Waterproofing & Its Critical Role In Construction Industry

Dr. Surendra P.
Ltd.,Bangalore

Bhatnagar,

Chairman

&

Managing

DirectorTech-Dry

(India)

Pvt.

The reform process received a boost in the year 1991, when government initiated the economic
reforms programme to bring about fast and substantial economic growth. Since 1991, India is going
through an exciting phase of the reform process and has opened up its economy. India has already
globalised
its
economy
by
relaxing
several
economic
policies.
As expected the construction industry is on the forefront of our economic development but
unfortunately the technocrats involved in this industry are yet to understand the importance of
waterproofing and they have to be prepared for a change and adopt modern technologies.
In the recent past, everybody is talking about green concrete and arresting of global heating. Even
during the Indo-American Nuclear deal global heating and environment were important factors.
We entered this field in 1992 and set our companys mission as Our Companys Mission

Saving our Environment

Saving Energy
Safety and durability of the buildings

We operate through chain of network within the concept of our company Smaller companies win
through co-operative, without loosing their independence, the market position of todays large
multinationals.
Thomas J. Peters, Management Consultants
We have spent several years in convincing the industry and the experts in this field that waterproofing
is critical not only for durability and safety of the structure, but also equally important for sustainable,
environment and friendly, energy saving technique. We faced lot of resistance because it is nature of
human being to resist change, which is important fact of life. According to Harold Wilson He who
rejects change is the architect of decay. The only human institution which rejects progress is the
cemetery.
We are happy to note that the experts in this field are slowly shifting towards green concrete concept
and are accepting newer technologies. At the time when we entered this field brickbat coba and
coatings like bitumen were in great demand, unfortunately even today there are several experts who
do want to stick to the materials like brickbat coba. Inspite of all these odds, we continue with our
efforts
to
introduce
products,
which
are
the
need
of
21stcentury.
Factors affecting deterioration of reinforced concrete structures as well as the mechanism of
deterioration are well-understood today. The deterioration in concrete is usually manifested in the
form of carbonation, corrosion of reinforcing steel, cracking, spalling, excessive deflection etc.

The effect of the environment on mineral building materials is a natural process, which has not
attracted significant scientific interest until recently. The initial work in Germany around 1900
investigated the weathering of natural stones. The problem, which has now attracted is the entry of
water containing dissolved toxic substances to the inner parts of the concrete by capillary action. This
statement may be extended to the entry of deteriorating agents as a gas or in solution.
Later a problem associated with modern concrete construction emerged-that of steel corrosion in
steel-reinforced
structures
causing
spalling.
We have been creating this awareness through our several articles and Newsletters because unless
this phenomenon of degeneration of reinforcement is not slowed or stopped, buildings will not be
durable and can lead to problems of safety. Infact depending on the chemistry of the environment the
malignancy can set-in as early as 3 months of the substrates exposure to the strong environment.
Steel Reinforcement Corrosion

The corrosion of steel reinforcement is by far the single most common cause of structural damage.
This situation is rather remarkable, given that steel reinforcement in concrete is well protected against
corrosion due to the highly alkaline environment generate from the hydration of cement.
The widespread deterioration of structures emphasizes the vulnerability of concrete protection, as
reinforced
or
prestressed
concrete
interacts
with
severe
service
environments.
The key environmental factors that reduce the passivation of steel, as discussed earlier, are
carbonation and chloride. Other factors which may influence either the initiation or rate of

reinforcement corrosion include cracks in concrete, temperature, moisture, oxygen and inadequate
concrete quality or cover.
Concrete as an Environment
The environment provided by good quality concrete to steel reinforcement is one of high alkalinity due
to the presence of the hydroxides of sodium, potassium and calcium produced during the hydration
reactions. The bulk of surrounding concrete acts as a physical barrier to many of the steels
aggressors. In such an environment steel is passive and any small breaks in its protective oxide film
are
soon
repaired.
If, however, the alkalinity of its surroundings are reduced, such as by neutralisation with atmospheric
carbon dioxide, or depassivating anions such as chloride are able to reach the steel then severe
corrosion of the reinforcement can occur. This in turn can result in to staining of the concrete by rust
and spalling of the cover due to the increase in volume associated with the conversion of iron-to-iron
oxide.
In fact, the expense incurred in North America as a result of corrosion-induced repair numbers in the
billions of dollars, without even considering the environmental toll of repeated construction and repair.
Corrosion inhibitors are one of the most cost effective solutions to this problem, but little independent
information
is
available
on
their
effectiveness
in
actual
use.
It is estimated that even in India approx. 50% of the expenditure in the construction industry are
spent on repair maintenance and remediation of existing structures. In future, these expenditures will
probably increase even more. A large portion of these expenditures are due to lacking durability of
concrete structures. This implies a need to make a design for durability, where the service life is
expressed explicitly. There is also a need to plan for and thus reduce the costs for further maintenance
and repair by making an appropriate durability design of the structure.
Process of Corrosion
Corrosion is a process, which at times is described as Electro-chemical process. It results in the
deterioration of the steel section available for load carrying in a reinforced concrete section. It is
dependent on the environment in which the steel exists the level of oxygen available for the corrosion
process,
presence
or absence
of
water or
moisture temperature,
exposure
level.

1.
2.

Fe+O+
2Fe

(HCO3)2 +

2CO2 +
O

H2O
=

2Fe

Fe

(OH)

CO3+

(HCO3)2
2CO2H2O

3. Fe (OH) CO3+ H2O =Fe (OH) 3 + CO2

Steel once corroded causes cracks on the surface of the concrete cover. Presence of corrosion activity
is not detected till such cracks become visible. These cracks then help in conduction of oxygen,
moisture which act as accelerators for corrosion. Corrosion also causes the effective steel cross section
to increase (swsll) initially. Such increase is followed by separation of outer laminate of steel and its
disintegration. However increase in cross section results in reduction of density. Scales occur which
normally start to fall off or separate from the steel core with time. Excessive uncontrolled corrosion
causes the entire steel section to disintegrate and crumble, total loss of section also results. Corrosion
is an irreversible process. Remedial measures cannot help restore the section. It only helps in delaying
the process.

Green Concrete
We often hear that India is going to become world power. It sounds musical to our ears but when you
see the state of our Infrastructures, it is disappointing. In this paper, we will deal with one important
aspect
and
that
is
the
construction
industry.
All of us know that India is now poised for growth and is going to be one of the fastest growing
industries and the real backbone of our economy.
Crystallization
What is crystallization product? With the modern penetrants, knowledge of emulsifiers, you can
develop modified silicates which in conjunction with calcium ions would form crystals which would
block the capillaries and pores and reduce the porosity to great extent.
Protekta Base
Protekta Base, viscous liquid consisting of silicates and special proprietary chemical penetrants, is
used as a penetrating sealer/surface hardener on concrete to improve its resistance to the ingress of
liquid water and contaminants.

Protekta Base reacts with free Calcium and water to form a non-water soluble Calcium Silicate Hydrate
gel complex in pore capillaries and cracks. This gel creates a sub-surface barrier. The crystalline
product penetrates and reacts with the concrete forming a sub-surface barrier, waterproofing pores,
capillaries
and
larger
cracks
against
the
ingress
of
water
and
contaminants.
The depth of penetration depends on the time and durability of curing to ensure that all the products
penetrates inside. We call it consolidation, porosity reduction and to some extent hydrophobic step,
but any claims that it can function alone are not in line with the chemistry.
Protekta Protex
Protekta Protex is a unique chemical treatment. Protekta Protex is supplied as 2 component powder
and liquid, which are mixed and the slurry is coated on the concrete surface. From Protekta Protex
special penetrants are released, which get impregnated into the concrete surface to provide crystalline
product.
Properties of Protekta Protex

Waterproofs
Increases Flexibility

Reduces shrinkage and Cracking

Can seal hairline cracks upto 0.4mm
Becomes an integral part of the substrate
Allows concrete to breath
Improves workability of concrete
Can withstand positive and negative hydrostatic pressure

Protekta Consolidant
Protekta Consolidant is a solvent-based product, which consolidates the building materials like
Concrete, Plaster of Paris, mortar, Masonry, stones, Marbles, granite etc. It enables to restore the
strength as well as the physical properties of the decayed stone layers to the level of the sound stone
that existed before degradation and without any harmful side effects.
Properties of Consolidant

Provides 9899% hydrophobicity

Enables to restore the strength as well as physical properties of decayed stone layers to the
level of sound stone that existed before degradation without side effects.
One of the finest consolidators, which binds the concrete or other substrates.
Repels water
It penetrates and works like binder in the concrete.
As this product does not attract any dirt, surface appearance is unchanged
We have also developed water based consolidant.

Impregnants
There are many advantages of the impregnation of concrete. Reduction of water penetration into
concrete through impregnation is significant since the contact angle of concrete capillary surfaces is
greatly
increased
by
hydrophobic
impregnant.
Impregnants can play a key role in not allowing these outside toxic and pollutant materials and avoid
initiate corrosion.Protekta G
Protekta G is the first water soluble silane, silanol, siliconate co-polymer which is sprayed on the
surface as two wet-to-wet applications and it penetrates into concrete or any other substrate to the
depth of 3-4 mm and shows strong repellency after 8-8 hrs.
Properties of Protekta G

Waterproofing of leaky concrete roof slabs

Waterproofing of earth, mud brick and cement block walls.
Waterproofing of external brick walls.
Waterproofing of A.C. sheet or tiled roof.
To provide damp-proof course in new buildings, in sandstone walls and pavings, in terracotta
and ceramic pavements
To prevent surface staining from waterborne pollution, algae, moss, mould etc
Since Protekta G is water based it is totally harmless.
Offers permanent waterproof protection
Easy to apply
Surface appearance is unchanged
Porosity and vapour permeability are unaffected
Can be painted after treatment
Protekta Micro Emulsion- Protekta Micro Emulsion is a water based thermodynamically
stable emulsion. It is stable at high pH and it is a neutral product. It is designed to be used for
reducing water absorption capacity of building materials and render the substrate water
repellent. This water repellent zone reduces not only the absorption of water but also
efflorescence or other water borne staining materials. Protekta Micro Emulsion is supplied as a
ready to use product.

Properties of Protekta Micro Emulsion

When Protekta Micro Emulsion is incorporated into low slump cementitious products such as imitation
stone blocks and pavers, the permeability to water and the occurrence of unsightly efflorescence is
dramatically reduced.

Reduces water absorption by about 95%

It forms hydrophobic zone inside the capillaries, pores and gets permanently bonded to
substrate and cannot be washed out
It can also be used as Stain free product.

Protekta Shower Plug

Protekta Showerplug is a unique, clear impregnant which soaks into tiles and grout, making them
waterproof within 4-6 hours

Properties of Protekta Shower Plug

Prevents mould, makes bathrooms/toilets easier to clean.
Will not discolor tiles or make them slippery
It will give beading effect within 4-6 hours.

Protekta Silane Cream

Protekta Silane Cream is an alkyltrialkoxy silane formulated as a water-based environment-friendly
non-drip, thixotropic cream. The low molecular weight, low volatility and cream consistency of
Protekta Silane Cream ensure deep penetration and high quality water repellency in even the most
dense concrete. Once the product has been applied to the concrete surface, it penetrates into the
substrate and polymerizes forming a permanent hydrophobic layer, which resists water, chloride ion
and other pollutants.
Properties of Protekta Silane Cream

Penetrates deeply into dense concrete.

Simplified application on overhead and vertical surfaces due to its thixotropic properties.
No pollution of waterways and atmosphere due to no run off and low evaporation.
Reacts chemically with the concrete to form a hydrophobic salt-resistant layers
Reduces water absorption over 9499% depending on the surface and the chloride ion
absorption rate is reduced by over 96-99% depending on the surface

Protektacrete SB
Protektacrete SB is a solvent-based silane/siloxane concentrated impregnant which can be diluted with
organic solvent like white spirit or toluene, and which has been formulated to impart excellent water
repellency to a wide variety of masonry building materials such as concrete, brick, blockwork, stone,
mortar, render, grout and absorbent tiles.
Properties of Protektacrete SB

Penetrate deeply into the masonry substrate water repellent.

Reduce water and chloride ion ingress by up to 95%.
Prevents deterioration of old buildings.

Protektacrete WB
ProtektacreteWB is a water-based silane/siloxane emulsion impregnant which has been formulated to
impart excellent water repellency to a wide variety of mineral building materials. The product is
designed to penetrate into the first few millimetres of the surface and render the substrate water
repellent. This water repellent zone dramatically reduces the absorption of water and water borne
salts, while still allowing the free passage of water vapour. Due to the water-based composition of
Protektacrete-WB, the release of hydrocarbon solvents is avoided.
Properties of Protektacrete WB

Penetrates deeply into masonry substrates

Excellent surface beading effect
Does not change the original surface appearance
UV and alkali resistant
Reduce water and chloride ion ingress by up to 95%
Forms water repellent layer within the surface

Protekta Stainfree
Protekta Stain Free is solvent-based (solvent used is turpentine oil) stain resistant sealer and is totally
hydrophobic. The substrate treated with Protekta Stain Free does not change the appearance of the
substrate. Protekta Stain Free impregnates into the substrate and is breathable sealer, which guards
against staining.
Properties of Protekta Stainfree

It is a stain free impregnant

It is recommended to be used as a stain resistant or water repellent sealer for natural
Reduction in Water absorption 98-99%
Restores strength and does not allow stains of wine and tea etc., to remain on the surface
Reduces moss and mould growth
Reduces Salt efflorescence
Reduces oil and food staining
Does not change the surface colour and texture

Anti-corrosion
Protekta Rust Guard
Protekta Rust Guard is based on polymer modified bitumen along with metal oxides like zinc, titanium,
calcium and copper salts.
Properties of Protekta Rust Guard

Protects the steel reinforcement of concrete from rust and corrosion.

Single pre-coating protection for severely corrosive environments (pH below 9).
Equivalent to embedded zinc anodic protection by single coating.
Protection of reinforcement from malignancy.

Protekta Silane Cream (see under impregnants)

Design Considerations for EcoRoof Waterproofing

Dr. C. S. Suryawanshi, Former Chief Engineer, (PWD) Mumbai.

Its a new world when it comes to commercial architecture and building construction. No longer is the
focus only on expert craftsmanship, innovative design and attention to detail. Rather, all eyes are
examining the process itself, the materials used, and most of all, the impact of construction on the
environment. And there has been a quite a crowd jumping on the green bandwagon.

contemporary approaches to green roof technology began in the urban areas of Germany over 40
years ago. Because of ongoing water quality degradation and a limited existing infrastructure for the
control of stormwater in these areas, few alternatives were available for improved stormwater
management designs. Environmental and economic considerations helped spur the development of
green roof systems that could provide the necessary stormwater treatment on-site. The paper
discusses various design aspects related to materials properties, environment and plant requirements

responsible for the waterproofing. The paper also out lines the various types of waterproofing systems
useful for the purpose.
Historical Records
A relatively new phenomenon, green roofs first were developed in Germany in the 1960s and today,
make up about 10 percent of all German roofs. The first green roofs in the United States made their
appearance several decades later, but interest and popularity continues to grow as developers,
building owners and government officials begin to see the environmental, economic, aesthetic, and
social
benefits
of
roof-top
vegetation.
From the ancient Hanging Gardens of Babylon to the modern aesthetics of Le Corbusiers New
Architecture, integrating nature into the urban fabric has always been a very desirable amenity for
people. The original inspiration for contemporary green roofs came from rugged Iceland, where sod
roofs and walls have been used for hundreds of years. The sod roofs soon became popular throughout
Scandinavia (Briggs, 2000). This Icelandic architectural style originated from a lack of natural
resources, so people had to make do with the local materials of sod and stone (Briggs 2000). Roofs
were usually made of turf, and the thick walls of the structures contained bottom layers of stone
followed by cut blocks of sod alternating with strips of thin turf. Whenever possible, driftwood was
included for timbers, as is the case in the church at Vidimyri, one of the six so-called sod churches
that are still standing in Iceland. Built in 1834, it has been preserved as a monument and still
functions as a parish church. Old timbers were always recycled whenever found in good condition.
Historically, engineered green roofs have originated in northern Europe, where sod roofs and walls
have been utilized as construction materials for hundreds of years.
Concept of Green Building

Now a day the focus the world over is on constructing Green Buildings, which address
environmentally sustainable issues in a holistic manner. In countries like the U.S the concept of green
buildings is highly evolved, whereas in Canada and Brazil green buildings are quite prevalent. The
concept
is
catching
up
even
in
China.
It was around 2000 that the concept started gaining momentum across the world. In India it was
going
on
in
bits
and
pieces.
Minimize urban sprawl and needless destruction of valuable land, habitat and green space, which
results from inefficient lowdensity development. Encourage higher density urban development, urban
re-development and urban renewal, and brown field development as a means to preserve valuable
green
space.

Preserve key environmental assets through careful examination of each site. Engage in a design and
construction process that minimizes site disturbance and which values, preserves and actually restores
or regenerates valuable habitat, green space and associated eco-systems that are vital to sustaining
life.
The ideal green project preserves and restores habitat that is vital for sustaining life and becomes a
net producer and exporter of resources, materials, energy and water rather than being a net
consumer.

A Green What?
Green roofs, sometimes also called vegetative roofs, are built on top of buildings and are generally
planted with vegetation that requires minimal maintenance and watering. As development replaces
land with buildings and parking lots, the amount of impervious surfaces grows. The idea of green roofs
is to replace the green space that was lost with the new construction. Green roofs are similar to
rooftop gardens except they are not maintained and they are neither ornamental nor recreational.
Green
roofs
are
practical
and
beneficial
to
the
building
and
surrounding
site.
Green roofs slow down and clean storm water runoff, which otherwise can exacerbate flooding and
increase erosion. Green roofs absorb storm water and release it slowly over several hours. They can
retain 60 to 100 percent of the storm water they receive. In addition, they last longer than standard
roofs because theyre protected from ultraviolet radiation and extreme temperature fluctuations.
Green roofs also provide insulation to the building. In winter the roof stays warmer than the ground,
thus warming the building, and in summer the plants cool the roof and divert heat from the building.
What is Green Roofing?
Simply put it is a green space on top of a building structure developed from soil and plantings. Unlike
a roof garden that utilizes plantings in containers scattered over the roof area, todays green roof
covers the waterproofing system entirely with soil and vegetation. Vegetated roofs, orgreen roofs as
they are frequently called, have been in existence for centuries. Sod roofs have kept many homes
warm in the winter and cool in the summer with their grass or plant layer placed atop of the sod base.
This natural, environmentally friendly roof provided the basis of construction for the green roof
assemblies used on commercial buildings and homes throughout the world today.
Composition of Green Roofs
Green roofs, also known as garden roofs and eco-roofs, are made from a layered structure of
components. Covering the roof deck is a waterproofing membrane, often composed of rubberized

asphalt, to guarantee a tight seal. The next layer is a protective root barrier, to prevent plant roots
from penetrating the roofing membrane. This layer varies in strength based on the landscape design
or selection of plants. On top of the root barrier is an insulation/air barrier, composed of extruded
polystyrene or other insulation material. Depending on the needs of the vegetation, the insulation
layer
may
be
topped
with
an
additional
moisture-holding
mat.
Next is the drainage/water storage and aeration layer. Using specially designed retention cups and
channels made of recycled polyethylene, the drainage layer allows for effective, controlled runoff of
excess water. A layer of filter fabric tops this, to filter soil fines and debris, allowing water to pass
through
to
the
drainage
and
aeration
layer.
The top layers are the soil layer and the vegetation. Lightweight engineered soil provides a stable
structure for the plants root system and supplies nutrients, water and oxygen while remaining as light
as
possible
to
prevent
excessive
loading
of
the
root
structure.
Depending on building conditions, climate and anticipated use of the roof, a wide variety of typical
landscape and garden plants are suitable. Plants with shallow root systems and resistance to direct
radiation, drought, frost and wind are wellsuited to all types of green roof landscaping; but even
perennial flowers, shrubs, small trees and sod grasses can be used for intensive roofing landscapes.

Green Roofs
The term green roof is generally used to represent an innovative yet established approach to urban
design that uses living materials to make the urban environment more livable, efficient, and
sustainable. Other common terms used to describe this approach are ecoroofs, and vegetated roofs.
Green Roof Technology (GRT) is the system that is used to implement green roofs on a building.
Green roofs are constructed using components that

Have the strength to bear the added weight;

Seal the roof against penetration by water, water vapor, and roots;
Retain enough moisture for the plants to survive periods of low precipitation, yet are capable
of draining excess moisture when required;
Provide soil-like substrate material to support the plants;
Maintain a sustainable plant cover, appropriate for the climatic region;
Offer a number of hydrologic, atmospheric, thermal and social benefits for the building, people
and the environment;
Protect the underlying components against ultraviolet and thermal degradation.

Types of Green Roofs

Green roofs are generally categorized as extensive or intensive. Extensive roofs are ideally suited for
locations that will receive little maintenance or where structural capacities of the roof are a concern.
Sedum, herbs, grasses and other vegetation that can withstand harsh conditions are recommended.
Intensive roofs use plants that require regular maintenance, such as watering, fertilizing and mowing.
These roofs must be structurally stronger, and often serve as pedestrian recreational areas. Several
other variations include the shallow-intensive garden roof, which combines a lightweight roof assembly
with slightly deeper soil to accommodate sod lawns and perennials, and sloped extensive applications,
which can be applied to sloped roofs with a pitch of up to 45 degrees.

Intensive green roofs generally require more effort for the tending of plants, whereas the term
extensive roofs call for a more passive approach. Intensive green roofs also emphasize the use of
space and therefore raise higher aesthetic expectations than more functional extensive green roofs.
Intensive green roofs generally need deeper substrate, more diverse plants including trees and
shrubs, and proper watering schedules. Thus they involve higher costs (Dunnett and Kingsbury 2004;
Peck et al. 1999). As in many design classifications, however, there are actually degrees of
intensiveness
in
the
approach
to
rooftop
greening.
In order for plants to grow on roof tops, natural environmental conditions have to be recreated. This
can easily be done by the installation of a series of functioning layers which, while retaining the
necessary water to support the plants, allow excess water to drain off and protect the roof surface
from plant roots and mechanical damage. A variety of systems are supplied by manufacturers which
provide
a
stable
roof-top
environment
for
plant
growth.
A typical system includes the following:

Vegetation layer: Low growing, stress tolerant alpine and herb species
Lightweight Soil: 50-100mm in depth
Filter Mat
Drainage Layer: Aggregate or plastic cups
Root Barrier
Waterproof Membrane

Waterproofing Aspects
There are so many myths about waterproofing. The people dealing with construction are normally
different from people using such facility or maintaining them. Either of them passes on the blame on
each other, and this ends in an unnecessary and expensive treatment to places, hardly susceptible to
leakage, while real culprit is somewhere else, and gets altogether neglected. This may be the result of

inadequacy of individuals knowledge of behavior of parent material so far its resistance to water
ingress is concerned and Porosity of building materials, especially that of concrete, and knowledge of
the waterproofing treatment adopted.
Water FlowDrainage

Roof drainage is an instructive example of water flow. If water is to drain from the surface, there must
be a high point and a low point. The rule for adequate drainage is that the fall (slope) must be at least
1 in 80 and that must be achieved. Creative pessimism dictates that the falls intended- i.e. shown on
drawings or specified will not necessarily be obtained. Using normal methods there is a level of
accuracy to which any part of a building can be built, so a further rule that has to be emerged. Double
the fall to be obtained i.e. an achieved fall of 1 in 80 is allowed for by specifying,fall of 1 in 40. It is
then for the contractor to take such precautions that will ensure that normal building accuracy (or
special building accuracy, if that has been specified) is reached.
Air Pressure, Gradients, Moisture, and Wind
As moisture vapor causes a partial pressure, known, as vapor pressure there will be a gradient across
a construction, whenever air on one side, contains more moisture than the other. The overall
steepness of that gradient will depend on the difference in the vapor pressure on each side of the
construction; the shape on the vapor-resisting properties of the materials that made up the
construction.
The action of the wind on the external surface of a construction, results in an air pressure. As such,
pressure inside is usually different. An air pressure gradient arises. A positive air pressure externally
assists in driving rain through gaps in the construction. Provision for pressure equalization to take
place is a form of balancing. Its achievement can help greatly, to reduce the risk of rainwater
penetration through constructions.
Garden Roof System (GRS)
Garden roof systems (GRS) are specialized roofing systems that support vegetation growth on
rooftops. GRS not only add aesthetic appeal to the unused roof space that is available in most urban
areas; they also provide multiple benefits in an urban context. From a buildings point of view, the
plants and soil protect the roofing membrane from exposure to ultra violet radiation, extreme
temperatures and physical damage, thus contributing positively to the roofs service life. GRS also
reduce energy demand on space conditioning, and hence greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, through
direct shading of the roof, evapotranspiration and improved insulation values. If widely adopted, GRSs
could reduce the urban heat island (an elevation of temperature relative to the surrounding rural or
natural areas due to the high concentration of heat absorbing dark surfaces such rooftops and
pavements) which would further lower energy consumption in the urban area. From a communitys
point of view, GRS can be used as a source control tool for the stormwater management strategy in
the urban area. Part of the rain is stored in the growing medium temporarily, and to be taken up by
the plants and returned to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration. This delays and reduces runoff
and takes a load off the citys storm sewage system. The plants can also remove airborne pollutants

and

improve

the

air

quality

in

the

urban

areas.

In addition to the roofing membranes, a GRS consists of several major components, namely, root
resistance layer, drainage layer, filter membrane, growing medium and vegetation. The components
act together to provide a suitable environment that supports plant growth while not compromising the
waterproofing function of the roofing membrane. GRS can be installed on both conventional and
protected
membrane
systems.
In the roofing industry, GRS is generally categorized into extensive and intensive by the weight of the
system. Extensive GRS is lightweight, consisting shallow growing medium with small plants (e.g.,
sedums, herbs and grasses). These systems require very low maintenance. Intensive GRS is
heavyweight and contains much garden soil. The greater soil depth allows growing of bigger plants
such as shrubs and trees.
Design Criteria of Roof
The main criteria for selection of waterproofing material and movement control in roofs are:
1. Integrity and durability of the weather proofing material and performance. Flat roof finishes
are the most vulnerable due to low movement tolerance.
2. Integrity of the roof structure.
3. Interaction with supporting or adjoining elements of frameworks.
4. Integrity of attached ceiling finishes if any and integrity of the supporting structures.
Failure Limits of Roof Structure
The failure limits of roof construction are therefore determined by the effect on the finishes or
weatherproofing membrane and secondly by any detrimental effect on the supporting or adjoining
structures
as
well
as
on
the
roof
structure
itself.
As in other elements, the amount of movement, which can be accommodated without damage or
failure, depends not only on the strength and durability of the affected components, but also on the
manner of their assembly. This can greatly affect the stress induced by movements and can reduce
the effect of movements being transmitted between layers, particularly of roof finishes.
Mechanical Properties of Waterproof Roof Covering
The resistance to movements of various types of roof coverings varies greatly depending on their form
material
and
assembly.
Pitched roof coverings being the overlap unit type can stand considerable movements without failure
or causing loss of weather tightness.
Flat Roofs:
Flat roof coverings on the other hand being continuous; rely on their complete integrity from cracks to
maintain weather resistance.
Effect of Layers
The mechanical strengths of the top (water excluding) layers of multi-layer coverings will depend on
the amount of stress transmitted by the base fabric and the strength of this in turn, in the case of
bituminous
impregnatedcoated
fabrics
is
the
strength
of
the
fabric
itself.

Most traditional roofing felts suffer from the weakening effects of repeated loadings. Sudden
movements are accommodated by elasticity and longer term movement cycles can also be
accommodated by a certain amount of viscous flow. The stresses in the top layer also depends on the
amount of stress relaxation which can take place between the layers in the time, i.e. the rate of
straining effect. It also depends on the distance from the substructure or cause of movement (see
Figure 5.1) and on the amount of slip due to partial bonding. Single layer roofing systems are
naturally less able to reduce strains than partially bonded layers.
Advice of Structural Engineer
A structural engineer should always be consulted prior to roof garden landscape design and
construction.
Rooftop structures must typically be able to support a dead load of 150psf to commodate the
construction of a garden. The roof must be completely covered by an elastomeric material and
protected
by
a
concrete
topping
slab.
It is recommended that a completely new waterproofing layer be added to the existing structure to
insure
the
longevity
and
integrity
of
the
waterproofing
system.
A waterproof topping coat of concrete should be used to protect the waterproofing.
Properties of Concrete
The ease with which a fluid can be flow through the matrix of a solid is believed to be the ermeability.
It is obvious that the size and continuity of pores in any porous material will determine its
permeability. Several theories attempt to relate the microstructural parameters of cement products
with either diffusivity (The rate of diffusion of ions through water filled pores) or permeability.
Compared to 30 to 40 percent capillary porosity of typical cement paste in hardened Concrete, the
volume of pores in most natural aggregate is usually 3 percent and rarely exceeds to percent. From
permeability date of some natural rocks it appears that the coefficient of permeability of aggregate
vary as that of hydrated cement paste of W/C ratios in the range of 0.38 to 0.71.
Permeability Aspect of Concrete
Permeability of concrete should not be confused with absorption. It is not a simple function of its
porosity but depends on the size, distribution, and continuity of pores. The volume of pore space, as
distinct from its Permeability, is measured by absorption and two quantities are not necessarily
related. Dense concrete is said to possess low permeability. Unfortunately, so far, it has not been
possible for concrete technologists, to set limits for permeability which could be subjected to practical
tests, and whatever tests are available, and those are of academic importance.
In practice, it is wrong notion to understand permeability and absorption in the same sense. In fact,
permeability of concrete is not a simple function of its porosity but varies with the size spread i.e.
distribution and continuity of the pores. The size of capillary pores ranges up to 1.3 nm and that of gel
pores is too smaller than that. The volume of pores space in concrete, as distinct from its permeability
is measured by absorption and these two quantities are not necessarily co-related. In body of
concrete, the capillary pore structure allows ingress of water. It is generally observed concrete gel has
porosity of the order of 28% but its permeability is about 7x109m/s. The permeability of cement paste
as a whole is 20-100 times greater than that of the gel itself. Most concrete Technologists believe
that, permeability although a complex property of concrete, depends largely on.

1. Quality of cement and aggregate.

2. Quality and quantity of cement paste in concrete (and quality of cement paste depends on
amount of cement, the W/C ratio of the mix and hydration of cement).
3. Bond developed between paste and aggregate.
4. Degree of compaction of concrete & standard of curing.
5. Presence or absence of cracks or characteristics of cracking behavior.
6. Characteristics of any admixture used in the mix.
Morphological Aspects of Concrete: From decades to gather compressive strength is reckoned as
most valuable Engineering property of concrete. The science of RCC and PCC totally devolves on this
one aspect only. The circumstances under differing environments recently recognized as harmful to
concrete surface have compelled the attention to other characteristics such as durability,
impermeability,
and
volume
stability.
The ability of concrete to oppose weathering actions, chemical attack, abrasion and other conditions
during its service life have come to be identified as Durability. Whereas capability of concrete
building products, components, assembly, or construction to perform the function/s intended in design
and construction is valued on its service ability, these definitions are broad enough to embrace all
practical aspects in general. However, strength parameter doesnt give true picture of quality of
concrete since it is directly related to structure of cement paste. Strength, durability, serviceability and
volume change of hardened cement paste that is important element in concrete appears to depend
not so much on chemical composition as on the physical structure of the products of hydration of
cement and on their relative volumetric proportions. In fact, it is the presence of flaws, discontinuities,
and pores, which are of significance and bear an impact on strength. Since present day knowledge of
field engineers in respect of this fundamental approach is inadequate, it is essential to relate strength
to assessable parameters of the structure of hydrated cement paste. It will be seen that the primary
factor in this is porosity i.e. the relative volume of pores or voids in the cement paste. Unfortunately
the porosity, of the hydrated cement paste and micro cracking are difficult to assess and quantify in a
manner, useful to the engineer to relate them to study the effects on strength factor. In fact, it is
cement paste, whose structure is complex, which consists of several sources of flaws and
discontinuities, despite proper compaction of concrete and even before the application of an external
load up to 50% of the volume of Cement paste may consist of pores. Again, presence of aggregates
either coarse or fine aggregates the position. The cracks from various sources, randomly distributed in
the matrix vary in size and orientation. Consequently concrete renders itself weaker than the cement
paste which it contains. The actual failure paths (when viewed under SE MICROSCOPE reveal) follow
the interfaces of the largest aggregate particles, cut through the cement paste and occasionally also
through
aggregate
particles.
Pore Size Distributions Throughout the hardened Cement paste there is a spread of whole range of
pore sizes i.e. larger capillary pores and smaller ones of gel pores. When only partly hydrated paste
contains interconnected system of capillary pores. Pastes that had been rapidly dried are noticed to be
closest in structure when compared to undried pastes. The sorption test results indicated that their
structures were dominated by platy particle of the formed shaped mesopores and micropores. Slow
drying produced small pores nearly cylindrical or spherical, has been established by various
researchers. To get even distribution of pores it is essential to have sufficient higher degree of
hydration of the capillary system to became segmented through partial blocking by newly developed
cement gel, so that capillary pores get interconnected by the much smaller gel pores. Table 1.0 shows
the min, period of curing required for capillary pores to become segmented. However, it is also
established that finer the cement shorter is the period of curing necessary to produce degree of
hydration at a given W/C ratio.
Moisture Movement & Creep

Materials exhibiting creep as well elastic characteristics are often grouped as visco-elastic. Most
building materials when subjected to sustained load undergo an instantaneous (elastic) deformation
followed by a time dependent deformation generally recognized as creep. Creep strain composes
delayed elastic strain (eventually recoverable on removal of load) and viscous strain, which remains as
a permanent one when load is removed. In porous materials capable of absorbing or giving off
moisture, the creep strains are linked in with moisture movement, which leads progressive shrinkage
or expansion depending upon the nature of material, its initial moisture content and external
environment. The theory of creep and shrinkage in concrete based on the migration of moisture from
the cement gel can be established by a simple phenomenon. When a concrete specimen is over dried,
it expands, when exposed to the normal environment of say 60% humidity. The gel is so thirsty that it
eagerly takes up moisture from the hour and in doing so expands, this expansion takes place even
against a high compressive strain. In fact, all porous materials display above characteristics. In fact up
to a certain level creep in concrete is proportional to stress give rise to the concept of Specific Creep
i.e.
creep
strain
per
unit
stress.
This
can
be
arrived
at
from
the
relation.
Specific creep c=t/(a + bt). Where, t=timing from loading, a,b=Constants determined by
experiment
There are several important design and structural differences between ground level landscape
development and rooftop developments. The following are the special construction requirements and
considerations when developing a roof garden. Protection of the integrity of the roof and structure.
Protection of the Roof and Structure
The single most important element in rooftop garden construction is protecting the integrity of the
roof and the structural components under the garden. For this reason there must be waterproofing of
exceptional longevity to prevent damage and to reduce the possibility of long term expensive
reconstruction. For this reason it is recommended a completely new waterproofing layer be added to
the existing structure to insure the longevity and integrity of the waterproofing system.
Load Bearing Capacity
The structural engineer should verify the maximum load bearing capacity of the existing structure.
These figures should be available from the records of the previous construction. Typically, a minimum
additional dead load limit of 150 psf between columns is needed to accommodate the construction of a
roof garden. Loads above columns and at the roofs edge can be considerably higher; however a
structural engineer should be consulted to establish the load bearing capacity of those areas.
These higher load bearing areas should be used to accommodate larger specimen plantings and trees.
Waterproofing

As mention before, a completely new waterproofing system should be installed to protect the
buildings structure. There are several types of waterproofing systems available; however, elastomeric
materials offer the greatest protection. Bituminous waterproofing should be avoided. Over time the
organic components in bituminous waterproofing interact with the soils and the plant materials and
therefore
increase
the
likelihood
of
system
failure.
A properly installed waterproofing system can last the lifetime of the building, however a single small
leak may require the removal of the entire garden to find and repair the damage. Therefore, in order
to insure the integrity of the waterproofing it is recommended that a protective topping coat of
concrete be applied, as soon as possible, following the installation of the new waterproofing.
Recent Development in Waterproofing Methods
Demands for reliable waterproofing as well assured moisture and vapor leakage proofing methods and
materials are being constantly felt. In many civil engineering constructions, traditional methods of
waterproofing have not been found satisfactory. Consequently, repairs and renewals have to be taken
up more often than they are required.
How Green Roofs Are Made
Green roofs are constructed in layers on top of the roof. The number of layers depends on the type
and root depth of the plants selected, the slope of the roof, and the materials used in the layers.
Layers can include, from the top down to the roof, the following: a filter fabric to hold the plants in
place, Innovative roof garden systems the growth media and the plants, a drainage Polygum roof
garden, root resistant membrane layer, a root barrier, an insulation layer, and a waterproofing layer.
Sometimes
more
than
one
function
is
combined
in
a
single
layer.
The filter fabric holds the soil in place and prevents small soil particles from entering and clogging the
drainage layer underneath. Generally, growth media is a mix of about twothirds inorganic material
(such as expanded slate or crushed clay) and one-third organic material (humus and topsoil).
This

mixture

provides

essential

drainage,

soil

air

capacity,

and

organic

nutrients.

