bn
= G ( s) = n
U ( s)
s + a1 s n 1 + a2 s n 2 + . . . + a n
It follows that
(sn+a1 sn1+a2 sn2+. . .+an) Y (s) = (b1 sn1+b2 sn2+. . .+bn) U (s)
Conversion to time domain gives
dn y
d n1 y
d n1 u
+
a
+
.
.
.
+
a
y
=
b
+ . . . + bnu
1
n
1
dtn
dtn1
dtn1
Frequency Response
dx
= Ax + Bu
dt
y = Cx
G ( s) =
sn
bn
an
b1 sn1 + b2 sn2 + . . . + bn
B ( s)
B ( s)
=
=
+ a1 sn1 + a2 sn2 + . . . + an
A( s)
det( sI A)
Graphical Representations
Output y
0.25
0.2
0.15
Bode plot
0.1
0.05
Nyquist plot
Gain
10
0.05
0.1
Im G(i )
10
10
15
3
10
Ultimate point
Input u
10
0.5
Re G(i )
10
2
10
10
10
w
10
10
Phase
50
0
0
50
0.5
100
150
10
15
10
10
w
10
10
10
d log h G (i )h
,
2
d log
Minimum phase i.e. time delays and poles and zeros in the
right half plane imply serious limitations! Try to redesign
the system!
d log h G (i )h
,
2
d log
gc
z
A time delay T
0.5
for Ms , Mt < 2
0.2
gcT
A RHP pole p
gc
p
0.7
for Ms , Mt < 2
0.37
V2
dV y
d2
=
m
gQ
sin
+
m
Q
cos
cos
dt2
r
dt
V2
dV y
d2
=
m
gQ
sin
+
m
Q
+
cos
cos
dt2
r
dt
+
=
+
+
dt2
J
bJ dt
bJ
J
bJ
V0 dt
The transfer function of the system is
V0
amQ V0 s + a
P ( s) =
bJ s2 mgQ
J
z
V0 J
V0 Jcm + mQ2
=
=
p
a mgQ
a mgQ
The system has an uncontrollable unstable pole if the ratio is
one. The system is difficult to control robustly if the ratio is in
the range of 0.25 to 4.
To make the ratio achieve large values quickly can
Make a small by leaning forward
Make V0 large by biking fast (takes guts)
Summary
Dynamics is a very rich field that is fundamental for
automatic control
An essential part of the language of control with many
useful concepts and tools
Useful to have different views
State models and matrices very useful for designing
control systems (state feedback and observers) and for
effective computation
Transfer functions very useful for simple control designs
and for evaluation of control performance. Also very
useful to describe time delays and distributed parameter systems (PDEs) and to express model uncertainty.