The drainage layer carries away excess water and makes an extremely stable and pressureresistant
sub-base. A root barrier prevents deep roots (in the case of trees, for example) from damaging the
roof. The insulation layer is optional and prevents water stored in the green roof system from
extracting heat in the winter or cool air in the summer. The waterproofing layer is critical and ensures
that water doesnt seep into the roof.
System of Waterproofing
Waterproofing systems have been grouped into five types according to type of construction and
characteristics of material of waterproofing. However following are widely favored.
a)

Protective

b)

coatingsRecently
Waterproofing

Developed
by

Systems
injections.

The injection system of waterproofing by chemical grout has been found to be successful in stopping
leakages completely even at a number of underground projects.
Recent Advancement

Polymer technology and its applications in waterproofing field are the modern techniques of
waterproofing using newly developed products. Benefits derived from the use of polymer in concrete
for waterproofing are multifold particularly with regard to its efficiency and reliability. New generation
has successfully used it for stopping leakages in building constructions, tunnels; power houses
underwater structures, dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, etc.
Classification of Water proofing Method/ Systems
The waterproofing Methods/ systems can conveniently be classified according to five major
characteristics of Building materials, to oppose or resist the ingress of moisture.
Hydrolithic Water-proofing

Hydrolithic action mostly uses water as a base media and provides protective coating over the porous
surface. Dampness and efflorescence, which cause formation of powdery white deposits on the surface
of brick walls and masonry constructions, are common problems in most of the buildings. The likely
damages are mainly due to ingress of water into masonry. Protective surface coatings; used mainly
for getting a better surface finish and appearance of the structure, also offer resistance to moisture
ingress.
Various coating materials such as epoxies polyurethanes chlorinated rubber acrylates etc. are
available. They form a film to oppose entry of water. Some coatings give good film but have little
penetration with the result in the long run they loose adhesion with concrete.
Certain coatings are vapor permeable, which allow passage to gases and vapors but exclude passage
of liquids, vapor, barrier. Coatings block passage of both vapors and liquids and are suitable for
underground
or
water
logged
structures
also.
Plastic emulsions are particularly water-soluble. Epoxy emulsions, Acrylates, Silicones etc, have been
used to stop the efflorescence and dampness. A few paints based on acrylic emulsion show better
results but have failed to arrest efflorescence completely though epoxy emulsion as well as silicones
being low viscosity liquids was found useful because they could travel deep. Permeability of water
vapor by pressure is reduced completely by formation of insoluble mass or plastic membrane like film
into pores. Performance of these emulsions are superior and allow the concrete to breath, i.e. allow
entrapped water vapor to permeate out without allowing diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine
ion or rain water from outside. After the application of the protective coating, an additional coating of
polymer emulsion mixed cementitious mortar is preferable as it provides high impermeability.
Integral Waterproofing
Waterproofing by inclusion of integral waterproofing compound in concrete in one form or the other
has been widely carried out for many years since past and they are generally believed to have no

adverse effect on durability provided they dont contain chloride. Polymer based integral waterproofing
cement compounds give good performance, and provides high durability to concrete.
There are a number of integral waterproofing compounds and liquids conforming to the requirements
of Indian Standards Specifications I.S. 2645-1975 These products are of two types:
(i) Water repellant materials such as stearates or oleates, which through surface tension effects
discourage
the
penetration
of
dampness
into
and
through
concrete.
(ii) Fine particulate materials often used in conjunction with water reducers, which partially block and
reduce the size of the pores in concrete, and lower the permeability to water.
Neither type of materials make concrete truly waterproof. The former can be beneficial in discouraging
rising damp and rain penetration, but it has little effect against an applied head of water. In some
circumstances,
it
can
reduce
problems
of
efflorescence.
The latter can be effective in lowering the permeability of low quality concrete but is unlikely to cause
any significant improvement in that of better quality concrete (with a water/cement ratio less than
0.6) so called waterproof concrete, i.e. that containing a waterproofing admixture is not an acceptable
substitute
for
a
dampproof
membrane
for
slabson
ground.
New generation waterproofing techniques include polymer-based integral waterproofing cement
compounds. These products are water soluble and have been found to provide significant eduction in
the permeability of concrete due to more effective dispersion of cement particles in the mix and cause
substantially high reduction in water/cement ratio. Water permeability is reduced tremendously by
more than 85 percent.
Integral Waterproofers
Integral cement waterproofing compounds are generally mixed with cement at a prescribed dosage
rate. These are broadly classified into three groups; permeability reducers, water repellents or
hydrophobers and polymer modifier for cement. Fine particulate materials like round sand, whitening,
bentonite, flyash, colloidal silica and flurosilicates; salts of high sulphonic acids, detergents and
sulphonated carbohydrates are mostly used as permeability reducers and their major role is to reduce
the water cement ratio and hence the permeability of mortar or concrete. Another class of chloride
free integral waterproofers based on air entraining plasticizers, normal plasticizers, super plasticizers,
and retarding plasticizers are the most modern types to make the concrete waterproof. Such materials
are specially used for marine and super structures.

Water repellents or hydrophobers are generally soaps - water-soluble and sulphonium salts of fatty
acids, butyl stearate, and selected petroleum products like mineral oils, waxes, and emulsified
asphalts etc. The chemicals in such waterproofers form a thin hydrophobic layer within the network of
cement
mass
by
coating
the
cement
particles.

Polymer modifier used for cement is organic polymers dispersed in water. These are now extensively
used in the country these days as they impart better flexibility, reduce water permeability, increases
tensile strength and bonding behavior of cement particles and hence provide excellent waterproofing
properties. The materials used are discussed in detail later in the text.
Membrane Type of Waterproofing
It affords a highly impermeable layer for durable waterproofing and protection of roofs, terraces,
balconies, sun shades etc. against extreme weathering conditions, irregular temperature variations,
industrial pollution, rain etc. It may be, a modified polymer based durable and elastic coating in semipaste state, which forms a seamless, continuous watertight flexible membrane that makes the treated
surface
impermeable
to
water.
Failure Limits of Weatherproof Membrane and Base Fabric
Failure in the function of the weatherproof membrane can take in the following forms:

a) Failure to discharge rainwater by ponding

b) Local movement blistering ripples cockling
c) Slippage or creep.
d) Rupture: Local cracking or holes
e) Delamination or uplift
f) Puncturing.
g) Degradation of surface material.
(a) to (e) can be brought about or be aggravated by movements in the substrate or structure or in the
weatherproofing layer itself.
Sheeting MaterialsAs Roofing Membrane
Single ply roofing membrane is latest addition in the area of waterproofing. The recent advances in
polymer science have benefitted the roofing technology as it has resulted into the development of
number of new roofing materials during the last 20 years or so. [Flexible PVC membrane is most
popular in the thermoplastic category and EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomers) is the most
popular in the elastomeric category though polychloroprene, polyisobutylene and chlorosulphonated
polyethylene elastomeric membranes are also being manufactured and used; as detailed later]. Single
ply membrane can be used in loose laid (ballasted), adhered, or mechanically fastened systems with
insulation atop or beneath the sheet. When loosely laid the membrane remains unattached to the
substrate except at the perimeter of the roof and penetration such as vent pipes. Because it is free
floating, it can accommodate movement of the substrate and small amounts of entrapped moisture.
However, it should be weighted down with smooth river gravel, avers of concrete blocks to prevent
wind uplift. The ballast provides also additional protection against attack by wind uplift. Some obvious

limitations of this system are that it can only be used on flat roofs and only on buildings that can
structurally support the weight of ballast, otherwise sagging and ponding may occur.

The membrane may be attached with adhesive used alone or in combination with mechanical
fasteners. In these cases, ballast is not required. Fully adhered systems may be used to advantage for
covering sloped roofs. Preparation of the deck to ensure having a clean smooth, stable surface with
taped joints is essential to maintain good bond. Partial bonding with adhesives alone or in combination
with mechanical fasteners allows greater movement of membrane than a fully adhered system.
Depending on the type of membrane, joints are made between sheets by heat fusion, torching,
solvent
welding,
and
tacky
tapes
or
with
adhesives
The major advantages of such elastomeric membranes are.
1. These are lightweight; weight is about 1.2 kg/m2 as against 9 kg/ m2 for a built-up-roofing
membrane, or 4.5 kg/m2 for a single ply modified bitumen membrane, which makes them the
obvious and preferred choice for lightweight constructions.
2. Work with single ply roofing proceeds cleanly and quickly and large areas can be closed in
under wider range of climatic condition. Because the sheet is lightweight, it is often possible to
re-roof with minimum surface preparation and frequently without having to spend the extra
time and money for removal and disposal of the old roof. Also, this permits undisturbed
occupancy of the building reroofing.
3. The single-ply roofing provides the architect with new degrees of freedom in color and design.
4. The improved safety aspects of the single ply synthetic roofing systems are deserving of
mention in regard to both the installation crews and the structure. The potential for burns and
inhalation of hot bitumen fumes is eliminated. Fire hazards are also reduced.
Epoxy Based Coatings
One of the widely accepted polymeric materials by the construction industry is epoxy resin; as epoxy
based products provide solution to various construction problems in the form of coatings, sealants,
mortars, adhesives, injection grouts and so on. The increasing demand of epoxy based products;
(growth rate of more than 20. percent per annum) is mainly due to their good mechanical strength,
adhesion with different substrates and chemical resistance. Epoxy resins modified with other polymeric
systems such as polysulphides, phenolic etc. and coal tar have also been recently developed to meet
out
the
requirements
of
aggressive
and
industrial
environment.
Epoxy based coatings are mostly used as waterproofing, damp proofing and protective coatings for
internal applications. Water thinable epoxy coatings can be applied on wet surfaces for damp
proofing.
Epoxy grouts, though costly as compared to other polymeric grouting materials, have an edge over
other chemical grouts as these can restore structural integrity by bonding cracks together, even in the
presence of water and have superior chemical resistance. Effectiveness of chemical grouting is

increased manifold, if grouting is followed by the application of polymer liquid membrane compatible
with the grouting polymer.
Polyurethane Based Coatings
Polyurethane based coatings and compounds are the most versatile materials which have ttracted the
building industry because of their efficacy in solving the commonly faced problems related to the
ingress of water and protection of structures. Polyurethane based products are available either in the
form of one component or two component systems. Onecomponent systems are generally solvent
based while two component systems can either be solvent based or solvent free. Solvent based
polyurethanes are mostly used for waterproofing, dampproofing, flooring and anticorrosive coatings
while the applications of solvent free polyurethanes are as sealants, chemical grouts, insulation etc.
The superiority of polyurethanes over other liquid membranes are due to their high elasticity (can
accommodate expansion and contraction of substrate due to temperature variations), strong adhesion
to substrate, high abrasion and cracking resistance (film can withstand erosion due to rain and wind
as well as movement of people without wear and tear), higher resistance to biological defacement and
UV radiation. The occurrence of moisture curable polyurethanes is another significant addition in this
field.
Moisture curable polyurethanes are used for various applications such as adhesives, sealants, and
damp proofing of concrete structures. They provide durable and cost-effective solution for the
protection
of
structures
in
damp
conditions.
Keeping in view the properties of various coating systems, their applications have been broadly
summonsed in Table-1.
Sheeting Materials- SinglePly Synthetic Roofing Membranes
Single ply roofing membranes is another latest addition in the area of waterproofing. The recent
advances in polymer science have benefited the roofing technology as has resulted into the
development of number of new roofing materials during the last 20 years or so. Flexible PVC
membrane is most popular in the thermoplastic category and EPDM (ethylene propylene diene
monomers) is the most popular in the elastomeric category though polychloroprene, polyisobutylene,
and chlorosulphonated polyethylene elastomeric membranes are also being manufactured and used.
Single ply membrane can be used in loose laid (ballasted), adhered, or mechanically fastened systems
with insulation atop or beneath the sheet. When loosely laid, the membrane remains unattached to
the substrate except at the perimeter of the roof and penetration such as vent pipes. Because it is
free-floating, it can accommodate movement of the substrate and small amounts of entrapped
moisture. However, it should be weighted down with smooth river gravel, pavers or concrete blocks to
prevent wind uplift. The ballast also provides additional protection against attack by ultraviolet light
and may prevent tear propagation by wind uplift. Some obvious limitations of this system are that it
can only be used on flat roofs and only on buildings that can structurally support the weight of ballast,
otherwise
sagging
and
ponding
may
occur.
The membrane may be attached with adhesive used alone or in combination with mechanical
fasteners. In these cases, ballast layer is not required. Fully adhered systems may be used to
dvantage for covering sloped roofs. Preparation of the deck to ensure having a clean smooth, stable
surface with taped joints is essential to maintain good bond. Partial bonding with adhesives alone or in
combination with mechanical fasteners allows greater movement of the membrane than a fully
adhered
system.
Depending on the type of membrane, joints are made between sheets by heat fusion, torching,

solvent welding, and tacky tapes or with adhesives. The major advantages of such electrometric
membranes
are:
(i)These are lightweight, weight is about 1.2 kg/ m2 as against 9 kg/m2 for a built-up-roofing
membrane or 4.5 kg/m2 for a single ply modified bitumen membrane, which make them the obvious
and
preferred
choice
for
lightweight
constructions.
(ii) Work with single ply roofing proceeds cleanly and quickly and large areas can be closed in under
wider range of climatic condition. Because the sheet is lightweight, it is often possible to re-roof with
minimum surface preparation and frequently without having to spend the extra time and money for
removal and disposal of the old roof. In addition, this permits undisturbed occupancy of the building
during
re-roofing.
(iii)The single-ply roofing provides the architect with new degrees of freedom in color and design.
(iv)The improved safety aspects of the single ply synthetic roofing systems are deserving of mention
in
regard
to
both
the
installation
crews
and
the
structure.
The potential for burns and inhalation of hot bitumen fumes is eliminated. Fire hazards are reduced.
Conclusion
The waterproofing systems described above have been successfully adopted abroad and research on
improvement on the subject is in progress.
References

I.S. 33841965 Specification for bitumen primer for use in water proofing and damp
proofing.
I.S. 30671966 Code of practice for general design details and preparatory work for damp
proofing and waterproofing of building.
Albrecht Drr, Dachbegrnung: Ein kologischer Ausgleich translated: Green Roofs: An
Ecological Balance. (Bauverlag, GmbH, Wiesbaden and Berlin, Germany 1995)
Briggs, Greg S. Why Should You Care About Green Buildings? Skill Ward Magnusson
Barkshire, Inc. 15 Sept. 2000.
Canadas Office of Urban Agriculture. City Farmer Publication. Urban Agricultural Notes
Rooftop Gardens.
City of Olympia, Public Works Department, Water Resources Program, Impervious Surface
Reduction Study, Final Report, (May 1995).
Daniels, Elizabeth. Green Buildings Starts at the Top. Business & Industry Resource Venture
15 Sept. 2000.
Environment News Network (ENN). Chicago Hopes Rooftop Garden Cools Air. United Press
International. 17 May 2000. www.enn.com.
Green Groweth the Rooftops. Environment Dec 2000: vol 42, p. 7.
Knepper, Claire A. Gardens in the Sky. Journal of Property Management. Mar-Apr 2000, vol.
65.: 36-40.
Suryawanshi C.S (Dr), Water proofing of Civil Engineering Structures. Hand Book for
Practising Engineers 2001.

How Crucial Waterproofing of Concrete Structure Is?

Dr. Surendra P. Bhatnagar, Chairman & Managing Director, Tech-Dry (India) Pvt. Ltd.,
Bangalore.
Water is Elixir but Hydrophilic, Concrete is an Enemy

Cost

of

repair

and

rehabilitation

is

exorbitant.

The amount spent on repair and rehabilitation of concrete structure in US is around $ 8.3 billion per
year.
Even 15 years back, the annual cost of corrosion of concrete bridges and support structures was
estimated
to
be
in
the
range
of
$165
to
$
500
million.
The annual cost of repair of parking garage due to corrosion was estimated at $300 to $400 million.
Out of 500,000 bridges in USA, 200,000 were reported to be under severe distress. Remaining
300,000 also needed repair and rehabilitation. The cost for replacement of 300,000 bridges was
worked
out
to
be
around
$112
billion.
As the third millennium dawns, the United States is in the midst of a bridge crisis. Maintenance
needs for older bridges have far outpaced available resources. This situation indicates the need not
only for improved repair and rehabilitation techniques but also for a comprehensive approach to bridge
management . In India, Repair and Rehabilitation is more expensive than the original cost of the
structure. The Tsunami Housing Reconstruction Programme envisages the construction of about
1,300,00 concrete houses at an approximate cost of Rs. 1,50,000/- each.

Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and population growth in the twentieth century have greatly
affected the natural environment, the effect of which is seen as climate change regionally and globally.
Major structural failures during natural calamities is an exception rather than the rule. During these
calamities buildings collapse and the devastating result is the end of the hopes, dreams and future of
large number of population. Needless to say the recent natural calamities like Tsumani in Tamil Nadu,
heavy rains and flood in Mumbai are examples where we have no words to express our grief. Buildings
are more likely to suffer a failure of the hydrophilic envelope with consequential interior damage due
to
the
intrusion
of
wind
and
water.
The greatest threat to human life and property loss resulting from earthquakes is associated with
seismic vulnerability of existing construction that was either not designed for seismic resistance or no
care was taken to protect the reinforcement. Reinforcement is like a spinal cord of the building and
once the malignancy sets in, these structures are highly vulnerable to the natural calamities.
Reinforced concrete revolutionized the building industry. Water, which is elixir of life, is a serious
enemy to hydrophilic concrete structures.

Environmental Impact on Structures

The ingress of damaging materials into structures may occur in the gaseous state or in the liquid
state. This makes the design of a durable protection system all the more difficult. Gaseous damaging
materials include CO2 , SO2 , SO3 and nitrogen oxides present in the pollution in the atmosphere upon
entering the building material as a gas, may dissolve in water present in pores and capillaries forming
a dilute acid solution. Water contacting a structure may also contain these dissolved gases and may
contain salt from marine conditions or from salts used in de-icing operations (Figure 1 and Figure 2),
where water contains acidic gases, evaporation of the water from the surface concentrates the acid to
a very high level just before dryness. The frequency of ingress, temperature, and general climatic
conditions
influence
the
severity
of
the
attack.
These damages result in high cost of repair and maintenance and sometimes much more than the cost
of
the
building.
Let us address those cases where the awareness of waterproofing and its implication could have not
only avoided the tragedies but also the durability of the building and the money that we spend on
repair and maintenance could be used in creating infrastructure in India, which is badly needed.
Indian Railways
Indian Railways are more than 150 years old and perhaps an example in the world. The Indian
Railways carry 1.40 crore passengers and 140 lakh tones of freight, operating 15,000 trains every
day. Its trains cover a distance equivalent to the one between the earth and the moon four times a
day! It is interesting to know that the network of 63,000 route kilometres spread across the length
and breadth of the country has one lakh and twenty thousand big and small bridges. Forty- four per
cent of them are more than 100 years old. There is a general perception that old bridges are unsafe
for transport. The network has bridges as old as 135 years but they continue to be safe.

Although these bridges are old a proper repair, rehabilitation and protection of reinforcement by
inhibiting the ingress of water can rectify these problems atleast for several years. But unfortunately
this programme does not consider the modern scientific methods and the techniques to safe guard the
durability of these bridges. The rehabilitation and rebuilding of old and distressed bridges, almost
3000 have been included in the planning and the expenses of about Rs. 1,530 crore have been kept
for next few years. This money will go waste and repeated repairs would be required if the consultants
and waterproofing experts are not familiar with the modern techniques. The interdisciplinary approach
between structural engineer and waterproofing consultants is required.
Fate of Jetties and Briges
Various generations of protective products have been developed to counteract the aggressive actions
of the environment against concrete. Good results have been obtained with barrierpenetrants: after
penetration in the concrete they form a barrier against water and salts dissolved in it. Different
families of these hydrophobic agents or waterproofs are already being used for many years in
construction industry: Silicones, siloxanes, silanes. The silanes used for waterproofing are mostly
alkyl-trialkoxy-silanes and thus monomer products. The siloxanes are oligomer or polymer alkylalkoxysiloxanes.

The starting product for all siliconorganic compounds is alkyl-trichlorosilane, the alkyl-group is
represented by the symbol R. By transformation of this silane with alcohol (R-OH) only, the
corresponding alkyl-trialkoxy-silane is produced together with separation of hydrogen chloride. The
reaction with alcohol and water gives oligomer or polymer siloxanes, depending on the amount of
water
used.
The
last
two
products
differ
in
their
degree
of
polymerization.
The hydrophobic treatment reduces the absorption and transport of liquid water and salts dissolved in
it. Whereas the penetration of water in liquid form should be entirely prevented, the waterrepellents
must penetrate as deep as possible into the concrete substrate to obtain a guaranteed long-term
durability. At the same time a maximum penetration depth is an essential prerequisite for an effective
protection against chloride ingress and chloride induced corrosion of the reinforcements.
The conditions of jetties in our country in general are miserable. Few examples are given below where
the structures have deteriorated and got damaged on account of not giving due importance to
waterproofing at the time of construction.

P & Oliver Port-Chennai

Port of Kandla
Ontario
Zeebrugge Harbour
Port of Saint John

We have our own experience Mumbai Port Trust after complete testing selected the most
appropriate waterproofing product, which was not finally included because of so called cost reasons.
This is an important point, which I want to make that such kind of consideration will destroy our
infrastructure and would continue to have Jetties or for that matter any infrastructure in the same
conditions
as
they
are
today.
Tech-Dry (India) Pvt. Ltd., has been working on this subject of anti-corrosion and anti carbonation

along with Tech- Dry Melbourne who are well-known experts in this field since last 23 years and we
take this opportunity to mention our products, which we believe are cost effective and unique.
Role of Waterproofing in other Products

Mineral-based building materials are widely used for their excellent durability. One important
characteristic of even the most durable materials is their porous surface structure and hydrophilic
nature. Because these structures readily absorb water, exterior walls can quickly become discolored or
damaged.
These faade coatings should be able to arrest the ingress of water, pollutants and chemical attack but
unfortunately the common problem for many faade is their lack of water vapor permeability. When
water enters the interface between the coating and the substrate coating, failures occur in the forms
of blistering, cracking and peeling. By allowing water to escape these coatings, failures are avoided. In
a well-protected faade, absorbed moisture must be allowed to escape into the atmosphere and the
coating
itself
must
last
as
long
as
possible.
Structural integrity is of prime concern in evaluating deterioration of garages. If impaired it must be
restored and steps instituted to maintain the structure in a safe condition. Structural distress may be
defined as a condition where one or more elements of a building are so impaired that the structures
ability to carry its designed load safely cannot be assured.
Failure and Damage in Light Construction
Structural failures in light construction, whether bearing masonry or light framing, can be broadly
categorized as those events arising from the lack of a continuous path of load resistance from the roof
to the foundation, and events arising from the breaching of the envelope, pressurization of the
building and consequential blowing out of the leeward walls, sidewalls, windows or roof.
Ultimately, all loads on a structure, wherever placed, will be transmitted to and must be resisted by
the foundation. If there is a weak link in the path from point of loading to the foundation, that is
where the failure will occur. If the roof is not adequately anchored to the walls, an excessive uplifting
load on the roof will not be transferred through the walls to the foundation. At this point we will
discuss the common conventional method used in India, which only aggravates the above problem
and they should be avoided.
Brick Bat Coba / Surkhi Cracks due to temperature variations

The brick bat coba treatment through successful in the damp heat of coastal regions cracks up
completely on contact with the variations of temperature faced in North India and other such climates
between day and night temperature.
Imposes Unnecessary Load
This system has the disadvantage of imposing an unnecessary load on the system. Once cracks
appear they are almost impossible to repair and water as in the case of the tar felting travels below
the coba and exits wherever it finds a path. It is impossible to trace the inlet point let alone repair it.
Almost Impossible to Dismantle for Repairs
Some parts of the coba stick so well to the concrete that even if an attempt is made to dismantle the
system the slab gets damaged.
Disadvantages in using Brickbat Coba

In due course numerous cracks are developed in the lime terracing. Water penetrates through
these cracks to R.C.C. slab below it. Due to shrinkage of cement, lots of cracks are also
formed on the plaster of the parapet walls. Rainwater seeps through these cracks into the
bricks and slowly comes down to the R.C.C slab.
Because of improper compaction, often the concrete of the R.C.C. slab is full of voids and
honeycombs. Once the water reaches the R.C.C. slab, it easily seeps inside and corrodes the
reinforcement, thus weakening the structure itself.
Water, after seeping through the R.C. C. slab, makes the ceiling and walls damp. In severe
cases water starts dripping from ceiling. All these leave ugly patches of dampness on the
ceiling and walls and paints peel off in addition to the damage to structure and reinforcement.

Leakage in the building is a very common problem and they are on the top of the list of owners
complaints.
Rainwater intrusion into a recently completed building is one of the most traumatic of all unpleasant
events
for
a
new
building
owner.
The leaks can be variety of them in the whole building envelope and can be repaired and rehabilitated.
But the best solution would have been if the waterproofing had been undertaken prior to the building
construction
these
problems
could
have
been
avoided.
The cause of repair and rehabilitation covers so many factors but the major cause is water and
deterioration.
Cause of Deterioration
Water, incompatible materials, and lack of maintenance are the major causes of damage to the
buildings. The introduction of water is usually the result of the incorrect use of materials, particularly
non-compatible repair materials, and the lack of maintenance; 95% of all deterioration can be linked
to water. Once introduced and allowed to remain, water can weaken the chemical structure and
encourage insect infestation. Allowed to continue, a building will eventually become unstable and
collapse.
The moisture content of building materials varies in response to changes in the local humidity and will
not usually damage the material or induce decay. The paradox of concrete structure is that it is a

highly porous material. The concrete structure is forced to absorb high levels of water; however, its
porous nature in collaboration with the warm climate allows it to adequately evaporate this to same
level without harmful side effects. This cyclical feature is assured as long as the pores are not clogged
by incompatible, less porous materials and the structure is being maintained.
Corrosion
Once the water enters into the structure and the reaches reinforcement corrosion or cancer of the
building starts. Concrete has a pH of approximately 12.5, and this provides a protective environment
for the steel reinforcement because a thin film of passivating iron oxide forms over the surface of the
steel (Hausmann, 1965). However, two processes lead to a breakdown of the passivating film and
initiation
of
corrosion:
1. An acidic environment develops when carbon dioxide from the air mixes with water in the concrete
pores
(carbonation)
that
removes
the
passivating
layer.
2. The passivating layer can become permeable due to the presence of chloride ions that penetrate
into the concrete from marine environments and chloride in sand and aggregates.
The corrosion of reinforcements has resulted to be one of the most frequent causes of their premature
failures, which can set in, as early as 3 months depending on the surroundings. Monitoring the
corrosion rate, assuming the uniform corrosion and the loss in diameter decreases linear with the
corrosion rate, allows calculating the remaining load carrying and the safety of the structure.
Carbonation
Carbonation is a process in which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses through the porous
concrete and neutralizes the alkalinity of concrete. The carbonation process will reduce the pH to
approximately 8 or 9 in which the oxide film is no longer stable. With adequate supply of oxygen and
moisture, corrosion will start.

The reaction of Ca(OH)2 with CO2 takes place by first forming Ca(HCO3)2 and finally CaCO3 , the
product precipitates on the walls and in crevices of the pores. This reduction in pH also leads to the
eventual breakdown of the other hydration products, such as the aluminates, C-S-H gel and
sulfoaluminates.
The relative humidity with which the pore solution is in equilibrium greatly affects the rate of
carbonation.
Consequently carbonation occurs at a maximum rate between 50 and 70 percent relative humidity. In
addition to atmospheric conditions, carbonation rate is also influenced by the permeability of the
concrete, and the cement content of the concrete. Cement content of approximately 15 percent
produces
a
concrete
relatively
resistant
to
carbonation.
The two most common causes of reinforcement corrosion are (i) localized breakdown of the passive
film on the steel by chloride ions and (ii) general breakdown of passivity by neutralization of the

concrete,

predominantly

by

reaction

with

atmospheric

carbon

dioxide.

The first mid-long term records concerning the effectiveness of a waterrepellent agent under in-site
circumstances. A probability method for interpretation of test results and prediction of the service life
of the quaywall was updated.
Rail Corrosion
Rail corrosion is the result of interaction between a damp environment and traction current leakage.
The leakage is a greater problem than the humidity factor. We would like to deal with railway
sleepers, which are replaced from time to time and are not durable because of the corrosion of the
reinforcement.

We also need to take into consideration the crushed stone deposit around the flanges of the rails by
modern public works vehicles. Graders/levellers, tamping machines, forming machines, etc., have the
ability-and opportunity to contribute to this problem when put under the pressures of increased
productivity expectations and /or demands and reduced working times. In haste, crushed stones tend
to be deposited around the flanges of the rails, in essence covering it. It is when there is this lack of
above metal plate that it becomes a significant element/ contributing factor in the overall problem of
isolating the rail in relation to the ballast. Observations made on the replaced rails confirm that the
corrosion sets in where moistness from condensation or dampness is present. This condensation and
dampness are crucial elements that produce a catalytic effect on the corrosion.
Railway Sleepers Corrosion
The Railway Sleepers that the Railway departments are making today are not very durable even
though they use M50 grade mix. The environment and the toxic substances brought by water ingress
in the seepage will definitely affect the sleepers, corrode the reinforcement causing cancer to the
same and therefore it is necessary to waterproof concrete sleepers. There has been a continuous
effort to produce durable sleepers, which complies with the rising requirements relating to loads on
the track and traveling speeds of the trains as usual today.
Internal
Fungal Growth

Environment

Pollution

Fungal infestation of buildings has become a significant factor in how the integrity of structures is
assessed.
Large water intrusions of the building envelope, such as roof leaks and pipe ruptures have traditionally

been handled by drying out and removing significantly water damaged material in the affected areas,
however, little attention has been given to the effects of fungal growth. Additionally, in the past, small
leaks that led to localized fungal growth were not considered significant problems. As a result, the
assessment of the amount and spread of fungal growth in buildings has become a significant factor in
determining
the
overall
condition
of
a
building.
Construction materials are not manufactured in sterile environments nor is the air brought into
buildings sterile, thus fungal spores are readily available in most indoor environments. While fungal
spores are ubiquitous, active fungal growth will not occur until moisture and a suitable source of
nutrients
are
available.
The type and level of species and the presence of mycelial fragments are used as indicators of
moisture damage and fungal growth in surface and dust samples. Species commonly associated with
water damaged construction materials include Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Penicillium and Stachybotrys.
Mycelial
fragments
in
samples
are
used
as
an
indication
of
active
growth.
Needless to say the problem of safe shelter can be solved to great extent if waterproofing is given its
due importance.

Before concluding we would like to say please give priority to waterproofing and join us in our efforts
to create awareness and:

To have a durable structure

To save energy
To save load on your building

It is only possible if we create scientific society which means people at large should look into these
problems rationally and logic should prevail. Do not compromise for cheap products, look for cost
effective
and
durable
products.
Do not compromise for cheap products, look for cost effective and durable products.

Single Ply WATERPROOFING MEMBRANES The Way Forward

Upen Patel, Marketing Manager, BASF Construction Chemicals (India) Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai.
Preface
Waterproofing the concrete structures has always been a challenging task for construction industry.
With the increased complexity of structures, more possibility of structural movements and settlements

and growing concern on leakages in the structures has created a need for reliable waterproofing
system. Current practices of rigid waterproofing barriers such as stone cladding, brick-bat koba and
crystalline waterproofing has limitation if structure is designed to undergo movements during life
span. Bituminous and polymer based elastic systems do enable elongations but have limiting success
as they are always bonded to the substrate and does deteriorate with time. This article provides an
insight to single ply synthetic waterproofing membranes which have global reputation and have gained
quick acceptance in recent times in India. This article also provides insight to two of the success
stories in India where the system is being employed currently.
Single Ply Synthetic Waterproofing Membranes
Single-ply synthetic waterproofing membranes are widely used in Europe and North America for the
last 40 years and have proven performances. The concept is to provide a watertight liner all around
the susceptible building element and to ensure the right technique to install the membrane. There are
various synthetic liners available for the purpose and the selection is based on the expected
performance out of them in the specific situations. The single-ply synthetic liners are designed and
build to the various situational needs and normally consisting of synthetic roll of fixed thickness and
width and are available in reinforced with glass or polyester fibres options. Today, PVC and TPO are
the most popular choice of materials for the application in the civil industry. The synthetic liners have
life expectancy of 25 to 50 years v/s 10 to 15 years as offered by bituminous membranes, a single
factor which made synthetic liner the popular choice in the construction sector over the years. PVC
membranes are manufactured by adding plasticiser in the PVC and this limits their life expectancy in
the case of direct exposure to UV and required to be protected, as plasticizers may migrate out of the
membrane making the membrane brittle. Thus, PVC membranes have become chosen material for
underground and buried situations while TPO, which is expensive in comparison to PVC has excellent
stability in UV and available in range of colors, has become the choice for exposed roofing situations.
FLAGON PVC Membranes for Underground Structures
The essential characteristics of a waterproofing liner for underground works are a high physicalchemical performance with minimum maintenance during its lifespan. Given the specific and critical
nature of the work to be waterproofed, life expectancy should be measured in decades rather than
years. FLAGON liners have been designed, formulated and manufactured according to specific
application needs, based on a tailor-made philosophy. This approach ensures optimisation of results
from every perspective: mechanical resistance, resistance to ageing, flexibility, ease of installation and
last
but
not
least,
environmental
protection.
The main characteristics of Flag liners for underground works are:

Excellent weldability
Softness and flexibility
High ultimate elongation (dimensional variation of the membrane when subjected to
mechanical stress)
Tensile strength (the membrane can resist tensile stress without tearing)
Durability
Adaptability to irregular substrates
Maintains its integrity even in the case of structural movements or soil subsidence
High electrical resistance
Suitable for installation in humid places
Resistance to static puncturing
Resistance to dynamic puncturing
Chemical resistance
Resistance to bacteria and fungi

Resistance to micro-organisms
Resistance to roots
Fire resistance
Compatibility with drinking water
Signal layer surface (essential feature to check the liner once installedany surface damage of
the liner is immediately shown by the different color appearing from the surface underneath).

Another basic aspect is ease of application, where the sealing of the waterproofing membrane should
allow for the execution of complex details and particulars, especially in difficult situations on site. This
is
essential
for
the
successful
result
of
the
overall
system.
The following should be considered:

Easy weldability and workability of the material

Compatibility with special accessories
Ease of performing quality tests in the post-application stage (specifically, checking the welded
seams).

Manufacturing Process for FLAGON PVC Membranes

FLAGON PVC membranes are produced by Co-extrusion or Spreading technique depending upon the
configuration of the membrane.
Co-extrusion
In this process, the mixture of material components (resins, plasticisers, stabilisers, pigments, etc.) is
introduced through a hopper into a cylindrical chamber. Here it is heated up and pressed by worm
screws into a co-extrusion head, where the single extruders converge, and then it is laminated in a
calender. The liner thickness is automatically adjusted by electronic equipment that controls the
opening of the extrusion head and of the calender. The material thus obtained is a single-layer
homogeneous, non-reinforced liner, with high tensile properties and high resistance to static and
dynamic puncturing. This process can also produce two-color, single-layer liners with a signal layer.
Spreading
This is a manufacturing process that produces waterproofing liners in which the reinforcement
becomes an integral part of the liner. At room temperature, a mixture of liquid-viscous products,
called plastisol, is spread onto a moving paper-support substrate by means of a gravity fed
applicator. The mixture contains resins, plasticisers, stabilisers, pigments, etc. and determines the
final characteristics of the waterproof liner. Gelation (curing) is achieved by passing the product
through a series of ovens along the production line. This spreading and gelation process is repeated
four times. The liners manufactured by this system are therefore composed of four differently
formulated layers. Between the second and third layers, an internal reinforcement is introduced, either
in polyester mesh for tensile strength or glass mesh for stability. This manufacturing system
establishes a molecular bond between the four layers creating a homogenous and flexible singlelayer
liner that can be combined with a thermally treated geotextile layer to improve its gripping
characteristics when using adhesives or when it is laid on materials that are not chemically compatible
with PVC-P. The spreading process can also produce two-color, single-layer liners with a signal layer.
FLAGON TPO Liners

FLAGON TPO is a new generation synthetic liner made using an innovative formulation: EPR (ethylene
propylene rubber) modified polyolefin. FLAGON TPO development has been based on experience,
synergy, co-operation and manufacturing technologies:

Experience gained by Flag who, since 1963, has developed and manufactured synthetic
waterproofing liners for use in the roofing, civil engineering and hydraulic sectors.
Synergy with industry-leading manufacturers of polyolefins, who have developed and
introduced these new materials to the field of waterproofing.
Co-operation with the most qualified designers, general contractors and installation
companies.
Innovative manufacturing technologies for synthetic waterproofing materials.

Main Characteristics of FLAGON TPO Liners

The exclusive manufacturing system designed for this type of liner and its unique formulation have
resulted in:

Excellent weldability
Softness and flexibility
Excellent dimensional stability
High weather and UV rays resistance
Non-toxicity
Resistance to a wide range of chemical attacks
Compatibility with most insulation panels, including expanded/ extruded polystyrene
Compatibility with oxidized bitumen
High resistance to puncturing
Resistance to roots and microorganisms
Adaptability to structural movements
Environment and user friendly
Life expectancy in excess of 25 years
Proven installation history.

FLAGON TPO waterproofing membranes can be used for both newly built roof systems and for
renovating existing roofs. FLAGON TPO membranes have been designed both for ballasted roof
systems (protected) and for exposed roof systems (unprotected).
Manufacturing Process for FLAGON TPO Membranes
FLAGON EP/PV, FLAGON EP/PR liners are manufactured in UNI EN ISO 9001 certified plants and fully
comply with the performance standards CEN European Standard, UNI 8629/6 SIA 280 DIN 16726.
The raw material used to produce FLAGON TPO membranes is created by blending a mix of synthetic
polyolefins and softening agents (EPR) with various additives that, through a catalloy procedure, are
transformed into a moulded mass and then into granules. This combines:

Resistance to ageing, weathering and micro-biological attack

The EPR compound gives softness and flexibility with a high resistance to mechanical and
chemical influences in conjunction with the strong welding capacity of polypropylene.

The unique manufacturing process designed and developed by Flag combines a tri-extrusion process in
a single pass encapsulating a reinforcement mesh that produces a complete homogeneous product
with stability and high tensile strength and an effective dual light/dark color signal layer. The
particular property of FLAGON TPO synthetic liners is the reinforcement insert embedded in the body

of the liner. This reinforcement may be a non-woven glass mesh or polyester mesh, according to
application needs, ensuring an efficient and aesthetically flawless end result. FLAGON TPO liners are
produced
by
coextrusion
in
twocolors,
known
as
a
signal
layer
system.
The upper sand-grey color, which provides lower heat absorption, increased longevity and aesthetic
qualities, represents 10-15% of the membrane thickness and the black underside, which protects
against UV damage, 85-90%. The major benefit of the system becomes apparent during installation;
should the membrane become damaged, the black underside is immediately detected by the
contractor
and
simply
repaired.
Application Case Study FLAGON PVC Membrane at Delhi Metro Project Project:GTB Nagar
station by Cut & Cover and ramp as part of Vishwa Viadyalaya Jahangirpuri section.

Client: Delhi Metro Rail Corporation

Scope of Project: Water tightness of Cut and Cover section
Design & Construction: Senbo Engineering Limited
Year Completed: 2006/2007 Systems used: FLAGON BFR/SL & FLAGON PROFILE W4

Project Description
The history of planning a Metro Project for New Delhi dates back to the 70s. The concept
planenvisaged a network of 58 km underground and 195 km surface corridors. The total network plan
contains 16 sections to be implemented in a sequence based on passenger kilometre carried per
kilometre length of each section,

which is expected to be completed in three phases. The BC-2 Package of Phase II, consists of Vishwa
vidhyalaya - Jahangirpuri corridor containing 844m long cut and cover tunnel with cross section of
11m
x
5.5
m
and
has
one
underground
station
at
GTB
Nagar.
As in the first section of metro corridor APP membranes were used as waterproofing system and have
provided enough troubles, well known for bituminous waterproofing system, summarize as under:
Moisture sensitive Overlaps cannot be tested for effective water tightness Uniform heating of
membrane difficult to achieve Cannot be compartmentalized for remedial measures Non-friendly to
environment and application crew Hence, designers have opted for synthetic liner which can be relied
upon and takes cares of all the negatives of APP membrane systems.
The Solution Offered
Considering the water head pressure and to minimize the fire potential, 2mm thick FLAGON BFR/ SL
was selected as the primary waterproof liner 250 gsm geotextile was provided as slip membrane
beneath the waterproof liner. On vertical surfaces (walls) FLAGON BFR/ SL was fixed using Rondel
(PVC disks) and on horizontal surfaces was kept loosely laid. 50- 75mm screed was used on the
horizontal surfaces as protection layer while brick wall was used to protection the vertical installation.
At the construction joints FLAGON Profile W4 was used to compartmentalize the liner and all the
compartments were installed with Pipetta for injection in the future on the event of any seepage. All
possible overlaps were double seam welded and tested for air leakage at 2MPa pressure for 60 and 90
seconds against the specifications and any joint found with higher than specified leakage of air
pressure was re-welded. All the physical damages were reinstated using PVC patch or liquid PVC
patching compound.
Customers Feedback
Job was carried out to the total compliance with the QA aspects as laid by the client and consultant.
Client is very much convinced about the BASFs Watertight System concept and has decided to extend
the
specifications
for
upcoming
expansions
in
Phase
II
jobs.
Application Case Study FLAGON TPO Membrane at Bangalore International Airport
Project: Bangalore International Airport Client: BIAL, Bangalore

Scope of Project: Roof waterproofing of terminal building

Design & Construction: Larsen & Toubro Limited, ECC Construction group
Year of execution: 2006/ 2007, under execution
Systems used: FLAGON EP/PR

Project Description

The Bangalore International Airport is a Greenfield project built by a consortium of five shareholders;
three of them - Siemens Project Ventures, Larsen and Toubro and Unique Zurich airport are private,
and the remaining two are the government of Karnataka and the government of India. Situated 34
kms to the north of the Bangalore city, it sprawls over an area of 3900 acres, which will house besides
the regular airport services, a hotel, shopping mall, tax-free shops, food courts and other convenience
amenities. The construction of first phase started on July 05 and is being built at a cost of Rupees
1,411 crores. This phase includes the 4-Km runway, aircraft stand, a terminal building, technical
building and other airside & landside facilities. The construction of this phase is expected to be
complete
by
April
08.
The roof of terminal building is made up of large precast segment, each of having 24 metre span and
10m length. In total there are more than 200 segments in the terminal building. The curve shape
andcomplex detailing made client to choose most reliable waterproofing membrane which can be
quickly installed and can last for the design period of the structure.
The Solution Offered

Considering the complexity of the job and life expectancy, 1.2mm thick FLAGON EP/PR was selected.
FLAGON EP/ PR is polyester reinforced TPO membrane, manufactured by latest tri-extrusion process.
Considering the wind loading on the structure the fasteners are designed. On the diaphragm walls the
membrane is fully adhered to the substrate using special FLAGON adhesive glue.
Conclusion
Finally local availability of single-ply synthetic waterproofing membrane, an engineered watertight
system shall enable building owners and structural designers to have choice of dependable
waterproofing material. The experienced application team and easy access to global experts shall
enable BASF to serve the construction industry better

Waterproofing of Structures:Challenges and Solutions

Dr Anil K Kar, Chairman, Engineering Services International, Kolkata.
Prologue
It rained and people sought protection against rain water falling on the head, Figure 1. The concept,
the art and the science of waterproofing developed from this desire for protection against rain water.
In the beginning, most people thought that the objective of waterproofing was to prevent rain water
from falling on their head. As people started using delicate and costly materials, and housing
equipment, systems, etc. inside buildings, the ensurement of watertightness of building type
structures became important. It will be seen that the prevention of the ingress of water into buildings
is necessary for reasons more important than the prevention of an inconvenience or an architectural
nuisance or for facilitating the proper utilization of the space inside. In the conventional scheme of
making buildings waterproof, doors have door leaves, windows have shutters and roofs are made
water-tight
through
specific
waterproofing
treatments
or
arrangements.
With time, it was recognized that it would be a good idea to make water retaining structures also
water-tight. But it took a while to recognize that there was more to waterproofing than to prevent rain
water from falling on the head or arresting water leakages through water retaining structures. It took
time to recognize that the failure to waterproof structural elements, in addition to roofs of buildings,
could
lead
to
situations
like
that
shown
in
Figure
2.
With delays to realize, and failures to act, buildings, bridges and other structures started becoming
unusable because these were not waterproofed in time. This happened, generally and more quickly in
the case of concrete structures, which were built during recent decades, than in the case of structures,
which
were
built
before
1965
or
so.
The lack of durability of concrete structures has been a worldwide phenomenon. In a paper in 1991,
Papadakis, Vayenas and Fardis1 stated : The last two decades have seen a disconcerting increase in
examples of the unsatisfactory durability of concrete structures, specially reinforced concrete ones.
The problem of unsatisfactory durability is more acute in India where it has reached an alarming state.
The alarming situation in India, caused by the early distress in reinforced concrete structures, is
reflected in Technical Circular 1/99 of the Central Public Works Department, Government of India,
wherein it has been stated that while works as old as 50 years provide adequate service, the recent
constructions are showing signs of distress within a couple of years of their completion.
In most cases of concrete structures, the structural distress in the form of cracking in the concrete
elements or collapse of the structure is an external manifestation of corrosion in the ferrous elements
inside.
There are reasons behind the early or accelerated rate of distress, Figure 2, in modern day concrete
structures. The rate, at which modern day structures started reaching states of early distress,
accelerated with the use of High Strength Deformed (HSD) reinforcing bars (rebars) in the
construction of reinforced concrete structures and also with the use of deicing salts on highways in
cold
climes
of
affluent
countries.
Among other factors, contributing to the decaying process, was the lowering of the period of wet
curing of concrete from 28 days to 37 days or none. As there is a move towards a greater use of
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) in lieu of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in concrete, this change
in the type of cement will have its effect on the durability of concrete structures, unless special

provisions

will

have

been

made.

This paper addresses the problem of early distress in concrete structures and solutions thereto. As
surface protection of structures by waterproofing is proposed as a viable solution to the problem of
early distress in concrete structures, it is explained why waterproof structures are durable structures.
Durable and effective waterproofing systems are described later in this paper.
Early Distress and Causes
The alarming state of affairs with constructed facilities of recent decades has put civilization in peril13. When humanity is in peril, God comes to show the way. In such circumstances ten years ago in
1996, Lord Ganesh, Figure 3 showed the way when the stone statues started drinking milk on offering
by worshippers. Ganesh started drinking water. It was Lord Ganesh of rock or stone who drank milk
and
water.
Ganesh,
cast
in
metal,
would
neither
drink
milk
nor
water.
Lord Ganesh drank milk and water to teach architects and engineers a lesson. The lesson was :
concrete, an artificial stone, would absorb water and other liquids. The rate and quantity of water
would
depend
upon
the
permeability
and
porosity
of
concrete.
This absorption of water by concrete, though undesirable, is inevitable in the case of concrete
structures without surface protection. This water, that enters inside the structure, creates a moist
environment. When air from the environment, containing oxygen, enters into the structure and
reaches rebars or prestressing elements of steel, oxidation, the most common of the different
processes of corrosion of steel, takes place, if the Fe 2O3 protective layer of passivation on the surface
of rebars and prestressing elements will have been destroyed due to carbonation (by carbon dioxide
from air) or chloride intrusion or due to pozzolanic reaction from the use of PPC or High-Volume Fly
Ash (HVFA) cement3-5 in concrete. Though the process of corrosion requires oxygen and a moist
environment, carbon dioxide, chlorides, acids and sulphates can further add to the destabilizing
processes. It needs to be noted that, like oxygen, even acids and chlorides, the well-known agents of
corrosion, will be ineffective in causing or augmenting rebar corrosion unless there will be a moist
environment. Similarly, other harmful reactions in concrete, viz., alkali-silica reaction, sulphate attack,
etc. will fail to take place unless there will be moisture. On the other side of the picture, water alone
will not cause any problem unless there will be oxygen. A case in point is a ship under water on the
sea bed. In the absence of sufficient oxygen, the rate of corrosion is very slow even when there are
chlorides in the water. Thus, though it is essential, for corrosion to take place, that the concrete
environment, surrounding rebars and prestressing elements, be moist, submersion in water is likely to
inhibit
the
process
of
corrosion.
The above suggests that all structures above ground and those portions of structures below ground,
which are exposed to the atmosphere (e.g. basements, tunnels, underground water reservoirs,
machine pits, lift pits, and so on), will be vulnerable, if left unprotected, whereas rebar corrosion may
not be a problem in the case of foundations. In simpler terms, all structures, exposed to air, will be
vulnerable. Of these, concrete structures (primarily reinforced concrete structures), constructed during
recent decades, have been characterized by early decay and distress. There must be reasons for this
development, that goes beyond any possible shortfall in the quality of construction. This has been
borne out in a survey6-9 in Calcutta, that was carried out by the writers firm in July 1999.
This writer 3-22 has written extensively on the basic causes of the problem of early distress in
concrete structures, constructed during recent decades, and solutions thereto. Of particular interest to
the reader will be the articles in Refs. 3, 4, 8 and 9. The writer has shown in Ref. 9 and
elsewhere3,4,6,7,16,19-22 that the use of high strength rebars with surface deformations has been
primarily responsible for the early decay in concrete structures of recent constructions. The problem

has been more acute in India where the HSD bars were of the cold twisted deformed (CTD) type,
commonly
known
as
tor
bar.
CTD bars are particularly susceptible to early corrosion (Figures 4 and 5) as high post-yield stresses
are locked in such rebars from the time of manufacturing, inducing speedy corrosion in keeping with
the phenomenon of stress corrosion at high stress levels, even before concrete is cast (Figures 4 and
5). Early corrosion sets in CTD bars also because the protective surface layer of Fe 2O3 or Fe3O4 is
destroyed during cold twisting of the rebar as a part of the manufacturing process.
Other factors, which can make concrete structures predisposed to early decay and distress, is the
lowering of the duration of moist curing of concrete from 28 days of earlier years to 7 days or less and
the shift towards the use of fly ash based PPC from OPC that used to be commonly used in
construction
in
earlier
days.
The PPC concrete lacks the capacity of OPC (with about a months curing) to produce 15 to 25% (by
mass of cement paste) calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 and with it to maintain a pore water alkalinity of
12.4 and above for prolonged periods of time, thereby protecting rebars and prestressing elements
through the formation and preservation of the Fe2O3 layer of passivation. Furthermore, unlike OPC
concrete, PPC concrete lacks the properties of self- healing of pores and cracks. Details can be found
in
Ref.
5.
In summary, in addition to the absorption of water or moisture, porous concrete permits the diffusion
of carbon dioxide and oxygen, all of which are present in the atmosphere. Because of the changes in
the properties of materials of construction and because of the shortening in the duration of curing,
todays concrete structures, compared to structures of earlier decades, are affected more adversely by
the atmospheric and other external agents of corrosion, viz., water or moisture, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, etc.
The Solution
An obvious solution to the problem of early decay and distress in concrete structures would be to use
the appropriate rebar and cement and to cure the concrete over prolonged periods of time. That would
mean the use of plain round bars of mild steel and OPC with curing for about a month. But since the
construction may not be with plain round bars of mild steel and OPC, coupled with a months curing,
the next best option would be to protect the structures, both new and existing. This protection of
concrete structures will have to be, as a minimum against water, oxygen and carbon dioxide. It can be
said, as an analogy, that concrete structures, similar to steel structures, can benefit from surface
protection. Just as in the case of steel structures, the failure to provide surface protection to concrete
structures will mean loss of durability and high life-cycle cost of the unprotected structure.
Effective and durable waterproofing treatments will make structures durable. Such treatments will also
prevent
any
architectural
nuisance
of
damp
ceilings
and
walls.
This concept of providing surface treatment to concrete structures for the purposes of making such
structures waterproof as well as durable has been stressed by the writer10 since 1987 through
numerous publications and lectures. The concept was adopted by Central Public Works Department of
the Government of India in 1999 and subsequently in the code IS 456:200024. It is mentioned in
clause 8.1.1. of the code that One of the main characteristics influencing the durability of concrete is
its permeability to the ingress of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate and other
potentially deleterious substances. It has further stated in clause 8.2.1 that The life of the structure
can be lengthened by providing extra cover to steel, by chamfering the corners or by using circular
cross-sections or by using surface coatings which prevent or reduce the ingress of water, carbon
dioxide
or
aggressive
chemicals.

It has been explained in details in Ref. 8 that, of the four alternatives, recommended in IS
456:200024, the provision of surface protection systems is the only logical and practical way of
ensuring
long
life
for
concrete
structures.
Even six years after the publication of the code24, architects and engineers appear to have overlooked
the mandatory provisions of the code as they have failed to implement the provisions in clause 8 of
the
code.
The failure to provide the surface protection will not only condemn the unprotected structures to early
decay and distress, the constructed structures will also fail to meet the requirements of the code IS
456:200024. The surface protection system is provided as a waterproofing system on the surface of
structures, and not on reinforcing bars25. Though the code has recommended the provision of surface
coatings, all concrete surfaces are not necessarily amenable to the application of coating systems.
Thus, this writer believes that since the objective is to prevent the ingress of harmful elements,
coatings or other waterproofing systems should serve the purpose of lengthening the life of concrete
structures.
Effective Waterproofing Treatments
It has already been explained that waterproofing systems or treatments, provided on the surface of
structures, can do much more than preventing an inconvenience or architectural nuisance. Such
treatments, if effective, can make structures durable. That, however, requires that the treatments are
not only effective in preventing the ingress of water into the structure, but that the treatments are
also durable. Many different materials and systems have been tried for the waterproofing of
structures. Field experience shows that most of the treatments fail to achieve the desired results even
in
the
short
term.
The reasons are many, and these include:

a) Wrong concept
b) Lack of a will to do the work well
c) Failure to adopt an appropriate technology
d) Failure to improvise
Wrong Concept
Failure of waterproofing treatments due to the application of wrong concepts are all around. A few
examples will suffice. Waterproofing treatments are provided on compressible treatments for thermal
insulation. The excessive compressibility of the material for thermal insulation leads to large
movements
in
the
waterproofing
treatments
and
their
consequent
failures.
Waterproofing treatments are provided on a course of Plain Cement Concrete (PCC), which fails for the
lack of reinforcing elements and a lack of adequate bond at the interface between the substrate and
the PCC. A small quantity (0.5% to 2.0%) of a plasticiser or a superplasticiser is admixed with
concrete in the name of waterproofing, simply because it meets the requirement of the code IS
2645:2003, which, with its name Integral Waterproofing Compounds for Cement Mortar and Concrete
Specification27, has a misleading title, ignoring the fact that the text of the code reads : The
permeability to water of the standard cylindrical specimen prepared with the recommended

proportions of waterproofing compound shall be less than half of the permeability of similar specimen
prepared without the addition of the compound when tested in accordance with the method given in
Annex B, thereby qualifying chemicals, without waterproofing properties, as chemicals suitable for
successful waterproofing treatments.
Lack of Will to Do The Work Well
It is believed that the manufacturer of chemicals will be particularly keen to see that the waterproofing
system, based on his chemicals, will perform well. In the Indian environment, many manufacturers
are keen to sell the chemicals to anyone for any purposes and the work of waterproofing is executed
by
contractors
as
authorized/
approved
applicators.
In this system of work by applicators, the quality of work generally suffers as:

a) The manufacturer of chemicals is not aware of the field conditions of individual sites,
and the developer of the chemicals and systems, generally chemists, have limited
knowledge about construction.
b) The applicator is not aware of the limitations of the chemicals.
c) The applicator does not use the right quantity of chemicals as he does not have the
reputation of chemicals/ systems to uphold.
Failure to Adopt Appropriate Technology
Waterproofing is an activity in the domain of civil engineering, and it involves structures. It can thus
be very helpful to have a good knowledge of civil engineering and structures. Thus, when chemists
and material scientists develop chemicals and systems of waterproofing , they are likely to overlook
fine points in civil-structuralconstruction engineering, and the technology for waterproofing may not
be appropriate. This is particularly so as most often technologies are first developed, and avenues are
sought to apply the technology. The best results are possible when technologies are developed to
solve problems, and not the other way round.
Failure to Improvise
Every work site has a character of its own, requiring improvisation. Though a particular waterproofing
chemical and a particular system will be employed as the basic treatment, local conditions frequently
require for a successful waterproofing treatment that certain modifications are made to the
implementation procedure or that a different chemical and a different system be employed locally as a
stand-alone or as an additional treatment. A failure to make necessary improvisation may lead to a
failure of the waterproofing treatment.
PERMAKAR Technology
PERMAKAR Technology for waterproofing is free from the shortcomings, commonly found in other
technologies. The waterproofing systems for waterproofing under Permakar Technology were
developed to solve specific problems after others had failed to solve such problems by the application
of
different
known
systems
of
waterproofing.
It all started in 1983 when Metro Railway in Calcutta requested Engineering Services International
(ESI) to arrest running water leakages and make dry the treated areas of the tunnel. Until that time,
ESI excelled in providing consultancy services in wide areas of engineering related to nuclear power

plants. Also, starting as the first Indian consultant to the Defence Research and Development
Organisation of the Ministry of Defence, Government of India, ESI provided consultancy services on
different projects of the DRDO. The experiences of ESI in the cutting edges of technologies in wide
areas of engineering came in handy and the PERMAKAR surface treatment method of waterproofing
for tunnels and other underground/water retaining structures was developed. The hitherto unknown
and unthinkable surface treatment method succeeded where grouting or injection of different
materials had failed. Here are copies of extracts from documents of Metro Railway, Calcutta on
observations on ESIs Permakar surface waterproofing treatments (a) inside the tunnels of Metro Rail,
and (b) inside Pedestrian Subway at Tollygunge. The surface treatments (as opposed to grouting)
were found to be fully effective and in excellent conditions even eighteen years (in one case) and six
years
(in
other
cases)
after
the
treatment.

certificate.
(b) However, temporary bored piles locations (total 8 locations), seepage of the leakage could not be
stopped in the main subway with cement pressure grouting or Non-Shrinkable, Pumpable, Groutable
(NSPG) due to which Permakar Technology (surface layer) treatment was adopted and seepage/
leakage
arrested
completely
to
achieve
bone
dry
condition.

project
report.
The continued success of treatments under Permakar Technology and frequent failures of
waterproofing treatments by others 12 gradually led to the development of systems of waterproofing
for virtually all types of structures. The effectiveness and durability of waterproofing treatments under
Permakar Technology have given beneficiaries of the work the confidence to include waterproofing
treatments under Permakar Technology in the schedules of rates of work (SOR) of various
organizations of the central and state governments. The versatility of waterproofing treatments in the
line of Permakar Technology can be found in examples of waterproofing of different types of work.
Tunnels, Below or Underground Structures And Water-Retaining Structures
Figure 6 is a view of the pedestrian subway in front of Sealdah Station at Calcutta. The structure is
known as the only zeroleakage tunnel around. A 6 mm thick Permakar 3 plaster type waterproofing
treatment (Figure 7) was provided on the entire inner surfaces of ceiling, walls and floor. There is no
water
leakage.
Prior to the Permakar 3 treatment with an octadecanoic acid compound, waterleakages at construction
joints, point leakage locations and honeycomb areas were arrested with cement, admixed with quick
setting compounds Permakar 1 and Permakar 4. There were special treatments at ends of H-piles and
at
expansion
joints.
The waterproofing treatment of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah is described in Refs. 26. There is
virtually no difference in waterproofing treatments for tunnels, basements, machine pits, below
ground structures, underground and overhead water reservoirs, swimming pools and other water
retaining structures. Countless such structures have been successfully waterproofed with the
Permakar 3 surface treatment. As the continuous Permakar 3 treatment is provided on the entire inner
surfaces of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, exposed to air, it provides the protection against
carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc. as required in IS 456:200024. The unprotected outer surface, in contact
with soil, generally does not pose any problem as there is very limited supply of oxygen and carbon
dioxide, and water alone cannot cause rebar corrosion. The case is comparable to a concrete
foundation of a structure. There is no corrosion, whereas above ground areas, exposed to air, have
problems of early corrosion in rebars and prestresssing elements.
Building Structures
Figure 8 shows a typical building with the Permakar 3 (Figure 7) surface protection (5 mm thick on
roofs and other locations, except bathrooms, where the treatment thickness is 6-7 mm). Over the

years, over a hundred thousand square metre of concrete and old lime terraced roof structures were
provided with the Permakar 3 waterproofing treatment. In most of these cases, earlier treatments by
other
parties
had
failed.
At the time of writing this paper steps have been taken for the waterproofing of over a thousand
square metre of additional Permakar 3 surface treatments for roofs and walls of buildings in the year
2006.
The Permakar 3 waterproofing treatment can be provided virtually on all types of concrete, masonry
and lime terraced structures. Unlike in the case of coating type treatments, the Permakar 3
waterproofing treatment can be provided on surfaces with honeycombs and large irregularities. The
treatment can be provided on dry as well as wet surfaces. When tested for leakages, under a water
head of 40 metres, a 5 mm thick Permakar 3-cement treatment was found to have zero leakage.
The typical building in Figure 8 can be provided with coating type waterproofing treatments with
Permarpoof of modified phenolic resins instead of the plaster type treatment with Permakar 3, except
in areas with honeycombs and large surface irregularities. Such areas can, however, be repaired and
prepared for the Permaproof treatment. The details of the Permaproof treatment are shown in Figure
9. Figure 10 represents an example of total structural protection, provided in 1996. The concept was
later adopted by CPWD in 1999 and included in IS 456:200024 in 2000. When tested for leakage
under a water head of 40 metres, a two-coat Permaproof treatment was found to have zero leakage.
Being oil based, Permaproof can be applied only when the surface is dry. ESI has also PERMANAR-D
(without or admixed with cement) for water-based polymer treatment. The polymer treatment with
the organic compound Permaproof needs to be protected against ultraviolet rays. In the case of a roof,
this protection is generally provided with a cover plaster which permits the normal use of the roof. In
the more demanding case of roof gardens, advantage can be taken of the soil cover to give protection
against ultra-violet rays. The cost of the waterproofing treatment for this more demanding case of roof
gardens can thus be provided at costs less than the cost of waterproofing of a roof for normal use. It
should be noted that, because of the possibility of roof drains getting choked, the material and system
of waterproofing for horizontal roofs should be such that the same can be effectively used inside water
reservoirs. Permakar 3 and Permaproof satisfy such requirements.
Roof Gardens for Green Buildings
Both the Permakar 3 and Permaproof treatments have been widely used to waterproof roofs for roof
gardens. Figure 11 shows the Permaproof waterproofing treatment (2 coats) in progress on the 6000
square metre roof of a water reservoir in Central park, Salt Lake City in the year 1996. Figure 11
shows Permaproof bridging fine cracks. Figure 12 shows the same roof with a green cover ten years
later
in
2006.
Permaproof, which has been used on roof and all other elements of buildings, superstructure and
substructure of bridges and inside water reservoirs, provides resistance against chemicals used in
gardening. Figure 13 shows an inclined roof with a green cover. Prior to the preparation of the green
top, the roof was provided with the plaster type Permakar 3 waterproofing treatment (Figure 7).
Bridge
Bridges, like building roofs, can benefit from surface protection7,16,18. This writer propagated the
idea and need for surface protection of bridges, which are more adversely exposed to the environment
than buildings are. The idea is catching in India. Permakar 3, Permaproof, Permacil-GA and Permacil-B
have been used to protect quite a few bridges. All areas of the bridge superstructure are given the
surface protection with Permaproof, Permacil-GA and Permacil or combinations thereof, except that

wet areas, like piers, abutments, etc., are given the Permkar 3 plaster type treatment (Figure 7).
Most often one coat of Permaproof, followed by a coat of Permacil-GA, is provided. Figure 14 shows
such protection on the Bankim Setu (Buckland Bridge), a road over-bridge (ROB) at Howrah Station
across the river from Calcutta. Figure 15 shows the same treatment on the girders of the Katakhali
Bridge over the Goureswar river between Hasnabad and Hingalganj in West Bengal. Figure 16 shows a
span of the multi-span bridge over the Ajoy river near Katwa Town connecting Katwa Ketugram Road,
West Bengal. Two coats of Permaproof were provided. In order to provide protection to the polymeric
compound Permaproof against ultraviolet rays, sand was bonded to the top coat of Permaproof on the
outer faces of the exterior girders. The interior surfaces were not given the sand cover. The piers were
given the Permakar 3 surface protection, Figure 7.
Concluding Remarks
Concrete structures, constructed with high strength rebars with surface deformations, are
characterized by early distress, brought on by corrosion in the rebars. Prestressed concrete structures
also suffer from corrosion in the prestressing elements. The presence of a moist environment inside
concrete structures is a prerequisite for corrosion to take place. Since concrete, without any surface
protection, absorbs water or moisture from the environment, it will be necessary to provide a surface
protection system in the form of a waterproofing treatment to prevent the ingress of moisture/water
and other harmful elements, viz., carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc. The provision of waterproofing systems
on the surface of concrete structures will make such structures durable by delaying and slowing down
the process of corrosion in the ferrous elements inside concrete structures. Any failure to provide
surface protection to concrete structures will mean that such structures will not meet the requirements
of the code IS 456:2000. Chemicals in the line of Permakar Technology, viz., Permakar 3, Permaproof,
Permacil, etc. are very versatile and practically all types of structures, bridges, buildings, tunnels,
water reservoirs and other water retaining structures can be protected with waterproofing systems,
based on such chemicals. The surface protection systems make the protected structures durable,
thereby lowering the life-cycle cost of such structures.
Reference
1. V G Papadakis, M N Fardis and C G Vayenas. Physical and Chemical Characteristics Affecting
the Durability of Concrete. ACI Materials Journal, American Concrete Institute, March-April,
1991.
2. Chief Engineer (Designs). Technical Circular 1/99, Memo No. CDO/DE(D)/ G-291/57 dated
18/02/1999. Central Public Works Department, Government of India, Nirman Bhawan, New
Delhi - 110 011.
3. A K Kar. Concrete Jungle Calamity May be Waiting To happen. The Statesman; Calcutta, 4
August, 2000.
4. A K Kar. Concrete Structures the pH Potential of Cement and Deformed Reinforcing Bars.
Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India), Civil Engineering Division, Volume 82, Kolkata,
June, 2001.
5. A K Kar. Concrete in the Context of Durability. RITES Journal, RITES Ltd., Vol. 8, Issue 1,
April, 2006.
6. A K Kar. Deformed Reinforcing Bars and Early Distress in Concrete Structures. Highway
Research Bulletin, Number 65; Highway Research Board, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi;
December, 2001.
7. A K Kar. Durable Concrete Structures for Infrastructure. All India Seminar on Improving
Transportation in a Congested Metropolitan City; American Society of Civil Engineers India
Section in association with The Institution of Civil Engineers, UK, Eastern Region, India
Chapter, at Calcutta, 13 & 14 December, 2002.

8. A K Kar. IS 456:2000 on durable concrete structures. New Building Materials & Construction
World, Vol.9, Issue-6, New Delhi, December, 2003.
9. A K Kar. Reinforcing bars in the context of durability of concrete structures. All India Seminar
on Utilisation of Skyways and Subways in the Cities in India, organised by American Society of
Civil Engineers India Section and Institution of Engineers, UK, Eastern Region, India, at
Calcutta, 9th and 10th December, 2005.
10. A K Kar. Arresting Water Leakages in Tunnels and Other Underground Structures. All India
Seminar on Underground Construction with Particular Reference to Metro Railways, organised
by the Institution of Engineers (India), West Bengal State Center, at Calcutta, December,
1987.
11. A K Kar. Waterproofing of Structures. International Symposium on Housing, Energy &
Environment, organised by Shelter Promotion Council (India), at New Delhi, 2729 January,
1996.
12. A K Kar. Protection of Structures as a Means to Durability. All India Workshop on Preventive
Measures Maintenance and Life Extension of Civil Engineering Structures, Civil Engineering
Division, organised by The Institution of Engineers (India), West Bengal State Centre, at
Calcutta, 18 September, 1997.
13. A K Kar. Waterproofing As a Means to a Long Life for Structures. All India Seminar on
Construction Chemicals, Present Status and Scope for Improvements, organised by The
Institution of Engineers (India), West Bengal State Centre, at Calcutta, 30th & 31st July,
1998.
14. A K Kar. A Long Life for Structures. MDC News, Management Development Centre, National
Buildings Construction Corporation Limited (NBCC), New Delhi, September, 1998.
15. A K Kar. Durable Concrete Structures. MDC News, Vol. 8, National Buildings Construction
Corporation Ltd., New Delhi, September, 1999.
16. A K Kar. Making Bridges Durable. All India Seminar on Development of Inter-State Highway
Corridors, organized by American Society of Civil Engineers India Section, at Calcutta,
September, 1999.
17. A K Kar. Durability of Containment Structures for Water and Hazardous Liquid Wastes.
Environcon 99, 15th National Convention of Environmental Engineers, organized by
Environmental Engineering Division, The Institution of Engineers (India), West Bengal State
Centre, at Calcutta, 2627 November, 1999.
18. A K Kar. Protection of Structures as a Means to a Long Life for Bridges. Indian Highways, Vol.
28, No. 7, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, July, 2000.
19. A K Kar. Concrete Structures in the Twentyfirst Century. All India Seminar on Structures in
the 21st Century, organised by American Society of Civil Engineers India Section, at
Calcutta, 89 December, 2000.
20. A K Kar. Role of Cement and Steel in Causing Early Distress in Concrete Structures. 1st
National Workshop on Ageing and Restoration of Structures, organised by Indian Institute of
Technology, at Kharagpur, West Bengal, 11-12 January, 2001.
21. A K Kar. Reinforcing Bars and Early Distress in Concrete Structures. MDC News, No. 13;
National Buildings Construction Corporation Limited (NBCC), New Delhi, January 2001.
22. A K Kar. Reinforcing bars the good and the bad. Steel Scenario Journal, Kolkata, Vol. 14,
No. Q1, July- September, 2004.
23. A K Kar. Waterproofing for Green Buildings. Seminar on Elements of Green Buildings in
Indian Context, organized jointly by Institute of Public Health Engineers and Central Pollution
Control Board, at Agra, 45 March.
24. IS 456:2000. Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete, Fourth
Edition. Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
25. A K Kar. FBEC Rebars Must Not Be Used. The Indian Concrete Journal, Mumbai, Vol. 78, No.
1, January, 2004.
26. A K Kar. Waterproofing of Tunnels. All India Seminar on Geo-Technical Aspects of
Infrastructure and Environment, organised by American Society of Civil Engineers India

Section, and Institution of Civil Engineers, (UK), Eastern Region (India), at Calcutta, 1011
December, 2004.
27. IS 2645:2003. Indian Standard :Integral Waterproofing Compounds for Cement Mortar and
Concrete Specification (Second Revision). Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.

Knowledge and Technology Management for Waterproofing

Using Construction Chemicals
Er. P. Srinivasa Reddy, Chief Executive Officer, Rehab Technologies & E. Jagannadha Rao,
Consultant, Rehab Technologies, Hyderabad.
Great leaders do not do great things, but execute simple things brilliantly- Peter Drucker
Management Guru What we build brick-by-brick, may get destroyed by drop-by-drop seepage of
water. To avoid premature deterioration of the buildings and other concrete infrastructure facilities, a
scientific approach towards waterproofing is essential to avoid leakages and seepages. This calls for
knowledge and technology management for designing efficient waterproofing treatments, selection of
site-specific materials and methodologies for execution. This paper presents context pertinent
conceptual and procedural guidance in the field of usage of construction chemicals for post
construction activities such as maintenance, waterproofing, repair, rehabilitation, retrofitting, and so
on, on large-scale implementation. This paper deals with vital topics like technology issues, ideas and
initiatives
pertaining
to
this
field.
Civil engineering is known as mother of all engineering branches. Construction practices and building
material sciences is a highly matured technology, world over. Hence, even a layman is able to
understand and execute complex construction projects. However, the other side of civil engineering
that is post construction activities, which is commonly referred as maintenance and repairs, is a field
where continuously incremental improvements are happening. Yet times even radical and
breakthrough technologies are been adopted successfully. Hence, knowledge and technology is highly
dynamic
and
volatile
in
this
field.
Knowledge and Technology Management (KTM) is a concept highly useful for forward-looking concrete
professionals who increasingly need more specialized knowledge and stateof- the-art technologies in
the core and wider concrete maintenance and repair process:

To
To
To
To
To

raise confidence in waterproofing technology.

avoid hit-or-miss methods (often used in repair projects).
avoid premature failure of maintenance and repair schemes.
achieve longevity of concrete structures.
assess the suitability of materials and methods for a given situation.

Setting up standards through benchmarking high quality precision for repairing, protecting concrete in
industrial and infrastructure projects, with knowledge and technology management as key driver and
enablers. Any deficiency and distress caused due to deterioration, corrosion, leakages, seepages,
cracks, and so on, leads to the serious malfunctioning in terms of capacity and health of the
structures. Thus, the strength and condition of the industrial, institutional, and national vital
infrastructure concrete facilities are to be safe guarded. Deteriorated buildings can effectively be
repaired and rehabilitated to enhance their performance by usage of modern materials, broadly known
as construction chemicals. Annually, lot of money is spent right across the globe on protecting and
maintaining new as well as existing concrete structures to enhance the durable life by appropriate

treatments

and

modern

methods.

Holistic approach consists of tasks like inspection, assessment, condition survey, residual life analysis
followed by the implementation of the best possible treatment. Concrete maintenance and repair, as a
specialized field is gaining more and more significance, than never before. This is even relevance, in
present scenario, due to the consequences of the aging of the housing, institutional, and infrastructure
related to concrete structures.
A Strategic Need
Concrete maintenance and repair is a relatively young and fast growing field with dynamic
advancements of knowledge and technology. It is necessary for the engineers involved in the
maintenance and repair works to become aware of the various intricacy issues involved in this multidisciplinary engineering, which is interlinked to the nations progress. This is very critical,
due to the newness of the technologies, creates interest for the adoption and diffusion and eliminates
the
confusion
prevailing
among
the
decision-makers.
How are we going to prepare the nation to meet the challenges of the next century, to meet the
challenges of the latest technology, as it comes?....Development has to mean absorption of the most
modern techniques at the most basic levels in our society.-Shri Rajiv Gandhi Former Prime Minister
Indian Industry Scenario
In the wake of policy of liberalization, privatization and globalization, there has been a tremendous
influx and exchange of knowledge and technology in several fields of civil engineering. Technology is
the most non-linear tool that can affect the most fundamental changes. The proper exploitation of
technology strongly influences economic competitiveness. Thus, usage of new methods and materials
is no longer a matter of choice, but a matter of necessity.
Significance of Waterproofing
Waterproofing is a major challenge to the civil engineers in several situations. Poor waterproofing
causes inconvenience to the occupants. Ineffective / absence of waterproofing reduces the durability
of structures by way of corrosion of reinforcement.
Waterproofing or Damp proofing?
Many a times, we come across the dilemma whether damp proofing to be adopted or waterproofing
materials to be used or both to be implemented or both these are one and the same. Here comes the
knowledge
of
the
specifications
data
mine.
As per ASTM D 1079, Waterproofing is defined as Treatment of surface or structure to prevent the
passage of water under hydrostatic pressure. Whereas, Damp proofing is defined as Treatment of
surface or structure to resist the passage of water in the absence of the hydrostatic pressure. Hence,
these are not only two different words with two different meanings, but altogether two different
technologies for similar purpose.
Current Scenario
The waterproofing industry in India has undergone a sea change in the past decade. Several players
entered the market with both imported and indigenous technologies. Unfortunately some offer a
quick fix low quality solutions with tall claims, which will not perform as estimated. But in reality,

quality conscious customers are on a lookout for a Total Solution Provider for long lasting results.
Hence, many waterproofing manufacturers and service players are intending to serve these quality
clients, which necessary needs knowledge and technology to match the explicit and implicit needs
related to waterproofing of concrete structures, such as buildings.
Quality Conscious or Knowledge?
Typically as the waterproofing and construction chemical industry in India is upgrading rapidly in a
very relatively short period from no treatment to mortars using sand and cement, to bituminous
coatings, felts and to innovative coatings and membranes as knowledge has grown. Traditionally,
specifications for waterproofing central around waterproofing systems such as brickbat coba,
bituminous coatings, felts etc. The conventional waterproofing systems are slowly becoming outdated
due to their inherent disadvantages and membrane waterproofing coatings, are gaining popularity. In
the recent times, waterproofing specifications are being reworked and modifications are being
incorporated to replace the old systems with the modern materials, broadly known as construction
chemicals.
Materials/ Systems for Waterproofing
Waterproofing of roof slabs, basements, floors, terrace gardens, sunken slabs etc. needs different
materials and systems. Waterproofing like any other aspect of the construction engineering need to be
understood, analyzed and designed for a suitable system on a case to case basis, before
implementation
through
experienced
professional
applicators.
Presently, wide range of waterproofing technologies available, such as:

Lime terrace
Brick bar coba / Surkey
Cement sand screeds
Cement paints
Tar based cold and hot applied coatings
Tar felts
Polyurethane coatings
Multilayer membranes
Silane Siloxane based sealers
Silicon based water repellents
Neoprene based coatings
Polymer modified cementitious coatings
Spray applied membranes
Foam waterproofing
E l a s t o m e r i c membranes
Polymer modified cementitious systems
Bitumen / Neoprene / Polyurethane systems

Application Techniques
The waterproofing materials and systems are expected to be installed or applied by using one of these
methods:

Brush applied
Roller applied
Spray applied
Impregnation

Spreading, laying, and bonding

Performance Selection
Each of these systems and materials, when applied by employing one of the above techniques, the
performance of the waterproofing is expected to be one or combination of these, depending on the
requirements.
Protects concrete from the intrusion of liquids thru cracks / joints

Excellent adhesion and water resistance

High flexibility and elongation crack arresting
Minimizes liquid absorption by concrete
Typical applications Below and above grade waterproofing, traffic decks

Many times due to lack of awareness of knowledge and technological advances and choices around us,
will end up using inferior methods and materials, leading to premature failure of the treatments.
Selection of right technology is essential to avoid this. Hence, knowledge plays a key role while
making decisions about waterproofing in mega projects, by either over or under specifying than the
necessary and wasting the valuable resources of the nation.
Value System in Waterproofing
Stake holders in construction industry consists, end user of the facilities, owner / operator of the
asset, designer consultant / engineer, major civil contractor, subcontractor labour / materials /
tools,
product
distributor,
and
building
materials
manufacturer.
Building materials manufacturers, especially construction chemical manufacturers, in the case of
waterproofing and repairs are the torch bearers of the technology in construction industry.
They exist at the very bottom of the value chain, contributing significantly converting knowledge in to
commercially viable technology to suit the industry need. Yet times they drive the industry. Thus,
enabling the growth of the industry. Is it in the right direction, is a mystery.
Role of Knowledge and Technology Management
In recent years, there has been a surge of interest in managing knowledge, created by people to
address a specific given problem. Usage of appropriate chemical based treatment for waterproofing in
a multi-million projects, do need knowledge management initiatives. In critical and highly complex
situations project authorities, need more than technology experts. Essentially, Six forms of
Knowledge,
enables
to
take
the
most
logically
correct
decision.
1. Context KnowledgeStems from understanding the circumstances and underlying Systems.
2.

Experiencehaving

3.

Content

4.

Applied

tacit

information

Knowledgehaving
Skillbeing

able

about

deep

level

to

do

how

things

understanding
things

to

are

about
a

done

processes

high

level

around

here.

and

subject.

of

quality.

5. Insightbeing able to use creative imagination and reason to make connections, create ideas and
suggest
new
ways
forward.

6. People Knowledgean awareness of who can do what, and how well they can do it.
A critical and challenging engineering project such as waterproofing using construction chemicals must
state its strategies and objectives. The knowledge requirements have to be identified to meet these
goals. The difference between the requirements and what current levels are referred to knowledge
gap. If properly done, has potential to form tie-up for complementary capabilities.
Waterproofing Technology is continuously progressing. In this context several important concepts are
illustrated which are of use to technology planners and forecasters in this filed. Waterproofing
Technology, per say is all the knowledge, products, tools, methods and systems employed in the
Creating of a leak proof structure. Sustaining success depends on the skill in choosing technology
based engineering decisions. Technologies are of several types, such as: New technology, Emerging
technology, High technology, Low technology, Medium technology, Appropriate technology, creative
technology, breakthrough technology, and so on.
Strategic Directions to Waterproofing Technology
The performance of a technology has a recognized pattern over time that if properly understood, can
be of great use in planning. Technology requires deep understanding of the life cycle of the
technology, products, process, and system. A technologys improvement of performance follows the
S curve. When a technology performance parameter (on y axis) is plotted against time (on x axis),
the resultant resembles an S shaped diagram, called S- curve. Any technology progresses through a
three stage technology life cycle (TLC). The first stage is the new invention period, also known as
embryonic stage. The second stage is technology improvement period, also known as the growth
period. The third stage is mature technology period. The technology becomes vulnerable to
substitution or obsolescence when new or better performing technology emerges. S-cure of
technology is a powerful model in technology forecasting.
Technology Push Vs. Market Pull
Technology opens new vistas. Technology is also often developed to meet a market need or demand.
Technology push leads to scientific discoveries, applied knowledge, recognized needs, intellectual
capital. On the other hand market pull creates market demand, proliferation of application areas,
recognized needs, opportunities for increased quality, productivity, and so on. Ideally integrating
technology push and market pull to stimulate innovation.
Conclusion
In recent past, usage of construction chemicals for waterproofing had increased, as the construction
industry had grown on a sustainable basis. There is a sudden shift from conventional rigid
waterproofing technologies, which predominantly consists of a single material viz. bituminous coatings
and felts to elastomeric waterproofing, and so on, coatings which are a combination of several
materials to achieve major performance advantages on a long term basis. Now its time to develop
indigenous skills, knowledge, processes, rather than inviting and importing the low technologies.
Construction chemical manufacturers should promote technologies suitable to our national economy
i.e affordability and environment i.e weather and climatic conditions. Non Invented Here (NIH)
technologies unfortunately are highly appreciated, encouraged, recommended, and implemented by
waterproofing
industry
stake
holders.
It is the knowledge society that will transform India into a developed nation. - Dr. A P J
Abdul
Kalam
President
of
India

Here an attempt is made to introduce the knowledge and technology management concepts to bring
out the intricacies associated with contemporary waterproofing systems using construction chemicals.
Hope the mind set will change where new dynamic ideas are encouraged and implemented.
Authors Profiles Er. P Srinivasa Reddy is a civil engineering graduate, associated with the
Construction Industry for more than fifteen years, and is Chief Executive Officer of Rehab
Technologies, currently consultant in the area of civil engineering materials & its applications, repair
and
rehabilitation
of
concrete
structures.
E Jagannadha Rao is a graduate in Applied Sciences from Andhra University, Post-Graduate Diploma
in Systems Management, trained in Six Sigma and a Certified Software quality professional. He
possesses about 18 years of International and National level IT industry experience in the United
States and Saudi Arabia. Currently, associated as Consultant with Rehab Technologies for
conceptualizing and implementation of highly knowledge and technology intensive consulting
assignments in the field of civil engineering.
Acknowledgment
Our sincere acknowledgments are due to Dr. Atul Sen, Head, Knowledge Management Center, Defense
Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad. Dr. Sen had trained, encouraged and supported
us to learn and understand KTM concepts and permitted to use some of his presentation material in
this paper. We also acknowledge all our clients and business associates, who had provided opportunity
to offer our consulting services in the area of implementing new technologies to enhance performance
of their concrete structures.

Waterproofing An Overview
Gopal Krishna & P.T.Thomas, Chembond Chemicals Ltd, Navi Mumbai.
Concrete, a composite, construction material made with cement, aggregate, water and admixture,
comprise the largest of all man made construction material of our time. Its plasticity, workability, ease
to place, to cast and compact while wet and strong and durable when hardened, make it one of the
unique material. Generally strength of concrete is considered as the most important criteria among
the
properties
of
concrete.
But when taking the account of durability of the structure, resistance to water permeability is also
considered as an essential requirement of the structure for which it is designed to withstand the
environmental condition for over period of time without any deterioration. Being a water based
product, and due to its composition of cement-aggregate-water is often susceptible to damage and
deterioration from water and chemical penetration. Although it appears to be solid material, it is
porous and permeable. Normally to make concrete workable and easy to place and consolidate more
water than necessary is added. This extra water will bleed out of concrete leaving behind pores and
capillary tracts. Another drawback is shrinkage cracks, shrinkage is a common phenomenon generally
encountered in cement based products due to contraction of total mass upon loss of moisture.
Although concrete is designed to be durable, normally it is observed that inadequate mix proportion,
use of substandard material, improper compaction and placing makes the structure vulnerable to
ingress of water chemicals resulting reinforcement corrosion and further deterioration of structure.

To overcome all these, to a very good extent, and make concrete reasonably impermeable,
precautionary steps like, good mix design, usage of standard materials, proper supervising while
placing and compacting, giving enough coverage to reinforcement, proper curing, use of flyash and
other pozzolona blended cements, using permeability reducing admixtures etc are to be considered
seriously. Permeability retards the durability and reduces the life span of the structure, waterproofing
or dampproofing is carried out to prevent or to seal unwanted water containing deleterious salts and
chemicals to enter in the structure, resulting reinforcement corrosion and other destructive activities.
The activity of waterproofing of the structure/building, which is practiced in one form or other ever
since the construction started in our history. The methodology has gone through various changes, by
design of the structure, availability & application of different construction materials.
There are lots of conventional and unconventional methods practiced for waterproofing in construction
field. Old methods like brick batcobba, cementlime based treatments, bituminous coatings are still
practiced successfully. But the development of modern construction material and technology, the
concept of waterproofing has changed tremendously. Nowadays integral waterproofing compounds are
admixed
into
the
plastic
concrete.
These materials impart water repelling (damp-proofing) to concrete, may reduce moisture migration
through capillary reaction. Surface coating application is another known method generally followed.
But most of these are found to be ineffective in reducing the water passage under a positive
hydrostatic pressure. Treating the concrete to retard the absorption of water or water vapor by
concrete or to retard their transmission through concrete is considered as Damp-proofing.
Treatment of a structure or asurface to prevent the passage of liquid water under hydrostatic pressure
is called is Waterproofing. This positive prevention of the ingress and movements of water under
hydrostatic pressure distinguished waterproofing from damp-proofing. Further there are positive and
negative side waterproofing. Positive side waterproofing is applied on the same side as the applied
hydrostatic pressure. Negative side waterproofing is applied on the side opposite to that applied
hydrostatic pressure. Due to the unavailability of access to the positive side, negative side
waterproofing
are
also
practiced.
The most common waterproofing methods:

Brickbat coba method: This system involved in laying clay bricks with light weight lime mortar
on the roof and spreading it for easy draining away of rain water. This system is popular not
because of the waterproofing, but the weather proofing capabilities.
But it adds weight to the structure and once water starts entering, the porous clay brick pieces
absorbs large quantity of water, resulting continuous leakage of roof.
Cement/lime based treatments: Coating the surface with cement lime mortar is a time proven
and economical method with good insulation properties. But it is non-flexible and also
increases the load of the structure. 3 Mineral slurry with polymer component is an easy
method to apply. It retains the breathing capacity of concrete but with moderate flexibility. 4
Epoxy & polyurethane coating is highly abrasion resistant and resistant to UV radiation and
does not add weight to the structure. But this has limited potlife, not very flexible and stops
breathing capacity of concrete.
Elastomeric membrane forming products: It forms seamless membrane, highly flexible, UV
resistant, retains breathing capacity of concrete with indirect insulation, but with low abrasion
value.
Silicon based impregnators as water repellent, easy to apply and economical, but it has no
crack bridging capacity, and does not withstand pressure.

Bituminous based products and modified bitumen are very economical, flexible, with good
crack bridging capacity. But it softens under heat and brittle when cold, limited life upon
solvent evaporation and other limitation due to its unpleasant black colour.

Crystalline water proofing system: In this system water bearing capillaries are blocked with insoluble
crystals, the saturated surface is applied one or two coatings with crystalline waterproofing slurry.
In modern construction technology developments a single product or technique is not usually enough,
involvement of various bodies and techniques in coordination is essential for making the structure
waterproof. Structure should have sufficient and efficient various control joints like expansion joints,
contraction joints, etc. if proper control joints are not provided in large slabs, no waterproofing system
will
be
successful.
Among the various methods mentioned above, two are proven successful and effective, they are:
Crystalline
waterproofing
system
Flexible
membrane
waterproofing
system.
Crystalline waterproofing provides a quick, cost saving alternate to the traditional flexible membrane
waterproofing system. In some cases, external waterproofing application requires enough space to
make application outside of a structure. This can cause problems as there is not enough space for
membrane application because of adjacent structures. Crystalline waterproofing can solve this
problem to some extent; by negative side application as the unavailability of access to the positive
side. Crystalline water proofing when applied to a surface either as a coating or dry shake application
to a freshly placed concrete slab a process called chemical diffusion takes place.
Crystalline water proofing compound reacts with various chemicals and moisture in the concrete to
form insoluble crystals which seal the capillaries and shrinkage cracks. Its action as by filling and
plugging pores, capillaries, micro-cracks and other voids with a non-soluble/insoluble highly resistant
crystalline formation makes waterproofing more effective. As the crystalline waterproofing chemicals
continue to migrate through water, a crystalline structure is formed. This reaction will continue until
the crystalline chemicals are either depleted or run out of water. Some manufacturers are claiming
that
this
chemical
diffusion
takes
place
about
12
inches
into
the
concrete.
If water has soaked only 2 inches and stop but, they have the potential to travel 10 inches further, if
water re-enter the concrete at some point in future and reactivate the chemicals. Thus the crystalline
formation engages the material filling and plug the voids in the concrete to became an integral and
permenant part of the structure. Because this crystalline formation are within the concrete and are not
exposed at the surface, they cannot be punctured or damaged like membrane or surface coatings.
Crystalline waterproofing system can be executed in three different ways as per the requirement and
the situation demands. Surface coating is most common, other are dry shake powder application and
as an admixture added at the time of batching. In dry shake powder application for horizontal set
concrete and structural slabs, the Crystalline waterproofing compound is spread across uniformily to
fresh concrete after initial set and power trowelled. Unset concrete matrix contains an abundance of
moisture for optimal penetration of crystalline waterproofing compounds. As an admixture, when
added at the time of batching, crystalline waterproofing compounds reacts with moisture in fresh
concrete and the bi-products of cement hydration to cause catalytic reaction, which generates a
nonsoluble crystalline formation through the pores and capillary tracts of the concrete.
Advantages
This integral CWP system has so many advantages compared to other waterproofing systems. When
used as a negative side waterproofing application, which is as effective as positive side waterproofing,
allow to expedite the construction schedules by back filling sooner. It is highly resistant to abrasion,

wear and tear, no risk of tearing or puncturing. Cost of material and labor are lower. As there is no
problem like insufficient seam coverage, poor surface preparation and inadequate adhesion as there in
the membrane system. The integral crystalline waterproofing system become a part of concrete
matrix, are permanent can self seal hair line cracks, resistant to hydrostatic pressure, allows concrete
to breath, protect for a life time.
Waterproofing by Surface Applied Membranes
Surface applied membrane type waterproofing system currently accepted worldwide. The recent
progress in polymer technology with the development of polymer modified bitumen like ATACTIC
POLYPROPYLENE (APP) modified bitumen improves the physical property of bitumen. This modified
bitumen coating has overcome to a very good extent, to remove the drawback of conventional
bitumen membrane of its undesirable temp; related variations like to become brittle at freezing temps
and
soft
at
high
temps.
Since waterproofing connot be carried out using a single material, i.e. suitable for one structure, may
not apt for another. The use of various materials in combination and methodologies are vital for
effective waterproofing to meet the specified design and durability requirements has significantly
revolutionized waterproofing as waterproofing system. This system includes combination of materials,
application techniques, specified requirements like providing efficient drainage system, using various
construction joints, water stops etc. To demonstrate waterproofing as system one of the very recent
example is construction of Delhi metro, underground structure. Here the various material in
combination to meet or to conform, international & Indian standards, techniques, test methods for
performance guarantee etc made this particular project a typical example to describe waterproofing as
a system.
Application of APP Membrane for Base Slab

The underground structure of Metro rail project has proven with this APP bituminous modified
membrane system without any water leakage. These underground structures are designed for a life
span of 120 years and 50 years for over ground structures. To meet the design stipulation of life span
of 120 years, a well designed and nearly effective waterproofing system is utmost essential, here the
structures are provided with a fully covered waterproofing membrane protection to all the external
faces
of
the
structure.
Base slabs are constructed over leveling concrete which is applied with waterproofing membrane.
External walls and roofs are covered with waterproofing membrane, which is bonded with parent
concrete, and these membranes are further protected with concrete blocks protection layers coverage
for any possible tearing or puncturing from external sources. Besides there are provided construction
joints and water-stops and other drainage systems as per the design requirements.
Following is a brief description of the materials used application techniques executed on the

waterproofing treatment of under ground structures like base slab; walls and roof of all under ground
structures built with cut and cover method of Delhi metro projects. Here all the cut and cover
underground structures are provided with a fully tanked waterproofing membrane fully bonded with
external faces of structure.
Vertical Application of APP Membrane
On sufficiently hardened, surface leaned, blinding concrete a bituminous primer is applied. A
waterproofing membrane4mm thick homogeneous thermoplasticblend of Atatic polypropylene (APP)
distilled between with a reinforcement of 160 gm per square meter of non-woven polyester, top
surface is covered with mineral protection with silica and the bottom surface is covered with a
flamable polyethylene film, is then thermo fused by flame torching of inside face of membrane, which
is embossed and protected by a seven micron thick polyethylene film. On this membrane applied
surface a high abrasion resistant polymeric mortar is laid up to 3 mm thickness. At least three days
curing is provided to this mortar layer before laying reinforcement.

For walls, on a clean and dry surface a primer is applied. When it is touch dry, the similar APP
membrane is thermo fused by flame torching. To protect this membrane system from any further
damage during other external activities a 75mm thick concrete block work is provided. For roof
structures the similar methods followed for membrane application and protection layer of concrete is
provided.
The recent economic boom in India generated the upcoming of lot of mega projects, like, metro rail
projects, express high ways, multi-storied building complexes with large capacity underground facility
for vehicle parking and other utilities. Unavailability of surface land at crowded cities, shortening of
distance of rail and roads, maximal utilization of available space etc are forced construction agencies
to
consider
seriously
for
underground
projects.
Metro rail projects, tunnels through mountains and under the bed of water, and deep basements are
typical examples. For all these projects waterproofing has a vital role for the designed durability
especially surface applied membrane system to prevent passage of water under hydrostatic pressure
to form a continuous impermeable membrane barrier to prevent leakage into usable space or to
prevent loss of water from a retaining structure. So waterproofing nowadays revolutionized as a major
preventive measure than a cosmetic treatment.

Why Waterproofing is Essential

Dr. Surendra P. Bhatnagar, CMD, Tech-Dry (India) Pvt. Ltd. and Mr. R. N. Kaura, CEO, BPS
Building Protection Systems Pvt. Ltd. Bangalore.

Waterproofing is one of the most critical, yet neglected subjects because the common man is not
exposed to the concrete technology. He just wonders and is shocked when he sees leakage in his
building, but most of the time he considers it as inconvenience rather than a serious matter.
Water infiltration causes major problems to a structure. Water damages a building first cosmetically
then structurally. It is important to realize that by the time a stain shows up on the interior of your
building most likely irreversible damage has been caused to the exterior. Water soaked roof insulation
will
never
dry
out.
Trapped moisture in insulation can also decay a roof deck and will cause roofs to fail prematurely.
Water entering walls will rust steel relieving angles and carrying beams, which support the structure.
Moisture penetrating reinforced concrete structures carry chloride ions, which will rust reinforcing bars
causing them to expand in size resulting in spalling of concrete. As one begins to understand the
mechanics of water infiltration one begins to understand the importance of keeping a building
watertight.
Water enters the building and can have immediate and long term undesired effects. Apart from
damage to the building contents, structural damage is unavoidable if the problem persists. Water
damage can be compared to fire as a cause of building decay and deterioration. Water is hydrophilic
and to convert it into hydrophobic is the definition of waterproofing.
Concrete is Hydrophilic But What Makes it Absorb Water?

Concrete, bricks, stones and mortars are composed of crystals of carbonate, silicate, aluminates or
oxides, whose surfaces are rich in oxygen atoms, which carry negative electrical charge of hydroxyl
groups, which carry both negative and positive charges. Such surfaces are polar and are also called
hydrophilic. When water comes into contact with these surfaces, hydrogen bonds are formed between
the surface and the water molecules. Once the buildingmaterials come in contact with water, they
absorb
water
through
their
pores
by
the
capillary
action.
Concrete, which is prepared by mixing of cement, sand, aggregate and water, is the most successful
building material of the modern world. Portland cement is made from clay and limestone. Once the
cement has been mixed with water, a reaction commences. The chemical reactions are complex but
the hydration reaction of cement with water produces insoluble silicate compounds and calcium
hydroxide
(Scheme
1.1
and
1.2).
Carbonation starts simultaneously with hydration (Scheme 1.3). Carbonation hardens the concrete
and helps reduce the permeability of the concrete. However, carbonation reduces the alkalinity of the
concrete and it is the alkalinity of the concrete which protects the reinforcing steel in a steel-reinforced
concrete structure.
Strength of Concrete

The strength of concrete is very much dependent upon the hydration reaction as discussed above.
Water plays a critical role, particularly the amount used. The strength of concrete increases when less
water is used to make concrete. The hydration reaction itself consumes a specific amount of water.
Concrete is actually mixed with more water than is needed for the hydration reactions. This extra
water
is
added
to
give
concrete
sufficient
workability.
Flowing concrete is desired to achieve proper filling and composition of the forms. The water not
consumed in the hydration reaction will remain in the microstructure pore space. These pores make
the concrete weaker due to the lack of strengthforming calcium silicate hydrate bonds. Some pores
will remain no matter how well the concrete has been compacted. The relationship between the
water/cement
ratio
and
porosity
is
illustrated
in
the
figure
give
below.
During hydration calcium hydroxide is produced which protects the reinforcement from corrosion since
the steel cannot corrode in highly alkaline condition. Normally, concrete exhibits a pH above 12
because of the presence of calcium hydroxide-the term pH is a measure of the alkalinity or acidity,
ranging from highly alkaline at 14 to highly acidic at zero, with neutrality at 7.
Although the precise nature of this passive film is unknown, it isolates the steel from the environment
and slows further corrosion as long as the film is intact. The effect of the environment on mineral
building materials is a natural process, which has not attracted significant scientific interest until
recently. The initial work in Germany around 1900 investigated the weathering of natural stones. The
problem, which has now attracted is the entry of water containing dissolved toxic substances to the
inner
parts
of
the
concrete
by
capillary
action.
This statement may be extended to the entry of deteriorating agents as a gas or in solution. Later a
problem associated with modern concrete construction emerged-that of steel corrosion in steelreinforced structures causing spalling. Unless this phenomenon of degeneration of reinforcement is not
slowed or stopped, buildings will not be durable and can lead to problems of safety. Infact depending
on the chemistry of the environment the malignancy can set-in as early as 3 months of the substrates
exposure to the strong environment. Rain with dissolved materials from atmosphere, CO2, SO2, SO3,
Nitrogenoxides present in the atmosphere around and water penetration by rising damp influence the
building structures and cause deterioration. Macing spray + salt water, Gases, deicing salts and rain
with dissolved chemicals from atmosphere influence the bridge structures.
How Water Enters?
Normally we would be expecting a building to be watertight but there are always ingress points on the
concrete, in other parts of the building because of variety of reasons and water can enter through
these points to cause the following damages

Corrosion of metals such as steel reinforcement in concrete structures causing malignancy.

Swelling of plasterboards and subsequent debonding of ceramic tiles.

Possible short circuit of lighting and power points.
Blistering of Paint.
Damage to structures and finishes such as floor joints, beams, floors, studs, skirting, and
frames.
Health problems due to dampness, which may lead to respiratory problems, growth of microorganisms and exposure to gas like radon.

Water in the building can also be a big threat to health and happiness, it contributes to environmental
pollution especially in big cities where very large population concentrated in a small space, creates
carbon dioxide, sew ge, smoke from motorized vehicles, etc. This is a very complicated problem with
no
single
solution.
The environment is polluted with chloride, carbon dioxide and other gases like sulphure dioxide, oxides
of Nitrogen, sometimes known as acid rains and these pollutants dissolve in water, enter into the
building
and
damage
the
reinforcement.
In some states, in India, there is a report that because of high uranium in stone the presence of highly
dangerous and killer gas radon to be checked. Concrete building contributes significantly to the
environmental pollution more so when we use products like bitumen and asbestos.
A dark roof coated by bitumen can attain a very high surface temperature and in addition the reflected
radiation from adjacent surface can raise the surface temperature much above than attained by direct
radiation. The composition of the Asphalt will vary based on the origin of crude oil.
Saturated felts consist primarily of organic or inorganic fibres (asbestos) which are interlocked to form
a continuous sheet, then saturated with asphalt or coal tar pitch (organic felts only) and perforated for
use in roofing. The coal tar is known to contain chemicals, which can be classified as polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, a class of chemical with harmful properties. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
in high concentrations are harmful not only to wild life, but to humans as well.
Inspite of these problems, we would atleast want to live in a house which is comfortable and secured.
Unfortunately, indoor pollution is quite prevalent and equally damaging. Important sources of
chemical indoor pollutants include outdoor air, the human body and human activities, emissions from
building materials, furnishings and appliances and use of consumer products. Microbial contamination
is
mostly
related
to
the
presence
of
humidity.
The heating, ventilating and air conditioning system can also act as a pollutant source, especially
when it is not properly maintained. Two essential components of a healthier home are moisture
control and air infiltration. Excess moisture and/or high humidity can contribute to the growth and
dispersion of biological contaminants like mold and dust mites. Excess air infiltration resulting from
warm and cold air meeting within wall cavities can cause condensation and contribute to mold growth
which can cause upper respiratory irritation and infections and a myriad of other health effects,
including allergic reactions, hypersensitivity pneumonitis (like bacterial pneumonia), eye irritation, ear
infections,
skin
rashes
and
various
immunologic
symptoms.
The typical components of building a healthy home include foundation waterproofing and slab
moisture control; advanced framing techniques; air sealing and advanced insulation techniques;
energy efficient, high performance windows; energy efficient and sealed combustion appliances; high
efficiency air filtration and ventilation; humidity control; and carefully selected interior finishings.
Biological pollutants, which are living organisms, can cause serious problems like fungus growth in the
house causing allergies, infections etc. Two conditions are essential to support biological growth;

nutrients and moisture. These conditions can be found in many locations, such as bathrooms, damp or
flooded
basements,
wet
appliances,
rooms
with
seepage
and
leakage.
Some diseases or illness have been linked with biological pollutants in the indoor environment.
Moisture control and waterproofing of the house is one of the solutions to avoid biological pollutants
inside the house. Therefore, it is essential to fix leaks and seepages and it is equally important to
ensure that mold surfaces are clean and after waterproofing, there is no further mold growth
throughout the house, including attics, basements and crawlspaces, and around the foundation. See if
there are many plants close to house, particularly if they are damp and rotting. They are a potential
source
of
biological
pollutants.
In view of the fact that water does not only damage the building but also causes health hazards and it
is therefore essential to give top priority to waterproofing.
Approaches to Building Protection
Approach

Change the environmentTo reduce the level of damage the level of pollutants at particular situations
could be reduced, for instance, by the careful siting of industrial areas and by reduction of motor
vehicle
emissions
and
other
emissions.
Approach

Reduce the water ingressThe ingress of water could be reduced by design and by intervention. For
instance flashings can be used to run water off buildings and monuments. Rising damp may be
stopped by intervention so arresting decay due to salts. Drainage may be improved.
Approach 3

Protect the building material by impregnationThe building material may be impregnated with a
material which will reduce liquid water ingress. At the present state of knowledge it is not possible to
impregnate
the
building
material
and
effectively
stop
damaging
gas
diffusion.
Approach

Protect the building material by surface coatingThe surface of the building may be coated with a
specialist surface coating to interrupt the diffusion of damaging gases and liquid water. Alternatively,
this coating may be a thicker protective coating such as a render. This coating should allow the
transmission of water vapour.
Conclusion

Question to be calibrated is whether we are living in a safe and durable structure? Inspite of the best
technologies available today we find that the buildings start showing stress within a very short period.
As soon as monsoon arrives, leakage and seepage problems especially for roof and terraces are at the
forefront, besides the heavy expenditure, which is incurred on repair and rehabilitation is swelling and
would cripple our economy one day. A wide range of products for waterproofing have been offered
under brand protecta.

Concrete Waterproofing with Crystalline Technology

Stanley Stark, FAIA, XYPEX , USA
From foundations, floor slabs and exterior precast panels, to water treatment facilities and under
ground urban infrastructure, concrete is one of the most commonly used building and construction
materials. However, due to its composition, a mixture of rock, sand, cement, and water, concrete is
often susceptible to damage and deterioration from water and chemical penetration.
These deleterious effects can be avoided through the use of crystalline waterproofing technology,
which effectively improves the durability and life span of concrete structures, there by reducing longterm maintenance costs. This article explore & show crystalline technology provides a high level of
performance to Concrete mixtures, materials, and structures, and what design professionals need to
know in order to specify and understand how this chemical technology will enhance building projects.
The Nature of Concrete

The aggregate base of a concrete mixture is formed by rock and sand. This cement and water mixture
creates a paste that binds the aggregates together. As the cement particles hydrate, or combine with
water, they form calcium silicate hydrates. The mixture then hardens into a solid, rock-like mass.
Concrete is also a water-based product. To make this mixture workable, easy to place, and
consolidate, more water than is necessary for the hydration of the cement is used. This extra water,
known as the water of convenience, will bleed out of the concrete, leaving behind pores and capillary
tracts. Although concrete appears to be a solid material, it is both porous and permeable.
Water reducers and super plasticizers are used to reduce the amount of water in the concrete mix,
and maintain its workability. However, pores, voids, and capillary paths will remain in cured concrete
and can carry water and aggressive chemicals into structural elements that will corrode steel
reinforcement and deteriorate concrete, thus jeopardizing the structures integrity.
The Porous and Permeable Nature of Concrete

Concrete is best described as a porous and permeable material. Porosity refers to the amount of holes
or voids left in concrete, is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of a material. Permeability is
an expression of how well the voids are connected. Together, these qualities allow pathways to form
that allow the movement of water into, and through, along with the cracking that occurs due to
shrinkage. Permeability, a broader term than porosity, is the ability of liquid water under pressure to
flow
through
porous
material.
Permeability is described by a quantity known as the permeability coefficient, commonly referred to as
DArcys Coefficient. The water permeability of a concrete mix is a good indicator of the quality of the
concrete for durability reasons. The lower DArcys Coefficient, that is, the more impervious, the higher
the quality of the material. Nevertheless, a concrete with low permeability may be relatively durable
but
may
still
need
a
waterproofing
agent
to
prevent
leakage
through
cracks.
Despite its apparent density, concrete remains a porous and permeable material that can leak and
deteriorate rapidly when in contact with water or the intrusion of aggressive chemicals, such as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, chlorides, sulfates or other substances. But there are other ways in which
water can be transported through concrete.
Vapor Flow and Relative Humidity
Water
air as
Water
vapor

also migrates in the form of water vapor as relative humidity. Relative humidity is water held in
a dissolved gas. As water vapor heats up, it contains more water and exerts vapor pressure.
can also be transported through concrete as vapor. The direction of flow travels from high
pressure, generally the source, to low vapor pressure, by a process of diffusion.

The direction of flow could vary base on environmental conditions. The direction of vapor flow is
critical when applying water proofing treatment in situations where an unbalanced vapor pressure
gradient exists. Typical examples include:
Applying a low vapor permeable membrane, such as a traffic deck coating over a damp concrete
surface (even if the very top surface is dry) on a warm day will result in pressure vapor pressure
build-up and pin-holing or blistering.
Applying a coating or sealant to the outside of a building wall may trap moisture into the wall if the
sealant is not sufficiently vapor permeable.
Applying low vapor permeable flooring over a slab-on-grade where there is high sub surface
moisture content may resulting delamination of the flooring. Generally, a low vapor permeable sealant
or coating should not be placed on the down stream face of a building or structure. Either the vapor
pressure or water pressure will act to damage and blister the membrane. Some types of coatings and
water permeability reducing admixtures in the concrete accommodate considerable vapor movement,
thus allowing them to be placed successfully on the down stream side. Primary examples are cementbased waterproof coatings and water permeability reducing admixtures.
How Crystalline Waterproofing Technology Works
Crystalline technology improves the durability and performance of concrete structures, lowering their
maintenance cost and extending their lifespan by protecting them against the effect of aggressive
chemicals. These high performance qualities result from the ways in which the crystalline technology
works,
when
used
with
concrete.
Crystalline water proofing technology improves the water proofness and durability of concrete by
filling and plugging pores, capillaries, micro-cracks, and other voids with a nonsoluble, highly resistant
crystalline formation. The water proofing effect is based on two simple reactions, one chemical and
one physical. Concrete is chemical in nature. When a cement particle hydrates, the action between

waterand the cement that causes it to be come a hard, solid mass. The reaction also generates
chemical
by
products
that
lie
dormant
in
the
concrete.
Crystalline waterproofing adds another set of chemicals to the mixture. When these two chemical
groups, the byproducts of cement hydration and the crystalline chemicals, are brought together in the
presence of moisture, a chemical reaction occurs. The end product of this reaction is a non soluble
crystalline
structure.
This crystalline structure can only occur where moisture is present, and thus will form in the pores,
capillary tracts, and shrinkage cracks in concrete. Wherever water goes, crystalline water proofing will
form filling the pore, voids and cracks. When crystalline water proofing is applied to the surface, either
as a coating or as a dry shake application to a fresh concrete slab, a process called chemical diffusion
takes place. The theory behind diffusion is that a solution of high density will migrate through a
solution
of
lower
density
until
the
two
equalize.
Thus, when concrete is saturated with water prior to applying crystalline water proofing, a solution of
low chemical density is also being applied. When crystalline waterproofing is applied to the concrete, a
solution of high chemical density is created at the surface, triggering the process of chemical
diffusion.The crystalline waterproofing chemicals must migrate through the water (the solution of low
density) until the two solutions equalize.

The crystalline waterproofing chemicals spread through the concrete and become available to the
byproducts of cement hydration, allowing the chemical reaction to take place. A crystalline structure is
formed, and as the chemicals continue to migrate through the water, this crystalline growth will form
behind
this
advancing
front
of
chemicals.
The reaction will continue until the crystalline chemicals are either deplete do run out of water.
Chemical diffusion will take these chemicals about 12 inches into the concrete. If water has only
soaked two inches into the surface, then the crystalline chemicals will only travel two inches and stop
but, they still have the potential totravel 10 inches further, if water reenters the concrete at some
point
in
the
future
and
reactivates
the
chemicals.
Instead of reducing the porosity of concrete, like water reducers, plasticizers, and super plasticizers,
the crystalline formation engages the material filling and plugs the voids in concrete to become an
integral
and
permanent
part
of
the
structure.
Because these crystalline formations are within the concrete and are not exposed at the surface, they
cannot be punctured or otherwise damaged like membranes or surface coatings. Crystalline
waterproofing is highly resistant to chemicals where the pH range is between three and 11 under
constant contact, and two to 12 under periodic contact.Crystalline waterproofing will tolerate
temperatures between-25 degrees Fahrenheit (-32degrees Centigrade) and 265 degrees Fahrenheit
(130 degrees Centigrade) in a constant state. Humidity, ultraviolet light, and oxygen levels have no
impact
on
the
products
ability
to
perform.
Crystalline waterproofing offers protection against the following agents and phenomena:

 Inhibits the effects of CO, CO2 , SO2 and NO2 , the gasses responsible for the corrosive phenomenon
known as carbonation. Carbonation is the process where exterior gasses create a corrosive
phenomenon that softens the surface layers of the concrete. Carbonation testing shows that the
multiplicative crystalline formations also reduce the flow of gases into concrete, thus significantly
retarding the carbonation at the surface in which the alkalinity is reduced and the surface layer is
softened.
Protects concrete against alkali aggregate reactions (AAR) by denying water to those processes
affecting reactive aggregates.
Extensive chloride-ion diffusion testing shows that concrete structures protected with a crystalline
waterproofing treatment prevent the diffusion of chlorides. This protects reinforcing steel and prevents
deterioration that could occur from oxidation and expansion of steel reinforcement.

The more traditional methods of protecting concrete, such as membranes and other coatings, may still
leave it susceptible to water and chemical damage. Only with the addition of crystalline technology the
pores and micro cracks that normally result from the process of setting and curing, allow concrete to
be sealed.
Negative Side Waterproofing

Existing basements that are subject to water seepage or vapor transmission through foundation walls
and floors can be treated by the application of crystalline waterproofing and protection on the negative
side, or the inside, of the structure. Surface coatings will blister and peel when moisture seeping
through the concrete dissolves soluble minerals and deposits them on the surface, under the coating,
in the form of efflorescence, a white powdery substance that forms on the wall surface. Because
crystalline waterproofing penetrates into the concrete, plugging the pores beneath the surface, it does
not depend on surface adhesion and will not blister and peel off, like surface barriers. I specify
crystalline waterproofing on virtually every one of my projects as an admixture for the retaining side
of walls where applied membranes cannot be used, says Mel Cole, FCSI, an architectural specifier in
Soquel, California. Vapor transmission through basement floors and walls is a common problem that
may lead to damp, musty odors. Testing has shown that the application of multiplicative crystalline
technology under these conditions will reduce vapor flows as much as 50 percent, which in most
cases, will result in a drier environment.
Conclusion

Although concrete may appear to be a simple product to put together, it requires a highly engineered
approach. In an increasingly competitive design and construction environment, where high
performance requirements, such as longer life cycles, more durable concrete, and value engineering
are expected, careful consideration must be paid to basic requirements, such as the concrete, water,
and cement ratio; cementing materials, and more sophisticated chemical admixtures. Effective use of
crystalline waterproofing technology will reduce the porosity and permeability of conventional
concrete, and provide the high performance advantages and benefits that building owners and design
professionals have come to rely upon in design and construction projects.

Waterproofing with Cementitious Slurries

Water is a vital resource, but also a construction materials greatest enemy, since rain, ground water
and surface water can cause rapid and extensive damage to buildings. The solution lies in waterrepellent construction materials with sealing properties such as cementitious slurries modified with
dispersible
polymer
powders.
Water, in liquid or in vapor form, is the most destructive weathering element for buildings constructed
of materials such as concrete, masonry, and natural stone. Waterproofing techniques therefore must
preserve a structures integrity, functionality and usefulness for the whole of its life. Due to the harsh
conditions of the monsoon, theres a special challenge for waterproofing systems in India. To eliminate
all possible causes of water intrusion, the exterior walls, the roof and the basement of a building must
be completely covered with waterproof material. All waterproof measures must be part of a whole
system and must interact totally to be completely effective in preventing the ingress of water.
Should one component of the system fail or not interact fully with all other parts, leakage can occur.
Possible damage, deterioration and unnecessary repairs to building facades can be avoided by
controlling groundwater, rainwater and surface water, as well as the transport of humidity in the form
of
water
vapor.
Traditional sealing and waterproofing systems include bituminous materials, plastic waterproofing foils
and metal tapes for interior and exterior applications. In addition to these systems, products based on
reactive resins, purely dispersionbound, pasty products and cementitious waterproofing membranes
are now widely used to seal and protect the outer surfaces of buildings and structural components
against
the
action
of
water
and
moisture.
Cementitious waterproofing membranes have been used successfully to protect a wide range of
buildings and structural components exposed to either periodic or long-term wetting, low hydrostatic
pressure or, in combination with appropriate engineering, even high hydrostatic pressure.
Cementitious membranes are used for waterproofing wet rooms and water tanks and, due to their
excellent weathering resistance, also for exterior surface protection. Typical applications are the
sealing and waterproofing of e.g., terraces, basement walls, water tanks, swimming pools, walls and
floors in wet-rooms such as toilets and bathrooms. In addition, flexible cementitious waterproofing
membranes are often used as protective surface-coating systems for structural concrete or to protect

building

constructions

against

aggressive

chemicals.

The advantages of cementbased waterproofing membranes are their excellent resistance to water,
even if exposed permanently, their outstanding resistance to long-term weathering, good scratch
resistance, good load-bearing capacity and much higher water vapor permeability compared to most
other systems (consequently no danger of blistering when water vapor permeates through the
waterproofing
membrane).
Cement-based waterproofing slurries are easy to use, non-toxic, provide a monolithic, fully bound,
joint-free surface and can easily be applied to substrates with complex surface shapes. In contrast to
other systems, cementitious waterproofing slurries can be applied even to wet or damp mineral
surfaces, and their physical properties are less temperature-dependent than bitumen based materials.
Simple cement-based slurries are still used for protection against surface water, but they are not
suitable to seal against water under hydrostatic pressure. In order to improve the poor adhesion, the
poor water impermeability and the extremely low deformability and flexibility, a polymer must be
added to the system. The use of special additives such as water retaining agents, thickeners and
rheological additives, combined with a polymeric binder, confers excellent workability and ensures that
wetcuring
of
the
applied
slurry
is
unnecessary.
As polymeric binder, dispersible polymer powders have proved their value. Dispersible polymer
powders are thermoplastic, plasticizer-free polymers derived primarily from vinyl acetate and
ethylene. When water is added, these spray-dried dispersions redisperse, while retaining all the
properties and functions typical of a liquid polymer dispersion. As the mortar sets, flexible polymer
bridges are formed between the brittle mineral constituents of the mortar, producing a polymer film
that acts as an organic binder. This greatly improves the mortars adhesion to a wide range of
substrates
and
increases
the
systems
flexibility.
Today, several different systems of cementitious waterproofing membranes or slurries are available.
Standard or Rigid Mineral Waterproofing Slurries
Standard, rigid mineral waterproofing slurries are polymer-modified, prepacked, drymix mortars which
are gauged with water before being applied as a slurry by brush, roller or airless spraying, or, if less
gauging water is used, by trowel. Standard or rigid waterproofing slurries can only be used for mineral
substrates which are stable, sound and solid, and if there is no risk of crack formation, movement or
dimensional change (e.g., shrinkage). Dispersible polymer powder is used as a polymeric binder to
improve the adhesion of the waterproofing membrane to different substrates, to improve its cohesive
strength, its flexibility, its abrasion resistance and toughness and, last but not least, the water
impermeability and density of the membrane. Such polymer modified cementitious waterproofing
membranes can withstand water pressure, not only from the positive side, but also, to a limited
extent, due to their excellent adhesion and cohesion, from the negative side, if this is necessary for a
special application. A dispersible polymer powder which confers a hydrophobic effect is the preferred
type of polymer which should be incorporated in the drymix mortar.
Flexible Cementitious Waterproofing Membranes (Two-component Systems)
Flexible waterproofing membranes are capable of bridging over small cracks in the substrate. The
flexibility of such products depends strongly on the polymer/cement ratio and, to a lesser extent, on
the
flexibility
of
the
polymer
itself.
In addition, the flexibility of a cementitious waterproofing membrane depends on the environmental
conditions to which it is exposed. Flexible, cementitious waterproofing membranes are applied to

substrates expected to be subject to shrinkage, vibration, movement, stress and crack formation and
to substrates which are difficult to stick to, such as wood, steel, aerated light weight blocks and
gypsum. Due to their high polymer content, these coatings have a low coefficient of diffusion and are
resistant to chemicals such as chloride ions, sulphate ions, carbon dioxide and other aggressive
products.
One-component Flexible Cementitious Slurries
In practice, a major disadvantage of two-component systems is the possibility of mixing errors due to
the lack of knowledge, experience and education of the workers concerning the appropriate dosage of
the liquid component. Wrong doses may be used by chance or even intentionally in order to save
money in the short term. If the dosage of the liquid dispersion is too low, the resulting membrane may
not be waterproof if exposed to hydrostatic pressure or will, at the very least, have a reduced
flexibility with a consequent failure of the system. Other reasons for not using two-pack systems are
the difficult and risky handling, the expense and logistics difficulties and more time consuming and
harder
work
on
the
job-site
when
handling
two-pack
systems.
Because of the many disadvantages of modifying a mortar with a liquid dispersion as mentioned
above, the so-called one-component flexible cementitious slurry in the form of a premixed dry-mix
mortar
is
increasingly
being
used.
Dispersible polymer powders are employed, with very low glass transition temperatures, low water
absorption and high water resistance in order to be able to formulate one-component, flexible,
cementitious waterproofing slurries.

Dispersible polymer powders have been invented exactly 50 years ago in Germany. In 1957, the
German chemical Group WACKER succeeded in industrially manufacturing the first powder binder as
an additive for construction mortars, marketed worldwide under the VINNAPAS brand. This invention
revolutionized the entire construction sector, because it finally made possible the production of onepart, premixed dry mortars that merely needed reconstituting with water at the building site. To this
very day, polymer powders give the construction industry key benefits, such as major cost savings,
not to mention greatly simplified mortar production and handling. In cementitious sealing slurries,
they not only protect buildings against damage from water penetration, but also against CO2,
chlorides,
sulfates
and
acid
rain.
The higher cost of such products, due to the high dosage of the dispersible polymer powder, is
compensated by the advantages of having a one-component, polymer-modified, dry-mix mortar, e.g.,

low-cost logistics and packaging, safety and reliability for the application by excluding mixing errors,
and higher productivity on the job-site.
Wacker Polymers
Wacker Polymers is a leading producer of state-of-the-art binders and polymer additives in the form of
dispersible polymer powders and dispersions, polyvinyl acetates, surface coating resins, polyvinyl
butyrals and polyvinyl alcohol solutions. These products are used by companies in the construction,
automotive, paper and adhesives sectors, as well as by manufacturers of printing inks and surface
coatings. Wacker Polymers has production sites in Germany, China and the USA, as well as a global
sales network and technology centers in all major regions

Selection of Suitable Types of Waterproofing Systems

Pramod Pathak, Director, Multichem Group, Mumbai.
Durability and Impermeability
Concrete is the most widely used building material which is versatile,and has desirable engineering
properties, it can be molded intomany shapes, and more importantly, it is produced with cost-effective
materials. In recent years, the use of concrete has increased phenomenally, specially in infrastructure
and highrise buildings worldwide.

These days, concrete is beingused for wide varieties of applications to make it suitable for different
conditions. In these conditions, normal concrete may fail to exhibit the required quality performance
and durability. In practice one of the most important requirements of concrete is that it must be
impervious to water under two conditions: firstly, when subjected to pressure water on one side,
secondly
to
the
absorption
of
surface
water
by
capillary
action.
Concrete possesses a pore structure which distinguishes concrete from metals and makes it airtight
and watertight. The capillary pore structure of concrete allows the permeation of gas or liquid,
especially under pressure. The macrostructure of concrete reveals that it consists of
(a)

coarse

(b)

hydrated

(c) entrapped air voids.

and
cement

fine

aggregates
paste,

and

The macrostructure also reveals visible cracks in the hydrated cement paste and aggregates, mainly
due to the volume change caused by shrinkage, settlement, and expansion/ contraction of
temperature. The permeability of concrete depends on these pore structures. Even the best of the
concrete
is
not
gastight
or
watertight
unless
the
pores
are
closed.
The low durability that we witness in many concrete structures, which gets manifested in the form of
cracking, and spalling due to poor quality of materials or workmanship and corrosion of steel, is
principally
due
to
inferior
design,
specification
or
construction.
Certain parts of a concrete structure may also be subjected to physical wear and tear. Parking
garages, concrete roads, and breakwater wall are examples of structures subjected to repeated wear.
The factors governing the permeability of concrete can be summarized as follows:

The quality of materials, e.g., Cement, sand and aggregates

The quality of pore structure, based on w/c ratio, the admixtures used and the degree of
hydration
The quality of interfacial transition zone
The degree of compaction
The cracking arising because of structural loading
The adequacy of curing It is also true that all concretes produced for different application may
not be designed to be completely impermeable.

Products Selection and System

Hence it is very important that the selection of any construction product must be done with care and
this is especially the case with waterproofing of concrete structures. Failure here has been the subject
of numerous claims and litigation, something that no professional person wants to be the subject of.
The problem is neatly summed up in a quote by John Ruskin (18191900): There is hardly anything
in the world that some man cant make just a little worse and sell just a little cheaper, and the people
who buy on price alone are this mans lawful prey Multichem manufactures wide range of
waterproofing systems which are classified into (a) Membrane Waterproofing (b) Waterproofing by
crystallization. Under membrane waterproofing, an external layer is formed by way of application and
water is not allowed to enter the structure. Multiguard A (Figure 2) is a two component, thixotropic,
cementitious modified polymer coating with high adhesion to both steel and concrete, which falls into
this category. It has high level of impermeability of more than 6.00 X 1016 m/sec. Multiguard A
forms a hard, highly alkaline coating with a degree of elasticity which not only protects the concrete,
or other substrates, from the effects of aggressive acidic gases, moisture and chlorides, but also has
greatly
enhanced
chemical
resistance.
There include: Rigid waterproofing of water tanks, sealing internal basement and cellar walls against
dampness, protection of concrete structures in marine environment, external tanking of substructure
concrete
such
as
foundations
and
basement
walls
in
new
buildings.
Under Waterproofing by Crystallization, structure is waterproofed in-depth. The active ingredients
create catalytic reaction generating billions of crystals to block cracks and capillaries in the concrete.
Multichem manufactures (a) Multiguard In-depth TA/TB for surface application (b) Multiguard In-depth
Premix, additive to be added to the concrete. Multiguard In-Depth (Figure 3) contains active
waterproofing chemicals which create catalytic reaction when in contact with moisture, and
cementitious products in the concrete, generating insoluble crystalline complexes which seal the
capillaries tracks, pores and minor shrinkage cracks. They penetrate even against strong hydrostatic
pressure, becoming an integral part of the concrete. As the reaction is catalytic in nature the
waterproofing chemicals remain active for the life of the structure, permanently sealing it from water

and waterborne chemicals penetration. The crystals continue to grow as long as moisture is present,
often reaching several feet in length. Once moisture is removed, the chemicals remain dormant in the
concrete, ready to be reactivated by water even years later if new non-structural cracks (which are
<0.4mm) develop through natural settling or other factors.

Multiguard In-Depth Premix (MIP) (Figure 1) is designed to enhance by effectively waterproofing the
concrete and reducing the shrinkage cracks. This provides a cost effective solution to membrane
systems while increasing concretes durability. Multiguard In-Depth Premix is added to fresh concrete
easily at the batch plant or directly into ready mix trucks. It works to continuously prevent moisture
from penetrating through the Concrete by creating a chemical reaction within the pores and capillaries
to enhance the hydration process of the cement component within the concrete. As an additive for
concrete, the Multiguard In-Depth Premix (MIP) will promote additional CSH crystals to grow within
the concrete utilizing the concretes own natural hydration process to reduce the permeability of the
concrete. The increased hydration process also allows for an increased ability for the concrete to selfheal micro cracking upon the presence of moisture. Multiguard In-depth systems are recommended
for the following:

Swimming pools
Tunnels and subway systems
Parking garages
All below grade concrete foundations
Rooftops
Dry vaults
Water towers and water reservoirs
Marine structures
Pipes
Bridge decks
Concrete walls and floor
Sewage and water treatment plants

Conclusion

It is important to choose right products and system to achieve a durable and impermeable concrete
structure which can last more than its anticipated life. It is important to consider that all products are
not the same although most of the datasheets look alike. In a market where the offer often creates
confusion about the real quality of the products, it is important to remember that waterproofing
accounts for less than 1% of the total budget foreseen for the building, but 75% of possible damages
to the same building could be caused by incorrect waterproofing products and their short term
durability.

Sealants In Concrete Pavements, Roads, Highways, Airfields

and Building Construction
Mr. Dinesh Chavan, Sr. Manager-R&D, Choksey Chemicals P. Ltd, Mumbai.
A sealant is a viscous material that changes state to become rubber like compound, once applied, and
is used to prevent the penetration of air, gas, noise, dust or liquid from one location through a barrier
into another. Typically, sealants are used to close small openings that are difficult to seal with other
materials, such as concrete, drywall, etc. Desirable properties of sealants include insolubility, corrosion
resistance, and adhesion. Uses of sealants vary widely and sealants are used in many industries, such
as
construction,
automotive
and
aerospace.
As we know that concrete structures are provided with joints and these joints are to be sealed with an
Elastomeric
Sealant
according
to
its
durability.
The sealants should be in either Thermoplastic or Thermosetting in nature depending upon the
specification
provided.
Polysulphide sealants are the best sealants to be used for joint sealing. Moreover the performance and
durability of sealant always depend on the quality of sealants or some times on the design of the joint.
Proper joint design and best quality sealant are needed for obtaining longer durability.
Why Joints are Required or Needed?
Concrete is a rigid material in nature with low flexural strength made up of inorganic binder cement,
sand,
gravel
and
water.
Concrete always changes its plane due to atmospheric conditions. Carbonation may take place and the
overall effect may be contraction because of its drying and shrinkage. Expansion and contraction may
occur due to change in cyclic effects or change in environmental conditions like humidity and
temperature
or
the
extra
load
on
to
cracking.
Joints are provided in the concrete to prevent development of extra stresses in the concrete structures
which lead to expansion and contraction due to moisture changes, temperature variation, etc or loads
and
vibrations.
If the contraction movements, both permanent and transient of concrete units are more than it leads
to cracking. Sealant accommodates these movements in concrete without loss of integrity in concrete
structure.
Why Joint Sealing is Needed?
Considering the possibility of expansion and contraction & construction joints in the concrete structure,
gap (expansion joints), which is usually to be sealed in order to prevent passage of gases, liquids,
solids
or
other
undesired
substances
in
to
the
gap
or
through
them.
In building structures, to protect a gap is very important to prevent the entry of wind and rainwater in
to the gaps or openings. In case of water retaining structures, e.g. tanks, dams, canals, pipes, etc.
joints are required to be sealed to prevent the loss of water due to leakage.
In case of roads or bridges, which are exposed to extreme weather, the concrete itself must be
protected against the damage from all the possibilities of water at the joints openings. The solid

material must be prevented from falling and collecting in the open joints if so the joints cannot
contract freely later. If it occurs then high stress may be generated and can damage the concrete
structure.
In case of highways the joints are needed to be strengthened and sealed to prevent the damage from
Heavy traffic. Hence, the function of a sealant is to restrict the entry of water, solids, gases and to
protect
the
concrete
structure
from
them.
The main function of sealant is to improve thermal, absorption of the vibrations and prevent unwanted
matter collected in the joints. The sealant must work as its prime function when it is subjected to
repeated contraction and expansions as the joint opens and closes constantly while exposed to the
weather conditions.
How to Design the Joint and the Types of Joints?
The working of the joint sealants depends on the movement to be accommodated at the joint, on the
shape of the joint and the physical properties of the sealant. The location and the width of the joints
that requires the sealing can only be specified when a sealant is available which will take the required
movements and joint shape, or the concrete structure must be redesigned to reduce the movements
at
the
joints.
The

type

Design

of

should

sealant
be

available

must

meet

as

the

appropriate

per

the

requirement
standards

of
like

joint

design

ASTM,

BS

and

shape.

and

IS.

The source of the movements and the nature of movements for both long and short duration must be
considered. The experience and the judgment play an important role in designing the joints which
functions satisfactory.
Factors to be considered while Designing Joints
1.
2.
3.
4.

The joints between two concrete units may take the total movements of both units.
The movement of the end of a unit depends on its effective length
The actual service temperature of the material being joined.
When different types of material are joined together and having different surface temperature
then the appropriate Linear coefficient thermal expansion of each material must be considered
while calculating the joint movements.
5. In case of butt joints the movements to which sealant can properly respond is at correct angle
to the joint faces. The joint must be taken into account where such comparisons and deflection
occurring is very large.
6. The movement capability factor of a particular sealant must be taken for calculation. The
sealant manufacturer can provide the movement capability factor for a particular sealant.
Movement Calculation
Calculation

of

section

and

spacing

of

joints

The calculation of section and spacing joints is complex, because there are many factors. There are
several standard methods of calculation to simplify the procedures, which appears in publications such
as those of the Building Research Establishments and the British Cement Associations. The methods
differs basically in the compromises or assumptions made.

Summary of the Joint Design Procedure

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculate the Maximum potential movement in the structure from all causes.
Decide the location of the movement joint.
Calculate the maximum movement at each joint.
Select a possible sealant, and, from its MAF, calculate minimum theoretical joint width.
Increase the value obtained in step 4 by applying manufacturing and erection deviation and
arrive thereby at the minimum design joint width. Allow for an appropriate depth of sealant,
and for back up material.
6. If the result of step 5 gives a joint width which is too wide for aesthetic, economic or technical
reasons, go back to step 4 and recalculate with an alternative sealant of higher MAF.
7. If the problem still appears insoluble, go back to step 2 and recalculate on the basis of
installing more joints at smaller intervals.
8. Ensure the final result is consistent with nature and quality of the joint surface likely to be
produced in the given building materials.
Movement Accommodation Factor (MAF)
Most of the sealant manufactures assign a movement accommodation factor (MAF) to each of their
products to provide a value for the calculation of joint dimensions. But so far there is no universal
definition
for
this
factor.
The movement accommodation factor means the total movement range between the maximum
compression and the maximum extension that a sealant can accommodate. It is expressed as a % of
the
minimum
design
joint
width.
All construction materials changes in size as temperature changes. The amounts by which the
dimensions of materials will change are calculated by using their linear coefficient of expansion in the
expression.
Change

The
Wt

Length

of

span

Minimum
=

Linear

Joint
X

100

For

Width
MAF

of

expansion

is

Where

then
M=

Example

total

temperature
calculated
expected

(Figure

25%
X

by,
movement

4mm

=
=

differential.

1)

MAF
Wt

coefficient

100

then
=

16

mm

25 Thus on the basis of this calculation, the sealant appears to be working to its maximum rated
capacity
of
25%
if
the
joint
is
16mm
wide.
However, in practice, while the joint may have appeared on the drawing at 16mm, the joint may be
sealed when thermal expansion has given rise to, for example, 2.5mm. of movement resulting in a
reduction of the actual joint width from 16mm to 13.5mm. This joint could then cool and be subjected
to the full 4mm movement used as a design base. Thus the joint could open from 13.5 to 17.5mm.

But the joint was sealed at a width of 13.5mm.Thus the extension to which the sealant has been
subjected is not 25%

but
4

100

=29.6

13.5
On the original basis of 25% MAF, the sealant in this example has been over extended by
29.6-25/=

14.8%

25
This problem may be overcome by always calculating the joint width from the worst-case
configuration, which assumes that the joint is at its minimum width. This is achieved by a modification
to the equation used above. Using the same example as for Figure 1, the modification is illustrated in
Figure
2
Wt

100

20

mm

25
Thus if joint closes by 2.5mm before sealing and is then subjected to the full 4mm movement, the
values
become
Joint

sealed

at

17.5mm

Joint

sealed

at

21.5mm

Total

Movement

mm

The sealant has been subjected to 4mm extension on an initial sealed width of 17.5mm,therefore the
%
movement
is
calculated
as
4

100

22.8%

17.5
Thus the sealant is operating within its rated MAF.
Joint Depth Considerations
For most applications of sealants in butt movement joints, 5mm is considered to be the practical
minimum sealant depth. For Elastomeric sealants the depth should be approximately half the joint
width. This ratio is a rectangular section, and it represents apractical compromise between sealant
depth and adequate bond area to the substrate to give minimum stress to the sealant resulting from
the
movement.
For Elastomeric sealants, a sealant depth equal to the joint width is usual to ensure an adequate
volume
of
sealant
for
optimum
service
life.
W=

Width

Figure

of
Total

Width-

to-depth

Joint

Expected
ratio

of

Movement
a

sealant

These typical width:depth ratios may be modified by manufactures for their sealants in particular
applications, such as in trafficked joints or those subjected to sustained loading.
In such cases, sealant depth may be increased to provide a greater bonding with concrete surface.
Reference should made to individual manufacturers literature in such cases,

The use of circular section (see Figure 4) back-up strips can modify the sealant profile from square or
rectangular to one with a concave shape at the backup interface. The depth of the sealant in such a
case should be considered to be that at the center of the curved face where sealant depth is least.
Joint depth should also be considered, from the point of view of sealant selection and the curing
characteristics, as well as the requirements of the preferred joint profile. The suggested width to depth
ratios of sealants in roads, bridges and airfields.
Selection of a Proper Sealant
If the sealants are to be performed well in the joints then it should have the following properties:
1. It must be an impermeable material.
2. It must accommodate the movement and the degree of movements occurring at the joint by
deformation.

3. It should be capable of accommodating the movement for cyclic changes like temperature,
moisture, vibrations etc.
4. It should have strong adhesion with the joint faces and there should not be any peeling at the
corners when there is a deflection of joints.
5. Should have a good impact without cohesion failure, must resist the load, stress due to
compression, tension and impact.
6. Must resist flow due to gravity.

7. Should have a good flexibility at all service temperatures.

8. It should be durable. It should not adversely affected by aging, weathering, freezing of water,
light, water vapor, growth of the fungus and human damage.
9. It should have good fire resistance and fuel resistance.
10. Should have a partial reparability.
11. Low maintenance cost.
Types of Sealants
1) Butyl Sealants
These are the materials which form a surface skin after application, thereby protecting the main body
of
material
underneath.
They
are
commonly
referred
as
mastics.
These are useful in the joints where very little movements are expected.
2) Bitumen and Rubber/Bitumen-based Sealants

These are Thermoplastic in nature and retain the degree of flexibility. Typical application are in
roofing, water-retaining structures, and areas where compatibility with bitumen materials are
desirable.

3) Acrylic Sealants
Basically two types of acrylic resin sealants are in common usage. Solvent base and water base.
Solvent-based material is thermoplastic in nature. They are used externally. Water based sealants are
widely used on corners of windows, doors, internally.
4) Flexible Epoxide Sealants
They are based on Epoxy resins, and varying degrees of flexibility are available by addition of other
polymers
or
extenders.
These are normally available in multi-component products, when mixed together, it cures at ambient
temperature though they have good degree of flexibility, becomes rigid at low temperature.
5) Polysulphide Sealants
These

are

available

in

one

or

two

component

systems.

The single part materials cure on exposure to moisture. Slow cure is generally expected for these
sealants. They are elastic-plastic in natures BS 5215 refers to these materials.
Two part Polysulphide requires on site mixing and cures chemically. These are available in Gun grade
BS 4254 and pouring grade BS5212. Polysulphide are widely used in construction/expansion joints of
pavements and buildings.
6) Polyurethane Sealants
This is also available in one or two component system. Available in both Gun and Pouring grade.
One part is moisture curing and used in building constructions. Two part sealants are chemically cured
and can be used in trafficked joints (BS5212). Pitch or tar modified polyurethane sealants are also
available.
7) Silicone Sealants
Available

in

one-component

system

follows

BS5889.Can

be

used

for

interior

purpose.

Two component silicone sealants are used for glass insulation.

8) Hot-poured Sealants
These comprise bitumen, rubber/bitumen and pitch/polymer combinations. They are primarily used in
road pavement joints, subways and water retaining structures.
Requirements to Seal the Joints
For effective sealants field performance, the following points are very important.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Selection of correct sealant

Calculation of correct width to depth ratio.
Proper cleaning of the joint faces.
Through details on the joints.
Suitable primer depending upon the surface.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Use of non-impregnated backup material.

Provision of Bond breaker
Suitable application equipment and techniques.
Qualified applicator
Adequate field inspection.

Specification of Sealants

A quality sealant must comply with international standards. Only British STDs are mentioned.
Concrete Road/Highways, BS 5212 (1990) Bridges, BS 4254 (1983) Airfields, BS 5212 (1990)
Normal Civil construction, BS 4254 (BS1983)
Back up Materials
Back up materials shall be compatible with sealants. It must be resilient in nature. Materials
impregnated
with
oil
or
bitumen
shall
not
be
used.
Polyethylene-closed cell foam, polyurethane-closed cellfoam, sponge rubber-closed cell, neoprene
foamed rod, pre-formed gasket. The back up material shall be used in the joints to adjust width to
depth ratio as recommended.
Bond Breaker
Bond breaker can be a polyethylene tape. The bond breaker tape shall be placed over the back up
material. It is to avoid third surface bonding of the sealants.
Primer
The primer to be used as per the manufacturers recommendations. Primer for porous and Non-porous
substrate should be separate. It is to be applied in two coats.
Masking Tape
It should be self-adhesive polyethylene. Tape is to be applied on the joint surfaces to protect joint
edges from being spoilt by sealants material while application. Tape must be removed after application
of sealant.
Solvents
Solvents are used for equipment cleaning. Generally Xylene, toluene are used for cleaning
immediately after the use.
Storage of Material
Store the material as per the suppliers recommendations.

Methods of Applications of Sealants

Hand

Mixed

Sealants

Machine Mixed sealants

Hand Mixed Sealant Mixing
Hands mixed sealants are supplied in two parts that consist of base component and another is
hardener
that
is
curing
agent.
Supplied

in Part

I and

Part

II.

Each pack

is packed

in proportionate

ratio

of mixing.

Mixing should be done as per the ratio suggested by the manufacturer. Mixing can be done by spatula/
rod/ wooden bat. For proper and homogeneous mixing efficient mixing can be accomplished by means
of hand held power drill motor at RPM around 150 to provide adequate shearing action.
Mechanised Sealant Mixing
It is an automatic machine used for application of high volume. The equipment is designed to deliver
the two fluid component materials in proportionate a portable mixer head through suitable flexible
hoses by means of a positive displacement. The mixed material flows at a fixed pressure into the
joints and self levels itself.
Application- sealing of the joints
1. Examination of the Joints The contractor should examine the joint size and condition of all
joints and should reports all technical/practical difficulties which are not acceptable to the
main contractors. The joints shall not be wet.
2. Cleaning of Joints Faces The joint faces should be cleaned by wire brush and dust to be
removed thoroughly. If there is oil then it has to be cleaned by xylene or toluene.
3. Installation of Back Up Material and Bond Breaker The back up material and bond breaker
shall be placed in the joints to allow the placement of the sealant to the desired depth, the
surface of which should be recessed by not less than 3mm below the pavement surface.
4. Priming Apply primer in two coats as recommended by the manufacturers. Avoid brushing on
the bond breaker tape. Allow the primer to dry as per the specification.
5. Apply the masking tape on the edges of the both the joint faces. Tape shall be removed
immediately after the tooling.
6. Sealant Pouring Fill the sealant in the ready joint by hand or machine. Use spatula for filling in
to joints Fill some extra material and then do the tooling by a knife blade and pull down the
level of sealant surface. After tooling remove the masking tape. The material will self leveled.
7. Curing of Sealant Allow the sealant to cure as per the manufacturers recommended
specification before starting the any other operation.
8. Cleaning of Tools Clean the tools and equipment immediately after the application by solvents
such as xylene or toluene.

ERO-leakage Concrete Tunnels for Durability

Dr Anil K Kar, Chairman, Engineering Services International, Salt Lake City, Kolkata
Introduction
Conventional concrete, which can be considered to be an artificial rock, is not intrinsically waterproof. It
absorbs water. The rate of absorption depends upon many factors, including the porosity of concrete. In
addition, excessive contents of water-soluble alkalis in cement (as in the case of Indian cements of recent
periods) can make concrete highly absorbent1-4. Todays concrete structures, compared to concrete
structures of earlier decades, also suffer from higher thermal and shrinkagestresses and the resulting
cracks1-5. The result: water retaining structures, e.g., tunnels, subways, basements, etc. are
characterized by water seepage and leakage unless such structures will be effectively waterproofed.

In the case of tunnels and other water retaining structures, in

addition to the seepage of water due to the development of thermal and shrinkage cracks or due to
porosity in concrete, waterleakages may also occur at expansion joints, construction joints, honeycomb
areas, and isolated locations of defects and discontinuities as at locations of inserts and embedments. In
addition to running water leakages through these locations of defects or planned structural separations,

there can be minor sweating or dampness of the surface. This sweating or dampness is generally
influenced by the general porosity or perviousness of concrete.
Besides general porousness or permeability, local defects or discontinuities, and besides the existence of
planned structural gaps (expansion joints), the waterhead outside the structure greatly influences the rate
of water leakage into underground structures. Thus, there will be many tunnels which may exhibit little or
no water leakages during the dry season whereas the same tunnels may show profuse water leakages
during the wet season of the year or when there will be flooding of grounds surrounding the tunnels.
Water leakages or seepages through a structure can go much beyond being an architectural nuisance or
an operational inconvenience. The leakages may prevent the use of the facility. The leakages may also
damage equipment and systems inside tunnels and other underground facilities.
In addition to ungainly sights, operational difficulties and damages to contents, etc., waterleakages,
seepages and dampness adversely affect the durability of tunnels and other concrete structures, as even
minor dampness can lead to an early ruination of the structure by accelerating the process of corrosion in
rebars and thereby inviting conditions of distress in the structure.
The Essence of Surface Protection
Kar1-14highlighted the problem of early decay and distress in concrete structures that could be
encouraged by the dampness in concrete or even by the exposure of the concrete structure to the
general environment. In most cases of concrete structures, it is corrosion in reinforcing bars and
prestressing elements, that leads to conditions of distress in such structures.
The Indian standard IS 456:200015 recognizes the problem of early distress in concrete structures as well
as the causes for such early distress when it states in its Clause 8, Durability of Concrete: One of the
main characteristics influencing the durability of concrete is its permeability to the ingress of water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate and other potentially deleterious substances. The interior
surfaces of tunnels are generally exposed to air and thus these surfaces, if not protected, will permit the
ingress of oxygen and carbon dioxide. While the diffusion of carbon dioxide may lead to depassivation of
reinforcing bars, making corrosion in such bars possible, the diffusion of oxygen into the structures will
lead to corrosion in the rebars in the presence of the moist environment inside the structure.
As a solution to the problem of early distress, Kar 1-14recommended the prevention of the ingress of water
into or flow of water through structural elements and the protection of all structural surfaces, exposed to
either air or intermittently to water and air. The dual goal was to be achieved by the provision of
waterproofing treatments on all exposed surfaces of structures. The Indian Standard15followed suit when
it wrote in its Clause 8: The life of the structure can be lengthened by providing extra cover to steel, by
chamfering the corners or by using circular cross-section or by using surface coatings which prevent or
reduce the ingress of water, carbon dioxide or aggressive chemicals.
Kar12,13 explained why, among the four options recommended in IS 456:2000 15, the provision of surface
coatings or other surface treatments to prevent the ingress or passage of water, and to prevent or reduce

the diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen or permeation of aggressive chemicals, was the only viable

option.
Thus, a concrete structure needs to be waterproof and damp-proof. The mere arresting of running water
leakages through isolated spots, like construction joints, as is the case when grouting methods are
employed, may not make water retaining structures of concrete sufficiently durable. In other words, in
order that a concrete structure may be durable, it, like a steel structure, needs to have surface protection.
Dense concrete will help, but it may not be sufficient to make todays concrete structures reasonably
durable.
In order to make concrete structures durable, the exposed surfaces (i.e. all of inside surfaces of the
tunnel) should be given a post-construction surface treatment to create an impermeable surface region
that would, besides preventing water leakages and seepages, prevent the easy ingress of air (moisture,
carbon dioxide, oxygen) into the structure. This is the essence of surface protection of concrete tunnels
and other structures, and the surface protection is best achieved through the provision of waterproofing
treatments on the surface of concrete structures. Though the most important objective of the provision of
surface protection systems is to prevent or inhibit corrosion in rebars and prestressing elements of steel, it
is not the recommendation of the writer to provide any surface treatment to such rebars or prestressing
elements.
It need be emphasized in the context of durability of concrete structures that the mere absence of any
visible sign of water leakage through a structure is not a proof of its being a waterproof structure. The
development of conditions of distress in the columns in the middle of the tunnel (away from the leaking
walls) of Metro Railway, Kolkata is an example.
A false impression of water tightness of a water retaining structure can also be created when the rate of
evaporation of water from the structure is greater than the rate of ingress of water into the structure.
It must be recognized that most of the damages due to corrosion in rebars and prestressing elements
inside concrete structures, adversely affecting the durability of such structures, will take place if there will
be a moist environment inside the structure and air will enter into the structures15. in the absence of air
even a lot of water inside a concrete structure may not cause much damage. This is exemplified in the
virtual absence of any condition of distress in foundation structures of concrete, unless the ground water
will be patently harmful for concrete.
Thus, whereas the absence of a surface protection system on the visible surfaces of a concrete tunnel is
likely to invite conditions of distress early, the absence of any waterproofing system on the outer faces of
the tunnel is not likely to cause any such problem in most of the cases.
It has thus become essential, specially in the case of todays concrete structures, which are built with
cement, with very high C3S/C2S ratios and excessive amounts of water soluble alkalis1,2, and with
todays high strength rebars with surface deformations1-5,11,16,17, that such structures be given surface
protection (on faces exposed to the atmosphere) in the form of waterproofing treatments1-14. The
provision of such a surface protection system will arrest the leakage of water on a long term basis. It will

also help fulfill the second objective of the prevention of water seepage at the post-construction stage.
Furthermore, it will prevent or inhibit the ingress of carbon dioxide and oxygen. It may also prevent the
ingress of chlorides and other aggressive chemicals. The process of corrosion in rebars and prestressing
elements will thus be arrested or slowed down, leading to a lengthening of the life span of the tunnel
structure and prevention of damages to other systems housed inside the tunnel.
Surface Protection for Tunnels and Other Water Retaining Structures

Against the prevailing practice of grouting for the purpose of

arresting water leakages in underground concrete structures, Engineering Services International of Salt
Lake City, Kolkata700 064 pioneered in 1983 the concept and technique of waterproofing of tunnels and
other underground structures with surface treatment (Figures. 1 and 2). According to this technique, no
grouting or injection is strictly necessary for arresting running water leakages and for making the treated
surface bone dry.
In this scheme of surface treatment for underground structures, local treatments, instead of grouting, are
provided on the surface to arrest running water leakages at construction joints honeycomb areas and at
isolated locations. This is followed by the provision of a continuous waterproofing treatment on the entire
surface in the interior of the tunnel. In the case of tunnels and other underground structures, the surface
treatment for waterproofing is effectively provided in the form of a two-layer plaster.
It was observed in the case of the tunnels of Metro Railway in Kolkata, the Pedestrian Subway at
Tollygunge, Kolkata and at many other sites with structures beneath the ground that when grouting or
other methods of waterproofing had failed to prevent water leakages and seepages fully, the method of
surface treatment with cementitious waterproofing compounds succeeded in making the concrete surface
bone dry; thereby making the structures more durable.
A write-up on this technique of post-construction waterproofing treatment, with special reference to the
surface
protection
to
some
difficult
areas
of
the
tunnel
of
Metro
Rail

in

Kolkata can be found in Ref. 6.

This paper describes the technique of waterproofing treatment for the prevention of water leakage
through reinforced concrete tunnels, similar to those of the tunnels of Metro Railway, Kolkata, the
Pedestrian Subways at Tollygunge Station for Metro Rail, at Sealdah Station for Eastern Railway, at
Kolkata Station for Eastern Railway, etc. The unique technique of surface treatment method, employed in
the years 200001, to make the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, Kolkata, completely watertight (except at
the expansion joints) and to simultaneously add years to the life of the structure, was developed and
applied for the first time in 1983 to arrest water leakage through certain locations of the Metro Railway
tunnels in Kolkata. The waterproofing treatments, provided on selected areas of the Metro Rail tunnels in
1983 and later in other areas in 1995, remain effective till date as a testimony to the long term
effectiveness and durability of the particular cement-based surface protection system for underground
structures.

In its coverage, this paper goes beyond the traditional concept

of controlling or containing large volume seepage of water. It covers surface protection of concrete to
create a bone dry condition inside tunnels. The surface protection, as opposed to grouting, helps to make
concrete structures durable.
The transformation of leaky tunnels into zero-leakage structures is described in this paper with special
reference to the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah Rail Station, Kolkata.
The contents of this paper, though specially related to tunnels, are equally applicable to water reservoirs
and underground facilities, like basements, machine pits, etc. The treated tunnels may be used as
conduits for liquid, or these may carry people, traffic, materials or other systems.
Concept of Surface Treatment to Underground Structures
The transformation of a pervious underground structure into an impervious water retaining structure
requires that a continuum with waterproofing materials be provided to the entire inner or outer surface of
the structure. It is explained why it is so.
Grouting No Help
Grouting or injection of chemicals, commonly adopted techniques for arresting water leakages in
underground structures, can help arrest localized running water leakages, termed as point leaks. It can
minimize, but generally not fully control, water leakages at construction joints and at honeycombs, unless
these joints and honeycomb areas will also be provided with surface treatment in one form or another.
It is recognized that particulate materials cannot be injected into a mass of concrete unless pores inside
the concrete would be continuous and the size of the pores would be at least three times the size of the
particles in the injection material. Cement cannot thus be injected into a concrete structure except at
discontinuities, e.g., at cracks, defective construction joints, honeycombs, etc. As a result, grouting of
cement, with or without admixtures, can at best seal cracks and honeycombs. It cannot generally arrest
water leakages at all the locations of a large concrete structure, as in the case of a tunnel. It cannot

prevent general seepage. It cannot prevent dampness and it cannot provide protection against the
elements in the atmosphere.
Grouting can at best help to arrest water leakages at isolated locations. In the absence of a blanket
coverage of the entire surface (either outer or inner) of the tunnel with an effective waterproof system,
leakages will keep sprouting at new locations in a concrete structure as existing leakages will be arrested.
Grouting is not thus the surest way to make concrete tunnels waterproof.
Justification for a Surface Treatment
When the hull of a boat or a ship springs a leak, nobody injects any material into the leakage
area. Instead, it is plugged or a piece of a plate is attached to the hull, covering the leakage area or the
tear.
The hull of a boat or that of a ship is a water retaining structure. So is a tunnel.
The concept of arresting water leakages through a boat hull or a ship hull can be applied in the case of a
concrete tunnel with water leakages.
Furthermore, common sense would suggest that the isolated treatment through grouting cannot provide a
continuous waterproofing barrier, let alone a barrier to the ingress of carbon dioxide and oxygen into a
concrete structure. A continuum with such properties is necessary1-16to make the surface of a
tunnel impervious and the structure durable.
Justification for Providing Treatment on Interior Surfaces of Tunnels
As the waterproofing treatment must be in the form of a continuum, as it is generally not practical to
provide the continuous treatment on the outer surfaces of tunnels and other underground structures, and
as it is generally not practical to attend to any damages to any waterproofing treatment on the outer
surfaces of underground structures, the only option is to provide the waterproofing treatment to the

interior surfaces of
tunnels and other underground structures in
the form of a continuum. The waterproofing treatment on the interior surfaces would provide the additional
protection against the ingress of atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide, and possible carbonation and
depletion of the pH level in the pore water of concrete. It will be so because the waterproofing system,
with a continuous medium on the exposed (inner) surfaces of underground structures, will be relatively
impervious to the entry of carbon dioxide and oxygen into the structure.
The provision of a waterproofing treatment on the interior surfaces of a concrete tunnel structure will thus
prevent not only water leakages and the wash-out of the products of cement hydration and other
components of concrete but also early corrosion in reinforcing bars. The treatment will consequently
enhance the durability of tunnel structures of concrete.
Effectiveness of Surface Treatment

The Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, Kolkata, following the provision of the surface waterproofing
treatment on the inside of the tunnel in 200001, is recognized as a zero-leakage tunnel. The tunnel is
still bone dry after eight monsoons, except at an expansion joint, which, this writer believes, should not
have been provided. Surface treatment has provided the tunnel at Kolkata Station too with a zero leakage
surface during the 2007 and 2008 monsoons. The surface treatments, which were developed by
Engineering Services International in 1983 as a part of its PERMAKAR Technology, and which was
provided at select areas of the Metro Rail tunnel in Kolkata in 1983 and in 1995, still remain effective as
before, whereas the same tunnel, after extensive and expensive grouting with cement as well as cement,
admixed with chemicals, or isocyanate chemicals, over the last two and a half decades, still suffer from a
lot of water leakage at many locations. In the absence of a surface protection system in most of its areas,
the tunnel (2030 years old) required repairs, even in structural elements/surfaces which had no visible
signs of water leakage.
The fact that grouting methods of waterproofing, without the aid of surface treatments, may not be fully
successful even in the stated task of waterproofing, is exemplified in the case of the Metro Rail tunnel in
Kolkata and in the cases of innumerable other tunnels and other underground structures all over the
country. It is recorded in the project report on Construction of Pedestrian Subway Opposite

Tollygunge
Metro Rly Stn. in Kolkata : However, at temporary
bored pile locations (total 8 locations), seepage of the leakage could not be stopped in the main subway
with cement pressure grouting or Non-Shrinkable, Pumpable, Groutable (NSPG) chemicals due to which
PERMAKAR Technology (surface layer) treatment was adopted and seepage/leakage was arrested
completely to achieve bone dry condition.
The consistently successful performance of PERMAKAR Technology in the task of arresting water
leakages through the tunnels of Metro Rail and Eastern Rail at different stations and through innumerable
basements, machine pits, lift pits and underground water reservoirs stand testimony to the effectiveness
of the surface treatment method in the task of waterproofing of concrete tunnels. As explained earlier, the
surface protection system has also the advantage of making concrete tunnels and other structures
durable, whereas waterproofing by grouting fails to satisfy the requirements set for Durability of Concrete
in Clause 8 of IS 456:200015.
Durability of Surface Treatment
Surface waterproofing treatments (Figures 1 and 2) provide a continuous barrier, which is essential for
making underground structures waterproof and durable. The concept was pioneered by Engineering
Services International in 1983. It has been observed in the case of the Metro Railway tunnels in Kolkata
that surface waterproofing treatments, provided by the said firm twentyfive years ago in 1983 and in later
years, are still fully effective. Similar observations were made on treatments provided at countless other
establishments. Basic reasons for the durability of the PERMAKAR surface waterproofing system are :
(1) the PERMAKAR waterproofing system is cement based and thus compatible with the basic material of
construction of concrete tunnels and other underground structures, (2) cement is generally durable in
water, and (3) the surface treatment itself adds years to the life of the structure by preventing the ingress
of carbon dioxide and oxygen, the facilitator and the agent of corrosion. All of these add up to make
PERMAKAR 3 surface waterproofing treatment durable.

Specifications
As mentioned earlier, there are a few typical treatments for the waterproofing of tunnels and other water
retaining structures. A set of standard specifications, the implementation of which led to the successful
protection of tunnels, water reservoirs, basements, machine pits and other underground structures, can
be found in Appendix-I to this paper.
Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah
The Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah Station (Figure 3) is constructed of reinforced concrete. It has seven
pieces of concrete boxes along the length of the tunnel. There is an additional exit structure (taxiway), in
the transverse direction. Each of the five intermediate tunnel segments (16.4 metres wide) has three
bays. The two side bays are separated from the 6.0 metre wide central bay by rows of circular
columns. Besides the columns between the central bay and the two side bays, there are the exterior walls
which support the floor slab and the roof slab.

The base and roof slabs were designed as flat slabs even
though the slabs, with just four columns in each box, did not quite qualify as flat slabs. The columns were
away from the ends of the boxes, i.e. away from the expansion joints.The cantilevered slabs yielded
appreciably at the column strips, leading to the development of visible cracks along the long axis of the
tunnel at the cantilever regions as the reinforcement became inadequate.
The surface treatment was found to be sufficient in preventing any water leakage along the cracks.
Figure 3 is a view of the central bay with shop fronts at the two side bays. The entry and exit segments (3
numbers, including the one at the taxiway) of the tunnel are single bay structures with wide stairs.
The length of the seven-segment subway, excepting the taxiway structure, is about 138.0 metres, and the
height from the floor to the ceiling is 3.0 metres.
The interior of the subway, with its long and wide body, finished with plaster (as a part of the basic
waterproofing system), and punctuated by circular columns, with tapered and circular renderings at the
top, has an aesthetic appeal (Figure 3).
The tunnel was constructed according to the cut-and-cover method. A steel framework, covering the
entire extent of the trench, was used to facilitate construction of the concrete structure. The steel
framework was dismantled and removed following the construction of the tunnel structure. stubs of steel
wide flange sections (H-sections), as remnants of this temporary framework, were, however, left
embedded in concrete slabs at the floor and at the roof. The locations of these steel elements, wherever
these penetrated the floor slab and the roof slab, became additional sources of troublesome water
leakage. Similarly, steel rods, used to support stays/struts for the formwork for concreting the two walls,
were left protruding from the floor. The penetration points (in concrete) of these steel rods led to water
leakage (until these were treated as a part of the waterproofing treatment) from the floor.

Initial Observations
Initially, the elements of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, as in most other cases of underground
structures in environment with high water tables, had water leakages along the horizontal construction
joints between different pours of concrete (e.g., at the interface of floor and side walls, different
pours/levels of the walls, and at the interface of walls and the top slab), at isolated locations (point leaks)
on the floor, walls and the ceiling, at a few honeycomb areas, along innumerable steel bar inserts (used
to support formwork for the construction of walls) in the floor slab, at the locations of ends of steel Hsections (temporarily used to support side shorings, floor and ceiling) at the floor and the ceiling, and at
the expansion joints between different segments of the tunnel structure.
Waterproofing
The initial tender requirements had called for the post-construction treatment for arresting water leakages
at isolated points (point leaks) (Figures 1 and 2) and along horizontal construction joints (Figure 2). It was
also required to provide a waterproofing treatment (two layer plaster system in Figure 1) on the entire
interior surface of the tunnel, i.e. on the floor, at walls and at the ceiling. The waterproofing treatment
would thus be provided from inside the tunnel. The objective was to provide a continuum with
waterproofing materials to prevent the flow of ground water into the interior of the tunnel.This waterproof
surface would additionally prevent or minimize the entry of atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen into
the structural elements of the tunnel.
There was no provision for the treatment of expansion joints as here were provisions for the provision of
plastic water bars at such joints by the contractor who was engaged for the construction of the tunnel.
Subsequent to the appointment of the writers firm for the task of waterproofing treatment, steps were
taken also to provide special treatments at (a) ends of H-sections at the floor and at the ceiling, (b) at
base of the protruding steel rods at the floor, (c) at honeycomb areas and (d) at expansion joints such that
the tunnel structure would be fully water-tight and dry.
The Treatment
Seven types of special treatments were provided from inside the box structure of the Pedestrian Subway
at Sealdah to make it waterproof and thereby add years to the life of the structure

a) by preventing the flow of water through concrete

(b) by preventing the ingress of carbon dioxide and oxygen into the structure.
The seven treatments were:
1) arresting running water leakages as in point leaks (Figure 2A)
2) treating full lengths of all the construction joints (Figure 2B) as much of the construction joints had
running water leakages
3) treatment to honeycomb areas (Figure 2C)
4) bar insert locations on the floor
5) interfaces of steel H-sections and concrete at the floor and at the ceiling
6) surface treatment (Figure 1) to the entire interior surface of the tunnel
7) expansion joints between segments of the tunnel.
In the case of treatment at bases of protruding steel rods in the floor, the protruding rods were sawed off
and the base locations were treated in the same way with quick-setting cementing compounds as the
area of a point leak is treated. The honeycomb areas also were treated in the same manner, except that
no groove was made by chipping off concrete at the affected area. The details of treatments for point
leaks, construction joints, honeycombs and surface treatments are given in Figures. 1 and 2.
Portland slag cement was used in providing the waterproofing treatment to all interior surfaces of the
pedestrian Subway of Sealdah even though ordinary portland cement (OPC) was used equally effectively
by the writers firm in many other projects.
Point Leak
The areas of point leak (Figure 2A) were plugged with cement, admixed with a quick-setting cementitious
waterproofing compound and a liquid silica compound that hastens the setting of cement. A small groove
was cut at the location of each point leak. A cementitious chemical (a powder chemical) was mixed with
cement in given proportions. A quick-setting paste was made by adding water, and the liquid silica
compound was mixed with the paste. This resulted in a quicker-setting cementing compound with
improved properties for plugging concrete holes. The resulting material was used to plug the grooves at
the locations of the point leaks.
Construction Joint
The construction joints at bases and at tops of the walls (Figure 2B) and at junctions between different
pours of concrete were treated to arrest running water leakage in the same way as it was done in the
case of the point leakages, except that grooves were cut and plugged along the length of the construction
joints. Waterproofing chemicals were similar to those which were used to arrest running water at areas of
point leakages.
Honeycomb Areas
Prior to the provision of surface treatments, the honeycomb areas (Figure 2C), highly prone to water
leakages, as are point leakage areas and construction joints, were provided with special treatments to
arrest running or probable water leakages following techniques similar to those which were adopted in

arresting water leakages at locations of point leaks and at construction joints, except that the surface
concrete was not chiselled out as deep as in the case of areas at point leaks and at construction joints.
Bar Insert Locations
The bars, which were used only as an aid to facilitate construction and which had no place in the
constructed tunnel, had their protruding portions sawed off and the surrounding areas were sealed as in
the case of treating areas with point leakages.
Ends of Steel H-section
The ends of steel H-sections, or of other metal elements, as remnants of temporary work (or even if those
would be permanent features at the faces of the structure), created special difficulties in arresting water
leakages, for the reason that concrete, used in the construction of the tunnel did not bond strongly to
steel. The situation called for special formulations. The treatment, provided at the locations of the Hsections of steel, was a combination of several treatments. The treatment was provided at the interface of
concrete and steel. Finally, the surface was provided with the two layer surface treatment with cement
and an octadecanoic acid based cementitious water proofing compound, preceded by the application of
a cement slurry, enriched with a co-polymer of acrylic-styrene as a means to improve the bond between
the exposed surface of steel and the surface treatment.
Surface Treatment
The surface treatment (Figures 1 and 2) was provided in the form of a two-layer plaster. The first layer
was a 6.0 mm thick plaster of a combination of an octadecanoic acid based cementitious waterproofing
compound and cement in the weight ratio of 3:50. The 8.0 mm or 12.0 mm thick cover plaster was of
cement: sand (1:2 to 1:3). Point leakages and other running water leakages at construction joints,
honeycomb areas, inserts and expansion joints having been arrested, the purpose of the surface
treatment was to ward off any future leakages of water and to provide a completely dry environment
inside the tunnel. The provision of the surface treatment served the other purpose of preventing the
ingress of carbon dioxide and oxygen into the structure.
Normally, the thickness of the cover plaster at ceilings and at walls is 8.0 mm whereas it is 12.0 mm on
the floor. Similarly, the cement-sand ratio for the cover plaster and thickness of the first layer of
octadecanoic acid based cementitious waterproofing compound and cement can be varied to meet
specific requirements of individual cases of water retaining structures.
Tests at National Test House, Kolkata, according to the provisions of IS 2645:1975 and IS 2645:200318,
have consistently shown that the surface treatment (even with smaller thicknesses of 4 or 5mm) for
waterproofing with the octadecanoic acid based cementitious water proofing compound of proprietary
formulation is impermeable under a waterhead of 20.0 metres. The 5 mm thick waterproofing treatment
with octadecanoic acid based cementitious waterproofing comp ound, when tested also under a
waterhead of 40.0 metres for 8.0 hours at National Test House, Kolkata, was found to be impermeable.
The provision of the cement-based surface treatment requires a good bond with the existing concrete
surface.
Several options could be considered for an improved bond. These include (a) chiselling the entire surface
(as opposed to the conventional practice of making occasional pock marks), (b) roughening by etching
with acid, (c) roughening with water jets, and (d) the use of polymers. The second option was selected in
the case of the work at the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah. It is explained later in the paper. In the case of
the subway at Kolkata Station, the surface was roughened by etching with acid in some areas whereas
polymer was used to improve the bond between the structure and the waterproofing plaster in other
areas.

Expansion Joint
Expansion joints were provided in the construction of the tunnels of Metro Rail, Kolkata. After decades of
trying, various techniques and material the leakages at the expansion joints are yet to be prevented
totally. As a copy of the scheme, it was planned to provide similar expansion joints in constructing the
tunnels of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah.
This writer has maintained that
a) it is unnecessary to provide any expansion joints in concrete tunnels on consideration of the length of
tunnels; any thermal or shrinkage strain or stress is independent of the length.
b) the provision of expansion joints is tantamount to an admission of foundation sliding failure of tunnels
c) the provision of expansion joints in concrete tunnels invites unnecessary (in view of item (a) above)
problems of water leakages which may be difficult to arrest fully
The performance of the expansion joints in the tunnels of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah at different
stages of treatment confirms the non-essentiality of the provision of any expansion joints in tunnels.
According to the original scheme of construction, the contractor, engaged for the construction of the
tunnel, had provided rubber water bars at the expansion joints as it was used in the case of the tunnels of
Metro Rail, Kolkata. It could be seen that there were gaps (even large pockets, between the water bars
and the concrete underneath. The water bars, put in position at the time of concreting, could not prevent
the leakage of water at the joints as, besides the large gaps between the water bars and the concrete,
there could be no bond between concrete and the plastic elements of water bars.
The expansion joints, provided in the case of the pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, had variable widths up
to 100mm. Even if expansion joints were required, no computation could have shown the need for such
wide joints. The same mistake was committed in the case of the tunnel at Kolkata Station and the
contractor, engaged for the treatment of the expansion joints, struggled for over a year without total
success.
The expansion joints at the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah called for various types of treatments.
The expansion joints at Sealdah were re-treated by caulking of leadwool at fine openings, preceded by
the application of quick setting cementing compounds and epoxies (insensitive to water) at wide
openings. As the contractor, engaged for the construction of the tunnel, had provided boards in the joints,
the quick-setting cementing compounds were provided for a depth of about 50mm. Minor leakages
persisted in three of the six joints. This leakage at the three joints was finally arrested by injecting cementbased non-shrinking crack sealing compound, admixed with a bonding agent of an acrylic-styrene based
copolymer deeper into the joint. In effect, the joints were jammed with cementing materials. This made
the expansion joints completely dry. As an additional level of protection, the three troublesome expansion
joints were finally provided with a polysulphide sealant.
]The expansion joints in the tunnels of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah Station, Kolkata were
essentially sealed with cementing compounds and there has not been any water leakage during the last
eight monsoons, except minor leakages at one of the joints which was neither grouted nor provided with
the polysulphide sealant, thereby confirming the reasonableness of the assumption that there is hardly
any relative movement between neighbouring segments of tunnels that would require the provision of an
expansion joint.
In another case, expansion Joints were provided at different locations on the Intake water tunnel for Unit I
of the Singrauli Super Thermal Power Project of NTPC at Shaktinagar in UP, leading to profuse water

leakages at the expansion joints. In the absence of any expansion joint, the Intake water tunnel for Unit II
of SSTP did not suffer from similar problems.
Results of the Waterproofing Treatment
The Pedestrian Subway in front of the Sealdah Railway Station in Kolkata was waterproofed partly in the
year 2000 and the rest during early 2001 in keeping with the progress of the construction of the tunnel. At
the time of writing this paper, a part of the treatment has provided protection for nine monsoons. The
remaining part of the treatment has given the protection through eight rainy seasons. Observations have
revealed that similar waterproofing treatments, which were provided by the writers firm in select locations
inside the Metro Railway tunnels in Kolkata twentyfive years ago, remain effective even after these many
years.
The tunnel structure of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, unlike most tunnels where grouting techniques
are employed for the purpose of waterproofing, has zero leakage following the surface waterproofing
treatment, except minor leakages at one of the expansion joints, which was unnecessarily provided, and
which had rubber water bars but which was neither grouted nor sealed with a sealant.
As the basic waterproofing treatment in the form of a surface plaster is impermeable to water, the
treatment, besides preventing any water leakage through the tunnel structure, provides protection against
the ingress of carbon dioxide and oxygen into the structure. The surface treatment in the form of a
waterproofing system, with an octadecanoic acid based cementitious waterproofing compound, will thus
make the tunnel structure durable. This is in stark contrast to the case of tunnels, where grouting, but not
surface protection, is resorted to for the purpose of waterproofing. The seeping and damp surfaces of
tunnels, lacking surface treatments, are without the benefits of surface protection and without any
mechanism to prevent the ingress of carbon dioxide and oxygen. It is easier for reinforcing bars to
corrode early inside such structures. The corrosion of reinforcing bars ultimately leads to the development
of cracks in concrete structures and spalling of concrete therefrom.
The Metro Rail tunnels in Kolkata, which lack the presence of surface protection systems in most of its
areas inside the tunnels, have already undergone repairs.
The Lessons
Several lessons can be drawn from the work of waterproofing of the Pedestrian Subway Box at Sealdah,
Kolkata and similar other tunnels and underground structures. These are recorded in the following.
Expansion Joints
The maintenance of expansion joints in water retaining structures is a tough proposition. With proper
detailing of the work of treatment, it is, however, possible to stop all leakages at expansion joints in
underground structures. The writers team waterproofed an expansion joint in the Metro Rail tunnel in the
1980s and all the joints in the Sealdah Subway on the assumption that there would not be any relative
movement between neighbouring segments of the tunnels. It generally worked.
Towards the end of construction of the Subway at Kolkata Station, the project owners agreed with the
writer and they did not provide expansion joints at certain locations where they had earlier planned to
provide expansion joints. The absence of expansion joints did not cause any problem in the structure. As
mentioned earlier, the total absence of expansion joints in the Intake Water Tunnel at Singrauli Super
Thermal Power Project too did not lead to any problems.
A consideration of several factors suggests that it is not essential to provide expansion joints in
underground structures. In fact, there is nothing that would suggest that an expansion joint must be
provided if the length of a tunnel would exceed a certain limit.

The lessons which can be drawn are:

1. It will be generally unnecessary to provide expansion joints in structures which are fully underground.
2. Expansion joints, provided in underground structures and requiring post-construction treatment, should
best be treated as long after the construction as it will be practical so that the structure will have the time
to experience as much of the initial shrinkage, if any, as will be possible before the application of the
treatment at the joint; in effect, the expansion joint will act as one wide construction joint (of course,
without the benefit of interconnecting rebars) and it will generally be sufficient to treat it as one. Of course,
it would be desirable not to leave any segment unreinforced.
Ends of Steel H-sections
The ends of steel H-sections in the floor and roof slabs are not necessary elements of the structure. The
steel sections are occasionally provided to facilitate construction. In the bargain, the interface of these
steel sections and concrete provides vulnerable passages for the entry of water into the tunnel structure.
Furthermore, corrosion in the exposed steel sections would lead to cracks in the surrounding concrete,
which too would increase the possibility of water leakage. The interfaces between the foreign elements
and concrete as well as the exposed surface of steel require innovative treatments, added time and cost
for the provision of such treatments.
The lessons to be drawn are:
1. Non essential steel inserts through the floor and roof slabs or through any other part of the structure
should be avoided, if possible.
2. Before concreting, reinforcing bars in slabs should be welded to steel sections, if such foreign elements
will be provided.
3. As in the case of the expansion joints, the work of waterproofing of the ends of H-sections or other
inserts should be done as late as possible so that concrete will have sufficient time for most of the final
shrinkage, if any, to take place before the start of the work of waterproofing.
Protruding Steel Rods
The interface between concrete and protruding steel rods on the floors, used to provide support to the
formwork for the construction of the walls, provide passages for water leakage. Steel inserts tend to
create difficulties in the prevention of water leakage. This is due to the fact that cement/concrete does not
bond well to steel. In the event such rods should still be provided, the rods should preferably be plain
round bars instead of deformed bars, along the surface of which water flows more easily.
The lesson is
Steel rods, which are not essential elements of the structure, should best be avoided; if need be, the
objective of preventing the slippage of stays for supporting wall shutterings can be met by providing small
recesses in the floor slab.
Oil on Formwork
The use of inappropriate oil on formwork creates another problem if such oil will leave marks on the
concrete. It is not only that the oil marks may stand in the way of proper wet curing of concrete, the oil
marks, if not removed, will stand in the way of waterproofing or in the way of any further work of
plastering, painting, fixing marble or tiles on the concrete surface.

The lessons, which can be drawn, are:

1. Formwork with non-drying oil should not be permitted for concrete work.
2. Should any oil mark be visible on concrete on removal of formwork, it should be promptly removed
by chiselling or with appropriate chemicals
Plastic Sheets
The greatest problem, faced during the work of waterproofing the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, was
caused by thin plastic sheets of poor quality, which were used on the shuttering in the construction of the
roof slab.
1. In many areas, the plastic sheets at the ceiling became invisible, being covered with a hardened paste
of cement or cement and sand.
2. The plastic sheets were fused with the concrete; at numerous locations, the plastic sheets became
deeply embedded inside concrete; it was not possible to remove such pieces of plastic, which were
embedded inside the concrete.
3. The plastic sheets left behind a sheen (on the entire surface of the ceiling) of the same color as that of
the plastic sheets; the sheen would prevent any bond between the waterproofing material and the ceiling;
it would thus stand in the way of waterproofing or any other work at the ceiling unless the sheen would be
removed.
The bright sheen of plastic stood in the way of speedy work. It required inordinately extra efforts to clean
the surface of the ceiling. In spite of all efforts, plastic stood in the way of quality work as wherever plastic
remained in position, embedded into concrete, the waterproofing plaster or any plaster would not bond
well with the ceiling. Chiselling of the complete ceiling (not small isolated areas) was attempted but it was
found to be not practical under the tight time schedule.High pressure water jet could be used to remove
the plastic sheen and plastic which was not embedded into the concrete.
In the case of the Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, muriatic acid was applied repeatedly and the ceiling
was rubbed and washed with water between successive applications of acid.
The lesson that must be drawn is:
Under no circumstances thin plastic sheets should be permitted in the casting of concrete slabs; thicker
plastic sheets will have a smaller chance of getting fused to concrete; the plastic should be fixed taut on
the shuttering boards; better still, no plastic sheet should be used; instead only the joints between
shuttering boards should be sealed. Experience shows that it is not at all difficult to make plywood boards
non-sticking, as the senior writers team has done on umpteen number of projects.
Etching of Surface for Improved Bond
For an improved bond with the substrate, the cement based waterproofing system or any other plaster
work will require the substrate to have a rough surface, unless polymers would be used.
The conventional practice of roughening the surface is chiselling at isolated spots. This does not lead to
much of an improvement in the surface texture as the improved area does not cover more than three to
five per cent of the surface area.
Etching with muriatic acid provides an easy technique for improving the bond as it can help roughen the
entire surface. This technique of etching the concrete surface with acid was resorted to in the case of the

Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah. Several applications of muriatic acid, followed by scrubbing and washing
after each application, made the surface of the concrete ceiling suitably rough. The vertical surfaces of
the walls too required several applications of muriatic acid, whereas a single application of muriatic acid
was sufficient in etching the floor.
The writers team has successfully roughened several hundred thousand square metre of concrete
surface with muriatic acid for waterproofing treatment with cement based materials.
The lessons learnt from the operations to roughen the surface with acid are:
1. unlike the floor, the ceiling and vertical surfaces of walls, etc. require repeated applications of muriatic
acid and brushing/cleaning with water following each application of acid.
2. Due to acid fume, other operations on the leeward side inside the tunnel have to be suspended at the
time of etching with muriatic acid; this may require time adjustments by workers of different trades.
Other Elements and Other Considerations
Following the waterproofing treatment, light fixtures were attached to the ceiling (near the column tops in
Figure 3). this had the potential for puncturing the waterproofing treatment and inviting water leakage.
However, because of large irregularities in the level of the ceiling, the cover plaster, as a part of the
waterproofing treatment to the ceiling, was much thicker than the specified 8 mm (see item 8 in
APPENDIX-I). As a result, there was no instance of water leakage through the ceiling of the Pedestrian
Subway at Sealdah Station.
It is suggested that when the cover plaster (and also the waterproofing treatment in some cases) will be
punctured, the hole be filled up with appropriate waterproofing materials before inserting the bolts.
There will be instances of anchor/embedment plates for attaching/supporting heavier items. In such
cases, concrete at the edges of anchor/embedment plates can be treated as in the case of treatment to
Ends of Steel H-Sections, which has been described earlier in this paper. The treatment can be improved,
if desired, by pre-treating the anchor/embedment plates for better bond between metal and concrete.
Conclusion
Concrete tunnels can be made to be appealing aesthetically. The Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, with
good proportioning and waterproofing treatment in the form of surface plasters, is an example (Figure 3).
Unless given special protection, it will be natural for concrete tunnels to have water leakage and/or
seepage. With the provision of appropriate surface protection systems, concrete tunnels can be made to
be water-tight and damp-proof. These structures can also be made to be durable with the prevention of
atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen from entering into the body of concrete.
Continuous surface treatment on the interior surfaces can make underground structures waterproof and
dry, which may not be achieved by injection or grouting. The surface treatment can be in the form of
waterproofing plasters or in other forms. The surface treatment is provided after arresting water leakages
at point leaks, construction joints, honeycomb areas and at structural discontinuities, as at locations of
inserts.
Should the waterproofing treatment be in the form of plasters, it should be ensured that the water-cement
ratio for the waterproofing plaster is as low as possible, preferably not greater than 0.35, and certainly not
above 0.4. Should ordinary portland cement be used, the curing should be for a minimum period of seven
days. Should slag portland cement be used, the curing should be for a minimum period of fourteen days.

Recent experiences with the performance of cement and concrete suggest the need for carefulness in the
selection of any particular cement, whether ordinary Portland cement orPortland slag cement.
Should the surface treatment for waterproofing be punctured for the fixing of electrical, air-conditioning or
any other fixtures, such locations of discontinuities in the waterproofing continuum should be provided
with special treatments to restore continuity in the water-tight treatment to prevent leakage of water.
The method of sealing one expansion joint at the tunnels of Metro Railway in Kolkata and several
expansion joints in the tunnels of Pedestrian Subway at Sealdah, and the performance of the sealed
joints confirm that the provision of expansion joints is unnecessary and such joints should best be
avoided in tunnels.
Suitable form release chemicals should be used on formwork for concrete work. Chemicals should not
leave any oil mark on the concrete surface.
The use of plastic sheets on formwork should best be avoided. In the event such sheets will be used,
great care should be taken in the use of such materials such that plastic sheets will not get fused to
concrete or those will not leave any mark on concrete.
References
Kar, A. K., Concrete Structures We Make Today, New Building Materials & Construction World, Vol.
12, Issue 8, February 2007.
Kar, A. K., The Ills of Todays Cement and Concrete Structures, Journal of The Indian Roads
Congress, Vol. 68, Part 2, 2007.
Kar, A. K., Woe betide todays concrete structures, New Building Materials & Construction World, Vol.
13, Issue-8, February, 2008, also Vol. 13, Issue-9, March, 2008.
Kar, Anil K, Concrete Structures: A Tale of Reverse Technology, RITES Journal, RITES Ltd., Vol. 10,
Issue 2, July, 2008.
Kar, A. K., Concrete Structures the pH Potential of Cement and Deformed Reinforcing Bars, Journal
of The Institution of Engineers (India), Civil Engineering Division, Volume 82, Kolkata, June, 2001.
Kar, A. K., Arresting Water Leakages in Tunnels and Other Underground Structures, All India Seminar
on Underground Construction with Particular Reference to Metro Railways, The Institution of Engineers
(India), Calcutta, December, 1987.
Kar, A. K., Protection of Structures against Water, Workshop on Structural Waterproofing, Road and
Building Research Institute, Govt. of West Bengal, 16 July, 1997.
Kar, A. K., Protection of Structures as a Means to Durability, All India Workshop on Preventive
Measures Maintenance and Life Extension of Civil Engineering Structures, Civil Engineering Division, The
Institution of Engineers (India), West Bengal State Centre, Calcutta, 18 September, 1997.
Kar, A. K., Durability of Containment Structures for Water and Hazardous Liquid Wastes,
ENVIROCON 99, 15th National Convention of Environment Engineers, Environmental Engineering
Division, Institution of Engineers (India), W.B. State Centre, Calcutta, 26-27 November, 1999.
Kar, A. K., Protection of Structures as a Means to a Long Life for Bridges, Indian Highways; Vol. 28,
No. 7, The Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi, July, 2000.

 Kar, A. K., Concrete Jungle Calamity May Be Waiting To Happen, The Statesman,Calcutta, 4
August, 2000.
Kar, A. K., Durability of Concrete Structures with Special Reference to IS 456:2000, presented at
Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority, Kolkata, 1 November, 2002.
Kar. A. K., IS 456:2000 On Durable Concrete Structures, New Building Materials & Construction
World, New Delhi, Vol. 9, Issue-6, December, 2003.
Kar, A. K., Waterproofing of Structures: Challenges and Solutions, New Building Materials &
Construction World, Vol. II, Issue-10, April 2006.
IS 456:2000. Indian Standard, .Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice (Fourth Revision),
July 2000.
Kar, A. K., Deformed reinforcing bars and early distress in concrete structures, Highway Research
Bulletin, Highway Research Board, Indian Roads Congress, Number 65, December 2001, pp. 103-114.
Kar, A. K., Deformed Rebars in Concrete Construction, New Building Materials & Construction World,
New Delhi, Vol. 12, Issue 6, December 2006.
IS 2645:1975 and IS 2645:2003. Indian Standard: Integral Waterproofing Compounds for Cement
Mortar and Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
Appendix-I
The implementation of work according to the following specifications proved effective in making tunnels,
basements, machine pits, underground structures, swimming pools and water reservoirs waterproof.
A.Local treatment as in Point Leaks, Construction Joints, etc.
Arresting water leakages at isolated locations (point leakage) and at construction joints with a putty of
cement (OPC or slag), modified with a cementitious quick setting compound (bulk density 0.80 to 0.85
gm/cc and a pH of 7.58.0 for a 20% aqueous solution at 350C), e.g., PERMAKAR 4, in a weight ratio of
1:10 (1 part of the compound and 10 parts of cement), further modified with a silica waterproofing
compound (density not less than 1.53 and a pH of 10.010.5 for a 5% aqueous solution at 350C), e.g.,
PERMAKAR 1 having the properties of making cement quick setting and non-shrinking in quantities to
suit the water pressure conditions at the site.
B.Surface treatment to protect entire exposed surface
Cleaning the surface; preparing the surface by acid etching or with water jets; treating the surface with a
two layer plaster; the first layer shall be 7 mm thick in case of inside walls and floors of water reservoirs
and swimming pools, 6 mm thick for sunken slabs/toilet floors and inside of tunnels, basements, etc. with
octadecanoic acid based cementitious waterproofing compound (bulk density not greater than 0.5 gm/cc,
moisture content not greater than 2.0% and a free fatty acid not greater than 0.2%), e.g., PERMAKAR 3,
and cement in the weight ratio of 3:50 for waterproofing compound and cement; cement-sand (1:2 on
floors of basements and tunnels; 1:3 elsewhere) plaster (12 mm thick on floor; 8 mm thick on vertical
surfaces and at ceiling) and curing the plastered surface; the treatment shall be impermeable under a
waterhead of 20.0 metres.
Besides these basic specifications, specially tailored specification, are followed for the treatment of
honeycomb, inserts, embedments and expansion joints, where such features may be present.

Waterproofing of Bridge Decks The Latest Technique and

Material
Pratap Singh Rautela, Nile Waterproofing Materials, Co. S.A.E. company Noida.
Bridges are important infrastructure facilities connecting different areas and allowing smooth
movement of men, material and machinery from one place to another. Roads have no purpose unless
bridges are provided for crossing rivers. Railway lines (ROB), highways (Flyovers) etc.

Early deterioration of cement concrete bridge structures resulting into weakness or even part collapses
disturb the movement of traffic and has serious impact over social and financial status of the local
society. Minor causes like leakage and seepage of water or deicing salt solution into even the slightly
permeable deck concrete surface result into corrosion of reinforcing steel which result into spalling,
cracking
and
loss
of
section
of
structure.
The problem can be solved to a great extent if concrete surface is protected against ingress of
moisture and salts. In other words, if a protection layer is introduced over the bridge deck concrete
surface in form of a dependable water proofing system.
Bridge Decks: Waterproofing Choice
The waterproofing of bridge decks is recognized in many European countries as a vital and necessary
operation
to
enhance
the
durability
and
longevity
of
the
life
of
bridge.
It represents the first line of defense and prevents the ingress of water, road de-icing salts, and
aggressive chemicals which would corrode the steel reinforcing bars in the concrete causing severe
structural
damages.
Some countries with mainly warm weather and dry climates choose not to waterproof their bridge
decks but, a recent analysis in the USA showed that 200,000 Bridge decks are seriously suffering from
corrosion resulting in direct cost of $2 billion for replacement and refurbishment . Concrete will always
have some degree of porosity and allied with surface wear and hair line cracking, will allow water and
corrosive materials to penetrate and attack the steel reinforcement. The primary defense against such
destructive agents is good dense concrete, along with a proven waterproofing system installed by a
qualified contractor.
Bridge Deck Waterproofing Systems
Two types of Bridge deck waterproofing systems are available for use:

1-Sheet Systems
These are Polymer Modified Bituminous sheets bonded to the bridge deck, using torch application, hot
mopping asphalt, or through self-adhesion. Manufacturers have developed various systems that would
satisfy the enhanced requirements of the bridge deck waterproofing market.
2-Liquid (Sprayed) Systems
These systems largely fall into acrylics and Polyurethanes and normally consist of three elements.
Primer, Membrane applied in one or two coats and tack coat specially developed to enhance the bond
of the membrane to the surfacing mix.
Performance Requirements for the System
Independent of the bridge deck waterproofing system choice, certain performance criteria has to be
met in order to avoid potential concerns regarding leakage, poor bonding, embitterment or softening
of the membrane in service.
Such performance criteria are:

Impermeability to water under all conditions

Good adhesion to deck
Good adhesion to surfacing.
Capable of bridging shrinkage cracks n concrete
High mechanical properties to handle traffic loads including shear forces in curves and during
braking and accelerating
Tolerant of deck texture and details
Tough to withstand site damage and operations
Safe to apply
Able to withstand elevated surface temperatures
Can be applied over a wide range of ambient conditions
Nonegradable

Proper

Site

Practice

The key Success

The success of bridge deck waterproofing operation is often reliant on site procedures, workmanship
and
weather
conditions.
Professional preparation is as important as the properties of material or system to be used. Before the
work commences at site the following major issues need be addressed:

Availability of properly trained workforce and qualified supervisors

Site engineer must have design detailing and construction records accessible
Provision of adequate strong area for material to be used
A Safe access to bridge deck must be secured for personnel, equipment and materials
Established method of statement, and execution program discussed and approved by all
parties
Review of weather conditions likely to affect the waterproofing operation
Preparation of concrete deck to meet strict surface finish requirements (Sound, even,
uncontaminated, dry, dust free). Thereby offering optimum opportunity for a strong bond to
waterproofing membrane.

Use of an appropriate primer

Choice and application of a waterproofing system approved and in compliance with Highway
Agency Standards
Adequate protection of the waterproofing membrane prior to the application of the asphalt
road
Surfacing
Use of approved asphalt road surfacing with low void content mix design

Bitunil Bridge Deck Waterproofing System

BITUNIL Bridge Deck Waterproofing System consists of two layers of fully torch welded heavy duty
APP modified bitumen membranes with composite polyester reinforcement, applied on a primed
substrate.
System Application:

Concrete surface must have a minimum acceptable gradient to ensure water drainage on the
surface of the asphalt pavement.
A primer coat must be applied to concrete deck to seal the voids, promote W.P. adhesion, and
assure against blister formation.
Prior to membrane application, a reinforcing MBM strip shall be applied to cover all
intersections with edge beams.
Waterproofing Membrane shall be applied fully bonded to bridge deck, parallel to down slope
direction. Side laps and end laps shall be 8-12 cm, and 12-15 cm respectively.
Second waterproofing layer shall be applied fully bonded onto the first layer, at the same
direction of rolls length, with shifting the side laps 0.5 meter in order to secure the membrane
waterproofing system with maximum overlaps.
Flashings must extend min. of 10 cm up against the edge beams.
Waterproofing must be protected against sunlight until asphalt layers, of drainage, protective
and wear courses are applied. It is recommended to apply the asphalt layers as soon as
possible.
Thickness and mix design of asphalt courses are as per consultant and project specifications.
Bridge deck joints must be filled up (Grouted) and covered with 200 mm
MBM cover strip prior to membrane application.
Bitunil System recommendation is for two layers of MBM fully torch welded onto deck surface
however, for bridges with low daily traffic (ADT<2000), without significant importance to local
and regional traffic, and without frequent breaking and turning traffic, a single layer system is
adequately sufficient.

The wonder product from the Nile Waterproofing Materials Company S.A.E., BITUNIL, is the product of
experience, prudence and knowledge. The Bitunil plant is built over an area of 20,000 square meters
in Al Max Alexandria Port. The production plant is state- ofthe- art for manufacturing of modified
bitumen membranes, and is fully equipped to manufacture quality products that comply with most of
the
internationally
recognized
standards.
Bitunil manufactures and market large types of waterproofing systems to suit different requirements
of Engineering industry to mention few of those are BITUBOND4, BITUBOND 4/ E, NILOBIT-PM,
NILOBIT-PM-MINERAL NILOBIT-F, BITY FLEX 4 & 4E, BITUPLAST 4 & 4/E, BITUGARDEN 4- 4E & M
BITUTER
4
&
4E,
BITUGUM
MINERAL,
NILOBIT-PN,
NILOBIT-PM.
The company has achieved great reputation for its products and services it offers to its clients. The
products are being used in almost all corners of the world due to their high quality, reliability,
uniformity in Quality and successful performance.

Bridge Joints: Selection and Water Management

Based on the predicted movement related to imposed design loads, and temperature variation ranges,
the bridge designer specifies the appropriate bridge joints. Selection can vary from a wide range of
pre-fabricated expansion joints, to cast in place Asphaltic plug joints. The drainage system for the
joint should ideally overlap the deck waterproofing system used. Combined subsurface drainage
outlets serve to discharge water and prevent build-up behind the joint. Regular inspection of surfacing
and joints is necessary to maintain satisfactory performance throughout bridge service life. Early fault
detection, such as blocked drainage or damaged surfacing, is necessary to avoid major remedial work.
Inspection and maintenance should be scheduled to coincide with other bridge maintenance work to
reduce disruption and consequential costs.

New Generation Bentonite Geotextile Waterproofing Solution

D P Gohil, Sr. Sales Manager, Ashapura Volclay Ltd CETCO BMG
Ashapura group of Industries are Indias largest and one of the top five players in Bentonite globally.
The Company has extensive reserves of high quality Sodium and Calcium Bentonite which are mined
and
processed
carefully
into
several
grades.
CETCO USA Colloid Environmental Technologies Company provides products and services
worldwide, extending to customers in a diverse range of industries including, Basement waterproofing
for underground structures and Tunnels application. CETCO is a wholly owned subsidiary of AMCOL
International with more than 81 years of Bentonite mining and manufacturing experience.

Ashapura Volclay Ltd & CETCO a joint venture company, has set up Indias first Bentonite base
Geotextile waterproofing membrane plant in Bhuj in district of Gujarat under technological
collaboration
with
Colloid
Environmental
Technologies
Company
(CETCO).
CETCO has ten manufacturing facilities located in America, UK, Spain, Poland, Korea, China, Brazil,
Russia and India are supported by a global sales and distribution network.
Waterproofing Property of Bentonite
Bentonite is hydrophilic in nature (it has a strong attraction to water) and upon coming into contact
with water will swell in size. When Bentonite is confined under pressure and hydrated, rather than
swelling in size, it forms a dense, impermeable hydraulic barrier. This unique hydrophilic property of

Bentonite gives it an active quality, meaning it can swell to seal punctures within itself and also
small voids and cracks that develop within concrete over the life-cycle of the building.
Voltex

and

Voltex

DS -

Bentonite

Geotextile

waterproofing

membrane.

Voltex is a highly effective waterproofing membrane ideal for below-grade vertical and horizontal
foundation surfaces. Voltex uses the high swelling and self-healing properties of sodium Bentonite to
form a monolithic, low permeable membrane to protect the structure from water. Installation is fast
and easy, requiring no primers or protection courses.

Voltex is composite comprised of two high strength Geotextile and 4.8 kg of sodium Bentonite per
square metre. The two Geotextile are interlocked by a patented needle punching process which
encapsulates
the
Bentonite
and
keeps
it
uniformly
distributed.
Voltex

DS is

comprised

with

an

integrated

HDPE

liner

on

Voltex.

Typical applications include backfilled concrete walls, under structural rafts/slabs, tunnels and property
line
construction.
The superior performance of Voltex is based on the remarkable properties of sodium Bentonite and the
high strength of the interlocked Geotextile. When hydrated, the polymer enhanced Bentonite expands
under confinement, forming an impervious membrane that will be maintained for the life of the
structures.

Over 200 million square metre of Voltex has been successfully installed on prestigious projects
worldwide. In India, Reliance Hyper Market New Delhi, Hafeez Contractor House Mumbai, Kalpataru
Mumbai, Novatel Hotel Bangalore, Chalet Hotel Powai K.Raheja Group Mumbai, ING Vysya Bank
Mumbai, Orbit World Trade CentreMumbai, Panchshil Group Pune, Lunkad Realty Pune, Pride Group
Pune, Mani Group Kolkata, and SKF Technology Ahmedabad.
Waterstop RX-101

Waterstop-RX 101 is a flexible strip concrete construction joint Waterstop that provides a positive seal
by expanding upon contact with water. Waterstop-RX 101 is an active Waterstop that functionally
replaces conventional passive PVC dumbbell Waterstop. Waterstop-RX101 is designed for both
continuous and intermittent hydrostatic conditions and has been successfully tested to resist 70 m
(231
feet)
of
hydrostatic
pressure.
The key to the effectiveness of Waterstop-RX 101 is its 75% sodium Bentonite content which provides
superior expansion to seal cracks and fill small voids. Waterstop-RX is a reliable and cost-effective
solution to preventing water infiltration through construction joints and penetrations.

Waterproofing Treatment
Hasan Rizvi, CICO Technologies Limited, New Delhi.
Waterproofing is considered to be an important part in modern construction. The word Waterproofing
may be a misnomer as it is virtually impossible to provide absolute exclusion of water or moisture
from a masonry/concrete structure. The process is basically an attempt to exclude maximum amount
of
water
or
moisture
from
a
structure.
Waterproofing is essentially required where there is hydrostatic head of water to be resisted or where
unusually dry conditions must be maintained. On the other hand damp proofing maybe defined as the
treatment to retard the passage of water with application of suitable treatment methodology coating
or
integral
waterproofing
compounds.
The basic causes of defects in buildings are due to usage of excess water (high w/c/ ratio), by excess
water we mean that, adding more water than required for hydration. This leads to formation of
capillaries, pores, gel pores through which water can penetrate into the structure thus endangering
the
durability
of
the
structure.
Concrete possesses a pores and capillaries and in this respect, it is fundamentally different from
metal. The capillary and pore structure allows water under pressure to pass slowly through the
material. Concrete subject to chemically polluted environment also gets deteriorated and damaged. It
is here where polymer technology can be advantageously utilized to provide protection against the
attack by water under pressure, acid and alkalis and chemically polluted environment.
Usually water intrusion in concrete structures is through the following areas:
a.
b.
c.

Basement
Bathroom/ Kitchen sunken portion
Roof

There are various systems tried and tested by CICO Technologies Limited over a span of 75 years for
various
sectors
of
the
building.
These
tested
systems
are
described
here.
Basement (System of waterproofing treatment to the underground/ basement structures.)
Raft Portion

a.
The sub-base concrete (lean concrete) should be rendered smooth with Cement: Sand mortar
in the ratio of 1:3 by weight of cement while sub-base concrete is still green.
b. Then apply two coats of Tapecrete P-151, acrylic polymer modified cementitious slurry coating
in a ratio of 1:2 i.e. 1 kg Tapecrete P-151 mixed in 2 Kg cement. This slurry should be applied
by brush.
c. Over the Tapecrete P-151 topping one should provide a protective plaster of 12 mm thickness.
This is done to protect the Tapecrete applied surface against probable mechanical damage due
to dragging of reinforcement while placing it.

e.
f.
g.

d.
Cast the RCC slab admixed with a superplasticizer like CICO Plast SUPER.
This should be followed by injection grouting by placing 12 mm NBMS threaded nozzles of 75
mm length placed in a grid pattern. The spacing should not exceed 1.5 m c/c in the slab.
Then inject the cement slurry admixed with CICO non-shrink polymeric waterproof grouting
compound through the nozzles.
Finally the nozzles should be sealed by CICO quick setting compound.

Retaining Wall
a.

Cast the RCC walls admixed with a superplasticizer.

b.
Place and fix 12 mm NBMS threaded nozzles of 75 mm length by drilling in a grid
pattern (from inside) with maximum spacing of 1.5 m c/c.

c.
d.
e.

Then inject grout with cement slurry admixed with CICO non-shrink polymeric waterproofing
grouting compound
This should be followed by application of two coats of Tapecrete P-151 acrylic modified
cementitious slurry coating over the properly rendered external face of the retaining wall.
Provide 12 mm thick cement plaster on the external face of the retaining wall.

Roof (System of roof waterproofing treatment.)

a.
The roof should be cleaned of all loose mortar, laitance and existing treatment so as to expose
the mother R.C.C. roof surface.
b. Then cut grooves at a height of 200 mm from roof slab all along the parapet walls if there is
no spring of the parapet wall.
c. Moisten the surface with water. Then apply one coat of Tapecrete P-151 acrylic modified
cementitious slurry coating (this slurry coating consists of 1 kg Tapecrete P-151 mixed with 2
Kg cement.)
d. Place the fiberglass cloth over the slurry coat and follow by Tapecrete P-151 brush topping.
The brush topping slurry consists of Tapecrete P-151 mixed with cement and silica quartz
(1:2:2) by weight.
e. A protective screeding should be provided over this treatment.
Refer Figure 2 for details.
Bathroom/Kitchen (System of waterproofing treatment for Toilet / Kitchen sunken areas.)
a.
Clean the RCC sunken slab and vertical portion of all dirt and loose material etc. with a wire
brush.
b. Make corner fillets with polymer mortar of 25 X 25 mm size at all joints. Seal all pipe joint with
polymer mortar. Then apply Tapecrete P-151 slurry coat on these pipe joints followed by
wrapping it with fiberglass cloth again apply a second coat of Tapecrete slurry.

d.
e.

c.
Moisten the RCC sunken slab and apply one coat of Tapecrete P 151 slurry coating.
Lay fiberglass cloth over the slurry coated surface.
Apply a second coat of Tapecrete P-151 slurry over the fiberglass laid surface.

f.
g.

Apply one coat of brush topping over the second coat of acrylic polymer modified cementitious
slurry coating.
Provide a protective plaster over the treated surface as a protective layer, Figure 3.

The above systems of waterproofing has worked perfectly well in thousands of buildings and even
various government agencies are considering to change their specification of conventional box type
system for basements to chemical injection and acrylic polymer modified cementitious coating system.

Roof Waterproofing Demands Reliability...

Pramod V. Patil, Product Manager [Waterproofing Systems], BASF Construction Chemicals

(India) Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai
Preface
Waterproofing of Roof be it concrete, metal decks, timber, etc. has always been a challenge job to the
construction industry. With the increased complexity of structures and the complex nature of
utilization of this roofs, terraces or podiums and with possibility of structural movements and growing
concern on leakages in the structures has created a need for a simple reliable roof waterproofing
system.
This article provides an insight to single ply synthetic waterproofing membranes and high performance
liquid applied waterproofing membranes for roof which have global reputation and have gain quick
acceptance in recent times in India.
Roof Waterproofing Demands

A system which can allow to take the movements in structure

A system that can allow itself to carry heavy intense built-ups such as - landscaping or
gardens or ballast / pavers etc.
A system robust enough to take pedestrian / vehicular traffic
A system that can be used to refurbish roofs without disturbing or breaking off the existing
substrate
A system that can be left exposed to atmosphere
A UV stable system
A system with reliability and aesthetics.
A system that demands to be laid loose or unbonded to the substrate
Long-life expectancy and maintenance free or minimal maintenance
A complete water-tightness

Prevailing Roof Waterproofing Practices & Viewpoint

Rigid waterproofing barriers A conventional practice of rigid waterproofing such as brick-bat koba
and crystalline waterproofing has limitation if structure is designed to undergo movementsduring life
span.
Flexible & elastomeric
membranous
barrier

waterproofing membranes This

against
water
leakage.

type of
They

waterproofing
are
as

forms a
follows:

They come in form of liquids, either single component or multi-component, applied with hand or
spray. They could be cementitious polymer modified or acrylic or P.U. based or bituminous or epoxy
based.
They come in form of preformed membranes, either made up of modified bituminous membranes
(APP, SBS), PVC, TPO, HDPE, EPDMs etc. they are either torch applied, stuck with adhesive,
mechanically
fixed.
Rigid waterproofing barriers have shown limitation or failure when subjected to certain aggressive
conditions or structural movements during its life span. Bituminous / cementitious polymer modified /
EPDM membranes / HDPE based systems do enable elongations but have limiting success, application
difficulties
and
deteriorate
with
time
in
limited
life
span
of
application.
The reasons of failure of systems are many, it could be wrong system application or the behaviour &
limitations of the material itself in terms of adhesion or UV stability etc. Over a period of time
excellent development for different types of waterproofing materials and system have been taking
place, keeping in mind the criteria or requirements for a good engineered & reliable Roof
Waterproofing
System.
This article provides insight to the success stories in India & some glimpse of international reference,
where a well engineered and reliable Roof Waterproofing Systems has been implemented in various
situational
demands:
TPO

Membranes

System: a

single

ply

waterproofing

membranes

Coniroof Waterproofing System: Spray or hand applied cold liquid PU roof waterproofing system
Single Ply Synthetic Waterproofing Membranes
Single-ply synthetic waterproofing membranes are widely used in Europe and North America for the
past 40 years and have proven performances. The concept is to provide a watertight liner all around

the susceptible building element and to ensure the right technique to install the membrane. There are
various synthetic liners available for the purpose and the selection is based on the expected
performance out of them in the specific situations. The single-ply synthetic liners are designed and
build to the various situational needs and normally consisting of synthetic roll of fixed thickness and
width and are available in reinforced with glass or polyester fibres options. Today, PVC and TPO are
the most popular choice of materials for the application in the civil industry. The synthetic liners have
life expectancy of 25 to 50 years v/s 10 to 15 years as offered by bituminous membranes, a single
factor which made synthetic liner the popular choice in the construction sector over the years. PVC
membranes are manufactured by adding plasticiser in the PVC and this limits their life expectancy in
the case of direct exposure to UV and required to be protected, as plasticizers may migrate out of the
membrane making the membrane brittle. Thus, PVC membranes have become chosen material for
underground and buried situations while TPO, which expensive in comparison to PVC has excellent
stability in UV and available in range of colors, has become the choice for exposed roofing situations,
ideally suitable for Tropical conditions as in india.
MASTERPREN TPO Liners
MASTERPREN TPO is a new generation synthetic liner made using an innovative formulation: EPR
(ethylene propylene rubber) modified polyolefin. MASTERPREN TPO development has been based on
experience,
synergy,
co-operation
and
manufacturing
technologies:
Experience gained by Flag who, since 1963, have developed and manufactured synthetic
waterproofing liners for use in the roofing, civil engineering, and hydraulic sectors.
Synergy with industry-leading manufacturers of polyolefins, who have developed and introduced these
new
materials
to
the
field
of
waterproofing.
Co-operation with the most qualified designers, general contractors, and installation companies.
Innovative manufacturing technologies for synthetic waterproofing materials.
Main Characteristics of MASTERPREN TPO Liners
The exclusive manufacturing system designed for this type of liner and its unique formulation have
resulted in:

Excellent weldability
Softness and flexibility
Excellent dimensional stability
High weather and UV rays resistance.
Non-toxicity
Resistance to a wide range of chemical attacks
Compatibility with most insulation panels, including expanded/extruded polystyrene
Compatibility with oxidised bitumen
High resistance to puncturing
Resistance to roots and micro-organisms
Adaptability to structural movements
Environment and userfriendly
Life expectancy in excess of 25 years
Proven installation history

MASTERPREN TPO waterproofing membranes can be used for both newly built roof systems and for
renovating existing roofs. MASTERPREN TPO membranes have been designed both for ballasted roof

systems

(protected)

and

for

exposed

roof

systems

(unprotected).

MASTERPREN TPO for more effective light reflecting surface, is manufactured from modified polyolefin
with an in ice white finish as standard (with any RAL color available to order) providing very high
resistance to weathering and ultraviolet rays. In the research phase, the color of the side exposed to
the aggressive action of atmospheric agents was improved so not only did the lighter color reduce the
heat within the roof build up, but it produced a more efficient light reflecting surface.
The inherent anti-oxidising and UV-absorber properties of MASTERPREN TPO enabled Flags research
team to improve the membranes resistance of the thermo-plastic polymer to light and atmospheric
agents by as much as 30% in the development of TPO.
Environmental Impact

MASTERPREN TPO Plus membranes have a positive environmental impact which starts during
production and ends with a recyclable product with a 25 year life expectancy. MASTERPREN TPO Plus
membranes
do
not
contain
harmful
chlorines,
bromide
or
halogens.
The development has not been limited to the mere theoretical assessment. Technical tests have been
carried out relating to the re-use and recovery wastes from the production process and from end of
life
products.
The

TPO

Plus

has

an

FAA

fire

rating

from

Warrington

Fire

Research

Centre.

TPO Plus is manufactured to UNI EN ISO 9001 and UNI EN ISO 14001 certified plant standards
Extensive tests were performed in the Xenotest and the QVU Weathering Tester.
Typical Applications
MASTERPREN TPO membranes can be applied in the following circumstances:

Exposed roofing laid loose

Exposed roofing mechanically fixed
Exposed roofing fully bonded (requiring a fleece backing)
Landscaped areas
Roof gardens
Old Roofs for Refurbishment, without disturbing the existing substrate.
May be used in underground structures and water storage structures etc.

Manufacturing Process for MASTERPREN TPO Membranes

MASTERPREN TGE, MASTERPREN TPE liners are manufactured in UNI EN ISO 9001 certified plants and
fully comply with the performance standards CEN European Standard, UNI 8629/6 SIA 280 DIN

16726. The raw material used to produce MASTERPREN TPO membranes is created by blending a mix
of synthetic polyolefins and softening agents (EPR) with various additives that, through a catalloy
procedure, are transformed into a moulded mass and then into granules. This combines:

Resistance to ageing, weathering and micro-biological attack

The EPR compound gives softness and flexibility with a high resistance to mechanical and
chemical influences in conjunction with the strong welding capacity of polypropylene

The unique manufacturing process designed and developed by Flag combines a tri-extrusion process in
a single pass encapsulating a reinforcement mesh that produces a complete homogeneous product
with stability and high tensile strength and an effective dual light/dark colour signal layer. The
particular property of MASTERPREN TPO synthetic liners is the reinforcement insert embedded in the
body of the liner. This reinforcement may be a non-woven glass mesh or polyester mesh, according to
application needs, ensuring an efficient and aesthetically flawless end result. MASTERPREN TPO liners
are produced by co-extrusion in two-colours, known as a signal layer system. The upper sand-grey
colour, which provides lower heat absorption, increased longevity and aesthetic qualities, represents
10-15% of the membrane thickness and the black underside, which protects against UV damage, 8590%. The major benefit of the system becomes apparent during installation; should the membrane
become damaged, the black underside is immediately detected by the contractor and simply repaired.
Situation Roof Waterproofing Over Precast Segment

Application

Case

Project: Bangalore
Client: BIAL,

Study- MASTERPREN

TPO

Membrane
International

at

Bangalore

International

Airport
Airport

Bangalore

Scope
Design

of
&

Year

Project: Roof

waterproofing

Construction: Larsen
of

&

Toubro

execution: 2006

of

Limited,

terminal
ECC

to

building

Construction

2008,

group

Completed

Systems used: MASTERPREN TPE

Project Description
The roof of terminal building is made up of large precast segment, each of having 24 metre span and
10m length. Total there are more then 200 segments in the terminal building. The curve shape and
complex detailing made client to choose most reliable waterproofing membrane which can be quickly
installed and can last for the design period of the structure.
The Solution offered

Considering the complexity of the job and life expectancy, 1.2mm thick MASTERPREN TPE was
selected. MASTERPREN TPE is polyester reinforced TPO membrane, manufactured by latest triextrusion process. Considering the wind loading on the structure the fasteners are designed. On the
diaphragm walls the membrane is fully adhered to the substrate using special MASTERPREN adhesive
glue.
Situation: Refurbishment & Waterproofing of Old Roof Without Disturbing the Existing Substrate
Application

Case

Project: IIT
CIient: IIT-

Study- MASTERPREN

TPO

Mumbai,
Indian

Membrane

at

Convocational
Institute

of

IIT-

Mumbai

Convocation

Hall

Hall

Roof

Technology,

Mumbai.

Scope of Project: Roof Refurbishment with Waterproofing of old RCC Folded roof of convocation hall.
Year
System Used: MASTERPREN TPE
Project Description

Completed: 2008

The convocation hall at IIT-Mumbai is about 35years old structure. The Roof of this hall is RCC roof
about three inches thick RCC folded panels. Over the period of time various waterproofing systems
have been tried to make the roof waterproof. The system used were from conventional IPS to brush
applied polymer coating to Bituminous felts. The water-tightness of the roof could not be achieved to
it satisfaction and with time and exposure to the elements has failed to give water-tightness to the
roof, resulting in leakages and seepage of water into the RCC roof slab. This seepage of water has
added to the corrosion into the slab and the concrete is spalling and has become week. IIT was thus
looking for a system that could assure water-tightness to the roof and also one does not have to
disturb the existing surface of the slab, to prevent damage to the structure.
Solution Offered
Considering the complexity of the job with earlier done various layers of existing on substrate cannot
be removed and life expectancy, 1.2mm thick MASTERPREN TPE was selected. MASTERPREN TPE is
polyester reinforced TPO membrane, manufactured by latest tri-extrusion process. Considering the
situation of doing the treatment over the prevailing surface the MASTERPREN TPE was loosely laid
over the roof with mechanical fixing at the end terminations using fasteners with certain customized
detailing.
Liquid Cold Applied PU Coating Membrane System Coniroof Waterproofing System

CONIROOF is based upon the use of epoxy resin/polyurethane preparation coatings. Combined with
polyurethane
based
waterproofing
membrane
and
surface
coating.
CONIROOF has been designed to provide a minimum of 25 year performance expectancy in severe
climate conditions as a fully bonded waterproofing solutions for:

Built-up roofing systems

Overlay systems
Podium decks
Inverted roofing
Can be applied on Concrete, Timber, Clay tiles, Metal Decks, Precast etc

CONIROOF membrane can be sprayed or hand applied onto different types of substrate by using
polyurethane or epoxy resin preparation coats and primers.
Features
Fast Installation: New spray technology applies up to 700 m / day of the waterproofing membrane
including
detailing
Monolithic: No laps welds or seams, the inherent weakness of sheeted systems makes for reliable
detailing
Fast-setting: 30

seconds

Cold

applied: Requiring

no

Fire

retardant: Meets

DIN

Lightweight: Less

dead

load

to

take

after

hot

works

4102:
on

and

Part

application

presents

7,

existing

BS

no
476:

structures

fire

risk

Part

substrates

Solvent-free: No-odour
Robust: Designed
Ideal

for

Landscaping

vehicular

traffic

works: Roof

without

damage

and

decking

garden

Seamless Detailing: No laps, welds or seams to seal providing simple effective waterproofing of
difficult
detailing
situations
Elastomeric: Will

stretch

and

contract

with

the

movement

of

the

roof

Application:
SPRAY APPLIED: Fast track seamless solution for complex or larger areas

HAND
APPLIED: Perfect
for
Confined
and
Restricted
spaces
Certification: BBA (British Board of Agreements) Approved membrane systems for flat or pitched
roofs that are exposed to UV or light traffic (pedestrian and maintenance). Suitable for mixed roof
situations where sections are exposed and there are roof gardens or landscaping.
Coniroof Built-up

CONIROOF is a Seamless, monolithic robust waterproofing system obtained from several application
stages:

Cleaning and Surface Preparation.

Selection and application of preparation coats/primers.
Sand board-casting on the primer to have mechanical keys for anchoring.
Spray or Hand Application of the waterproofing Membrane, as per requirement.
Application of Top Coat for Exposed surface: The final stage of Coniroof system is the use of a
single component, moisture curing, UV resistant protective coating.

Situation Roof

Waterproofing

of

Roof

with

Clay

Tiles

of

Heritage

Structure

Application Case Study- coniroof spray applied waterproof system on pitched roof with Clay tiles

Project

Name: St

Marys

CIient: St

Church

Hongkong,

Marys

Pitched

roof

waterproofing

Church,

Hongkong

Scope of Project: Waterproofing of Pitched roof with Clay tiles and to retain the heritage look.
System Used: Coniroof 2111Roof deck crack-bridging P.U. Waterproofing system (spray applied
membrane)
Project Description

A heritage structure with pitched roof covered with clay tiles and in colored pattern. Clients want to
retain the same look and do not want to remove the tiles to avoid any damage to the heritage
structure.
System Solution
Considering the requirement Coniroof spray applied system was suggested. Coniroof waterproofing
system offered a reliable roof waterproofing and helped in maintaining the heritage look of the
structure.
Situation Complex

Roof

Waterproofing

of

Mosque

in

Kuala

Lumpur

Malaysia

Application Case Study- coniroof spray applied waterproof system on the complex details on the
roof.

Project

Name: Mosque

Kaula

Lumpur,

Malaysia

Scope of Project: The Roof Waterproofing of Mosque

System Used: Coniroof 2111Roof deck crack-bridging P.U. Waterproofing system (spray applied
membrane)
Project Description
The concrete roof of the mosque is of complex nature with small domes and ventilators spread across
the roof. This small domes are covered with tile bits. The entire roof is to be waterproofed without
disturbing the substrate.
System Solution
Considering the requirement Coniroof spray applied system was suggested. Which gave a good
waterproofing system and helped in covering the most complex details on the roof and making it
watertight..
Conclusion
Finally local availability of single-ply synthetic waterproofing membrane and Coniroof system, an
engineered watertight system shall enable building owners and structural designers to have choice of
dependable waterproofing material. The experienced application team and easy access to global
experts shall enable BASF to serve the construction industry better.

Building Waterproofing an Important Aspect

Bijnan Parai, GM-R&D, CICO Technologies Limited, Kolkata

Concrete is one of the major and most economical building products for its long life span and
versatility. But concrete, more precisely, cement -concrete is porous in nature. The long life or
durability of concrete is greatly dependent on water permeability and ingress of chemicals. In most of
the cases, water acts as carriers for harmful chemicals like salts of chlorides, sulphates, alkalis, acids,
etc. and these may corrode concrete and/or reinforced steel. Water may also come out from the
concrete/ plaster and evaporates from the surface leaving salts and alkalis, which react with paint,
and/or making patches. Therefore, waterproofing of concrete is an integral part for construction of a
building.
Sometimes it is claimed by some that concrete admixtures are not necessary and are certainly no
substitute for sound concrete mix design. But others argue that the addition of admixtures often offset
errors at the practical stages of making concrete, so increasing the chance of producing concrete up to
the specification. These statements have some justification for that group of admixtures known as
integral waterproofers. However, waterproofing of concrete or cementitious substrates does not mean
cent percent protection from water, rather some portion of water in liquid or vapour form is beneficial
to
continue
hydration
reaction
of
cement.
Theoretically, 22-25% (by weight of cement) water is needed to complete the hydration reaction of
cement. But in normal conditions, concrete is prepared with extra amount (as much as 45-60% by
weight of cement) of water to get desired workability. Any extra mixing water over the minimum
requirement of hydration reaction is evaporated from the concrete mass leading to an increase of
voids or creating more capillary pores. This is a common factor in all concretes allowing the passage of
water and/or water vapour is the presence of inter-connected capillary pores without such voids and
their
inter
connections
water
or
vapour
transfer
can
not
take
place.
Let us consider for a moment how voidage in concrete can be altered.
1. The gel pores that are formed due to hydration reaction of cement. These pores are very
minute and have diameter of approx. 2 nano-meters and independent of water-cement ratio.
2. Capillary pores (0.05 to 1 micron diameter) that result from excess water being present and
therefore depend upon water-cement ratio.

3. Entrapped voidage reflecting the concrete mixing, laying and finishing method.
Since the diameter of gel pores (approx. 2 nano-meters) are so small that water cannot go through it.
Categories

and

are

relevant

to

problems

of

concrete

waterproofing.

In category 2, capillary pores (approx. diameter 0.05-1.0 micron) are larger in diameter as compared
to gel pores and water can travel through it. Controlling the w/c ratio using water-reducing admixture
can reduce these capillary pores. During the hydration of cement some of the capillary pathways
become progressively blocked by reaction products of calcium silicate hydrates gel. This gel has a very
low hydraulic permeability, if water-cement ratio is low enough (less than 0.4), the volume of gel will
be sufficient to completely block the inter connecting capillary within the cement paste. But in case of
water cement ratio is more than 0.40 the capillary pores generated in OPC, there will not be
sufficient gel to block the capillary pores so resulting in inter connections. Curing of concrete is also an
important factor to continue cement hydration reaction resulting reduction of capillary pores.
In category 3, entrapped voids are created due to following reasons:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Poor mix design.

Faulty aggregates gradation.
Inadequate compaction.
Excessive bleeding and segregation.
Very high or very low workability than the requirement.
Poor workmanship.

Sometimes cracks are developed in the plaster or concrete and water may travel through those
cracks. There are so many factors for development of cracks through which water can travel and
damage
the
embedded
reinforced
steel
and/or
paints.
Therefore, waterproofing or damp proofing is an essential and integral part of building construction
and by doing so one can get following benefits:
1. Life span of the building will be increased remarkably.
2. Frequent repair or maintenance of building shall be eliminated completely or reduced to a
greater extent.
3. Life of paint in interior or exterior shall be extended remarkably.
4. Aesthetic look of the building shall remain for much longer duration.
5. Minimises health hazards.
If we consider the cost of effective waterproofing, it is only 0.5 to 2% of the total cost of building,
which
is
really
negligible!
Waterproofing or damp proofing of concrete or masonry is carried out in two stages. One is during
construction
and
another
is
post
construction.
Most effective and economical waterproofing or damp proofing treatment is carried out during
construction of a building whereas post construction treatment is very expensive, more time
consuming and to some extent less effective.
Materials
There are so many waterproofing materials available in the market one may confuse to choose the
right material for the right propose. However, for simplicity, we can categorise these materials as per

their time of usage. Firstly, some materials are used for waterproofing treatment as a preventive
measures and secondly some materials are used when seepage, leakage or dampness are found.
Since the space is limited, we will discuss those products, which are used at the time of construction
for waterproofing purpose to protect the building.
Integral Cement Waterproofers
These products are incorporated in concrete or plaster during mixing with water for lowering water
permeability. In normal condition, it may provide 25 to 90% water tightness of the structures.
There are several types of integral cement waterproofers available in the market. But most common
varieties
are:
Water reducing admixtures- It reduces the w/c ratio without altering the workability of a particular
concrete
mix
resulting
less
permeable,
denser
concrete/masonry
structures.
Very fine particulate materials- Very fine particulate materials are of real benefit if the concrete
mix is low in cement and in deficient in fines. However, in concrete rich mixes the effect could be the
reserve since the addition of fine particles could increase the water requirement leading to a less
dense and lower strength concrete. These fine particles block the capillary pores during hardening of
cement
mass.
Hydrophobic/ water repellent agents- Materials in this group reduce the passage of water through
dry concrete, which would normally occur as a result of capillary action and not as a result of an
external pressure of water. In principle it is thought that all these materials impart a water repellent
property to the concrete surface as well as lining and, in some cases, blocking the pores.
Air-entraining agents (AEA)- Air-entraining agents act in a similar manner to water reducing
agents by imparting improved workability to the mix and thus allowing less water to be used. The
micro air bubbles entrained into the cement mass shall block the capillary pores. But care shall be
taken to minimise the use of over dose. Over dosing of AEA shall lead considerable amount of strength
loss of concrete.
Selections and Applications
In view of the large number of possible applications and the variety of waterproofing admixtures
available, the choice of a particular waterproofer to perform a given task requires careful
consideration.
Many concrete structures are built for water storage or maintain dry conditions within the structure
when it is subject to water conditions on the outside. Since concrete is not always completely
impermeable to water in spite of the use of integral waterproof compounds and concrete may
develops cracks after placement, it is sometimes necessary to use a barrier material to cover the
concrete surface to resist water penetration under hydrostatic pressure and/or capillary rise. There are
various types of barrier materials available in the market but most common and popular products are
cited below:
Coal-Tar / Bitumen Based Coating
This is one of the oldest and cheapest methods for waterproofing of concrete structures. Unmodified
hot melt coal tar or pitch is used as waterproofing coating. But hessian cloth impregnated with hot
melt tar (popularly known as Tar felt) was massively used to protect concrete from water. This type of
waterproofing is not lasted for longer time. There are many drawbacks of unmodified coal tar

waterproofing system. One of most important drawback is the coating gradually become brittle and
erodes if it is exposed to environmental conditions. Some times coal tar is blended with one or more
polymers to modify its performance.
Stone Waterproofing
Natural stone (known as KOTA STONE in Delhi) slab is used for waterproofing of basement of a
building. Though, this type of stone is cheap and good water-resistant, there are many joints between
stone slabs from where water may percolate to the main concrete. Another major disadvantage is very
difficult to rectify the post construction defects.
Membranes
Now a days factory made polymer modified bituminous membrane (APP) sandwiched with synthetic
fibre cloth, polymer modified PVC membrane, neoprene rubber membrane, etc. are available in the
market for barrier waterproofing. These felts are elastomeric and very good water resistant and long
lasting. These felts are available in roll form with different thickness (1.5mm to 5 mm) and may be
fully bonded to the substrate or laid loose according to the manufacturers instructions. The main
drawback is very poor vapour breathability. Therefore, one should ensure that the structure should be
free from moisture as much as possible inside the structure before laying the membrane.
Chemical Impregnations
There are some polymers with very low viscosity used to waterproof of the concrete structures. Most
common chemicals are silicone compounds, which are water repellent in nature. Some silicone
compounds are water soluble, highly alkaline and very cheap. Basically, these are sodium or
potassium siliconate salts solutions. This type of material may generate white patches on the
substrate surfaces without hampering the water repellent property. Another version is solvent based
silicone compound which is purely organic in nature will not give such type of white patches.
Sometimes, outer surfaces of buildings are kept unpainted or decorated with stones, bricks or brick
tiles etc. Most of these materials are porous, therefore, rainwater will be absorbed and that water may
travel to the interior surfaces and create dampness and destroy the paint film. Water is retained for
longer time within the porous substrate. This facilitates algae/fungi/mildew growth on the surface of
exposed wall and aesthetic beauty will be lost within a year. Growth of algae can be prohibited if the
surface is kept dry by providing a water repellent coat of silicone, which will not change the surface
texture in an economical means.
Non-Shrink Grouts And Grouting Admixtures
In this category, ready mixed cement grout is used to consolidate honeycombed concrete. This type
of materials are mixed with water and injected through a nozzle into the defective concrete. Before
hardening this admixed cement slurry will expand and fill the voids. But most of the cases non-shrink
grouting admixtures are available which are to be mixed with cement at the time of mixing with water.
This slurry is also injected as above for the same purpose.
Cementitious Polymer Coating
These products are available in three varieties. First and most common variety is a single component
polymer emulsion, which is to be mixed with cement at site to a brushable consistency. Second
variety is a two-component system, one pack is in liquid form and other pack is in cement based
powder form. When these two components are mixed together a slurry mix is obtained. Third variety
is single component cement based products blended with various types of chemicals and fillers. This

type of material shall be mixed with water to a brushable consistency. All these slurry are mainly
applied by brush on the substrate surface at the positive side of the water pressure. These products
are very good water resistant and flexible in nature which will not crack due to thermal movement of
the
structure.
Polymeric cement based waterproofing system has special advantages over all other system
considering their versatile properties, low maintenance cost, ease of applications, moisture vapour
breathability, UV rays resistance, economy and many more.
Polyurethane (PU) Coating
In recent time, various types of polyurethane coating systems are available in the market for
waterproofing purposes. One is solvent free or solvent based two packs, chemically cured system and
another is tar modified single pack, moisture cures system. The major advantages of PU systems are
better adhesion, elasticity, seamless application and resistance to various harmful chemicals.
Recently, polyurethane dispersions (PUD) in water are developed for waterproofing which is ecofriendly, but their costs are comparatively high. Occasionally, cast-in-situ polyurethane foam (PUF) is
used for roof waterproofing as well as thermal insulation. This system is used for special purposes.
Most of the polyurethane coatings are not UV (ultra-violet) rays resistant.
Execution of Waterproofing
Frequently complaints are raised about the failure of waterproofing and blamed the quality of
waterproofing materials. If we look into this matter wisely, in major cases, it is seen that
waterproofing materials pass all the quality requirements. Most of the failures are due to faulty
specification,
human
error,
and
poor
workmanship.
Therefore, it is very important that full care should be taken at the initial stage, i.e., at the time of
making specification of waterproofing. During selection of waterproofing system, the specifier should
use his experience and judgment considering severity of water conditions, type of construction and
the conditions under which the materials will be applied. Manufacturer should also be consulted
concerning selection of materials, method of application, surface conditions, number of coats/ dosage,
crack repair, protective covering etc. and that will assure satisfactory performance of waterproofing.
During making the specification following points shall be kept in mind: Type of material, durability or
service life, effectiveness of intended purposes, ease of application, ease of repair in future,
compatibility
with
other
building
materials,
cost
and
effect
to
the
environment.
The waterproofing system should also be designed in due consideration of the present condition of
building as well as the worst conditions that may arise in future. The system should not ignore the
basics of structural and civil engineering and material science.
Quality Assurance
Normally, waterproofing treatment is carried out with job guarantee given by the applicators. But very
few are turned back when problems come. Therefore, one should ensure that the work should be
carried out by a well-experienced, trust-worthy applicator who is well versed with products and
systems. Now many construction chemicals manufacturers are keeping technical team who can review
the system, select right materials and suggest good, company authorised applicator. Normally,
company authorized applicators are easily traceable in future if, any problem comes. The common
tendency is to spend a little amount of money on waterproofing leads dilution of specification by the
applicators or contractors to grab the work. This type of approach spoils the genuine waterproofing
system.

A good waterproofing system is a collective and wise effort of the applicator/contractor, homeowner,
architect
/
specifier
and
the
inspecting
authority.
Waterproofing system should be checked during execution or immediately after installation by several
methods to ascertain the quality of work. This will minimise future rectification or damage of the
building. Normally, surface preparation and surface conditions, weather conditions such as humidity,
temperature etc are checked prior to application waterproofing treatment. Flood testing with water is
carried out during or immediately after completion treatment for horizontal surfaces or liquid storage
tanks. Visual inspection is carried out where flooding is not possible. In this case, thorough inspection
is necessary. All laps, joints, terminations, must be carefully checked for any evidence of fish mouth,
inadequate adhesion, etc. that may detrimental to the water tightness of the system.
Conclusion
Waterproofing system is a minor part of a building from economic point of view but a great importance
as durability of building is concerned. Since this system is dependent on so many factors it requires
sound knowledge of engineering, material science, skilled and experience workforce and good coordination between house owner, material suppliers, specifier, applicator and inspector to fulfill the
aim of waterproofing.